title: The Social Impacts of seasonal migration on left-behind children: An exploratory study from Lifuka, Tonga

authors: Moala-Tupou, Lupe

subjects: seasonal migration

abstract: There is a dearth of knowledge about the social impacts of seasonal migration on children left behind in Tonga and Pacific countries more generally. The economic benefits of remittances on families have been studied quite extensively but the social costs and benefits have not been the subject of much inquiry. This exploratory study in a Tongan village setting seeks to better understand children who are left behind and who are being affected by lengthy absences of older family members when they are employed as seasonal workers in the horticulture and viticulture industries of New Zealand and Australia.

Three main questions are addressed. Firstly, how do community leaders, teachers, parents and the children themselves perceive the impacts on the children left behind by older family members when they are working overseas? Social impacts on children are examined with reference to health, education, social and religious participation. Secondly, how do the social impacts vary by gender and age of the children? Finally, what, if any, coping strategies are used or are being planned to mitigate the social impacts of seasonal migration overseas on teenage children? The data that was collected to address these questions came from three major sources: i) informal talanoa, ii) semi-structured interviews iii) and focus group discussions held in Lifuka, Ha’apai, Tonga.

This study revealed that children left behind in Tonga experience both positive and negative impacts on their education, health, social and religious participation when their mother/father or older siblings are working overseas. Seasonal workers’ earnings raise household incomes and assist with paying children’s school fees and other financial needs at school, improving access to health and church services through the purchasing of cars for transportation, and providing new clothes for children especially for special occasions.


Children affected by migration faced several challenges including suffering from loneliness, fear and sadness as a result of the absence of parents and sometimes experienced abuse in the communities. There can also be problems with diet, school performance, and permission to participate in social activities, especially young girls going out at night. Girls and boys face different challenges as a result of the absence of parents and older siblings, as do younger children. The main coping strategy is accessing support from teachers and other community leaders, but there needs to be more research on both impacts and strategies before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

text: The Social Impacts of seasonal migration on left-behind children: An exploratory study from Lifuka, Tonga There is a dearth of knowledge about the social impacts of seasonal migration on children left behind in Tonga and Pacific countries more generally. The economic benefits of remittances on families have been studied quite extensively but the social costs and benefits have not been the subject of much inquiry. This exploratory study in a Tongan village setting seeks to better understand children who are left behind and who are being affected by lengthy absences of older family members when they are employed as seasonal workers in the horticulture and viticulture industries of New Zealand and Australia.

Three main questions are addressed. Firstly, how do community leaders, teachers, parents and the children themselves perceive the impacts on the children left behind by older family members when they are working overseas? Social impacts on children are examined with reference to health, education, social and religious participation. Secondly, how do the social impacts vary by gender and age of the children? Finally, what, if any, coping strategies are used or are being planned to mitigate the social impacts of seasonal migration overseas on teenage children? The data that was collected to address these questions came from three major sources: i) informal talanoa, ii) semi-structured interviews iii) and focus group discussions held in Lifuka, Ha’apai, Tonga.

This study revealed that children left behind in Tonga experience both positive and negative impacts on their education, health, social and religious participation when their mother/father or older siblings are working overseas. Seasonal workers’ earnings raise household incomes and assist with paying children’s school fees and other financial needs at school, improving access to health and church services through the purchasing of cars for transportation, and providing new clothes for children especially for special occasions.


Children affected by migration faced several challenges including suffering from loneliness, fear and sadness as a result of the absence of parents and sometimes experienced abuse in the communities. There can also be problems with diet, school performance, and permission to participate in social activities, especially young girls going out at night. Girls and boys face different challenges as a result of the absence of parents and older siblings, as do younger children. The main coping strategy is accessing support from teachers and other community leaders, but there needs to be more research on both impacts and strategies before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

year: 2016

title: Role resources and work-family enrichment: The role of work engagement

authors: Siu, Oi Ling

subjects: work-family

abstract: The majority of work-family research has focused on negative spillover between demands and outcomes and between the work and family domains (e.g., work-family conflict; see review by Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005). The theory that guided this research was in most cases role stress theory (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) or the role scarcity hypothesis (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). However, according to spillover theory, work-related activities and satisfaction also affect non-work performance, and vice versa. Recently, in line with the positive psychology movement (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), work-family interaction research has also included concepts of positive spillover (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). This emerging focus supplements the dominant conflict perspective by identifying new ways of cultivating human resource strength.

text: Role resources and work-family enrichment: The role of work engagement The majority of work-family research has focused on negative spillover between demands and outcomes and between the work and family domains (e.g., work-family conflict; see review by Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005). The theory that guided this research was in most cases role stress theory (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) or the role scarcity hypothesis (Edwards & Rothbard, 2000). However, according to spillover theory, work-related activities and satisfaction also affect non-work performance, and vice versa. Recently, in line with the positive psychology movement (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), work-family interaction research has also included concepts of positive spillover (Bakker & Schaufeli, 2008; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). This emerging focus supplements the dominant conflict perspective by identifying new ways of cultivating human resource strength.

year: 2010

title: Reclaiming Kaitiakitanga : An intergenerational perspective of Kaitiakitanga within Te Parawhau

authors: Walker, Erana

subjects: Kaitiakitanga

abstract: Kaitiakitanga is a concept that is utilised widely throughout the Māori world for the protection and preservation of cultural aspects to Māori. Through years of application by westernised mainstream processes the value has largely been restricted to the realms of environmental protection. This restriction has often been the result of misinterpretation of Kaitiakitanga and its relevance as a concept to Māori. The purpose of the thesis is to question how the perspective of Kaitiakitanga is constructed in the minds of representatives from the hapū of Te Parawhau. To test for variance, the research spans across two generations of hapū members. Using Whakawhiti Kōrero for data collection as well as Kaupapa Māori methodology as guidance, the thesis explores perspectives of two generations of Te Parawhau descendants around Kaitiakitanga and how it can be developed to aid in the growth and prosperity of the hapū. Key themes highlighted by the analysis encompass ideas of connectedness as well as spiritual, physical, environmental and human elements of responsibility and obligation. The thesis introduces a distinct Te Parawhau analytical framework for its analysis of rich kōrero by hapū members in relation to Kaitiakitanga. Through this framework the value of Kaitiakitanga is tested for relevance to Te Parawhau and its future development. The world view of Te Parawhau has formed the basis of participant perspectives around Kaitiakitanga and leads the researcher to consider that such knowledge is important to the future functionality of Māori value’s. The thesis concludes to show that there are indeed differences in application and perspectives of Kaitiakitanga within the hapū of Te Parawhau.

text: Reclaiming Kaitiakitanga : An intergenerational perspective of Kaitiakitanga within Te Parawhau Kaitiakitanga is a concept that is utilised widely throughout the Māori world for the protection and preservation of cultural aspects to Māori. Through years of application by westernised mainstream processes the value has largely been restricted to the realms of environmental protection. This restriction has often been the result of misinterpretation of Kaitiakitanga and its relevance as a concept to Māori. The purpose of the thesis is to question how the perspective of Kaitiakitanga is constructed in the minds of representatives from the hapū of Te Parawhau. To test for variance, the research spans across two generations of hapū members. Using Whakawhiti Kōrero for data collection as well as Kaupapa Māori methodology as guidance, the thesis explores perspectives of two generations of Te Parawhau descendants around Kaitiakitanga and how it can be developed to aid in the growth and prosperity of the hapū. Key themes highlighted by the analysis encompass ideas of connectedness as well as spiritual, physical, environmental and human elements of responsibility and obligation. The thesis introduces a distinct Te Parawhau analytical framework for its analysis of rich kōrero by hapū members in relation to Kaitiakitanga. Through this framework the value of Kaitiakitanga is tested for relevance to Te Parawhau and its future development. The world view of Te Parawhau has formed the basis of participant perspectives around Kaitiakitanga and leads the researcher to consider that such knowledge is important to the future functionality of Māori value’s. The thesis concludes to show that there are indeed differences in application and perspectives of Kaitiakitanga within the hapū of Te Parawhau.

year: 2016