title: The teaching and learning of English at secondary school level in South Korea: The curriculum and its implementation

authors: Oh, Kyoungja

subjects: English language teaching in South Korea

abstract: This thesis explores the professional attitudes and practices of a sample of teachers of English in South Korean secondary schools in the context of a focus point-based analysis of the South Korean national curriculum and a sample of widely used textbooks.

There has been widespread criticism of the teaching of English in South Korea since the curriculum reforms that were first manifested in the 6th national curriculum. That curriculum, later superseded by the 7th national curriculum and a number of curriculum amendments, was the first major attempt to respond on a national level to the impact of globalisation and, in particular, to the rapidly increasing use throughout the world of English as a lingua franca.

At the core of the research reported here is language teacher cognition. The backgrounds, beliefs, attitudes and professional practices of a sample of Korean teachers of English in secondary schools are explored using a mixed methods approach that combines questionnaire-based surveys and semi-structured interviews with classroom observation. Surrounding and contextualising this aspect of the research is analysis of the 7th South Korean national curriculum as it relates to English and a sample of English language textbooks used in South Korean secondary schools.

Problems associated with the teaching and learning of English in South Korean schools have been widely attributed to three main factors - teachers’ lack of an adequate level of oral proficiency in English, the fact that the national examination system is inconsistent with the general direction of teaching reforms, and student resistance to communicatively-orientated teaching. The findings of this research project suggest that although these issues are very real ones, there are other issues which are of equal or greater significance but which have been the subject of very little criticism. The first of these is the nature of the national curriculum itself. Close analysis of the 7th national curriculum documentation uncovered a number of critical issues associated with the authors’ interpretation of some of the literature in the area of communicatively-orientated language teaching along with a number of internal inconsistencies. These things, taken together, were found to result in an overall lack of transparency and coherence. The second problem identified relates to the nature of the textbooks which are made available to teachers. The authors of the textbooks analysed as part of this research project had clearly attempted to be as faithful as possible to the curriculum, selecting much of their content directly from lists of decontextualised phrases and sentences that appear in appendices to the curriculum document and providing, in teachers’ guides, actual lesson scripts in English which are, in some cases, accompanied by anticipated student utterances (which are uncannily correct and/ or appropriate).

In view of all of this, it was not surprising to find that many of the teachers who took part in this research project indicated that they were struggling to cope with what they believed was expected of them. What was surprising was the nature of the language lessons that were analysed. It is widely claimed that grammar translation is still practised in parts of Asia, including South Korea. However, grammar translation was not in evidence in these lessons. Nor were audio-lingual methodology or any of the various manifestations of communicative language teaching. Although each of the lessons was very different, what they shared was a sense of theatre in which the teachers, generally occupying centre stage, seemed concerned, above all, to demonstrate their own oral proficiency in English.

The South Korean government has spent a vast amount of money in an attempt to resolve problems associated with the teaching and learning of English. Much of that money has been spent on providing in-service teacher training opportunities. However, unless the problems relating to the nature of the curriculum documentation itself are resolved, it seems unlikely that any of that expenditure will result in a significant change for the better.

text: The teaching and learning of English at secondary school level in South Korea: The curriculum and its implementation This thesis explores the professional attitudes and practices of a sample of teachers of English in South Korean secondary schools in the context of a focus point-based analysis of the South Korean national curriculum and a sample of widely used textbooks.

There has been widespread criticism of the teaching of English in South Korea since the curriculum reforms that were first manifested in the 6th national curriculum. That curriculum, later superseded by the 7th national curriculum and a number of curriculum amendments, was the first major attempt to respond on a national level to the impact of globalisation and, in particular, to the rapidly increasing use throughout the world of English as a lingua franca.

At the core of the research reported here is language teacher cognition. The backgrounds, beliefs, attitudes and professional practices of a sample of Korean teachers of English in secondary schools are explored using a mixed methods approach that combines questionnaire-based surveys and semi-structured interviews with classroom observation. Surrounding and contextualising this aspect of the research is analysis of the 7th South Korean national curriculum as it relates to English and a sample of English language textbooks used in South Korean secondary schools.

Problems associated with the teaching and learning of English in South Korean schools have been widely attributed to three main factors - teachers’ lack of an adequate level of oral proficiency in English, the fact that the national examination system is inconsistent with the general direction of teaching reforms, and student resistance to communicatively-orientated teaching. The findings of this research project suggest that although these issues are very real ones, there are other issues which are of equal or greater significance but which have been the subject of very little criticism. The first of these is the nature of the national curriculum itself. Close analysis of the 7th national curriculum documentation uncovered a number of critical issues associated with the authors’ interpretation of some of the literature in the area of communicatively-orientated language teaching along with a number of internal inconsistencies. These things, taken together, were found to result in an overall lack of transparency and coherence. The second problem identified relates to the nature of the textbooks which are made available to teachers. The authors of the textbooks analysed as part of this research project had clearly attempted to be as faithful as possible to the curriculum, selecting much of their content directly from lists of decontextualised phrases and sentences that appear in appendices to the curriculum document and providing, in teachers’ guides, actual lesson scripts in English which are, in some cases, accompanied by anticipated student utterances (which are uncannily correct and/ or appropriate).

In view of all of this, it was not surprising to find that many of the teachers who took part in this research project indicated that they were struggling to cope with what they believed was expected of them. What was surprising was the nature of the language lessons that were analysed. It is widely claimed that grammar translation is still practised in parts of Asia, including South Korea. However, grammar translation was not in evidence in these lessons. Nor were audio-lingual methodology or any of the various manifestations of communicative language teaching. Although each of the lessons was very different, what they shared was a sense of theatre in which the teachers, generally occupying centre stage, seemed concerned, above all, to demonstrate their own oral proficiency in English.

The South Korean government has spent a vast amount of money in an attempt to resolve problems associated with the teaching and learning of English. Much of that money has been spent on providing in-service teacher training opportunities. However, unless the problems relating to the nature of the curriculum documentation itself are resolved, it seems unlikely that any of that expenditure will result in a significant change for the better.

year: 2016

title: Population, human capital and development in the Maldives

authors: Niyaaz, Hussain

abstract: The relationship between population and development has drawn the attention of economists and demographers for a long time. While academic interest has focused on population and development problems of small island countries, much of it is centred on the Pacific countries and the island states of the Caribbean, but it may be argued that these problems are common to all small island countries.

Past demographic trends in the Maldives have created a young population structure. The negative impacts of these rapid demographic changes on the national economy have been significantly minimised by rapid economic growth in the past three decades. However, it may be argued that the presence of a large and growing expatriate labour force may hinder the socio-economic development of households in the rural areas by impeding the flow of incomes from the modern sectors to the households in the islands. Development of indigenous human capital is thus crucial in ensuring equitable development, especially in a small, resource-scarce nation like the Maldives.

The links between population growth, human capital and development are determined by actions taken at the micro (family) level. Understanding which of these micro-level factors encourage or hinder the development of human capital and labour supply - particularly for women and people living in the far-flung atolls - is therefore crucial.

The present thesis explores the following broad questions; what are the trends and differentials in population, human capital, and development at the macro-level in the Maldives? What are the interrelationships between population, human capital and development at the household level? How do changes in the modern economic sectors translate to basic development across all social, economic and human capital sectors? How do the micro-macro and macro-micro links between population, human capital, and development described above interact in the present context?

Analysis is conducted at two levels. Aggregated census data from different sources, published and computerised, for the years 1977, 1985 and 1995, and published data from other documents are used to study macro-level trends and differentials. At the micro-level, random samples for urban and rural populations, drawn from the computerised individual-level data for the 1995 census are used to explore the interlinkages between fertility, human capital and development. Statistical analysis is performed using logistic and multinomial logistic regression techniques. Findings from the multivariate analyses are supported by qualitative data collected by the author in three different inhabited islands of the Maldives during December 1998 to February 1999. Qualitative data also provide some insights to the macro-micro interlinkages between the key concepts studied in this thesis.

Macro-level analysis shows that overall levels of fertility have declined in the
Maldives during the period 1985 to 1995. Through its influence on increasing contraceptive use and delayed marriage, growth of education is found to be the most important factor of this decline. An important aspect of human capital, nutrition, is found to have lagged behind the general improvements in overall health. This is due to the dietary habits rather than lack of affordability. 
Past demographic trends and future projections suggest that the momentum effect of the present age structure is expected to continue. In addition to age-structural effects of population growth, the study shows that internal migration and the resulting spatial imbalances in population distribution have also affected social and economic infrastructures. However, internal migration and urbanisation have also been crucial for the creation of a scale economy in the urban area that has boosted macro-economic growth during the past three decades.

At the micro-level, despite the effects of an increasing expatriate labour force and a largely segregated tourism industry, the present study shows that the families in the rural households have benefited greatly from economic growth. Rural to urban circular migration of males is found to be the route of the flow of income from the largely urban centred economic growth to the rural households. With the exception of the southernmost islands, geographical factors are found to be important in the distribution of economic benefits to the population.

The study also shows that, perhaps due to socio-cultural factors, women in the Maldives seem to be increasingly marginalised from the workforce. Increasing household income appears to have a depressing effect on the participation of women in economic activities.

To the knowledge of the author, no other research has been undertaken to study the interlinkages between population, human capital and development in such detail in the Maldivian context. The thesis therefore provides valuable insights into the relationships between these variables in a small island setting, and thus contributes to expanding the knowledge base on the relationships between population, human capital and development. The findings from this study may also provide important policy directions for other small islands populations.

text: Population, human capital and development in the Maldives The relationship between population and development has drawn the attention of economists and demographers for a long time. While academic interest has focused on population and development problems of small island countries, much of it is centred on the Pacific countries and the island states of the Caribbean, but it may be argued that these problems are common to all small island countries.

Past demographic trends in the Maldives have created a young population structure. The negative impacts of these rapid demographic changes on the national economy have been significantly minimised by rapid economic growth in the past three decades. However, it may be argued that the presence of a large and growing expatriate labour force may hinder the socio-economic development of households in the rural areas by impeding the flow of incomes from the modern sectors to the households in the islands. Development of indigenous human capital is thus crucial in ensuring equitable development, especially in a small, resource-scarce nation like the Maldives.

The links between population growth, human capital and development are determined by actions taken at the micro (family) level. Understanding which of these micro-level factors encourage or hinder the development of human capital and labour supply - particularly for women and people living in the far-flung atolls - is therefore crucial.

The present thesis explores the following broad questions; what are the trends and differentials in population, human capital, and development at the macro-level in the Maldives? What are the interrelationships between population, human capital and development at the household level? How do changes in the modern economic sectors translate to basic development across all social, economic and human capital sectors? How do the micro-macro and macro-micro links between population, human capital, and development described above interact in the present context?

Analysis is conducted at two levels. Aggregated census data from different sources, published and computerised, for the years 1977, 1985 and 1995, and published data from other documents are used to study macro-level trends and differentials. At the micro-level, random samples for urban and rural populations, drawn from the computerised individual-level data for the 1995 census are used to explore the interlinkages between fertility, human capital and development. Statistical analysis is performed using logistic and multinomial logistic regression techniques. Findings from the multivariate analyses are supported by qualitative data collected by the author in three different inhabited islands of the Maldives during December 1998 to February 1999. Qualitative data also provide some insights to the macro-micro interlinkages between the key concepts studied in this thesis.

Macro-level analysis shows that overall levels of fertility have declined in the
Maldives during the period 1985 to 1995. Through its influence on increasing contraceptive use and delayed marriage, growth of education is found to be the most important factor of this decline. An important aspect of human capital, nutrition, is found to have lagged behind the general improvements in overall health. This is due to the dietary habits rather than lack of affordability. 
Past demographic trends and future projections suggest that the momentum effect of the present age structure is expected to continue. In addition to age-structural effects of population growth, the study shows that internal migration and the resulting spatial imbalances in population distribution have also affected social and economic infrastructures. However, internal migration and urbanisation have also been crucial for the creation of a scale economy in the urban area that has boosted macro-economic growth during the past three decades.

At the micro-level, despite the effects of an increasing expatriate labour force and a largely segregated tourism industry, the present study shows that the families in the rural households have benefited greatly from economic growth. Rural to urban circular migration of males is found to be the route of the flow of income from the largely urban centred economic growth to the rural households. With the exception of the southernmost islands, geographical factors are found to be important in the distribution of economic benefits to the population.

The study also shows that, perhaps due to socio-cultural factors, women in the Maldives seem to be increasingly marginalised from the workforce. Increasing household income appears to have a depressing effect on the participation of women in economic activities.

To the knowledge of the author, no other research has been undertaken to study the interlinkages between population, human capital and development in such detail in the Maldivian context. The thesis therefore provides valuable insights into the relationships between these variables in a small island setting, and thus contributes to expanding the knowledge base on the relationships between population, human capital and development. The findings from this study may also provide important policy directions for other small islands populations.

year: 2000

title: A study of iwi communication between Te Tau Ihu iwi and intergenerational diasporic whānau

authors: Wright, Karamea Moana

subjects: diaspora

abstract: This study looks at the online communication methods used between Te Tau Ihu iwi and intergenerational uri who live in the diaspora. Preferences and perceptions of methods of communication utilized by both iwi, and tāngata who live in the overseas diaspora were explored. Most important are the implications for uri living away from Aotearoa, and their desire to remain connected to iwi in New Zealand. This is a mixed methods study, comprising of a survey of fifty-eight emigrant respondents living abroad, and interviews with one member of the first, second, and third generations of emigrants to the United States, with affiliation to at least one of the eight tribes who claim tāngata whenua status of Te Tau Ihu.

The implications of the findings from the study provide both iwi and tāngata the opportunity to create a synergistic relationship of communicating. Assisting iwi to develop and implement a strategy for relevant communication, and iwi members engaging in a dialogue with iwi about relevance of communication is critical in strengthening ties between iwi and future generations regardless of location. “He aha te mea nui, he tangata, he tangata.”

text: A study of iwi communication between Te Tau Ihu iwi and intergenerational diasporic whānau This study looks at the online communication methods used between Te Tau Ihu iwi and intergenerational uri who live in the diaspora. Preferences and perceptions of methods of communication utilized by both iwi, and tāngata who live in the overseas diaspora were explored. Most important are the implications for uri living away from Aotearoa, and their desire to remain connected to iwi in New Zealand. This is a mixed methods study, comprising of a survey of fifty-eight emigrant respondents living abroad, and interviews with one member of the first, second, and third generations of emigrants to the United States, with affiliation to at least one of the eight tribes who claim tāngata whenua status of Te Tau Ihu.

The implications of the findings from the study provide both iwi and tāngata the opportunity to create a synergistic relationship of communicating. Assisting iwi to develop and implement a strategy for relevant communication, and iwi members engaging in a dialogue with iwi about relevance of communication is critical in strengthening ties between iwi and future generations regardless of location. “He aha te mea nui, he tangata, he tangata.”

year: 2019