title: Evaluating environmental policies under uncertainty through application of robust nonlinear programming

authors: Doole, Graeme J.

subjects: nonpoint pollution

abstract: Environmental policy evaluation is characterised by a paucity of information. The novel technique of robust mathematical programming is introduced as a means to proactively account for this uncertainty in policy analysis. The procedure allows identification of expected bounds on the range of abatement costs associated with environmental policy. It also has the advantage of not limiting conclusions to realisations of specific point estimates or probability distributions. Empirical insights are provided in an application to a New Zealand inland lake threatened by nitrate pollution from dairy farming. Overall, this novel framework is demonstrated to have several key advantages, including explicit treatment of severe uncertainty, capacity to bound the range of expected abatement costs accruing to a given policy instrument, and the opportunity to identify robust plans that are immune to parametric variation.

text: Evaluating environmental policies under uncertainty through application of robust nonlinear programming Environmental policy evaluation is characterised by a paucity of information. The novel technique of robust mathematical programming is introduced as a means to proactively account for this uncertainty in policy analysis. The procedure allows identification of expected bounds on the range of abatement costs associated with environmental policy. It also has the advantage of not limiting conclusions to realisations of specific point estimates or probability distributions. Empirical insights are provided in an application to a New Zealand inland lake threatened by nitrate pollution from dairy farming. Overall, this novel framework is demonstrated to have several key advantages, including explicit treatment of severe uncertainty, capacity to bound the range of expected abatement costs accruing to a given policy instrument, and the opportunity to identify robust plans that are immune to parametric variation.

year: 2011

title: The vulnerability to Online Scamming  in contemporary Tongan Society = Ko e laveangofua ‘i he Ngaue Kākā ‘o e Naluope ‘i he Sosaieti Tonga lolotonga

authors: Laulaupea'alu, Siuta

subjects: Cybersecurity

abstract: This research explores the cybersecurity vulnerabilities of Tongan people to the rapid growth of Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT). A research conducted by Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan in 2016 revealed that Tongan people were vulnerable to the influence of rapid ICT development (Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan, 2016). The cybersecurity vulnerabilities that were identified among the Tongan people in 2016 assisted in informing this research, which is to investigate the current susceptibilities in contemporary Tongan society. The aim of this research is to investigate the reasons why Tongans are vulnerable to ICT development specifically Online Scamming (OS) and find possible solutions to mitigate these susceptibilities. This research is the first to explore and narrow the scope to focus specifically on OS in Tonga. This research also focuses on the technical features of cybersecurity and then extends it to cover the cultural practices that would make Tongan people more susceptible to online scamming. 

Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan (2019) directly conveyed these cybersecurity susceptibilities to the Government of Tonga (GoT) in 2018. This report confirmed that the actual position of cybersecurity in Tonga was that at least 73 percent of the organisations were vulnerable to cybercrime and cyberattacks. These organisations were victims of malicious software, spam, unauthorized access, social engineering, ransomware, data theft/data loss, stolen account, and other types of cybercrimes. This report also provided eleven (11) recommendations and suggested to the GoT to deploy these cybersecurity prevention and awareness features to assist in slowing down the issues of cyberattacks in Tonga. 

One of the modern ICT accomplishments in Tonga was the installation of fibre-optic cable in 2013. Again, Laulaupea'alu and Keegan (2018) warned Tongans about the issue of succeeding in the fast internet speed of fibre-optic cable. The “high speed internet brings opportunities such as jobs and business but it also brings malicious cyber actors who can target victims in the nation” (p. 255).  Drawn by the awareness of ICT issues that may arise and could lead to a stage where is unable to control, this research is undertaken to identify the root cause of these vulnerabilities, further looking for cybersecurity issues that are currently incurred and discovering appropriate defensive tools to counter these vulnerabilities. 

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted and became a major obstacle to this research. Due to border restrictions, there was no opportunity to travel to Tonga for data collection. To solve these issues, e-fanongonongo tokoto (e-ft) methodology was adopted to challenge the worldwide issues of COVID-19. The implementation of e-ft enabled effective communication from Hamilton to the survey participants in Tonga. E-mail, Facebook, Messenger, and Zoom are the communication methods deployed by e-ft to communicate and collect data from one hundred and thirty-nine (139) participants ranging from 16 to 70 years of age. Participants were selected from government ministries, organisations, boards, businesses and ICT grassroots computer users from all five main regions of Tonga (Tongatapu, Vava‘u, Ha‘apai, ‘Eua and Ongo Niua). Although the e-ft process encountered many obstacles in collecting data from the survey participants, it was able to generate responses and data that have been analysed in this research. 

The findings of this research reveal that Tonga is vulnerable to ICT development, and Tongan people are victims of cyberattacks due to the impact of rapid ICT development. These vulnerabilities relate to cybersecurity technical weaknesses, human behaviours, culture, and the personal beliefs of Tongans. This research also indicated that the people’s vulnerabilities were caused by five main elements: greed, romance/love/empathy, lack of cybersecurity training, lack of ICT knowledge, and unwillingness to report to authorities. These vulnerabilities have resulted in the loss of credential information and the loss of money to cybercriminals from the people of Tonga.
Participants who took part in this research suggested powerful and long-term strategic plans to empower the prevention and awareness of Tongan people toward the impact of rapid ICT development.

text: The vulnerability to Online Scamming  in contemporary Tongan Society = Ko e laveangofua ‘i he Ngaue Kākā ‘o e Naluope ‘i he Sosaieti Tonga lolotonga This research explores the cybersecurity vulnerabilities of Tongan people to the rapid growth of Information, Communication, and Technology (ICT). A research conducted by Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan in 2016 revealed that Tongan people were vulnerable to the influence of rapid ICT development (Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan, 2016). The cybersecurity vulnerabilities that were identified among the Tongan people in 2016 assisted in informing this research, which is to investigate the current susceptibilities in contemporary Tongan society. The aim of this research is to investigate the reasons why Tongans are vulnerable to ICT development specifically Online Scamming (OS) and find possible solutions to mitigate these susceptibilities. This research is the first to explore and narrow the scope to focus specifically on OS in Tonga. This research also focuses on the technical features of cybersecurity and then extends it to cover the cultural practices that would make Tongan people more susceptible to online scamming. 

Laulaupea‘alu and Keegan (2019) directly conveyed these cybersecurity susceptibilities to the Government of Tonga (GoT) in 2018. This report confirmed that the actual position of cybersecurity in Tonga was that at least 73 percent of the organisations were vulnerable to cybercrime and cyberattacks. These organisations were victims of malicious software, spam, unauthorized access, social engineering, ransomware, data theft/data loss, stolen account, and other types of cybercrimes. This report also provided eleven (11) recommendations and suggested to the GoT to deploy these cybersecurity prevention and awareness features to assist in slowing down the issues of cyberattacks in Tonga. 

One of the modern ICT accomplishments in Tonga was the installation of fibre-optic cable in 2013. Again, Laulaupea'alu and Keegan (2018) warned Tongans about the issue of succeeding in the fast internet speed of fibre-optic cable. The “high speed internet brings opportunities such as jobs and business but it also brings malicious cyber actors who can target victims in the nation” (p. 255).  Drawn by the awareness of ICT issues that may arise and could lead to a stage where is unable to control, this research is undertaken to identify the root cause of these vulnerabilities, further looking for cybersecurity issues that are currently incurred and discovering appropriate defensive tools to counter these vulnerabilities. 

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted and became a major obstacle to this research. Due to border restrictions, there was no opportunity to travel to Tonga for data collection. To solve these issues, e-fanongonongo tokoto (e-ft) methodology was adopted to challenge the worldwide issues of COVID-19. The implementation of e-ft enabled effective communication from Hamilton to the survey participants in Tonga. E-mail, Facebook, Messenger, and Zoom are the communication methods deployed by e-ft to communicate and collect data from one hundred and thirty-nine (139) participants ranging from 16 to 70 years of age. Participants were selected from government ministries, organisations, boards, businesses and ICT grassroots computer users from all five main regions of Tonga (Tongatapu, Vava‘u, Ha‘apai, ‘Eua and Ongo Niua). Although the e-ft process encountered many obstacles in collecting data from the survey participants, it was able to generate responses and data that have been analysed in this research. 

The findings of this research reveal that Tonga is vulnerable to ICT development, and Tongan people are victims of cyberattacks due to the impact of rapid ICT development. These vulnerabilities relate to cybersecurity technical weaknesses, human behaviours, culture, and the personal beliefs of Tongans. This research also indicated that the people’s vulnerabilities were caused by five main elements: greed, romance/love/empathy, lack of cybersecurity training, lack of ICT knowledge, and unwillingness to report to authorities. These vulnerabilities have resulted in the loss of credential information and the loss of money to cybercriminals from the people of Tonga.
Participants who took part in this research suggested powerful and long-term strategic plans to empower the prevention and awareness of Tongan people toward the impact of rapid ICT development.

year: 2022

title: Te manemanerau a te kāwanatanga: A history of the confiscation of Tūhoe lands in the Bay of Plenty

authors: Melbourne, Sydney

subjects: Ngāi Tūhoe

abstract: This thesis endeavours to show that Tūhoe lands should never have been confiscated and that Tūhoe efforts to gain compensation have been totally unsuccessful to date. When certain lands within the confiscated district of the Bay of Plenty were returned to the tribes there, Tūhoe were not granted any. Furthermore, lands which actually belonged to Tūhoe were granted to other tribes.
Although the major focus is on issues specific to Tūhoe, these are viewed within the wider context of nineteenth century land acquisition in New Zealand. This study looks at Tūhoe historical claims to disputed lands included in the confiscation district of the Bay of Plenty. Chapter One traces the extent of Tūhoe territories within the confiscation district and describes how Tūhoe came to occupy them and the duration of their occupation. Information about these claims came from tribal oral sources and original manuscripts, as well as from more generally accessible sources.
The development of colonial expansion patterns is discussed in Chapter Two. The contention is that they were based on materialistic considerations and legal pretexts to justify the acquisition of Māori lands. Hostilities between Māori and Government in the Bay of Plenty are dealt with in Chapter Three. Particular attention is paid to the causes of the hostilities and the complex racial and political misunderstandings which contributed to the inevitability of war. As a result of these encounters, the New Zealand Settlements Act was imposed.
Chapter Four covers the implementation of its provisions through the Compensation Court. The failings of this Court and its commissioners and field officials are exposed.
Chapter Five examines the settlement of Tūhoe lands in Ōpouriao and Waimana, as well as the changing fortunes of some of the settlers who took advantage of the settlement scheme. After placing the experiences of Tūhoe people within the wider context of what had taken place in New Zealand, Chapter Six focuses on Tūhoe attempts to bring the wrongs they had suffered to the attention of Government. In retrospect these early Tūhoe attempts at redress show that much has to be learnt about presenting substantial submissions. It was obvious that much of what was known by the elders then, though recorded, was never used in evidence to support their petitions. Nonetheless, without the existence of these manuscripts, present attempts would not be possible.
Chapter Seven gives a basis for a proposed just settlement for the confiscation of Tūhoe lands. In order to provide a guide for monetary compensation, details of values of Tūhoe confiscated land have been sought from official records. Compensation for the denial of justice, the loss of human life, land and property, remain open for negotiation.
Finally, while certain conclusions can be and are drawn from these investigations, the end of the story remains unwritten. It will depend on the outcome of new Tūhoe attempts to gain redress from the appropriate statutory body.

text: Te manemanerau a te kāwanatanga: A history of the confiscation of Tūhoe lands in the Bay of Plenty This thesis endeavours to show that Tūhoe lands should never have been confiscated and that Tūhoe efforts to gain compensation have been totally unsuccessful to date. When certain lands within the confiscated district of the Bay of Plenty were returned to the tribes there, Tūhoe were not granted any. Furthermore, lands which actually belonged to Tūhoe were granted to other tribes.
Although the major focus is on issues specific to Tūhoe, these are viewed within the wider context of nineteenth century land acquisition in New Zealand. This study looks at Tūhoe historical claims to disputed lands included in the confiscation district of the Bay of Plenty. Chapter One traces the extent of Tūhoe territories within the confiscation district and describes how Tūhoe came to occupy them and the duration of their occupation. Information about these claims came from tribal oral sources and original manuscripts, as well as from more generally accessible sources.
The development of colonial expansion patterns is discussed in Chapter Two. The contention is that they were based on materialistic considerations and legal pretexts to justify the acquisition of Māori lands. Hostilities between Māori and Government in the Bay of Plenty are dealt with in Chapter Three. Particular attention is paid to the causes of the hostilities and the complex racial and political misunderstandings which contributed to the inevitability of war. As a result of these encounters, the New Zealand Settlements Act was imposed.
Chapter Four covers the implementation of its provisions through the Compensation Court. The failings of this Court and its commissioners and field officials are exposed.
Chapter Five examines the settlement of Tūhoe lands in Ōpouriao and Waimana, as well as the changing fortunes of some of the settlers who took advantage of the settlement scheme. After placing the experiences of Tūhoe people within the wider context of what had taken place in New Zealand, Chapter Six focuses on Tūhoe attempts to bring the wrongs they had suffered to the attention of Government. In retrospect these early Tūhoe attempts at redress show that much has to be learnt about presenting substantial submissions. It was obvious that much of what was known by the elders then, though recorded, was never used in evidence to support their petitions. Nonetheless, without the existence of these manuscripts, present attempts would not be possible.
Chapter Seven gives a basis for a proposed just settlement for the confiscation of Tūhoe lands. In order to provide a guide for monetary compensation, details of values of Tūhoe confiscated land have been sought from official records. Compensation for the denial of justice, the loss of human life, land and property, remain open for negotiation.
Finally, while certain conclusions can be and are drawn from these investigations, the end of the story remains unwritten. It will depend on the outcome of new Tūhoe attempts to gain redress from the appropriate statutory body.

year: 1987