title: The characterisation of the cationic antibacterial compounds from some mammalian tissues and secretions

authors: Shackell, Phillip John

abstract: Non-specific antimicrobial substances occur in mammalian tissues and secretions which are involved in the protection of the host against invading microorganisms. Among them are well researched proteins like lactoferrin and lysozyme, and systems like the myeloperoxidase- and lactoperoxidase-mediated system, and the two complement systems. Also, a number of mammalian cationic proteins have been found to have antibacterial properties. Conflicting data exist on their identity, as most of them have not been purified to homogeniety. 
This investigation was designed to find out if any of the cationic heterogeneous antibacterial proteins extracted from mammalian tissues and fluids by various workers owe their activity to the polyamine spermine which was found in bovine rumen by Briggs (1982). 
Previously Eschenbruch (1980) had isolated a low molecular weight antibacterial compound from bovine thymus, spleen and seminal plasma as well as sheep thymus and found them to behave similarly on cationic electrophoresis to the low molecular weight compound from bovine rumen. This was later identified as spermine (Briggs, 1982). Spermine was found to be associated with a substance which was responsible for absorbance at 210 nm. 
Initially beta-lysin from bovine serum was investigated for the presence of spermine. Beta-lysin was found not to contain spermine so further purification of the antibacterial substance was undertaken. A homogeneous cationic protein was isolated which had an estimated molecular weight of 6 100. 
Also, an investigation into the antibacterial seminalplasmin preparation found that no spermine was associated with this protein. However, further purification of seminalplasmin resulted in the finding that it had a lower molecular weight than that published (7 500 rather than 10 600). A lysozyme-like substance similar to that isolated by Eschenbruch (1980) was found closely associated with the seminalplasmin during the purification procedure. 
The antimicrobial milk cell cationic proteins were also investigated. Although spermine was not found associated with the milk cell proteins, further isolation and purification of the active components was carried out. The milk cell proteins exist in a highly aggregated state and normal chromatographic techniques and eluents proved unsuccessful in isolating the active compounds. However EDTA was found to be a useful disaggregating agent. Two antibacterial proteins were isolated and were found to have molecular weights of 11 000 and 18 000-20 000. The higher molecular weight protein had an isoelectric point greater than pH 9.5 and was able to lyse pregrown Micrococcus lysodeikticus cells. The lower molecular weight protein gave an anomalous results on isoelectric focusing and displayed no lytic activity. There did not appear to be any interaction between the two proteins as far as enhancing or inhibiting their overall antibacterial activities. 
An investigation into a bactericidal sheep thymus preparation resulted in the isolation of spermine and spermidine. This had been previously isolated by Eschenbruch (1980) and found to be electrophoretically similar to the bovine rumen antibacterial peptide. Further investigation of the antibacterial peptide found associated with lysozyme (which was also found to be electrophoretically similar to the bovine rumen antibacterial peptide) did not contain spermine. Isolation of the active factors using a variety of dissociating agents was not successful as the active compounds were highly aggregated. There appeared to be several antibacterial compounds present with molecular weights estimated to be below 15 000. 
The significance of the isolated cationic proteins are considered with regard to the non-specific defence against infections. Also the role of spermine and spermidine as a non-specific antibacterial agents is discussed along with the possibility that the cationic substances are artifacts produced through proteolysis of larger peptides or proteins as a result of the methods of extraction.

text: The characterisation of the cationic antibacterial compounds from some mammalian tissues and secretions Non-specific antimicrobial substances occur in mammalian tissues and secretions which are involved in the protection of the host against invading microorganisms. Among them are well researched proteins like lactoferrin and lysozyme, and systems like the myeloperoxidase- and lactoperoxidase-mediated system, and the two complement systems. Also, a number of mammalian cationic proteins have been found to have antibacterial properties. Conflicting data exist on their identity, as most of them have not been purified to homogeniety. 
This investigation was designed to find out if any of the cationic heterogeneous antibacterial proteins extracted from mammalian tissues and fluids by various workers owe their activity to the polyamine spermine which was found in bovine rumen by Briggs (1982). 
Previously Eschenbruch (1980) had isolated a low molecular weight antibacterial compound from bovine thymus, spleen and seminal plasma as well as sheep thymus and found them to behave similarly on cationic electrophoresis to the low molecular weight compound from bovine rumen. This was later identified as spermine (Briggs, 1982). Spermine was found to be associated with a substance which was responsible for absorbance at 210 nm. 
Initially beta-lysin from bovine serum was investigated for the presence of spermine. Beta-lysin was found not to contain spermine so further purification of the antibacterial substance was undertaken. A homogeneous cationic protein was isolated which had an estimated molecular weight of 6 100. 
Also, an investigation into the antibacterial seminalplasmin preparation found that no spermine was associated with this protein. However, further purification of seminalplasmin resulted in the finding that it had a lower molecular weight than that published (7 500 rather than 10 600). A lysozyme-like substance similar to that isolated by Eschenbruch (1980) was found closely associated with the seminalplasmin during the purification procedure. 
The antimicrobial milk cell cationic proteins were also investigated. Although spermine was not found associated with the milk cell proteins, further isolation and purification of the active components was carried out. The milk cell proteins exist in a highly aggregated state and normal chromatographic techniques and eluents proved unsuccessful in isolating the active compounds. However EDTA was found to be a useful disaggregating agent. Two antibacterial proteins were isolated and were found to have molecular weights of 11 000 and 18 000-20 000. The higher molecular weight protein had an isoelectric point greater than pH 9.5 and was able to lyse pregrown Micrococcus lysodeikticus cells. The lower molecular weight protein gave an anomalous results on isoelectric focusing and displayed no lytic activity. There did not appear to be any interaction between the two proteins as far as enhancing or inhibiting their overall antibacterial activities. 
An investigation into a bactericidal sheep thymus preparation resulted in the isolation of spermine and spermidine. This had been previously isolated by Eschenbruch (1980) and found to be electrophoretically similar to the bovine rumen antibacterial peptide. Further investigation of the antibacterial peptide found associated with lysozyme (which was also found to be electrophoretically similar to the bovine rumen antibacterial peptide) did not contain spermine. Isolation of the active factors using a variety of dissociating agents was not successful as the active compounds were highly aggregated. There appeared to be several antibacterial compounds present with molecular weights estimated to be below 15 000. 
The significance of the isolated cationic proteins are considered with regard to the non-specific defence against infections. Also the role of spermine and spermidine as a non-specific antibacterial agents is discussed along with the possibility that the cationic substances are artifacts produced through proteolysis of larger peptides or proteins as a result of the methods of extraction.

year: 1984

title: The changing geography of world trade: Projections to 2030

authors: Anderson, Kym

subjects: global economy-wide model projections

abstract: Rapid economic growth in Asia (and some other emerging economies) has been shifting the global economic and industrial centres of gravity away from the north Atlantic, raising the importance of Asia in world trade, and boosting South–South trade. This paper examines how trade patterns are likely to change in the course of continuing economic growth and structural changes in Asia and the rest of the world over the next two decades. It does so by projecting a core baseline for the world economy from 2004 to 2030 and comparing it with alternative scenarios, including slower economic growth rates in the ‘North’, slower productivity growth in primary sectors, and prospective trade policy reforms in Developing Asia, without and with policy reforms also in the ‘North’ and in South–South trade. Projected impacts on international trade patterns, sectoral shares of GDP, ‘openness’ to trade, and potential welfare gains from reforms are highlighted, in addition to effects on bilateral trade patterns as summarized by intra- and extra-regional trade intensity and propensity indexes. The paper concludes with implications for regional and multilateral trade policy.

text: The changing geography of world trade: Projections to 2030 Rapid economic growth in Asia (and some other emerging economies) has been shifting the global economic and industrial centres of gravity away from the north Atlantic, raising the importance of Asia in world trade, and boosting South–South trade. This paper examines how trade patterns are likely to change in the course of continuing economic growth and structural changes in Asia and the rest of the world over the next two decades. It does so by projecting a core baseline for the world economy from 2004 to 2030 and comparing it with alternative scenarios, including slower economic growth rates in the ‘North’, slower productivity growth in primary sectors, and prospective trade policy reforms in Developing Asia, without and with policy reforms also in the ‘North’ and in South–South trade. Projected impacts on international trade patterns, sectoral shares of GDP, ‘openness’ to trade, and potential welfare gains from reforms are highlighted, in addition to effects on bilateral trade patterns as summarized by intra- and extra-regional trade intensity and propensity indexes. The paper concludes with implications for regional and multilateral trade policy.

year: 2012-08

title: Kaumtua Mana Motuhake: A study protocol for a peer education intervention to help Māori elders work through later-stage life transitions

authors: Oetzel, John G.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Background
The Aotearoa/New Zealand population is ageing and numerous studies demonstrate with this phenomenon comes increases in non-communicable diseases, injuries and healthcare costs among other issues. Further, significant inequities exist between Māori (Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand) and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Most research addressing these issues is deficit oriented; however, the current research project takes a strengths-based approach that highlights the potential of kaumātua (elders) by asserting mana motuhake (autonomy, identity and self-actualisation). We believe that the esteem of elders in Māori culture signals transformative potential. Specifically, this project utilises a ‘tuakana-teina’ (older sibling/younger sibling) peer-educator model, where kaumātua work with other kaumātua in relation to health and wellbeing. The objectives of the project are (a) to develop the capacity of kaumātua as peer educators, whilst having positive impacts on their sense of purpose, health and wellbeing; and (b) to enhance the social and health outcomes for kaumātua receiving the intervention.

Methods
The research is grounded in principles of Kaupapa Māori and community-based participatory research, and brings together an Indigenous community of kaumātua, community health researchers, and academic researchers working with two advisory boards. The project intervention involves an orientation programme for tuakana peer educators for other kaumātua (teina). The research design is a pre- and post-test, clustered staggered design. All participants will complete a baseline assessment of health and wellbeing consistent with Māori worldviews (i.e., holistic model). The tuakana and teina participants will be divided into two groups with the first group completing the intervention during the first half of the project and the second group during the second half of the project. All participants will complete post-test assessments following both interventions allowing comparison of the two groups along with repeated measures over time.

Discussion
The findings will provide an evidence base for the importance and relevancy of kaumātua knowledge to create contextually based and culturally safe age-friendly environments that facilitate engagement and participation by kaumātua for kaumātua. If the model is effective, we will seek to facilitate the dissemination and scalability of the intervention.

Trial registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry (ACTRN12617001396314); Date Registered: 3 October 2017 (retrospectively registered).

text: Kaumtua Mana Motuhake: A study protocol for a peer education intervention to help Māori elders work through later-stage life transitions Background
The Aotearoa/New Zealand population is ageing and numerous studies demonstrate with this phenomenon comes increases in non-communicable diseases, injuries and healthcare costs among other issues. Further, significant inequities exist between Māori (Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand) and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Most research addressing these issues is deficit oriented; however, the current research project takes a strengths-based approach that highlights the potential of kaumātua (elders) by asserting mana motuhake (autonomy, identity and self-actualisation). We believe that the esteem of elders in Māori culture signals transformative potential. Specifically, this project utilises a ‘tuakana-teina’ (older sibling/younger sibling) peer-educator model, where kaumātua work with other kaumātua in relation to health and wellbeing. The objectives of the project are (a) to develop the capacity of kaumātua as peer educators, whilst having positive impacts on their sense of purpose, health and wellbeing; and (b) to enhance the social and health outcomes for kaumātua receiving the intervention.

Methods
The research is grounded in principles of Kaupapa Māori and community-based participatory research, and brings together an Indigenous community of kaumātua, community health researchers, and academic researchers working with two advisory boards. The project intervention involves an orientation programme for tuakana peer educators for other kaumātua (teina). The research design is a pre- and post-test, clustered staggered design. All participants will complete a baseline assessment of health and wellbeing consistent with Māori worldviews (i.e., holistic model). The tuakana and teina participants will be divided into two groups with the first group completing the intervention during the first half of the project and the second group during the second half of the project. All participants will complete post-test assessments following both interventions allowing comparison of the two groups along with repeated measures over time.

Discussion
The findings will provide an evidence base for the importance and relevancy of kaumātua knowledge to create contextually based and culturally safe age-friendly environments that facilitate engagement and participation by kaumātua for kaumātua. If the model is effective, we will seek to facilitate the dissemination and scalability of the intervention.

Trial registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry (ACTRN12617001396314); Date Registered: 3 October 2017 (retrospectively registered).

year: 2019