title: The Economic Impacts of Migrant Maids in Malaysia

authors: Tan, Peck Leong

subjects: Migrant Maids

abstract: Demand for migrant maids by households in Malaysia has increased rapidly as more married women choose to participate in the workforce. Simple comparisons of households with maids and those without suggest that hiring maids raises female labour force participation rates of their employers by 26 percentage points. But such comparisons are not of like with like because households that employ maids differ in many ways from those who do not. When propensity score matching (PSM) methods are used to estimate the treatment effect of having a foreign maid the rise in female labour force participation is estimated to be only 18 percentage points in 1993/94. Moreover, this treatment effect appears to have fallen to only 13 percentage points by 2004/05. This decline is not apparent when simpler but potentially biased methods are used to estimate treatment effects. The small impact of hiring maids suggests financial losses to the host households and higher leisure time for Malaysian women. Another side effect of hiring migrant maids may be that human capital formation is negatively influenced, since these foreign maids have lower education levels than the mothers of the children they are employed to look after. This is a feature in many households in Malaysia where the inputs into children‟s human capital formation include maids and private tutors, in addition to the more typical inputs of parents and teachers. Previous studies of these atypical inputs from other Asian countries ignore the cumulative nature of learning by just examining contemporaneous impacts of maids, private tutoring and maternal employment. In this thesis, especially collected retrospective data are used to examine impacts on academic performance of Malaysian children in Year 6 (ages 12 to 13). The results suggest children from households that have ever had a foreign maid have higher Year 6 results, with maid impacts having a long lag. Private tutoring in the three years prior to Year 6 has significant positive impacts on academic results but earlier tutoring is associated with poorer results. When effects at various quantiles are studied, the positive impact of maids and private tutoring is most apparent for students below the median. Hiring foreign maids in Malaysia also has impacts on the maids themselves and their families in their country of origin (which is predominantly Indonesia). To examine the effect of this temporary emigration to Malaysia on income levels of the emigrant and the migrant-sending households a survey of Indonesian maids and factory workers in Malaysia was conducted by the author of this thesis. Data from this survey were then combined with data from three rounds of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) to estimate that these young women may gain an additional US$80 to US$130 per month compared to earnings had they stayed in Indonesia. The decision to remit depends on duration and earnings in Malaysia more than on household characteristics in Indonesia. The main use of remittances is to accumulate fixed assets in Indonesia. Fixed effects models of household expenditure and assets using three rounds of IFLS data also confirm that the main impact of migration and remittances is on assets rather than consumption, and is more apparent for urban households than for rural households.

text: The Economic Impacts of Migrant Maids in Malaysia Demand for migrant maids by households in Malaysia has increased rapidly as more married women choose to participate in the workforce. Simple comparisons of households with maids and those without suggest that hiring maids raises female labour force participation rates of their employers by 26 percentage points. But such comparisons are not of like with like because households that employ maids differ in many ways from those who do not. When propensity score matching (PSM) methods are used to estimate the treatment effect of having a foreign maid the rise in female labour force participation is estimated to be only 18 percentage points in 1993/94. Moreover, this treatment effect appears to have fallen to only 13 percentage points by 2004/05. This decline is not apparent when simpler but potentially biased methods are used to estimate treatment effects. The small impact of hiring maids suggests financial losses to the host households and higher leisure time for Malaysian women. Another side effect of hiring migrant maids may be that human capital formation is negatively influenced, since these foreign maids have lower education levels than the mothers of the children they are employed to look after. This is a feature in many households in Malaysia where the inputs into children‟s human capital formation include maids and private tutors, in addition to the more typical inputs of parents and teachers. Previous studies of these atypical inputs from other Asian countries ignore the cumulative nature of learning by just examining contemporaneous impacts of maids, private tutoring and maternal employment. In this thesis, especially collected retrospective data are used to examine impacts on academic performance of Malaysian children in Year 6 (ages 12 to 13). The results suggest children from households that have ever had a foreign maid have higher Year 6 results, with maid impacts having a long lag. Private tutoring in the three years prior to Year 6 has significant positive impacts on academic results but earlier tutoring is associated with poorer results. When effects at various quantiles are studied, the positive impact of maids and private tutoring is most apparent for students below the median. Hiring foreign maids in Malaysia also has impacts on the maids themselves and their families in their country of origin (which is predominantly Indonesia). To examine the effect of this temporary emigration to Malaysia on income levels of the emigrant and the migrant-sending households a survey of Indonesian maids and factory workers in Malaysia was conducted by the author of this thesis. Data from this survey were then combined with data from three rounds of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) to estimate that these young women may gain an additional US$80 to US$130 per month compared to earnings had they stayed in Indonesia. The decision to remit depends on duration and earnings in Malaysia more than on household characteristics in Indonesia. The main use of remittances is to accumulate fixed assets in Indonesia. Fixed effects models of household expenditure and assets using three rounds of IFLS data also confirm that the main impact of migration and remittances is on assets rather than consumption, and is more apparent for urban households than for rural households.

year: 2011

title: Literacy assessment practices: Moving from standardised to ecologically valid assessments in secondary schools

authors: Whitehead, David

subjects: assessment

abstract: SSLI test protocol data revealed the dominance of 'central' literacy measures and 'local' subject-specific measures aligned to institutional requirements, curriculum and national examination content. These measures initiate secondary students into a pervasive culture of assessment that generally fails to support further learning; a culture antagonistic towards the use of assessment that reflect how expert teachers address subject-specific literacies. In a culture of content-focussed, high stakes assessment, the use of ecologically valid formative assessment that reveal what students can do with what they know, and that empower teachers to test like they teach, is marginalised. Consistent with Neisser's claim that some experimental measures may not reflect reality, the pedagogy and assessment protocols of many secondary schools fail to reflect the use of literacy and thinking tools, and so fail to reflect best evidence about teaching. Changes in school culture, teachers' pedagogical knowledge and the use of ecologically valid assessments are associated with shifts from transmission to co-construction approaches. Consistent with the work of David Corson the use of ecologically valid assessment that reflect the use of literacy and thinking tools is an inclusive, future-focussed literacy event, but the use of 'central' curriculum and institutional-linked measures is exclusive.

text: Literacy assessment practices: Moving from standardised to ecologically valid assessments in secondary schools SSLI test protocol data revealed the dominance of 'central' literacy measures and 'local' subject-specific measures aligned to institutional requirements, curriculum and national examination content. These measures initiate secondary students into a pervasive culture of assessment that generally fails to support further learning; a culture antagonistic towards the use of assessment that reflect how expert teachers address subject-specific literacies. In a culture of content-focussed, high stakes assessment, the use of ecologically valid formative assessment that reveal what students can do with what they know, and that empower teachers to test like they teach, is marginalised. Consistent with Neisser's claim that some experimental measures may not reflect reality, the pedagogy and assessment protocols of many secondary schools fail to reflect the use of literacy and thinking tools, and so fail to reflect best evidence about teaching. Changes in school culture, teachers' pedagogical knowledge and the use of ecologically valid assessments are associated with shifts from transmission to co-construction approaches. Consistent with the work of David Corson the use of ecologically valid assessment that reflect the use of literacy and thinking tools is an inclusive, future-focussed literacy event, but the use of 'central' curriculum and institutional-linked measures is exclusive.

year: 2007

title: Cultural diversity and identity discourses in the design and implementation of the New Zealand curriculum key competencies: a Bernsteinian analysis

authors: Glogowski, Sonia Theresa

subjects: Culture

abstract: The key competencies as a curriculum construct have appeared in several national curricula from the early 2000s. Many have their origins in the Definition and Selection of Key Competencies Project (DeSeCo), commissioned by the supra-national Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A number of international critiques have highlighted tensions between neoliberal ideologies that underpin the key competencies, and broader socio-cultural and social justice issues within their respective countries (e.g., Crick, 2008; Sjøberg, 2016; Takayama, 2013).
This research investigated who and what influenced the design and implementation of the key competencies in the 2007 New Zealand Curriculum, and how students’ cultural diversity and identities were considered as part of this. Data for this case study were collected from three sources: interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants six years after the launch of the official curriculum; analysis of policy documents and discussion papers from government archives, and focus group interviews with teachers from two schools seven years into implementation. Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device, was used to focus analysis on the agents, influences, debates and events that impacted on the design and implementation of the curriculum. Fraser’s (1989) needs’ discourse theory was used to examine interpretations of cultural diversity and identity, and the implications of implicit valued attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies.
Findings indicated that in the New Zealand educational policy context, the roles and interactions between agents and processes in the fields of production and reproduction were more ‘fluid’ and consultative than Bernstein’s (2000) structuralist model would suggest. This may be reflective of New Zealand’s small population and more informal collaboration between agents in different fields. The development of this curriculum prioritised the ‘process’ of understanding curriculum through consultation and feedback, compared to previous curricula which were more focussed on curriculum as a ‘product’.
New Zealand’s socio-political climate, and its bicultural Treaty of Waitangi, appeared to impact on how the key competencies were conceived, and how student diversity and identity were interpreted at different points in the curriculum design and implementation process. Interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants revealed that cultural diversity was largely associated with ethnicity, and in particular, differences between indigenous Māori and Pākehā (New Zealand European). Less attention was given to the concept of multiple identities and intersections between ethnicity, socio economic class, gender and so on, and how these might influence interpretations of the key competencies. This was despite evidence of early discussion papers highlighting these complexities.
At the curriculum implementation level, Bernstein (2000) argues that schools and teachers can often ‘reproduce’ middle class values and expected behaviours through ‘invisible’ pedagogical practices, with little awareness of potential disjuncts for disadvantaged groups. Yet he also states that this is not necessarily deterministic, and the finding for the two school focus groups demonstrated this. Despite no evidence that student diversity was a specific aspect of their professional development on key competencies, the teachers discussed some complexities of student diversity in their schools and how the key competencies might be interpreted in different ways. However, given the case study schools were considered to be particularly ‘diverse’, this type of discussion and consideration may not be typical of other New Zealand schools.
The findings support the notion that the New Zealand curriculum key competencies were ‘weakly classified’ and ‘strongly framed’ (Bernstein, 2000). This means a high level of interpretation was located with school leaders and teachers, within the context of a permissive curriculum and thus presents both opportunities and risks.
This case study highlights the importance of agents in every field understanding the complexities and implications of diversity in education. In addition, if the key competencies genuinely seek to enhance both vocational and social justice outcomes for a more cohesive and equitable society, then education for diversity would seem to be important.
This research contributes new knowledge in relation to the process of curriculum design, highlighting the impact of a unique socio-political context on the interpretation of a curriculum construct, and the implications of ‘valued’ attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies on diverse students. It provides an example of how Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device can be used to identify important influences and processes that impact on the different stages of a curriculum design and implementation process. It also illustrates how the device can be usefully complemented by another theory, in this case Fraser’s (1989) needs discourse theory, to examine more closely the discourse that relates to a particular lens of the research.

text: Cultural diversity and identity discourses in the design and implementation of the New Zealand curriculum key competencies: a Bernsteinian analysis The key competencies as a curriculum construct have appeared in several national curricula from the early 2000s. Many have their origins in the Definition and Selection of Key Competencies Project (DeSeCo), commissioned by the supra-national Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A number of international critiques have highlighted tensions between neoliberal ideologies that underpin the key competencies, and broader socio-cultural and social justice issues within their respective countries (e.g., Crick, 2008; Sjøberg, 2016; Takayama, 2013).
This research investigated who and what influenced the design and implementation of the key competencies in the 2007 New Zealand Curriculum, and how students’ cultural diversity and identities were considered as part of this. Data for this case study were collected from three sources: interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants six years after the launch of the official curriculum; analysis of policy documents and discussion papers from government archives, and focus group interviews with teachers from two schools seven years into implementation. Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device, was used to focus analysis on the agents, influences, debates and events that impacted on the design and implementation of the curriculum. Fraser’s (1989) needs’ discourse theory was used to examine interpretations of cultural diversity and identity, and the implications of implicit valued attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies.
Findings indicated that in the New Zealand educational policy context, the roles and interactions between agents and processes in the fields of production and reproduction were more ‘fluid’ and consultative than Bernstein’s (2000) structuralist model would suggest. This may be reflective of New Zealand’s small population and more informal collaboration between agents in different fields. The development of this curriculum prioritised the ‘process’ of understanding curriculum through consultation and feedback, compared to previous curricula which were more focussed on curriculum as a ‘product’.
New Zealand’s socio-political climate, and its bicultural Treaty of Waitangi, appeared to impact on how the key competencies were conceived, and how student diversity and identity were interpreted at different points in the curriculum design and implementation process. Interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants revealed that cultural diversity was largely associated with ethnicity, and in particular, differences between indigenous Māori and Pākehā (New Zealand European). Less attention was given to the concept of multiple identities and intersections between ethnicity, socio economic class, gender and so on, and how these might influence interpretations of the key competencies. This was despite evidence of early discussion papers highlighting these complexities.
At the curriculum implementation level, Bernstein (2000) argues that schools and teachers can often ‘reproduce’ middle class values and expected behaviours through ‘invisible’ pedagogical practices, with little awareness of potential disjuncts for disadvantaged groups. Yet he also states that this is not necessarily deterministic, and the finding for the two school focus groups demonstrated this. Despite no evidence that student diversity was a specific aspect of their professional development on key competencies, the teachers discussed some complexities of student diversity in their schools and how the key competencies might be interpreted in different ways. However, given the case study schools were considered to be particularly ‘diverse’, this type of discussion and consideration may not be typical of other New Zealand schools.
The findings support the notion that the New Zealand curriculum key competencies were ‘weakly classified’ and ‘strongly framed’ (Bernstein, 2000). This means a high level of interpretation was located with school leaders and teachers, within the context of a permissive curriculum and thus presents both opportunities and risks.
This case study highlights the importance of agents in every field understanding the complexities and implications of diversity in education. In addition, if the key competencies genuinely seek to enhance both vocational and social justice outcomes for a more cohesive and equitable society, then education for diversity would seem to be important.
This research contributes new knowledge in relation to the process of curriculum design, highlighting the impact of a unique socio-political context on the interpretation of a curriculum construct, and the implications of ‘valued’ attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies on diverse students. It provides an example of how Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device can be used to identify important influences and processes that impact on the different stages of a curriculum design and implementation process. It also illustrates how the device can be usefully complemented by another theory, in this case Fraser’s (1989) needs discourse theory, to examine more closely the discourse that relates to a particular lens of the research.

year: 2020