title: Vocational Survival:  Expanding the Film Value Chain for the Independent Filmmaker

authors: Jackson, Fiona

subjects: Independent filmmaking

abstract: As a case-study in the occupational sociology of the creative industries, this thesis develops an argument for expanding the traditional FilmValue Chain model in order to address what it means to be an independent filmmaker. The research focuses specifically on the filmmaker’s journey or course of action, rather than on film aesthetics or artistry, and ultimately presents this as a structured series of stages. To reach an understanding of this structure, the research combines (auto)ethnography with Grounded Theory in order to develop a thick description that moves between practical experience and emergent concepts. The exposed structure of an independent’s filmmaking career progresses through four frameworks: exploration, focus, independence, and establishment. The exploration stage is dominated by a high level of simple autonomy-orientation. The focus stage is dominated by growing realisation that the simple autonomy-orientation is too simple and a different orientation is needed. The independence and establishment levels encompass a complex autonomy orientation. The presentation of the research draws heavily on both identity theory and the emerging research paradigm of performative ethnography, and one chapter takes the form of a screenplay which interacts creatively with the other chapters, the synthesis of which has produced a model of independent practices. By extending John Caldwell’s analysis of industrial “promotional surrounds” (IPS), which identifies the dominant corporate and labour practices and “logics” in relation to which independents necessarily define themselves, this thesis articulates the nature of an “independent promotional surround” with its distinctive actors and logics. Finally, it proposes that this IPS expresses a discourse of independence and that an expansion of the traditional Film Value Chain model will recognise the tensions around which this discourse organises itself.

text: Vocational Survival:  Expanding the Film Value Chain for the Independent Filmmaker As a case-study in the occupational sociology of the creative industries, this thesis develops an argument for expanding the traditional FilmValue Chain model in order to address what it means to be an independent filmmaker. The research focuses specifically on the filmmaker’s journey or course of action, rather than on film aesthetics or artistry, and ultimately presents this as a structured series of stages. To reach an understanding of this structure, the research combines (auto)ethnography with Grounded Theory in order to develop a thick description that moves between practical experience and emergent concepts. The exposed structure of an independent’s filmmaking career progresses through four frameworks: exploration, focus, independence, and establishment. The exploration stage is dominated by a high level of simple autonomy-orientation. The focus stage is dominated by growing realisation that the simple autonomy-orientation is too simple and a different orientation is needed. The independence and establishment levels encompass a complex autonomy orientation. The presentation of the research draws heavily on both identity theory and the emerging research paradigm of performative ethnography, and one chapter takes the form of a screenplay which interacts creatively with the other chapters, the synthesis of which has produced a model of independent practices. By extending John Caldwell’s analysis of industrial “promotional surrounds” (IPS), which identifies the dominant corporate and labour practices and “logics” in relation to which independents necessarily define themselves, this thesis articulates the nature of an “independent promotional surround” with its distinctive actors and logics. Finally, it proposes that this IPS expresses a discourse of independence and that an expansion of the traditional Film Value Chain model will recognise the tensions around which this discourse organises itself.

year: 2018

title: Scaling the mountain to principalship in New Zealand: The enablers and barriers in a female principal’s journey

authors: Mortimer, Samantha

abstract: This chapter describes the journey to school principalship of a New Zealand woman committed to making a difference for the students with whom she worked. Janet described her journey into and through leadership. She identified the enablers and barriers she experienced along the way and the identity work that enabled her to gain her first position as a school principal. Janet acknowledged the impact of gender, being a wife, and being a mother to a school-aged child, and the gender-specific expectations others have of principals, as barriers in her journey.

text: Scaling the mountain to principalship in New Zealand: The enablers and barriers in a female principal’s journey This chapter describes the journey to school principalship of a New Zealand woman committed to making a difference for the students with whom she worked. Janet described her journey into and through leadership. She identified the enablers and barriers she experienced along the way and the identity work that enabled her to gain her first position as a school principal. Janet acknowledged the impact of gender, being a wife, and being a mother to a school-aged child, and the gender-specific expectations others have of principals, as barriers in her journey.

year: 2018

title: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites

authors: Petchey, Fiona

abstract: This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

text: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

year: 1998