title: The effects of relatedness, social contact, and sex on observational learning in rats (Rattus norvegicus)

authors: Tulloch, Bridget

subjects: Rats

abstract: Kin recognition is the ability to identify a conspecific as a relative and can occur even when animals are complete strangers.  By being able to recognise relatives, animals are able to give preferential treatment to those with which they share genes.  Recognition may occur by either direct familiarisation (learning a phenotypic cue that reliably correlates to kinship), or by indirect familiarisation (learning kinship relationships through previous encounters).  Rats (Rattus norvegicus) can recognise kin, however to what degree kin recognition is mediated by genetics (direct familiarisation) or social relationships (indirect familiarisation) are unknown; the influences of kinship and familiarity on the ability to learn from a conspecific is also unknown.  Furthermore, the sex of an animal can also influence its ability to learn but this effect has received little attention in the literature, particularly when considering observational learning tasks.  I assessed if relatedness and/or familiarity influenced a rat's ability to learn through observation, and if gender relationships influence the learning process.  Eighty rats ( observers ) were given the opportunity to observe a  demonstrator  rat press a joystick in a given direction to obtain a food reward.  Observers watched a demonstrator that had one of the following relationships with them: related and familiar, related and unfamiliar, unrelated and familiar, or unrelated and unfamiliar.  When observers were given the opportunity to manipulate the joystick, the number of sniffs of the joystick, the latency to first move the joystick and the total number of presses were recorded.  Rats that were both familiar and related to the demonstrator consistently performed better than any other treatment group; furthermore, rats that were familiar with the demonstrator performed the task more efficiently than rats that were not familiar with the demonstrator.  When the demonstrators and observers were related, the observers produced more presses and sniffs of the joystick while having a lower latency to the first push   In addition, male observers learnt better than females regardless of the demonstrator sex, with males that were familiar to their demonstrator making nearly twice as many pushes than any other treatment group. The results from this study are discussed in relation to both the mechanisms of direct and indirect recognition and the potential adaptive value on kin discrimination in the learning process.  The home range hypothesis may explain why gender differences in learning were found: male rats have larger home ranges than females.  Male rat will regularly encounter more rats than females and would need to ascertain if unfamiliar individuals are relatives.  Females remain closer to natal sites and as such are more likely to encounter kin and therefore may not need as well as developed kin recognition ability.

text: The effects of relatedness, social contact, and sex on observational learning in rats (Rattus norvegicus) Kin recognition is the ability to identify a conspecific as a relative and can occur even when animals are complete strangers.  By being able to recognise relatives, animals are able to give preferential treatment to those with which they share genes.  Recognition may occur by either direct familiarisation (learning a phenotypic cue that reliably correlates to kinship), or by indirect familiarisation (learning kinship relationships through previous encounters).  Rats (Rattus norvegicus) can recognise kin, however to what degree kin recognition is mediated by genetics (direct familiarisation) or social relationships (indirect familiarisation) are unknown; the influences of kinship and familiarity on the ability to learn from a conspecific is also unknown.  Furthermore, the sex of an animal can also influence its ability to learn but this effect has received little attention in the literature, particularly when considering observational learning tasks.  I assessed if relatedness and/or familiarity influenced a rat's ability to learn through observation, and if gender relationships influence the learning process.  Eighty rats ( observers ) were given the opportunity to observe a  demonstrator  rat press a joystick in a given direction to obtain a food reward.  Observers watched a demonstrator that had one of the following relationships with them: related and familiar, related and unfamiliar, unrelated and familiar, or unrelated and unfamiliar.  When observers were given the opportunity to manipulate the joystick, the number of sniffs of the joystick, the latency to first move the joystick and the total number of presses were recorded.  Rats that were both familiar and related to the demonstrator consistently performed better than any other treatment group; furthermore, rats that were familiar with the demonstrator performed the task more efficiently than rats that were not familiar with the demonstrator.  When the demonstrators and observers were related, the observers produced more presses and sniffs of the joystick while having a lower latency to the first push   In addition, male observers learnt better than females regardless of the demonstrator sex, with males that were familiar to their demonstrator making nearly twice as many pushes than any other treatment group. The results from this study are discussed in relation to both the mechanisms of direct and indirect recognition and the potential adaptive value on kin discrimination in the learning process.  The home range hypothesis may explain why gender differences in learning were found: male rats have larger home ranges than females.  Male rat will regularly encounter more rats than females and would need to ascertain if unfamiliar individuals are relatives.  Females remain closer to natal sites and as such are more likely to encounter kin and therefore may not need as well as developed kin recognition ability.

year: 2007

title: Typographic emphasis of headings: Methods of typographic emphasis to assist with search of unfamiliar and familiar text

authors: Timpany, Claire

subjects: Typography

abstract: Readers use headings to understand the structure and content of a text, and to locate information. Readers understand the structure of a text by building an understanding of the structure of the content through developing relationships between the sections of content. Headings assist readers with both their comprehension of text as well as assisting them with recall of the content. Headings provide signals to readers to aid navigation of a document by indicating the structure of topics. This helps readers to locate information both through signalling the content of text that may be unfamiliar or providing markers to assist with the recall of the location of information in a familiar text. 
The importance of headings is known; however, little research exists to indicate how these important organisational features of text should be presented visually. This research was undertaken to fill this gap in our understanding of how headings can assist readers. Five studies were carried out to investigate which heading emphasis methods are most easily identified within a passage of text and which of these methods best assist readers with searching text. 
An initial survey of current practice for emphasising headings revealed that there are six main methods for emphasising headings and these are often used in combination with each other to create stronger emphasis. It was also revealed that the presentation of headings in the same publication across print and digital formats is often inconsistent. This survey was used to help inform which heading emphasis methods were used in the paired comparison studies to test for ease of identification. 
Three paired comparison studies were then undertaken to establish which methods of typographic emphasis are most easily identified within a passage of text. These studies compared seven individual typographic emphasis methods with each other in print and on screen then compared five combinations of typographic emphasis methods in print and on screen. These studies found that emphasis methods with the greatest visual weight were the most easily identified. 
The most easily identifiable heading emphasis methods were then evaluated in search tasks to evaluate which of the four heading styles provided the most assistance when searching for answers in a screen-based text. This research showed that when headings are emphasised using styles that combine two heading emphasis methods they are easier to distinguish from the body copy surrounding them. These more easily identifiable headings are more useful to readers when they are searching for information in a text, both when the text is unfamiliar and when it is familiar. 
When bold is combined with either an increase in size or a sans serif typeface to create a heading, readers are able to more quickly and accurately find information within a document, whether that text is unfamiliar or familiar.

text: Typographic emphasis of headings: Methods of typographic emphasis to assist with search of unfamiliar and familiar text Readers use headings to understand the structure and content of a text, and to locate information. Readers understand the structure of a text by building an understanding of the structure of the content through developing relationships between the sections of content. Headings assist readers with both their comprehension of text as well as assisting them with recall of the content. Headings provide signals to readers to aid navigation of a document by indicating the structure of topics. This helps readers to locate information both through signalling the content of text that may be unfamiliar or providing markers to assist with the recall of the location of information in a familiar text. 
The importance of headings is known; however, little research exists to indicate how these important organisational features of text should be presented visually. This research was undertaken to fill this gap in our understanding of how headings can assist readers. Five studies were carried out to investigate which heading emphasis methods are most easily identified within a passage of text and which of these methods best assist readers with searching text. 
An initial survey of current practice for emphasising headings revealed that there are six main methods for emphasising headings and these are often used in combination with each other to create stronger emphasis. It was also revealed that the presentation of headings in the same publication across print and digital formats is often inconsistent. This survey was used to help inform which heading emphasis methods were used in the paired comparison studies to test for ease of identification. 
Three paired comparison studies were then undertaken to establish which methods of typographic emphasis are most easily identified within a passage of text. These studies compared seven individual typographic emphasis methods with each other in print and on screen then compared five combinations of typographic emphasis methods in print and on screen. These studies found that emphasis methods with the greatest visual weight were the most easily identified. 
The most easily identifiable heading emphasis methods were then evaluated in search tasks to evaluate which of the four heading styles provided the most assistance when searching for answers in a screen-based text. This research showed that when headings are emphasised using styles that combine two heading emphasis methods they are easier to distinguish from the body copy surrounding them. These more easily identifiable headings are more useful to readers when they are searching for information in a text, both when the text is unfamiliar and when it is familiar. 
When bold is combined with either an increase in size or a sans serif typeface to create a heading, readers are able to more quickly and accurately find information within a document, whether that text is unfamiliar or familiar.

year: 2018

title: Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully restoration initiative: Part 1

authors: Elliot Noe, Elizabeth

abstract: Kukutaaruhe Gully is a minor branch of Hamilton’s extensive gully system, and runs from the corner of Bankwood and Clarkin Road, behind Fairfield College, connecting with Donny Park in the north and out into the Waikato River. The Kukutaaruhe Education Trust was established to support the implementation of the Fairfield Project, which is a partnership between Ngati Wairere, local community and Fairfield College. The project’s goals include the establishment of an ecological and environmental education centre on the approximately 12 ha of land behind Fairfield College and restoration of the adjacent Kukutaaruhe Gully. In 2019, the University of Waikato’s Environmental Research Institute was contracted by the Kukutaaruhe Education Trust to create an Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully restoration initiative. This is one in a three-part series created together under one contract:
• Part 1 of 3 is the first document presented here, an Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully Restoration Initiative
• Part 2 of 3, the Operational Forest Restoration plan for Kukutaaruhe Gully
• Part 3 of 3 is an Ecological Restoration Plan Template.

text: Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully restoration initiative: Part 1 Kukutaaruhe Gully is a minor branch of Hamilton’s extensive gully system, and runs from the corner of Bankwood and Clarkin Road, behind Fairfield College, connecting with Donny Park in the north and out into the Waikato River. The Kukutaaruhe Education Trust was established to support the implementation of the Fairfield Project, which is a partnership between Ngati Wairere, local community and Fairfield College. The project’s goals include the establishment of an ecological and environmental education centre on the approximately 12 ha of land behind Fairfield College and restoration of the adjacent Kukutaaruhe Gully. In 2019, the University of Waikato’s Environmental Research Institute was contracted by the Kukutaaruhe Education Trust to create an Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully restoration initiative. This is one in a three-part series created together under one contract:
• Part 1 of 3 is the first document presented here, an Overview of the Kukutaaruhe Gully Restoration Initiative
• Part 2 of 3, the Operational Forest Restoration plan for Kukutaaruhe Gully
• Part 3 of 3 is an Ecological Restoration Plan Template.

year: 2020-10