title: Putting self-determination theory into practice: Autonomy-supportive training for supervisors in low-skilled jobs

authors: Yong, Amy

subjects: Self-determination theory

abstract: According to self-determination theory (SDT), supervisors’ autonomy support (SAS) is one of the main factors that contributes to employees’ well-being and other positive outcomes. Wider studies on the outcomes of autonomy support have been conducted in sectors such as education, healthcare, sports and financial institutions and with occupational groups such as teachers, upper managers and coaches. While all of these studies demonstrate the importance of autonomy support in facilitating positive outcomes, the importance of SAS in enhancing the well-being of employees in low-skilled occupations is often neglected, despite the continued contribution of this sector to the economy and total workforce in New Zealand. Furthermore, limited studies within the workplace have also shown that (upper) management can be trained to be more autonomy-supportive. To date, however, this training has not been designed for supervisors in low-skilled occupations, who have different learning needs than those in higher-skilled occupations. Similarly, the effect of autonomy-supportive training on employees has been established in higher-skilled occupations, but not with employees in low-skilled occupations. Finally, according to Grossman and Salas (2011), various organisational factors can weaken the effect of training, which, in turn, undermines the long-term benefit of SAS. Nevertheless, this aspect of maintaining SAS after the training has often also been neglected in autonomy-supportive training studies. 
To address these issues, this thesis aims to: (1) develop the autonomy-supportive training (AST) and conduct a preliminary evaluation of the AST with supervisors in low-skilled occupations; (2) establish the perceived effect of SAS on employees in low-skilled occupations; (3) evaluate the outcomes of AST on supervisors and employees; and, (4) explore the factors affecting the maintenance of SAS with supervisors. To achieve these aims, a mixed-method approach was employed to collect data from supervisors and employees; these data were then presented as three separate research articles. The articles were submitted to peer-reviewed journals; all three articles have been published.   
	Study 1 reports on the development and preliminary evaluation of the AST for supervisors in low-skilled occupations. Drawing on and integrating both SDT and adult learning principles, the resultant training module is one of the first training modules in SDT designed to suit the learning needs of supervisors in low-skilled occupations. The study reports on the development of the training material as well as the preliminary evaluation of the AST using reaction evaluation. In general, supervisors found the AST relevant, easy to understand, and applicable to their work setting. 
	Study 2 examined the effect of employees’ perceived SAS on employees’ well-being and job performance. This study included analyses of need satisfaction and need frustration as mediators. Using mediation analyses, the results showed employees’ perceived SAS predicted well-being and job performance through need satisfaction but not through need frustration. The findings were the first to demonstrate the importance of employees’ perceived SAS on their well-being and job performance through need satisfaction in low-skilled occupations. 
	Study 3 used a two-stage mixed-method approach. First, the quantitative phase employed a quasi-experimental approach with AST as the manipulated variable and a longitudinal survey completed by both employees and supervisors. The second phase, the qualitative phase, employed both focus groups and interview with supervisors as its data gathering methods. The quantitative phase demonstrated an initial change in supervisory style after the training, although this effect was not perceived by employees in the longitudinal analysis. The qualitative phase unravelled factors affecting the maintenance of SAS. This study found that, although AST can increase SAS, the effects were diluted when upper-management autonomy support, and essential resources to complete tasks, are lacking. 
	Overall, this thesis expands the organisational and SDT literature by including an understudied occupational group: low-skilled employees and their supervisors. The findings of this thesis emphasise not only the benefits of AST and SAS for employees and supervisors, but also highlight the importance of senior managerial autonomy support and organisational support in leading low-skilled occupations.

text: Putting self-determination theory into practice: Autonomy-supportive training for supervisors in low-skilled jobs According to self-determination theory (SDT), supervisors’ autonomy support (SAS) is one of the main factors that contributes to employees’ well-being and other positive outcomes. Wider studies on the outcomes of autonomy support have been conducted in sectors such as education, healthcare, sports and financial institutions and with occupational groups such as teachers, upper managers and coaches. While all of these studies demonstrate the importance of autonomy support in facilitating positive outcomes, the importance of SAS in enhancing the well-being of employees in low-skilled occupations is often neglected, despite the continued contribution of this sector to the economy and total workforce in New Zealand. Furthermore, limited studies within the workplace have also shown that (upper) management can be trained to be more autonomy-supportive. To date, however, this training has not been designed for supervisors in low-skilled occupations, who have different learning needs than those in higher-skilled occupations. Similarly, the effect of autonomy-supportive training on employees has been established in higher-skilled occupations, but not with employees in low-skilled occupations. Finally, according to Grossman and Salas (2011), various organisational factors can weaken the effect of training, which, in turn, undermines the long-term benefit of SAS. Nevertheless, this aspect of maintaining SAS after the training has often also been neglected in autonomy-supportive training studies. 
To address these issues, this thesis aims to: (1) develop the autonomy-supportive training (AST) and conduct a preliminary evaluation of the AST with supervisors in low-skilled occupations; (2) establish the perceived effect of SAS on employees in low-skilled occupations; (3) evaluate the outcomes of AST on supervisors and employees; and, (4) explore the factors affecting the maintenance of SAS with supervisors. To achieve these aims, a mixed-method approach was employed to collect data from supervisors and employees; these data were then presented as three separate research articles. The articles were submitted to peer-reviewed journals; all three articles have been published.   
	Study 1 reports on the development and preliminary evaluation of the AST for supervisors in low-skilled occupations. Drawing on and integrating both SDT and adult learning principles, the resultant training module is one of the first training modules in SDT designed to suit the learning needs of supervisors in low-skilled occupations. The study reports on the development of the training material as well as the preliminary evaluation of the AST using reaction evaluation. In general, supervisors found the AST relevant, easy to understand, and applicable to their work setting. 
	Study 2 examined the effect of employees’ perceived SAS on employees’ well-being and job performance. This study included analyses of need satisfaction and need frustration as mediators. Using mediation analyses, the results showed employees’ perceived SAS predicted well-being and job performance through need satisfaction but not through need frustration. The findings were the first to demonstrate the importance of employees’ perceived SAS on their well-being and job performance through need satisfaction in low-skilled occupations. 
	Study 3 used a two-stage mixed-method approach. First, the quantitative phase employed a quasi-experimental approach with AST as the manipulated variable and a longitudinal survey completed by both employees and supervisors. The second phase, the qualitative phase, employed both focus groups and interview with supervisors as its data gathering methods. The quantitative phase demonstrated an initial change in supervisory style after the training, although this effect was not perceived by employees in the longitudinal analysis. The qualitative phase unravelled factors affecting the maintenance of SAS. This study found that, although AST can increase SAS, the effects were diluted when upper-management autonomy support, and essential resources to complete tasks, are lacking. 
	Overall, this thesis expands the organisational and SDT literature by including an understudied occupational group: low-skilled employees and their supervisors. The findings of this thesis emphasise not only the benefits of AST and SAS for employees and supervisors, but also highlight the importance of senior managerial autonomy support and organisational support in leading low-skilled occupations.

year: 2020

title: Just because. Constructions in spoken and written New Zealand English

authors: Calude, Andreea S.

abstract: Just because (JB) is widely used and has been a target of commentary and humorous use by English speakers and aroused some interest among linguists, who have investigated its syntax, semantics, and derivation. Some, based on researcher constructed data, have proposed construction analyses (Hirose 1991, Bender and Kathol 2001). Another (Hilpert 2005: 97), using a diachronic corpus, proposes that JB has been grammaticalized as a concessive marker via "the discourse function of inference denial." Our study, based on a corpus of New Zealand written and spoken English, demonstrates, amongst other significant findings, that JB occurs in a far broader set of grammatical contexts than the earlier literature recognizes, that JB constructions are significantly more frequent in spoken than in written English, that JB adverbial clauses are more likely to occur in pre-posed than in post-posed position, that the meaning of just because affects this distribution, that just because is far more likely to be followed by a clause than a prepositional phrase, and that JB constructions are extremely likely to occur in the discourse context of a negator.

text: Just because. Constructions in spoken and written New Zealand English Just because (JB) is widely used and has been a target of commentary and humorous use by English speakers and aroused some interest among linguists, who have investigated its syntax, semantics, and derivation. Some, based on researcher constructed data, have proposed construction analyses (Hirose 1991, Bender and Kathol 2001). Another (Hilpert 2005: 97), using a diachronic corpus, proposes that JB has been grammaticalized as a concessive marker via "the discourse function of inference denial." Our study, based on a corpus of New Zealand written and spoken English, demonstrates, amongst other significant findings, that JB occurs in a far broader set of grammatical contexts than the earlier literature recognizes, that JB constructions are significantly more frequent in spoken than in written English, that JB adverbial clauses are more likely to occur in pre-posed than in post-posed position, that the meaning of just because affects this distribution, that just because is far more likely to be followed by a clause than a prepositional phrase, and that JB constructions are extremely likely to occur in the discourse context of a negator.

year: 2020

title: Tukua Kia Rere! Maori Adult Students Succeeding at University

authors: Williams, Daphne Christina (Tina)

subjects: Maori students in higher education

abstract: A considerable amount of research has focussed on Māori underachievement in mainstream education. There is, however, much less research that celebrates Māori academic success. Even less has been written about the experiences of adult Māori students who return to study long after leaving school and go on to become academically successful in higher education. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge regarding Māori academic success at university. It sought to explore the experiences of sixteen adult Māori students who entered university via special admission and went on to attain undergraduate degrees. The study examined the challenges that these individual’s experienced on their way to becoming academically successful and identified the main factors that helped them to achieve educational success. An overarching Kaupapa Māori theoretical framework was employed in this study. A qualitative research methodology was implemented and Kaupapa Māori research principles informed both the research processes and the interpretation of research outcomes. The findings suggest four major factors contributed to the success of the participants in this study: a strong determination to succeed (whāia te iti kahurangi), the extended family (whānau), strong social support networks with peers and faculty (whakawhanaungatanga) and Te Ao Māori (the Māori World). However, some of these same factors were also found to hinder academic success in the university setting. The Manu Tukutuku (kite) model was developed directly from the research findings. In addition to providing a theoretical frame for understanding the experiences of Māori special admission students at university, this model also provides a useful ‘toolkit’ for those wanting to support Māori students within the university context. The implications of this study suggest that New Zealand Universities can better support Māori special admission students by being more inclusive of their cultural capital, by eliminating racism and discrimination in the university environment and by fostering better relationships between staff and students. Creating opportunities for Māori students to develop social networks at University was also identified as important.

text: Tukua Kia Rere! Maori Adult Students Succeeding at University A considerable amount of research has focussed on Māori underachievement in mainstream education. There is, however, much less research that celebrates Māori academic success. Even less has been written about the experiences of adult Māori students who return to study long after leaving school and go on to become academically successful in higher education. This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge regarding Māori academic success at university. It sought to explore the experiences of sixteen adult Māori students who entered university via special admission and went on to attain undergraduate degrees. The study examined the challenges that these individual’s experienced on their way to becoming academically successful and identified the main factors that helped them to achieve educational success. An overarching Kaupapa Māori theoretical framework was employed in this study. A qualitative research methodology was implemented and Kaupapa Māori research principles informed both the research processes and the interpretation of research outcomes. The findings suggest four major factors contributed to the success of the participants in this study: a strong determination to succeed (whāia te iti kahurangi), the extended family (whānau), strong social support networks with peers and faculty (whakawhanaungatanga) and Te Ao Māori (the Māori World). However, some of these same factors were also found to hinder academic success in the university setting. The Manu Tukutuku (kite) model was developed directly from the research findings. In addition to providing a theoretical frame for understanding the experiences of Māori special admission students at university, this model also provides a useful ‘toolkit’ for those wanting to support Māori students within the university context. The implications of this study suggest that New Zealand Universities can better support Māori special admission students by being more inclusive of their cultural capital, by eliminating racism and discrimination in the university environment and by fostering better relationships between staff and students. Creating opportunities for Māori students to develop social networks at University was also identified as important.

year: 2010