title: The influence of sociocultural and interpersonal factors on body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in female adolescents

authors: McClintock, Joanna Marie

abstract: Body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in adolescent females are areas of particular concern for mental health professionals, teachers, and parents. Many theories have been developed to explain body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting, in which sociocultural pressure and interpersonal influences are prominent. However, there is still no clear understanding of how these influences interrelate or how they impact upon body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting. In addition, very little research has been conducted in New Zealand examining the role of such pressures, or investigating body image or dieting. 
This thesis explores the role of social evaluation, incorporating both sociocultural and interpersonal variables, in the development of body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in New Zealand adolescent females. The research programme incorporated three studies, firstly focus group discussions, followed by a survey study, and finally an experimental paradigm. 
Focus group discussions were conducted with female teenagers to explore their conceptualisations of dieting, and to identify areas of social evaluation that were of particular import to New Zealand teenagers. Need for approval, appraisal sensitivity, media influence, appearance evaluation, and peer comparison emerged as dominant themes in the teenagers discussions. 
The second study extended the focus group data through a survey with 190 female high school students about the social evaluation themes identified in the focus group discussions as well as body image disturbance, unhealthy dieting, and low mood. Structural equation modelling was utilised to test a model of interrelationships between these variables. The survey study established that there were indirect and direct relationships between the variables of social evaluation, body image disturbance, unhealthy dieting, and low mood. Specifically appearance-related feedback and appearance-related comparison emerged as having pivotal roles in the model of interrelationships. 
The final stage of the research programme further extended the findings of the focus group discussions and the survey study by using an experimental paradigm. A pilot study was conducted with 33 high school students to ensure that the methodology of a mood induction procedure intended to reflect negative appearance-related feedback and negative appearance-related comparison was powerful enough to elicit changes in body image and negative affect. For the final study, a further 33 female high school students participated in the imaginal mood induction procedure and completed questionnaires assessing appraisal sensitivity and sociocultural ideals. Repeated measures analyses demonstrated that participants' body image disturbance increased after exposure to the imagined social situations. Negative affect also increased after the imaginal mood induction procedure. Peer feedback had a stronger influence on levels of anger, happiness, and inferiority/'stinkness'. Unexpectedly, dispositional levels of appraisal sensitivity and internalisation of the thin-ideal did not moderate the effects of the mood induction procedure on participants ratings of body image disturbance. 
This research programme demonstrated that social evaluation has an important and influential role in the development of body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in female adolescents. This thesis highlights the importance of considering how the interrelationships between sociocultural and interpersonal variables affect body image disturbance. The research programme also provides many opportunities for future research and clinical investigations in the areas of models of interrelationships, body image disturbance, and unhealthy dieting.

text: The influence of sociocultural and interpersonal factors on body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in female adolescents Body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in adolescent females are areas of particular concern for mental health professionals, teachers, and parents. Many theories have been developed to explain body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting, in which sociocultural pressure and interpersonal influences are prominent. However, there is still no clear understanding of how these influences interrelate or how they impact upon body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting. In addition, very little research has been conducted in New Zealand examining the role of such pressures, or investigating body image or dieting. 
This thesis explores the role of social evaluation, incorporating both sociocultural and interpersonal variables, in the development of body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in New Zealand adolescent females. The research programme incorporated three studies, firstly focus group discussions, followed by a survey study, and finally an experimental paradigm. 
Focus group discussions were conducted with female teenagers to explore their conceptualisations of dieting, and to identify areas of social evaluation that were of particular import to New Zealand teenagers. Need for approval, appraisal sensitivity, media influence, appearance evaluation, and peer comparison emerged as dominant themes in the teenagers discussions. 
The second study extended the focus group data through a survey with 190 female high school students about the social evaluation themes identified in the focus group discussions as well as body image disturbance, unhealthy dieting, and low mood. Structural equation modelling was utilised to test a model of interrelationships between these variables. The survey study established that there were indirect and direct relationships between the variables of social evaluation, body image disturbance, unhealthy dieting, and low mood. Specifically appearance-related feedback and appearance-related comparison emerged as having pivotal roles in the model of interrelationships. 
The final stage of the research programme further extended the findings of the focus group discussions and the survey study by using an experimental paradigm. A pilot study was conducted with 33 high school students to ensure that the methodology of a mood induction procedure intended to reflect negative appearance-related feedback and negative appearance-related comparison was powerful enough to elicit changes in body image and negative affect. For the final study, a further 33 female high school students participated in the imaginal mood induction procedure and completed questionnaires assessing appraisal sensitivity and sociocultural ideals. Repeated measures analyses demonstrated that participants' body image disturbance increased after exposure to the imagined social situations. Negative affect also increased after the imaginal mood induction procedure. Peer feedback had a stronger influence on levels of anger, happiness, and inferiority/'stinkness'. Unexpectedly, dispositional levels of appraisal sensitivity and internalisation of the thin-ideal did not moderate the effects of the mood induction procedure on participants ratings of body image disturbance. 
This research programme demonstrated that social evaluation has an important and influential role in the development of body image disturbance and unhealthy dieting in female adolescents. This thesis highlights the importance of considering how the interrelationships between sociocultural and interpersonal variables affect body image disturbance. The research programme also provides many opportunities for future research and clinical investigations in the areas of models of interrelationships, body image disturbance, and unhealthy dieting.

year: 2003

title: Work attitudes and well-being among virtual workers

authors: Witzel, Marisa

subjects: virtual work

abstract: The present study examined how certain characteristics of flexible work, the home environment, and the individual impact the outcomes of work-family conflict, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and psychological strain.  
	A questionnaire measuring perceptions of control, flexibility, job involvement, family involvement, work to family and family to work conflict, organisational commitment, job satisfaction, family support, physical boundaries, workplace isolation, psychological strain, personality, and demographic information was created and posted online.  An email was circulated to 390 virtual sales employees from one large organisation in the United States inviting them to participate in the study, and 278 people responded.  
Results identified characteristics of the type of work, work enivronment, and the individual that are predictive of individual and organisational outcomes. Findings supported hypotheses that control, flexibility, and family support positively impact the outcomes of conflict, satisfaction, and strain for virtual workers.  Job involvement was found as predicted to positively impact work to family conflict, and family involvement was positively related to family to work conflict.  Contrary to predictions, a negative relationship was found between job involvement and strain, suggesting that those who identify more highly with their job also 
experience less strain. Consistent with earlier studies, workplace isolation was associated with reduced job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Marshall, Michaels, and Mulki, 2007). In line with boundary theory (Voydanoff, 2005), it was hypothesised that the presence of physical boundaries between work and non work domains would significantly impact measures of conflict and strain for virtual workers. However, results indicated no significant effects.
A comparison of perceptions of work-family conflict between individuals with children at home and those without illustrated no significant differences between employees with children at home and those without.  Speculated explanations for inconsistent findings are addressed in the discussion chapter.
	Work to family conflict was predicted to mediate the relationship between flexibility and job satisfaction for virtual workers, and analysis supported the presence of partial mediation.  Family to work conflict was also predicted to mediate the flexibility and job satisfaction relationship, however, results were not significant in this case.  Uses of workspace (i.e. for work, leisure, family activities, etc.) were tested as mediator for the relationship between family to work conflict and job satisfaction, and results did not support a mediation effect.  
	In sum, findings of this study identify sources of both positive and negative outcomes for people working from home.  Although individuals' experiences working virtually differ greatly, this study identifies common  
challenges and issues they face.  By pinpointing the sources of conflict, satisfaction, commitment, and strain in the home office, organisations and individuals can take steps to protect workers against negative outcomes, and maximise positive outcomes.  Implications and limitations of this study are discussed in the final chapter.

text: Work attitudes and well-being among virtual workers The present study examined how certain characteristics of flexible work, the home environment, and the individual impact the outcomes of work-family conflict, job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and psychological strain.  
	A questionnaire measuring perceptions of control, flexibility, job involvement, family involvement, work to family and family to work conflict, organisational commitment, job satisfaction, family support, physical boundaries, workplace isolation, psychological strain, personality, and demographic information was created and posted online.  An email was circulated to 390 virtual sales employees from one large organisation in the United States inviting them to participate in the study, and 278 people responded.  
Results identified characteristics of the type of work, work enivronment, and the individual that are predictive of individual and organisational outcomes. Findings supported hypotheses that control, flexibility, and family support positively impact the outcomes of conflict, satisfaction, and strain for virtual workers.  Job involvement was found as predicted to positively impact work to family conflict, and family involvement was positively related to family to work conflict.  Contrary to predictions, a negative relationship was found between job involvement and strain, suggesting that those who identify more highly with their job also 
experience less strain. Consistent with earlier studies, workplace isolation was associated with reduced job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Marshall, Michaels, and Mulki, 2007). In line with boundary theory (Voydanoff, 2005), it was hypothesised that the presence of physical boundaries between work and non work domains would significantly impact measures of conflict and strain for virtual workers. However, results indicated no significant effects.
A comparison of perceptions of work-family conflict between individuals with children at home and those without illustrated no significant differences between employees with children at home and those without.  Speculated explanations for inconsistent findings are addressed in the discussion chapter.
	Work to family conflict was predicted to mediate the relationship between flexibility and job satisfaction for virtual workers, and analysis supported the presence of partial mediation.  Family to work conflict was also predicted to mediate the flexibility and job satisfaction relationship, however, results were not significant in this case.  Uses of workspace (i.e. for work, leisure, family activities, etc.) were tested as mediator for the relationship between family to work conflict and job satisfaction, and results did not support a mediation effect.  
	In sum, findings of this study identify sources of both positive and negative outcomes for people working from home.  Although individuals' experiences working virtually differ greatly, this study identifies common  
challenges and issues they face.  By pinpointing the sources of conflict, satisfaction, commitment, and strain in the home office, organisations and individuals can take steps to protect workers against negative outcomes, and maximise positive outcomes.  Implications and limitations of this study are discussed in the final chapter.

year: 2008

title: Racism and bullying as correlates for considering ending psychology training in Aotearoa New Zealand

authors: Tan, Kyle K. H.

abstract: Despite global calls to enhance culturally safe care for Indigenous and minoritised groups, little attention has been given to exploring students’ experiences in psychology training programmes to meet these needs. A series of chi-square tests was performed to examine group differences for participants in the Kia Whakapapa Pounaumu survey (n = 107) in their consideration of ending their training and their decision to seek professional help. Over half (55%) of students reported having considered ending their psychology training. Our findings show that students who have experienced or witnessed forms of injustice such as institutional racism, microaggressions, and bullying, encounter additional barriers in completing their training. If psychology bodies wish to redress the harm caused to Indigenous and minoritised groups in the discipline of psychology, they must ensure the training programmes themselves do not perpetuate harm.

text: Racism and bullying as correlates for considering ending psychology training in Aotearoa New Zealand Despite global calls to enhance culturally safe care for Indigenous and minoritised groups, little attention has been given to exploring students’ experiences in psychology training programmes to meet these needs. A series of chi-square tests was performed to examine group differences for participants in the Kia Whakapapa Pounaumu survey (n = 107) in their consideration of ending their training and their decision to seek professional help. Over half (55%) of students reported having considered ending their psychology training. Our findings show that students who have experienced or witnessed forms of injustice such as institutional racism, microaggressions, and bullying, encounter additional barriers in completing their training. If psychology bodies wish to redress the harm caused to Indigenous and minoritised groups in the discipline of psychology, they must ensure the training programmes themselves do not perpetuate harm.

year: 2025