title: Zooplankton communities in small Waikato lakes and ponds: are natural waters and farm dams the same?

authors: Le Quesne, Kelly Sarah

subjects: rural ponds

abstract: Ponds have been identified as biodiversity ‘hotspots’ that play an important role in supporting and maintaining biodiversity. In freshwater ecosystems, zooplankton are an essential trophic link between algae and fish, and some species act as biological indicators for aquatic system ‘health’. Most research pertaining to zooplankton biodiversity and community assemblages is skewed towards large lakes, reservoirs or urban ponds, while research on small ponds in rural environments is scarce. Consequently, the aim of my research was to examine and compare the biodiversity and community composition of zooplankton in natural ponds and dams in rural environments. To achieve this, 19 farm dams and 19 natural farm ponds in the Waikato region, New Zealand, were sampled for zooplankton in winter/spring (Aug-Sep 2018) and summer (Jan 2019). Environmental factors also were measured, including water temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, water colour (gilvin), pH, chlorophyll-a, nutrient concentrations (total nitrogen and phosphorus), elevation, pond surface area and the number of waterbodies within a 2 km radius.

All ponds were eutrophic to hypertrophic, and genera typical of these environments, such as Brachionus, Keratella and Polyarthra, were common in both farm dams and natural ponds. Zooplankton species richness was similar among farm dams and natural ponds (20.7 and 22.4 species, respectively; t-test p = 0.406), although there was a lot of variation within each pond type. Temperature (stepwise linear regression R² = 0.26; p = 0.025) and pond surface area (stepwise linear regression R² = 0.23; p = 0.016) were significant predictors of species richness in natural ponds; however, no significant relationships could be found between the measured environmental variables and species richness for farm dams. Zooplankton community composition differed between farm dams and natural ponds (one-way ANOSIM p = 0.014). A SIMPER analysis indicated that crustaceans (e.g., Chydorus sp., Acanthocyclops robustus and Simocephalus vetulus) were generally more abundant in natural ponds than in farm dams, whereas rotifers (e.g., Polyarthra dolichoptera and Keratella tecta) were more abundant in farm dams than in natural ponds. A canonical correspondence analysis indicated that variation in zooplankton community composition among natural ponds was explained by dissolved oxygen concentration (p = 0.002) and conductivity levels (p = 0.020). In contrast, the community composition of zooplankton in farm dams could not be explained by any of the measured environmental variables. Two genera (Erignatha clastopis and Octotrocha speciosa) and one species (Cephalodella theodora) were recorded that had not previously been identified in New Zealand. In total, three non-indigenous species were recorded in 7% of farm dams and 2% of natural ponds studied.

My findings suggest that zooplankton communities differ between farm dams and natural ponds. Farm dams are primarily composed of a relatively unstructured subset of small, eurytopic and opportunistic zooplankton species (e.g., of Brachionus and Keratella). On the other hand, natural pond assemblages consisted of larger zooplankton species that are better adapted to the local conditions (e.g., Chydorus sp. and Simocephalus vetulus). This suggests natural ponds have had a longer period of time for more slowly dispersing species to colonise, whereas farm dams contain species that are capable of dispersing at much faster rates. Further, my results highlight that when examining environmental determinants of zooplankton community composition in water bodies across the landscape, natural and constructed ponds should be separated, as they appear to be structured by different variables. The prevalence of non-indigenous species in farm dams appears low relative to lakes and urban ponds in New Zealand, likely due to limited movement between ponds by humans. This suggests that these waterbodies are not acting as ‘stepping stones’ for non-indigenous species across rural landscapes. Overall, my research highlights the diverse taxa found in small agricultural ponds, and improves our knowledge and understanding of zooplankton communities in small natural and constructed ponds. Further, these findings emphasize the need for management and conservation of small water bodies, as they play a significant role in maintaining and supporting zooplankton communities (including rare species).

text: Zooplankton communities in small Waikato lakes and ponds: are natural waters and farm dams the same? Ponds have been identified as biodiversity ‘hotspots’ that play an important role in supporting and maintaining biodiversity. In freshwater ecosystems, zooplankton are an essential trophic link between algae and fish, and some species act as biological indicators for aquatic system ‘health’. Most research pertaining to zooplankton biodiversity and community assemblages is skewed towards large lakes, reservoirs or urban ponds, while research on small ponds in rural environments is scarce. Consequently, the aim of my research was to examine and compare the biodiversity and community composition of zooplankton in natural ponds and dams in rural environments. To achieve this, 19 farm dams and 19 natural farm ponds in the Waikato region, New Zealand, were sampled for zooplankton in winter/spring (Aug-Sep 2018) and summer (Jan 2019). Environmental factors also were measured, including water temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, water colour (gilvin), pH, chlorophyll-a, nutrient concentrations (total nitrogen and phosphorus), elevation, pond surface area and the number of waterbodies within a 2 km radius.

All ponds were eutrophic to hypertrophic, and genera typical of these environments, such as Brachionus, Keratella and Polyarthra, were common in both farm dams and natural ponds. Zooplankton species richness was similar among farm dams and natural ponds (20.7 and 22.4 species, respectively; t-test p = 0.406), although there was a lot of variation within each pond type. Temperature (stepwise linear regression R² = 0.26; p = 0.025) and pond surface area (stepwise linear regression R² = 0.23; p = 0.016) were significant predictors of species richness in natural ponds; however, no significant relationships could be found between the measured environmental variables and species richness for farm dams. Zooplankton community composition differed between farm dams and natural ponds (one-way ANOSIM p = 0.014). A SIMPER analysis indicated that crustaceans (e.g., Chydorus sp., Acanthocyclops robustus and Simocephalus vetulus) were generally more abundant in natural ponds than in farm dams, whereas rotifers (e.g., Polyarthra dolichoptera and Keratella tecta) were more abundant in farm dams than in natural ponds. A canonical correspondence analysis indicated that variation in zooplankton community composition among natural ponds was explained by dissolved oxygen concentration (p = 0.002) and conductivity levels (p = 0.020). In contrast, the community composition of zooplankton in farm dams could not be explained by any of the measured environmental variables. Two genera (Erignatha clastopis and Octotrocha speciosa) and one species (Cephalodella theodora) were recorded that had not previously been identified in New Zealand. In total, three non-indigenous species were recorded in 7% of farm dams and 2% of natural ponds studied.

My findings suggest that zooplankton communities differ between farm dams and natural ponds. Farm dams are primarily composed of a relatively unstructured subset of small, eurytopic and opportunistic zooplankton species (e.g., of Brachionus and Keratella). On the other hand, natural pond assemblages consisted of larger zooplankton species that are better adapted to the local conditions (e.g., Chydorus sp. and Simocephalus vetulus). This suggests natural ponds have had a longer period of time for more slowly dispersing species to colonise, whereas farm dams contain species that are capable of dispersing at much faster rates. Further, my results highlight that when examining environmental determinants of zooplankton community composition in water bodies across the landscape, natural and constructed ponds should be separated, as they appear to be structured by different variables. The prevalence of non-indigenous species in farm dams appears low relative to lakes and urban ponds in New Zealand, likely due to limited movement between ponds by humans. This suggests that these waterbodies are not acting as ‘stepping stones’ for non-indigenous species across rural landscapes. Overall, my research highlights the diverse taxa found in small agricultural ponds, and improves our knowledge and understanding of zooplankton communities in small natural and constructed ponds. Further, these findings emphasize the need for management and conservation of small water bodies, as they play a significant role in maintaining and supporting zooplankton communities (including rare species).

year: 2019

title: Everyone, no-one, someone and the Native Hawaiian learner: How expanded equality narratives might account for guarantee/reality gaps, historico-legal context and an admission policy which is actually levelling the playing field

authors: Hemi, Keakaokawai Varner

subjects: Indigenous education rights

abstract: This thesis asks how a school which was established to help a group of children consistently identified with disparities in education achieve equality—and which has actually done so—could be sued for discrimination because it prefers those children in admissions. In search of answers, this thesis critically analyzes the narratives of equality evident in the United States Ninth Circuit Court of Appeal’s reasoning in Doe v Kamehameha Schools, arguing that the dissent, majority and concurrence opinions suggest three conflicting narratives of equality—what the thesis calls the adamant everyone/no-one, weak someone and limited indigenous learner narratives.  It demonstrates how these narratives reflect an identity-specific, racialized history of slavery and segregation but fail to account entirely for either the unique historico-legal history of the Native Hawaiian people or the huge gap between formal constitutional guarantees of equality and everyday realities of complex discrimination and disparities almost unrelentingly attracted to Native Hawaiian identity.  It recommends an expansion of these narratives within federal law consistent with liberal theory, international law and the legal experience of a sister settler jurisdiction—Aotearoa New Zealand.  More importantly, it demonstrates that such expansion is consistent with substantial equality, non-discrimination and rights of self-determination that may have the greatest capacity for reconciling the guarantee/reality gap.  Finally, specific good, better and best recommendations are made including philosophical consistency with the expanded multi-narrative, and the intentional importation of the human right to education and Article 14 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007 into federal law.

text: Everyone, no-one, someone and the Native Hawaiian learner: How expanded equality narratives might account for guarantee/reality gaps, historico-legal context and an admission policy which is actually levelling the playing field This thesis asks how a school which was established to help a group of children consistently identified with disparities in education achieve equality—and which has actually done so—could be sued for discrimination because it prefers those children in admissions. In search of answers, this thesis critically analyzes the narratives of equality evident in the United States Ninth Circuit Court of Appeal’s reasoning in Doe v Kamehameha Schools, arguing that the dissent, majority and concurrence opinions suggest three conflicting narratives of equality—what the thesis calls the adamant everyone/no-one, weak someone and limited indigenous learner narratives.  It demonstrates how these narratives reflect an identity-specific, racialized history of slavery and segregation but fail to account entirely for either the unique historico-legal history of the Native Hawaiian people or the huge gap between formal constitutional guarantees of equality and everyday realities of complex discrimination and disparities almost unrelentingly attracted to Native Hawaiian identity.  It recommends an expansion of these narratives within federal law consistent with liberal theory, international law and the legal experience of a sister settler jurisdiction—Aotearoa New Zealand.  More importantly, it demonstrates that such expansion is consistent with substantial equality, non-discrimination and rights of self-determination that may have the greatest capacity for reconciling the guarantee/reality gap.  Finally, specific good, better and best recommendations are made including philosophical consistency with the expanded multi-narrative, and the intentional importation of the human right to education and Article 14 of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples 2007 into federal law.

year: 2016

title: Finding synergistic conservation values? Māori tikanga, science, resource management and law

authors: Simon, Katie

subjects: Indigenous knowledge

abstract: In this doctorate, I provide a balanced and collaborative approach to knowledge/value change between the contesting worldviews of indigenous knowledge and western science, termed 'synergistic'. My search for synergy is comparative and reconciliatory. This endeavours to overcome the popular pre-occupation with conflict and opposition. Rather, both difference and similarity are recognised. Through the comparison of such synergy, I argue that Māori development requires for its further advancement a focus not only on difference and conflict, but also on affinity and convergence.

My primary concern is to establish a better understanding of the synergistic, adaptive strategies or indigenous innovation of Māori kaitiaki, environmental stewards. I investigate conflicting and converging Māori and western scientific conservation and use values in Aotearoa/New Zealand  environmental governance and management regimes under the Resource Management Act 1991, with specific regard to indicator development. The balance of values were compared in ecological environmental governance, from five Aotearoa governmental authorities and three Māori river communities, utilising Māori and western social science methods. My focus on indicators pinpoints contesting knowledge/value change between the marginalisation of indigenous knowledge and dominance of western science. This seeks to highlight the potential viability of Māori kaitiakitanga, stewardship in global and national terms of sustainability.  

However, potential synergy is held back by a prevailing viewpoint of the indigenous worldview as backward, past-oriented and non-synergistic. An oppositional dogma predominates, which is a key problem to overcome. It spans world and national literature, resulting in considerable gaps in knowledge on synergy, conceptually, methodologically, empirically and analytically.  


This is addressed by an authoritative Māori synergistic standpoint from my own cultural lens and decolonised theorising, termed 'nuanced problem solving'. I articulate both worldviews in knowledge/value change through comparative, evolutionary, multi-dimensional, cross-cultural and inter-disciplinary research on synergy. My nuanced problem solving encapsulates the two main parts of the doctorate, whereby synergy is correlated between theory and social practice. Part one deals with value comparison in theory utilising high abstracted concepts and methods at the global level of environmental governance. Part two deals with value balance in social practice utilising medium abstracted and concrete empirical and analytical research at global, national, regional, district and cross-tribal levels of environmental governance. Potential synergy cross-cuts each part from high abstracted thought down and from the practical flax roots up. I argue that Māori advancement fluctuates between them. 

Drawing on cultural and theoretical leanings of the Māori synergistic standpoint, both a strong correlation with existing theory and expanded synergistic theorising was found. Due to the expansiveness of the research, these correlated findings only provide an embryonic understanding of potential synergy.

A postscript describes my other work on synergy with five external agencies concerning foreshore, lakeside, wastewater, land disposal and carbon marketing kaitiakitanga.  I argue that additional research on synergy is needed in order to further advance Māori.

text: Finding synergistic conservation values? Māori tikanga, science, resource management and law In this doctorate, I provide a balanced and collaborative approach to knowledge/value change between the contesting worldviews of indigenous knowledge and western science, termed 'synergistic'. My search for synergy is comparative and reconciliatory. This endeavours to overcome the popular pre-occupation with conflict and opposition. Rather, both difference and similarity are recognised. Through the comparison of such synergy, I argue that Māori development requires for its further advancement a focus not only on difference and conflict, but also on affinity and convergence.

My primary concern is to establish a better understanding of the synergistic, adaptive strategies or indigenous innovation of Māori kaitiaki, environmental stewards. I investigate conflicting and converging Māori and western scientific conservation and use values in Aotearoa/New Zealand  environmental governance and management regimes under the Resource Management Act 1991, with specific regard to indicator development. The balance of values were compared in ecological environmental governance, from five Aotearoa governmental authorities and three Māori river communities, utilising Māori and western social science methods. My focus on indicators pinpoints contesting knowledge/value change between the marginalisation of indigenous knowledge and dominance of western science. This seeks to highlight the potential viability of Māori kaitiakitanga, stewardship in global and national terms of sustainability.  

However, potential synergy is held back by a prevailing viewpoint of the indigenous worldview as backward, past-oriented and non-synergistic. An oppositional dogma predominates, which is a key problem to overcome. It spans world and national literature, resulting in considerable gaps in knowledge on synergy, conceptually, methodologically, empirically and analytically.  


This is addressed by an authoritative Māori synergistic standpoint from my own cultural lens and decolonised theorising, termed 'nuanced problem solving'. I articulate both worldviews in knowledge/value change through comparative, evolutionary, multi-dimensional, cross-cultural and inter-disciplinary research on synergy. My nuanced problem solving encapsulates the two main parts of the doctorate, whereby synergy is correlated between theory and social practice. Part one deals with value comparison in theory utilising high abstracted concepts and methods at the global level of environmental governance. Part two deals with value balance in social practice utilising medium abstracted and concrete empirical and analytical research at global, national, regional, district and cross-tribal levels of environmental governance. Potential synergy cross-cuts each part from high abstracted thought down and from the practical flax roots up. I argue that Māori advancement fluctuates between them. 

Drawing on cultural and theoretical leanings of the Māori synergistic standpoint, both a strong correlation with existing theory and expanded synergistic theorising was found. Due to the expansiveness of the research, these correlated findings only provide an embryonic understanding of potential synergy.

A postscript describes my other work on synergy with five external agencies concerning foreshore, lakeside, wastewater, land disposal and carbon marketing kaitiakitanga.  I argue that additional research on synergy is needed in order to further advance Māori.

year: 2007