title: Online scaffolding in a fully online educational leadership course

authors: da Rosa Ferrarelli, Lisabeth

subjects: Online scaffolding

abstract: Online scaffolding encompasses a range of effective teaching strategies that help students to achieve their learning goals while at the same time exercising their autonomy. Although online scaffolding is crucial for student learning, not much is known about scaffolding in an online post-graduate course. In order to address this research gap, this study explored the intricacies of online scaffolding in a fully online educational leadership course. Through a mixed-method research design, a case study was developed weaving the perspectives and actions of lecturers and students in a fully online post-graduate educational leadership course. Two interviews with lecturers, two student online surveys and two online forum discussion logs, each one from the start and the end of the course, were analysed using content and statistical analyses. The theory of transactional distance provided a theoretical framework and the literature on scaffolding in distance education guided the analysis process. A third online space, the Question & Answer section, was archived and analysed in order to enrich insights that were emerging from the other data sources. Research outcomes revealed that lecturers’ understanding of online scaffolding focused on the design and use of resources, modelling, and the use of questioning in forum discussions in order to facilitate learner engagement with content. At the beginning of the course, lecturers provided a high level of procedural and social scaffolding followed by an on-going learner support (strategic scaffolding), which peaked before assignment deadlines. Students thought of online scaffolding as a coaching process in which lecturers monitor learners’ online engagement to provide encouragement, identify misconceptions, and provide direction and feedback when necessary. Furthermore, procedural and strategic scaffolding were reported by students as essential forms of learner support. In particular, students felt that formative and timely feedback was paramount to their online scaffolding and expected lecturers to offer procedural, social, and strategic scaffolding. Sharing of professional experiences and visual resources, a more informal tone of communication, and the use of students’ and lecturers’ names in online postings were evident throughout the course. In addition, peer scaffolding in online discussions was encouraged by the lecturer and practised by students through a range of strategies, including agreement with others’ ideas, acknowledgment of peers’ postings, and answering questions raised by peers. Some suggestions for enhancing online scaffolding in this course, and online teaching in general, include creating a course road map, describing the pace of the course, creating online participation and peer facilitation guidelines, and others.

text: Online scaffolding in a fully online educational leadership course Online scaffolding encompasses a range of effective teaching strategies that help students to achieve their learning goals while at the same time exercising their autonomy. Although online scaffolding is crucial for student learning, not much is known about scaffolding in an online post-graduate course. In order to address this research gap, this study explored the intricacies of online scaffolding in a fully online educational leadership course. Through a mixed-method research design, a case study was developed weaving the perspectives and actions of lecturers and students in a fully online post-graduate educational leadership course. Two interviews with lecturers, two student online surveys and two online forum discussion logs, each one from the start and the end of the course, were analysed using content and statistical analyses. The theory of transactional distance provided a theoretical framework and the literature on scaffolding in distance education guided the analysis process. A third online space, the Question & Answer section, was archived and analysed in order to enrich insights that were emerging from the other data sources. Research outcomes revealed that lecturers’ understanding of online scaffolding focused on the design and use of resources, modelling, and the use of questioning in forum discussions in order to facilitate learner engagement with content. At the beginning of the course, lecturers provided a high level of procedural and social scaffolding followed by an on-going learner support (strategic scaffolding), which peaked before assignment deadlines. Students thought of online scaffolding as a coaching process in which lecturers monitor learners’ online engagement to provide encouragement, identify misconceptions, and provide direction and feedback when necessary. Furthermore, procedural and strategic scaffolding were reported by students as essential forms of learner support. In particular, students felt that formative and timely feedback was paramount to their online scaffolding and expected lecturers to offer procedural, social, and strategic scaffolding. Sharing of professional experiences and visual resources, a more informal tone of communication, and the use of students’ and lecturers’ names in online postings were evident throughout the course. In addition, peer scaffolding in online discussions was encouraged by the lecturer and practised by students through a range of strategies, including agreement with others’ ideas, acknowledgment of peers’ postings, and answering questions raised by peers. Some suggestions for enhancing online scaffolding in this course, and online teaching in general, include creating a course road map, describing the pace of the course, creating online participation and peer facilitation guidelines, and others.

year: 2015

title: Operant Methodology Out Of The Lab and Applied To Enrichment With Captive Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes)

authors: Vivian, Melanie

subjects: operant methodology

abstract: A group of socially-housed chimpanzees, maintained in a zoo facility, were given the opportunity to access each of several purpose-designed and built enrichment items. Each item was made freely available in the chimpanzees' regular setting, with their normal activities available. The time members of the group spent engaging with each item gave an assessment of their relative preference for the items. The group were shown to have the greatest preference for a foraging enrichment item (Screwfeeder) and the least preference for an audiovisual enrichment item (TV/Video). Individual preferences for the items were evident. The chimpanzees were then taught to operate a weighted lever to get access to an item. Once all chimpanzees had operated the lever for access to the items, the number of lever operations required for access to each item was systematically doubled over a series of 3 hr sessions until the chimpanzees did not gain any access to that item for two consecutive sessions. One item was presented for two series of increases. The group response rates for an item increased with increased response requirement and then decreased with further increases, reflecting data from individuals in other research. The highest response requirement that maintained the group behaviour differed over the items. The number of times an item was accessed (consumption) was plotted against the response requirement (price) on logarithmic coordinates. Lines fitted to the data (demand functions) were shallowest for a foraging enrichment (Screwfeeder) and steepest for the audio enrichment (Musicbox). There were not enough data points to fit a function for the audiovisual enrichment. Differences in individual's demand within the group were evident. In general, the rank order of preference for the items and the rank order based on the parameters of the demand functions (slope or elasticity and initial intensity) was broadly the same. Three individual chimpanzees were exposed to two series of increasing response requirement for access to the Screwfeeder whilst housed alone, in one hour sessions. Response rates were again bitonic and the linear demand functions for these individuals were steeper (more elastic) than the functions fitted to data for group responding and differed idiosyncratically from the data for these individual when responding as part of the group. Thus the change of social setting had a different impact on the behaviour of each of the individuals. These results show that an animals‟ demand for a commodity is altered by the environment in which it is tested.
ii
Overall the research provides the first example of operant methodology in a zoo setting with a group of chimpanzees. It is also the first research to show differential responding for access to different enrichment items by a group and how this relates to their preference (based on time allocation) for those items.

text: Operant Methodology Out Of The Lab and Applied To Enrichment With Captive Chimpanzees (Pan Troglodytes) A group of socially-housed chimpanzees, maintained in a zoo facility, were given the opportunity to access each of several purpose-designed and built enrichment items. Each item was made freely available in the chimpanzees' regular setting, with their normal activities available. The time members of the group spent engaging with each item gave an assessment of their relative preference for the items. The group were shown to have the greatest preference for a foraging enrichment item (Screwfeeder) and the least preference for an audiovisual enrichment item (TV/Video). Individual preferences for the items were evident. The chimpanzees were then taught to operate a weighted lever to get access to an item. Once all chimpanzees had operated the lever for access to the items, the number of lever operations required for access to each item was systematically doubled over a series of 3 hr sessions until the chimpanzees did not gain any access to that item for two consecutive sessions. One item was presented for two series of increases. The group response rates for an item increased with increased response requirement and then decreased with further increases, reflecting data from individuals in other research. The highest response requirement that maintained the group behaviour differed over the items. The number of times an item was accessed (consumption) was plotted against the response requirement (price) on logarithmic coordinates. Lines fitted to the data (demand functions) were shallowest for a foraging enrichment (Screwfeeder) and steepest for the audio enrichment (Musicbox). There were not enough data points to fit a function for the audiovisual enrichment. Differences in individual's demand within the group were evident. In general, the rank order of preference for the items and the rank order based on the parameters of the demand functions (slope or elasticity and initial intensity) was broadly the same. Three individual chimpanzees were exposed to two series of increasing response requirement for access to the Screwfeeder whilst housed alone, in one hour sessions. Response rates were again bitonic and the linear demand functions for these individuals were steeper (more elastic) than the functions fitted to data for group responding and differed idiosyncratically from the data for these individual when responding as part of the group. Thus the change of social setting had a different impact on the behaviour of each of the individuals. These results show that an animals‟ demand for a commodity is altered by the environment in which it is tested.
ii
Overall the research provides the first example of operant methodology in a zoo setting with a group of chimpanzees. It is also the first research to show differential responding for access to different enrichment items by a group and how this relates to their preference (based on time allocation) for those items.

year: 2008

title: An Assessment of the Cognitive Ability and the Attitude to Rehabilitation of European and Maori Trainees at a Borstal Institution.

authors: Zimmerman, Malcolm Laird

subjects: Borstal Institution

abstract: The incidence of delinquency in New Zealand has risen and is a cause for serious concern for the future of the nation. "As in all fields of social inquiry it is much easier to specify the problem than it is to account for its occurrence ... In the case of delinquency, it is much easier to record what has occurred as opposed to why - it is even more difficult to prevent delinquency from occurring at all. Why should this be so?" (Blizard, 1967, p.i.)
There are no easy answers: there are no short cuts to understanding: there will never be an easily worked out, or easily administered programme for prevention. The road is hard, costly both in terms of men, money and time.

text: An Assessment of the Cognitive Ability and the Attitude to Rehabilitation of European and Maori Trainees at a Borstal Institution. The incidence of delinquency in New Zealand has risen and is a cause for serious concern for the future of the nation. "As in all fields of social inquiry it is much easier to specify the problem than it is to account for its occurrence ... In the case of delinquency, it is much easier to record what has occurred as opposed to why - it is even more difficult to prevent delinquency from occurring at all. Why should this be so?" (Blizard, 1967, p.i.)
There are no easy answers: there are no short cuts to understanding: there will never be an easily worked out, or easily administered programme for prevention. The road is hard, costly both in terms of men, money and time.

year: 1971