title: Applying generalisability theory to differentiate between trait and state in the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ)

authors: Truong, Quoc Cuong

subjects: mindfulness

abstract: Mindfulness has been applied as an effective therapy in clinical settings to treat psychological symptoms (e.g., depression, stress, anxiety) and also in many other contexts (e.g., the workplace, educational contexts, and sports). Accurate evaluation of mindfulness-based training or mindfulness research requires distinguishing between state and trait changes. The failure to distinguish trait from state in a mindfulness measurement may confuse the assessment results of neurophysiological and psychological mindfulness studies, as well as mindfulness-based treatments, because mindfulness can be understood as either a state or a trait. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) is the most widely used multidimentional assessment tool of dispositional mindfulness, comprised of five subscales: “act with awareness”, “describe”, “nonjudge”, “nonreact”, and “observe”. Its short version, consisting of 18 items (FFMQ-18), was proposed by examining and comparing the existing short versions of the FFMQ. However, the ability of the FFMQ to accurately capture stable aspects of mindfulness has not been studied thoroughly, using robust methodology. The generalisability theory (G-theory) is the most suitable and robust statistical approach to differentiate and measure these aspects.
In this study, G-theory was applied to distinguish between dynamic (state) and enduring (trait) aspects of mindfulness and to evaluate the reliability of the FFMQ and the FFMQ-18 over time. The study used data from 83 participants, who completed the test on three occasions separated by 2-week intervals. The full 39-item FFMQ and the shorter FFMQ-18 version proved to be very reliable in measuring trait mindfulness, with G coefficients of 0.89 and 0.75, respectively, while individual facet subscales of the FFMQ appeared to be less reliable in measuring trait mindfulness. Subsequent analyses attempted to combine the FFMQ items that were least stable over time to form a measure of state mindfulness. However, these did not result in acceptable psychometric properties for such a state subscale. The findings of this study indicate that a reliable assessment of stable aspects of mindfulness can be achieved by using the full FFMQ scale or its short FFMQ-18 version, with scores that can be generalised across the sample population and assessment occasions. The scores obtained on individual facet subscales of the FFMQ predominantly measure trait mindfulness but their reliability is affected by measurement error, resulting from interaction between persons, items and occasions.

text: Applying generalisability theory to differentiate between trait and state in the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) Mindfulness has been applied as an effective therapy in clinical settings to treat psychological symptoms (e.g., depression, stress, anxiety) and also in many other contexts (e.g., the workplace, educational contexts, and sports). Accurate evaluation of mindfulness-based training or mindfulness research requires distinguishing between state and trait changes. The failure to distinguish trait from state in a mindfulness measurement may confuse the assessment results of neurophysiological and psychological mindfulness studies, as well as mindfulness-based treatments, because mindfulness can be understood as either a state or a trait. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) is the most widely used multidimentional assessment tool of dispositional mindfulness, comprised of five subscales: “act with awareness”, “describe”, “nonjudge”, “nonreact”, and “observe”. Its short version, consisting of 18 items (FFMQ-18), was proposed by examining and comparing the existing short versions of the FFMQ. However, the ability of the FFMQ to accurately capture stable aspects of mindfulness has not been studied thoroughly, using robust methodology. The generalisability theory (G-theory) is the most suitable and robust statistical approach to differentiate and measure these aspects.
In this study, G-theory was applied to distinguish between dynamic (state) and enduring (trait) aspects of mindfulness and to evaluate the reliability of the FFMQ and the FFMQ-18 over time. The study used data from 83 participants, who completed the test on three occasions separated by 2-week intervals. The full 39-item FFMQ and the shorter FFMQ-18 version proved to be very reliable in measuring trait mindfulness, with G coefficients of 0.89 and 0.75, respectively, while individual facet subscales of the FFMQ appeared to be less reliable in measuring trait mindfulness. Subsequent analyses attempted to combine the FFMQ items that were least stable over time to form a measure of state mindfulness. However, these did not result in acceptable psychometric properties for such a state subscale. The findings of this study indicate that a reliable assessment of stable aspects of mindfulness can be achieved by using the full FFMQ scale or its short FFMQ-18 version, with scores that can be generalised across the sample population and assessment occasions. The scores obtained on individual facet subscales of the FFMQ predominantly measure trait mindfulness but their reliability is affected by measurement error, resulting from interaction between persons, items and occasions.

year: 2020

title: Effects of severe cattle treading on soil physical properties and pasture productivity

authors: Zegwaard, Karsten E.

abstract: Severe cattle treading can result in compaction and pugging, of which the latter was the focus of this thesis. Pugging is one of the severest forms of treading damage to soil, and occurs when soil is grazed while near saturation, resulting in plastic and liquid soil deformation. The research objectives were to quantify effects from one-off treading events, at different severities, on soil physical properties and sward characteristics, to monitor recovery from the one-off treading event, and to develop methods of estimating potential effects of treading on pasture productivity. 
Three field experiments were carried out on a Te Kowhai silt loam soil (NZ soil classification, Typic Orthic Gley; USDA soil taxonomic classification, Typic Endoaqualj) supporting a mixed sward of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). A oneoff treading event of either O ( control), 3, 9, or 24 hours was carried out using lactating Holstein-Friesian cattle (300 cows ha- 1) at three soil moisture contents (65%, 71 %, and 81 % gravimetric soil moisture content). Soil physical properties, soil surface features, and sward characteristics were monitored for up to 34 weeks after the treading event. 
Longer treading durations at wetter soil conditions had increasingly detrimental effects on soil macroporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksai), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K_40), surface roughness, depths of pug prints, bare ground area, ryegrass tiller density, and herbage accumulation. Soil dry bulk density and total porosity did not change, even under the severest of treading damage, because decreases in macroporosity were offset by increases in microporosity (r2 = 0.63; P <0.001). 
The area of bare ground increased to up to 87% of the soil surface and correlated with decreased in herbage accumulation (r2 = 0.73; P <0.001). Sward botanical composition did not change after treading damage, except when large patches of bare ground persisted into spring, resulting in the establishment of broad-leaved plantain (Plantago major L.). 
Soil and sward recovered (i.e. no significant difference compared to simultaneous controls) following treading damage and when the pasture continued to be rotationally grazed. The recovery of macroporosity, Ksat, and K_40 indicated that the soil had an increased susceptibility to further treading damage for up to 13 weeks after the initial treading event. However, soil susceptibility to direct hoof damage after a one-off severe treading damage event may persist for up to 25 weeks, as sward recovery (decreases in area of bare ground) took longer than the recovery of soil physical properties. 
When the gravimetric soil moisture content was >71 %, a three hour grazing caused a total decline of 1,100 kg OM ha- 1 in pasture productivity, however, at lower soil moisture contents grazing of ::,;3 hours was unlikely to cause significant pasture productivity decline. 
When ~50% of soil penetrations using the AgResearch Penetrometer are ~2 cm, a three hour grazing with 300 cows ha -I is likely to result in pasture productivity decline. Statistical models (multivariate regression models) were used to describe the relationship of soil physical and sward properties with pasture productivity after treading. Assuming that during the grazing rotation no further severe treading damage takes place before recovery is complete, the models can be used to estimate potential pasture productivity decline from a one-off severe treading event on a pugging susceptible Te Kowhai soil using variables measured immediately before or after cattle treading. The models with the best potential for practical applications were: 

DPP*= -1770.98 + l 96.35HR - 4.47HR2 + 32.1 lAP 	                r2 = 0.72, P <0.001
DPP = -1057.55 + 43.17BG 				                                r2 = 0.61, P <0.001
DPP = -863.78 + 179.lOSR					                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
DPP = -701.16- 155.89HR + 5.49HR2 + 26.61PD + 122.68SR 	r2 = 0.84, P <0.001
RT* = -6.94 + l .35HR - 0.032HR2 + 0.16AP 		                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
RT  = -6.10 + 0.36HR + 0.1 OAP+ 0.58SR 			                r2 = 0.80, P <0.001

Where:
DPP= total decline in pasture productivity (kg OM ha- 1) 
RT= time (weeks) required until no significant difference in herbage accumulation compared to controls 
HR = proposed or actual hours of treading 
AP = AgResearch Penetrometer results (% of readings penetrating soil by ~2 cm) immediately before treading 
BG= proportion of bare ground ('Yc,) after treading 
SR= soil surface roughness index(%) after treading 
PD= mean depth of pug prints (mm) after treading 
* = models using only pre-treading variables 

The declines in spring pasture productivity correlated with declines in macroporosity (r2 = 0.70, P <0.001) and Ksat (r2 = 0.61, P <O.OI ), complementing findings from similar treading studies carried out on soils with compaction rather than pugging damage. A Treading Field Guide was constructed, using bare ground, soil surface roughness, depth of pugging, and photography, which indicated the likely pasture productivity decline. The likely pasture productivity declines were also combined with the potential benefits of using stand-off pads to derive a cost-benefit model.

text: Effects of severe cattle treading on soil physical properties and pasture productivity Severe cattle treading can result in compaction and pugging, of which the latter was the focus of this thesis. Pugging is one of the severest forms of treading damage to soil, and occurs when soil is grazed while near saturation, resulting in plastic and liquid soil deformation. The research objectives were to quantify effects from one-off treading events, at different severities, on soil physical properties and sward characteristics, to monitor recovery from the one-off treading event, and to develop methods of estimating potential effects of treading on pasture productivity. 
Three field experiments were carried out on a Te Kowhai silt loam soil (NZ soil classification, Typic Orthic Gley; USDA soil taxonomic classification, Typic Endoaqualj) supporting a mixed sward of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). A oneoff treading event of either O ( control), 3, 9, or 24 hours was carried out using lactating Holstein-Friesian cattle (300 cows ha- 1) at three soil moisture contents (65%, 71 %, and 81 % gravimetric soil moisture content). Soil physical properties, soil surface features, and sward characteristics were monitored for up to 34 weeks after the treading event. 
Longer treading durations at wetter soil conditions had increasingly detrimental effects on soil macroporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksai), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K_40), surface roughness, depths of pug prints, bare ground area, ryegrass tiller density, and herbage accumulation. Soil dry bulk density and total porosity did not change, even under the severest of treading damage, because decreases in macroporosity were offset by increases in microporosity (r2 = 0.63; P <0.001). 
The area of bare ground increased to up to 87% of the soil surface and correlated with decreased in herbage accumulation (r2 = 0.73; P <0.001). Sward botanical composition did not change after treading damage, except when large patches of bare ground persisted into spring, resulting in the establishment of broad-leaved plantain (Plantago major L.). 
Soil and sward recovered (i.e. no significant difference compared to simultaneous controls) following treading damage and when the pasture continued to be rotationally grazed. The recovery of macroporosity, Ksat, and K_40 indicated that the soil had an increased susceptibility to further treading damage for up to 13 weeks after the initial treading event. However, soil susceptibility to direct hoof damage after a one-off severe treading damage event may persist for up to 25 weeks, as sward recovery (decreases in area of bare ground) took longer than the recovery of soil physical properties. 
When the gravimetric soil moisture content was >71 %, a three hour grazing caused a total decline of 1,100 kg OM ha- 1 in pasture productivity, however, at lower soil moisture contents grazing of ::,;3 hours was unlikely to cause significant pasture productivity decline. 
When ~50% of soil penetrations using the AgResearch Penetrometer are ~2 cm, a three hour grazing with 300 cows ha -I is likely to result in pasture productivity decline. Statistical models (multivariate regression models) were used to describe the relationship of soil physical and sward properties with pasture productivity after treading. Assuming that during the grazing rotation no further severe treading damage takes place before recovery is complete, the models can be used to estimate potential pasture productivity decline from a one-off severe treading event on a pugging susceptible Te Kowhai soil using variables measured immediately before or after cattle treading. The models with the best potential for practical applications were: 

DPP*= -1770.98 + l 96.35HR - 4.47HR2 + 32.1 lAP 	                r2 = 0.72, P <0.001
DPP = -1057.55 + 43.17BG 				                                r2 = 0.61, P <0.001
DPP = -863.78 + 179.lOSR					                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
DPP = -701.16- 155.89HR + 5.49HR2 + 26.61PD + 122.68SR 	r2 = 0.84, P <0.001
RT* = -6.94 + l .35HR - 0.032HR2 + 0.16AP 		                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
RT  = -6.10 + 0.36HR + 0.1 OAP+ 0.58SR 			                r2 = 0.80, P <0.001

Where:
DPP= total decline in pasture productivity (kg OM ha- 1) 
RT= time (weeks) required until no significant difference in herbage accumulation compared to controls 
HR = proposed or actual hours of treading 
AP = AgResearch Penetrometer results (% of readings penetrating soil by ~2 cm) immediately before treading 
BG= proportion of bare ground ('Yc,) after treading 
SR= soil surface roughness index(%) after treading 
PD= mean depth of pug prints (mm) after treading 
* = models using only pre-treading variables 

The declines in spring pasture productivity correlated with declines in macroporosity (r2 = 0.70, P <0.001) and Ksat (r2 = 0.61, P <O.OI ), complementing findings from similar treading studies carried out on soils with compaction rather than pugging damage. A Treading Field Guide was constructed, using bare ground, soil surface roughness, depth of pugging, and photography, which indicated the likely pasture productivity decline. The likely pasture productivity declines were also combined with the potential benefits of using stand-off pads to derive a cost-benefit model.

year: 2006

title: Caregiver Health Related Quality of Life and Burden When Caring for Children with Traumatic Brain Injury

authors: Rose, Wallis

subjects: Caregiver Burden

abstract: Often family members take on the responsibility of caregiver when another family member sustains a traumatic brain injury (TBI). The caregiving role is a stressful task which may impact negatively upon caregivers’ psychological and physical health. Variables which may contribute to caregiver burden include: caregiver age, educational attainment, income, gender, ethnicity, marital status, supports, time post-injury, and child clinical variables: TBI severity, behavioural functioning and adaptive functioning. The literature varies in its reporting of which areas of health are most affected, and the degree to which sociodemographic and child variables impact upon negative health related quality of life (HRQoL) and burden. To address this the current study explored health outcomes for TBI caregivers using a battery of measures (Medical Study Short Form-36, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, DSM-IV Depression Diagnostic Scale, BAKAS Caregiving Outcomes Scale); questionnaires were also used to collect sociodemographic information and information relating to supports and services used in the rehabilitation of the TBI child. The Behavioural Assessment System for Children was used to collect behavioural and adaptability information from the caregivers about the child. Assessments were carried out at baseline, 1-month, 6-months and 12-months post TBI from a sample of 94 TBI caregivers and at baseline from a sample of 43 Control caregivers.

TBI caregivers experienced poorer overall health and higher levels of depression and were less likely to report positive life changes compared to Control caregivers. Older age and higher income predicted positive life changes. In addition to this higher income predicted better physical and overall health. Ethnicity was found to predict depression with the Māori/‘other ethnicity’ group suffering higher levels of depression. Children’s dysfunctional behaviour was found to predict poorer caregiver health outcomes across several domains; these include physical health, overall health, and depression; while the child’s adaptive functioning was not found to be a predictive factor in any caregiver health domains. New Zealand European and Māori TBI caregivers experienced similar health outcomes and received similar levels of support. However, Māori experienced more positive life changes than New Zealand Europeans. Caregivers’ physical and psychological well-being was found to improve over time, these changes were the greatest between the 1-month and 12-month period.
As a high percentage of children’s TBI’s occur in the home and at school, education aimed at schools and parents to inform of the effects of TBI upon children and families will bring an awareness which may encourage families to seek medical help. In doing so will offer the opportunity to receive or seek support in the initial period post TBI in the hope of reducing the burden for caregivers and producing better health outcomes. Bringing these families into contact with medical services may also help in identifying caregivers at higher risk of poorer health outcomes. Findings of more positive life changes for Māori may suggest cultural ideology is a protective factor in caregiver burden, further investigation may be necessary to understand these cultural differences and how they impact upon the caregiving role.

text: Caregiver Health Related Quality of Life and Burden When Caring for Children with Traumatic Brain Injury Often family members take on the responsibility of caregiver when another family member sustains a traumatic brain injury (TBI). The caregiving role is a stressful task which may impact negatively upon caregivers’ psychological and physical health. Variables which may contribute to caregiver burden include: caregiver age, educational attainment, income, gender, ethnicity, marital status, supports, time post-injury, and child clinical variables: TBI severity, behavioural functioning and adaptive functioning. The literature varies in its reporting of which areas of health are most affected, and the degree to which sociodemographic and child variables impact upon negative health related quality of life (HRQoL) and burden. To address this the current study explored health outcomes for TBI caregivers using a battery of measures (Medical Study Short Form-36, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, DSM-IV Depression Diagnostic Scale, BAKAS Caregiving Outcomes Scale); questionnaires were also used to collect sociodemographic information and information relating to supports and services used in the rehabilitation of the TBI child. The Behavioural Assessment System for Children was used to collect behavioural and adaptability information from the caregivers about the child. Assessments were carried out at baseline, 1-month, 6-months and 12-months post TBI from a sample of 94 TBI caregivers and at baseline from a sample of 43 Control caregivers.

TBI caregivers experienced poorer overall health and higher levels of depression and were less likely to report positive life changes compared to Control caregivers. Older age and higher income predicted positive life changes. In addition to this higher income predicted better physical and overall health. Ethnicity was found to predict depression with the Māori/‘other ethnicity’ group suffering higher levels of depression. Children’s dysfunctional behaviour was found to predict poorer caregiver health outcomes across several domains; these include physical health, overall health, and depression; while the child’s adaptive functioning was not found to be a predictive factor in any caregiver health domains. New Zealand European and Māori TBI caregivers experienced similar health outcomes and received similar levels of support. However, Māori experienced more positive life changes than New Zealand Europeans. Caregivers’ physical and psychological well-being was found to improve over time, these changes were the greatest between the 1-month and 12-month period.
As a high percentage of children’s TBI’s occur in the home and at school, education aimed at schools and parents to inform of the effects of TBI upon children and families will bring an awareness which may encourage families to seek medical help. In doing so will offer the opportunity to receive or seek support in the initial period post TBI in the hope of reducing the burden for caregivers and producing better health outcomes. Bringing these families into contact with medical services may also help in identifying caregivers at higher risk of poorer health outcomes. Findings of more positive life changes for Māori may suggest cultural ideology is a protective factor in caregiver burden, further investigation may be necessary to understand these cultural differences and how they impact upon the caregiving role.

year: 2012