title: Gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄) following manure or urea application to soil as influenced by amendments

authors: Sonthi, Ramana Kumar

subjects: gaseous emissions

abstract: Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere may contribute to global warming. The three most important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (mainly from burning fossil fuels and deforestation), methane (mainly from ruminant animals and waste management) and nitrous oxide (mainly from dung, urine, and nitrogenous fertilisers). Dairy farms contribute to greenhouse gas emissions because of nitrous oxide and methane emissions (Whitehead et al., 2009). 
Herd-homes or stand-off pads are increasingly used on dairy farms to minimise soil pugging and compaction. The manure collected from herd-home bunkers or stand-off pads, may be a source of gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄). Addition of soil or sawdust to manure prior to land application of manure is a potential best farm management practice to minimise gaseous losses.

The specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the optimum flow rate for measurement of ammonia emissions from manure or urea application to soil using a chamber method.
2. Quantify gaseous (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄) emissions from manure or urea after application to soil.
3. Determine the effects of addition of soil or sawdust to manure prior to land application of manure on subsequent gaseous emissions.
4. Determine the effects of surface or incorporated land application of manure or urea on gaseous emissions.

A preliminary experiment was undertaken to determine the optimum flow rate to measure ammonia emissions, from manure or urea after application to soil, using a chamber method. The flow rate experiment was set up in the glasshouse with 3 replications of 9 flow rate treatments. A flow rate of 5 L min-¹ (1 exchange volume min-¹) was determined as the optimum air flow rate to use in the chamber method to measure ammonia volatilisation.
An experiment was undertaken, with 27 pots and 3 replications of 9 treatments, to investigate the effect of soil or sawdust addition to manure on gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄), when applied on the land surface or incorporated. The physical and chemical properties of the soil, urine, dung, and sawdust were determined in the laboratory. 
Addition of sawdust was more effective in reducing ammonia emissions, than addition of soil, to manure prior to land application. The incorporated application of all manure treatments resulted in less NH₃ volatilisation compared to surface application. Total ammonia losses were 51% of the applied N from the surface application and 2% of the applied N from incorporated application of urine and dung with soil, and 15% of the applied N from the surface application and 4% of the applied N from incorporated application of urine and dung with sawdust. Ammonia emissions followed a general pattern of rapid emission on day 2 after the application of the urine and dung to soil followed by a progressive decline over time for both the surface and incorporated application for all the manure treatments applied.
Total N₂O loss of 14% of applied N was observed with incorporated application of manure with sawdust. Most treatments had no net methane emission. Addition of soil and sawdust to manure, prior to application to soil, reduced ammonia emissions and increased nitrous oxide emissions.

text: Gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄) following manure or urea application to soil as influenced by amendments Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere may contribute to global warming. The three most important greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (mainly from burning fossil fuels and deforestation), methane (mainly from ruminant animals and waste management) and nitrous oxide (mainly from dung, urine, and nitrogenous fertilisers). Dairy farms contribute to greenhouse gas emissions because of nitrous oxide and methane emissions (Whitehead et al., 2009). 
Herd-homes or stand-off pads are increasingly used on dairy farms to minimise soil pugging and compaction. The manure collected from herd-home bunkers or stand-off pads, may be a source of gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄). Addition of soil or sawdust to manure prior to land application of manure is a potential best farm management practice to minimise gaseous losses.

The specific objectives of the study were to:
1. Determine the optimum flow rate for measurement of ammonia emissions from manure or urea application to soil using a chamber method.
2. Quantify gaseous (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄) emissions from manure or urea after application to soil.
3. Determine the effects of addition of soil or sawdust to manure prior to land application of manure on subsequent gaseous emissions.
4. Determine the effects of surface or incorporated land application of manure or urea on gaseous emissions.

A preliminary experiment was undertaken to determine the optimum flow rate to measure ammonia emissions, from manure or urea after application to soil, using a chamber method. The flow rate experiment was set up in the glasshouse with 3 replications of 9 flow rate treatments. A flow rate of 5 L min-¹ (1 exchange volume min-¹) was determined as the optimum air flow rate to use in the chamber method to measure ammonia volatilisation.
An experiment was undertaken, with 27 pots and 3 replications of 9 treatments, to investigate the effect of soil or sawdust addition to manure on gaseous emissions (NH₃, N₂O and CH₄), when applied on the land surface or incorporated. The physical and chemical properties of the soil, urine, dung, and sawdust were determined in the laboratory. 
Addition of sawdust was more effective in reducing ammonia emissions, than addition of soil, to manure prior to land application. The incorporated application of all manure treatments resulted in less NH₃ volatilisation compared to surface application. Total ammonia losses were 51% of the applied N from the surface application and 2% of the applied N from incorporated application of urine and dung with soil, and 15% of the applied N from the surface application and 4% of the applied N from incorporated application of urine and dung with sawdust. Ammonia emissions followed a general pattern of rapid emission on day 2 after the application of the urine and dung to soil followed by a progressive decline over time for both the surface and incorporated application for all the manure treatments applied.
Total N₂O loss of 14% of applied N was observed with incorporated application of manure with sawdust. Most treatments had no net methane emission. Addition of soil and sawdust to manure, prior to application to soil, reduced ammonia emissions and increased nitrous oxide emissions.

year: 2010

title: Who should we listen to? Comparing parent and child report of post-concussive symptoms

authors: Liddicoat, Zabé

abstract: A significant proportion of people worldwide are impacted by the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Research into the incidence and severity of TBI demonstrates that the majority of injuries are mild (such as concussion) and are experienced by children and adolescents. Despite the significance of concussion in young people, there is limited research exploring the impact of this injury on this age group. This is compounded by a lack of clarity on how best to assess concussion symptoms with regard to the measure utilised, timing of assessment, and informant reporting. Assessing concussion in children and adolescents is complicated by the child’s ability to report on concussion symptoms and negotiating reporting from parents and children simultaneously. Previous research has identified gaps in the literature including: lack of acute assessment of symptoms, few longitudinal studies into the pattern of symptom reporting over time, and lack of research associating subjective symptom reports with other objective symptom measures. Therefore, the main aims of this study were: 
i)	To assess parent and child concordance when reporting concussion symptoms over time.
ii)	To determine the association between parent and child ratings of concussion symptoms and objective symptom measures. 
This research was part of a wider pilot study, Concussion Recovery and Assessment in New Zealand Adolescents and Children (CRANIAC). It involved 49 pairs of children and their parents or caregivers. Twenty-seven children had sustained a concussion and 22 comprised a comparison group of children with an upper limb injury. The children and their parents completed the Post Concussive Symptom Inventory (PCSI) and Sports Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT)) on four occasions after injury (one to four days, two weeks, one month, three months). Correlations were used to assess concordance between parent and child ratings at each time point and how the subjective PCSI ratings were associated with the objective symptom assessments from the SCAT. 
Results showed parents and children from both injury groups reported most symptoms acutely after injury and fewer symptoms at every subsequent time point. There were fewer symptoms recorded and lower agreement for parents/children with an upper limb injury than those with concussion. Parents and children appeared to agree least about symptoms during the acute period of injury and agreement generally strengthened over time as symptom number and severity decreased. Additionally, there was more agreement about the presence or absence of symptoms rather than the severity. Finally, the PCSI ratings from parents or children did not relate to objective SCAT domain measures. This suggests that these scales may be measuring different constructs. 
In conclusion, symptom report and parent/child concordance for children with concussion is distinct from another injury. When children have sustained a concussion, it is beneficial to obtain reports from the child and a caregiver, particularly closer to injury. This is because parents and children report similar amounts of symptoms but there are discrepancies in the severity and types of symptoms reported by both raters.  Therefore, it is not a case of asking who we should listen to, but acknowledging both parents and children give complementary information about concussion. It is especially important to obtain parent and child reports in the acute period after concussion. Similarly, subjective symptom report and objective ratings create a more comprehensive assessment. Future research into parent and child symptom reporting with a larger sample would allow analyses by age group, as well as an analysis of differences between reports. In a broader sense, future research into parent and child agreement across general measures of health and wellbeing may also be beneficial.

text: Who should we listen to? Comparing parent and child report of post-concussive symptoms A significant proportion of people worldwide are impacted by the effects of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Research into the incidence and severity of TBI demonstrates that the majority of injuries are mild (such as concussion) and are experienced by children and adolescents. Despite the significance of concussion in young people, there is limited research exploring the impact of this injury on this age group. This is compounded by a lack of clarity on how best to assess concussion symptoms with regard to the measure utilised, timing of assessment, and informant reporting. Assessing concussion in children and adolescents is complicated by the child’s ability to report on concussion symptoms and negotiating reporting from parents and children simultaneously. Previous research has identified gaps in the literature including: lack of acute assessment of symptoms, few longitudinal studies into the pattern of symptom reporting over time, and lack of research associating subjective symptom reports with other objective symptom measures. Therefore, the main aims of this study were: 
i)	To assess parent and child concordance when reporting concussion symptoms over time.
ii)	To determine the association between parent and child ratings of concussion symptoms and objective symptom measures. 
This research was part of a wider pilot study, Concussion Recovery and Assessment in New Zealand Adolescents and Children (CRANIAC). It involved 49 pairs of children and their parents or caregivers. Twenty-seven children had sustained a concussion and 22 comprised a comparison group of children with an upper limb injury. The children and their parents completed the Post Concussive Symptom Inventory (PCSI) and Sports Concussion Assessment Tool (SCAT)) on four occasions after injury (one to four days, two weeks, one month, three months). Correlations were used to assess concordance between parent and child ratings at each time point and how the subjective PCSI ratings were associated with the objective symptom assessments from the SCAT. 
Results showed parents and children from both injury groups reported most symptoms acutely after injury and fewer symptoms at every subsequent time point. There were fewer symptoms recorded and lower agreement for parents/children with an upper limb injury than those with concussion. Parents and children appeared to agree least about symptoms during the acute period of injury and agreement generally strengthened over time as symptom number and severity decreased. Additionally, there was more agreement about the presence or absence of symptoms rather than the severity. Finally, the PCSI ratings from parents or children did not relate to objective SCAT domain measures. This suggests that these scales may be measuring different constructs. 
In conclusion, symptom report and parent/child concordance for children with concussion is distinct from another injury. When children have sustained a concussion, it is beneficial to obtain reports from the child and a caregiver, particularly closer to injury. This is because parents and children report similar amounts of symptoms but there are discrepancies in the severity and types of symptoms reported by both raters.  Therefore, it is not a case of asking who we should listen to, but acknowledging both parents and children give complementary information about concussion. It is especially important to obtain parent and child reports in the acute period after concussion. Similarly, subjective symptom report and objective ratings create a more comprehensive assessment. Future research into parent and child symptom reporting with a larger sample would allow analyses by age group, as well as an analysis of differences between reports. In a broader sense, future research into parent and child agreement across general measures of health and wellbeing may also be beneficial.

year: 2020

title: 'Chris Finlayson and James Christmas, He Kupu Taurangi'

authors: Simon, Hemopereki

abstract: Twenty-five years on from the Ngāi Tahu Treaty settlement this book authored by Former Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations Hon. Chris Finlayson QC and Senior Ministerial Advisor James Christmas seems timely to capture the modern history and processes of the Treaty Settlement here in Aotearoa New Zealand. After all, the effects of these settlements is driving change economically, socially, environmentally, and politically, not only within hapū and iwi but nationally.

text: 'Chris Finlayson and James Christmas, He Kupu Taurangi' Twenty-five years on from the Ngāi Tahu Treaty settlement this book authored by Former Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations Hon. Chris Finlayson QC and Senior Ministerial Advisor James Christmas seems timely to capture the modern history and processes of the Treaty Settlement here in Aotearoa New Zealand. After all, the effects of these settlements is driving change economically, socially, environmentally, and politically, not only within hapū and iwi but nationally.

year: 2022