title: Emergent strategy and the measurement of performance: The formulation of performance indicators at the micro-level

authors: Lowe, Alan

subjects: accounting

abstract: This paper presents some evidence on an aspect of the design of a strategic control system, at the micro level within a single organisation. The research we report used an ethnographic approach to provide an understanding of strategy formulation. Our aim is to contribute to an area of literature which is of increasing significance but relatively underdeveloped in terms of the application of, in depth, field research techniques. We take an intensive look at the manner in which performance measures are formulated, at the micro level, within a single organization. The paper presents, as an in-depth case analysis, the experience of a fisheries holding company in New Zealand. The paper recounts the experiences of managers within the organization of the process of identification of such things as, critical success factors and key performance indicators (KPI’s) and, more broadly the formulation of a strategic performance measurement system. A number of themes emerged during the research including as apparent reluctance to reduce a reliance on financial measures, the significance of functional boundaries which resulted in disagreements and misunderstandings, the importance of communication and the problems resulting from some managers apparently seeking to avoid attempts to fix responsibility.

text: Emergent strategy and the measurement of performance: The formulation of performance indicators at the micro-level This paper presents some evidence on an aspect of the design of a strategic control system, at the micro level within a single organisation. The research we report used an ethnographic approach to provide an understanding of strategy formulation. Our aim is to contribute to an area of literature which is of increasing significance but relatively underdeveloped in terms of the application of, in depth, field research techniques. We take an intensive look at the manner in which performance measures are formulated, at the micro level, within a single organization. The paper presents, as an in-depth case analysis, the experience of a fisheries holding company in New Zealand. The paper recounts the experiences of managers within the organization of the process of identification of such things as, critical success factors and key performance indicators (KPI’s) and, more broadly the formulation of a strategic performance measurement system. A number of themes emerged during the research including as apparent reluctance to reduce a reliance on financial measures, the significance of functional boundaries which resulted in disagreements and misunderstandings, the importance of communication and the problems resulting from some managers apparently seeking to avoid attempts to fix responsibility.

year: 2003-05

title: Creating Successful Partnerships in the People's Republic of China: The Significance of Guanxi Characteristics in the Relationship Building Process Between Cultural Entrepreneurs and Art Dealers.

authors: Allott, Joella

subjects: Guanxi

abstract: This research investigated the process of guanxi development in business partnerships between art dealers and artists in the Beijing art industry. The characteristics of guanxi were identified at each stage of the relationships’ development. They were then examined to identify which factors were the most influential. Finally, their effects on the business relationship were examined.
 
Qualitative data was collected through in-depth interviews over two years in three of Beijing’s art districts. The transcribed and translated interviews were analysed using a grounded theory approach. This process was aided by qualitative software which enabled comparisons to be made between participants allowing theory to emerge. 

It was found that there were two markets in the art industry, one based on the giving of gifts to gain favours and the second on private market forces. The former, the painting gift culture, was found to be corrupt and often connected to bribing government officials. Within this environment galleries used guanxi networks to locate new supply and artists used them to locate art dealers. This reduced cost in time and money but did not always provide a competitive advantage if the product did not suit the market. 

Previous research has focussed primarily on the outcomes of guanxi as opposed to its development. To initiate business guanxi an intermediary was not necessary although it did facilitate the process. Of the three methods used to build guanxi, banqueting, gift giving and favours, it was found that banquets were most important at the first and second stages to initiate guanxi and build ganqing as the relationship evolved. It also played an important role in creating affective trust before cooperation began. Gift giving also increased ganqing at the second stage. Favours were most important after guanxi had consolidated and also contributed to an increase in ganqing. 

Having good guanxi did not lead to cognitive trust, but it was needed for cognitive trust to develop. This paradox led to formulating the Guanxi-Trust Model of Business Partnerships. Due to a disposition to distrust ganqing was developed which led to affective trust in order to kick start the relationship. The decision to cooperate was based on ability, perceived risks and mutual benefits. As cognitive trust developed it was compartmentalised into ability, moral character and mutual benefit which determined the willingness to cooperate. Throughout the process guanxi contributed to affective trust whereas successful cooperation led to cognitive. Cognitive trust also increased ganqing which improved the pair’s guanxi. Galleries that implemented the Guanxi-Trust Model were able to lock artists into long-term relationships due to successful cooperation and ganqing. The artists remained loyal to the galleries allowing them to create competitive pricing strategies which in turn provided sustainability over time. 

The findings provide empirical support for prior theoretical frameworks on guanxi development. Moreover, the development of a new framework shows how trust develops alongside guanxi in cooperative relationships. This contributes to an understanding of country specific factors enhancing prior theoretical models of trust.

text: Creating Successful Partnerships in the People's Republic of China: The Significance of Guanxi Characteristics in the Relationship Building Process Between Cultural Entrepreneurs and Art Dealers. This research investigated the process of guanxi development in business partnerships between art dealers and artists in the Beijing art industry. The characteristics of guanxi were identified at each stage of the relationships’ development. They were then examined to identify which factors were the most influential. Finally, their effects on the business relationship were examined.
 
Qualitative data was collected through in-depth interviews over two years in three of Beijing’s art districts. The transcribed and translated interviews were analysed using a grounded theory approach. This process was aided by qualitative software which enabled comparisons to be made between participants allowing theory to emerge. 

It was found that there were two markets in the art industry, one based on the giving of gifts to gain favours and the second on private market forces. The former, the painting gift culture, was found to be corrupt and often connected to bribing government officials. Within this environment galleries used guanxi networks to locate new supply and artists used them to locate art dealers. This reduced cost in time and money but did not always provide a competitive advantage if the product did not suit the market. 

Previous research has focussed primarily on the outcomes of guanxi as opposed to its development. To initiate business guanxi an intermediary was not necessary although it did facilitate the process. Of the three methods used to build guanxi, banqueting, gift giving and favours, it was found that banquets were most important at the first and second stages to initiate guanxi and build ganqing as the relationship evolved. It also played an important role in creating affective trust before cooperation began. Gift giving also increased ganqing at the second stage. Favours were most important after guanxi had consolidated and also contributed to an increase in ganqing. 

Having good guanxi did not lead to cognitive trust, but it was needed for cognitive trust to develop. This paradox led to formulating the Guanxi-Trust Model of Business Partnerships. Due to a disposition to distrust ganqing was developed which led to affective trust in order to kick start the relationship. The decision to cooperate was based on ability, perceived risks and mutual benefits. As cognitive trust developed it was compartmentalised into ability, moral character and mutual benefit which determined the willingness to cooperate. Throughout the process guanxi contributed to affective trust whereas successful cooperation led to cognitive. Cognitive trust also increased ganqing which improved the pair’s guanxi. Galleries that implemented the Guanxi-Trust Model were able to lock artists into long-term relationships due to successful cooperation and ganqing. The artists remained loyal to the galleries allowing them to create competitive pricing strategies which in turn provided sustainability over time. 

The findings provide empirical support for prior theoretical frameworks on guanxi development. Moreover, the development of a new framework shows how trust develops alongside guanxi in cooperative relationships. This contributes to an understanding of country specific factors enhancing prior theoretical models of trust.

year: 2016

title: Ko te Kōauau: Its historical journey, aspects of construction, socio-cultural relevance, and performance

authors: Komene, Jo'el

subjects: Koauau

abstract: In recent years there has been a revival of interest in traditional Māori musical instruments, including the Kōauau (sometimes called a  flute ). Most of the information on record is from Pākehā perspectives of music and culture. This thesis studies Kōauau in a Māori framework, giving weight to traditional Māori knowledge and practices, while bringing together much scattered information. The research links the origins/whakapapa of the Kōauau to the gods and their natural world, especially Hineraukatauri. The thesis analyses the materials used for Kōauau, the circumstances under which materials were acquired, their significance, design and methods of construction, and the tools employed in making Kōauau. The study discusses techniques for playing Kōauau, including its range of sounds, occasions on which they were played, and for what purposes they were used. Reference is made to the story of Hinemoa and Tūtānekai, with the suggestion that more knowledge can be drawn from pakiwaitara and pūrākau. As part of the research, several Kōauau available in the Auckland Museum were examined, showing that close inspection of these taonga significantly extended the information on them held by the Museum. Despite the constraints of the research in terms of time and other resources, the thesis makes an important contribution to knowledge, by collating widely distributed documentation into a concise form, by placing the Kōauau into a Māori perspective, emphasizing the spiritual dimensions of the instrument in its origins and its function, and by indicating what kinds of further research will assist in strengthening the revival of the Kōauau.

text: Ko te Kōauau: Its historical journey, aspects of construction, socio-cultural relevance, and performance In recent years there has been a revival of interest in traditional Māori musical instruments, including the Kōauau (sometimes called a  flute ). Most of the information on record is from Pākehā perspectives of music and culture. This thesis studies Kōauau in a Māori framework, giving weight to traditional Māori knowledge and practices, while bringing together much scattered information. The research links the origins/whakapapa of the Kōauau to the gods and their natural world, especially Hineraukatauri. The thesis analyses the materials used for Kōauau, the circumstances under which materials were acquired, their significance, design and methods of construction, and the tools employed in making Kōauau. The study discusses techniques for playing Kōauau, including its range of sounds, occasions on which they were played, and for what purposes they were used. Reference is made to the story of Hinemoa and Tūtānekai, with the suggestion that more knowledge can be drawn from pakiwaitara and pūrākau. As part of the research, several Kōauau available in the Auckland Museum were examined, showing that close inspection of these taonga significantly extended the information on them held by the Museum. Despite the constraints of the research in terms of time and other resources, the thesis makes an important contribution to knowledge, by collating widely distributed documentation into a concise form, by placing the Kōauau into a Māori perspective, emphasizing the spiritual dimensions of the instrument in its origins and its function, and by indicating what kinds of further research will assist in strengthening the revival of the Kōauau.

year: 2008