title: Sap feeding behaviour of North Island kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis, Lorenz 1896) in plantation forests

authors: Beaven, Brent Maurice

abstract: North Island kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis) damage plantation pines (Pinus radiata and Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Whirinaki Forest. Kaka strip pieces of bark off the trunks to gain access to the sap beneath. Three methods were used to investigate this behaviour. Firstly, the Whirinaki and Kaingaroa Plantation Forests were surveyed to investigate the current levels of damage and the physical characteristics and location of damaged trees. Secondly, the movements and habitat use of kaka were investigated by radiotracking. Finally, the diet of kaka was determined, through direct observation, and seasonal changes in diet and damage frequency were documented. 

The highest level of damage in a sampled compartment was 40% of surveyed trees (n= 100), but 78% of the damaged trees had only 1-2 damage patches. Why some trees were damaged but not others was not determined because there was no relationship between damage and diameter at breast height (DBH), or tree position relative to topographical features. Kaka damage occurred up to 1 km from the native forest. Trees suffering from crown dieback were no more likely to have damage than trees without dieback. At least 56% of trees suffering from crown dieback (n= 144) in the surveyed compartments were not damaged by kaka. 

The average core home range size for kaka, over 1 year, in dense podocarp forest was 15.5ha (n=6). All home ranges were within 2km (flying distance) of the exotic forest. Only one of these birds bark stripped in the exotic forest, where it spent up to 97% of its time during September and October. There was a large degree of overlap between home ranges, although there was less overlap in the specific use of this space. Monthly changes in activity centres occurred often over the course of the year, but birds typically returned to areas where they had been previously; the average change in the position of activity centres each month was 203m. One bird had a large expansion in its home range size in July when few food sources were available but it did not use the exotic forest. This coincided with a time when there was a low level of damage in the exotic forest. 

Four categories of food accounted for all of the feeding observations of kaka (n=2628): berries (24.3%), sap (24.0%), seeds (29.8%) and insects (22.0%). Eleven different tree species were used for food, and two of these were exotics; exotics accounted for 21.8% of total feeding observations and 38% of all sap feeding observations (n=366). Three podocarp species accounted for more than 50% of total feeding observations but only 6.7% of sap feeding observations. Seasonal changes in diet were evident. Berries were eaten from January-June; insects from March-October; seeds February-March and September-November; and sap from September-November. Bark stripping occurred mainly from September-December, with Douglas fir used during September and October, and tawa from October-December. This may be associated with an increase in sap sugar levels at the start of spring.

text: Sap feeding behaviour of North Island kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis, Lorenz 1896) in plantation forests North Island kaka (Nestor meridionalis septentrionalis) damage plantation pines (Pinus radiata and Pseudotsuga menziesii) in the Whirinaki Forest. Kaka strip pieces of bark off the trunks to gain access to the sap beneath. Three methods were used to investigate this behaviour. Firstly, the Whirinaki and Kaingaroa Plantation Forests were surveyed to investigate the current levels of damage and the physical characteristics and location of damaged trees. Secondly, the movements and habitat use of kaka were investigated by radiotracking. Finally, the diet of kaka was determined, through direct observation, and seasonal changes in diet and damage frequency were documented. 

The highest level of damage in a sampled compartment was 40% of surveyed trees (n= 100), but 78% of the damaged trees had only 1-2 damage patches. Why some trees were damaged but not others was not determined because there was no relationship between damage and diameter at breast height (DBH), or tree position relative to topographical features. Kaka damage occurred up to 1 km from the native forest. Trees suffering from crown dieback were no more likely to have damage than trees without dieback. At least 56% of trees suffering from crown dieback (n= 144) in the surveyed compartments were not damaged by kaka. 

The average core home range size for kaka, over 1 year, in dense podocarp forest was 15.5ha (n=6). All home ranges were within 2km (flying distance) of the exotic forest. Only one of these birds bark stripped in the exotic forest, where it spent up to 97% of its time during September and October. There was a large degree of overlap between home ranges, although there was less overlap in the specific use of this space. Monthly changes in activity centres occurred often over the course of the year, but birds typically returned to areas where they had been previously; the average change in the position of activity centres each month was 203m. One bird had a large expansion in its home range size in July when few food sources were available but it did not use the exotic forest. This coincided with a time when there was a low level of damage in the exotic forest. 

Four categories of food accounted for all of the feeding observations of kaka (n=2628): berries (24.3%), sap (24.0%), seeds (29.8%) and insects (22.0%). Eleven different tree species were used for food, and two of these were exotics; exotics accounted for 21.8% of total feeding observations and 38% of all sap feeding observations (n=366). Three podocarp species accounted for more than 50% of total feeding observations but only 6.7% of sap feeding observations. Seasonal changes in diet were evident. Berries were eaten from January-June; insects from March-October; seeds February-March and September-November; and sap from September-November. Bark stripping occurred mainly from September-December, with Douglas fir used during September and October, and tawa from October-December. This may be associated with an increase in sap sugar levels at the start of spring.

year: 1996

title: Browsing tree structures

authors: Apperley, Mark

subjects: computer science

abstract: Graphic representations of tree structures are notoriously difficult to create, display, and interpret, particularly when the volume of information they contain, and hence the number of nodes, is large. The problem of interactively browsing information held in tree structures is examined, and the implementation of an innovative tree browser described. This browser is based on distortion-oriented display techniques and intuitive direct manipulation interaction. The tree layout is automatically generated, but the location and extent of detail shown is controlled by the user. It is suggested that these techniques could be extended to the browsing of more general networks.

text: Browsing tree structures Graphic representations of tree structures are notoriously difficult to create, display, and interpret, particularly when the volume of information they contain, and hence the number of nodes, is large. The problem of interactively browsing information held in tree structures is examined, and the implementation of an innovative tree browser described. This browser is based on distortion-oriented display techniques and intuitive direct manipulation interaction. The tree layout is automatically generated, but the location and extent of detail shown is controlled by the user. It is suggested that these techniques could be extended to the browsing of more general networks.

year: 1999-05

title: Defence not defiance: The shaping of New Zealand’s volunteer force

authors: Clayton, Garry James

subjects: New Zealand Army history

abstract: In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth New Zealand's land defences were primarily the responsibility of its Volunteer Force. This Force over a period of fifty-two years evolved from ill-considered vigilante bands to a well organised and disciplined Army. This thesis examines the evolution of this Volunteer Army in chronological sequence concentrating on the factors which shaped and developed it.
The preface provides a brief outline of this study on New Zealand's Volunteer Force. The thesis then presents the history of the Force in eight chapters. These chapters are in four basic divisions. The first section, of three chapters. examines the origins of the Force, its role in the New Zealand Wars and its subsequent development in the period of tenuous peace during the 1870's . The second section, comprising of two chapters only, examines the transformation of the Volunteers from a military body which primarily looked inward. into a Force which concentrated on protecting the nation's main ports. The third section , also comprising two chapters , then views the development of this coastal protection Force into a Colonial Army, able and willing to provide for the nation's own security as well as expeditionary units to· serve with the British Imperial Forces ·. The last Section, of one Chapter only, concentrates on the demise of Volunteering and the moves to compulsory military training. The conclusion then draws together the analytical threads of the thesis. 
As the thesis is extensive in its coverage of time, it is only possible to outline the very nature of Volunteering. It will be for Regimental Historians to show the uniqueness of each of the 658 different units that comprised the New Zealand Volunteer Force over its fifty-two years of existence. What this broad survey does do, however, is provide a unique window for the examination of the development of an embryonic Colonial Army in the context of a developing nation.

text: Defence not defiance: The shaping of New Zealand’s volunteer force In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth New Zealand's land defences were primarily the responsibility of its Volunteer Force. This Force over a period of fifty-two years evolved from ill-considered vigilante bands to a well organised and disciplined Army. This thesis examines the evolution of this Volunteer Army in chronological sequence concentrating on the factors which shaped and developed it.
The preface provides a brief outline of this study on New Zealand's Volunteer Force. The thesis then presents the history of the Force in eight chapters. These chapters are in four basic divisions. The first section, of three chapters. examines the origins of the Force, its role in the New Zealand Wars and its subsequent development in the period of tenuous peace during the 1870's . The second section, comprising of two chapters only, examines the transformation of the Volunteers from a military body which primarily looked inward. into a Force which concentrated on protecting the nation's main ports. The third section , also comprising two chapters , then views the development of this coastal protection Force into a Colonial Army, able and willing to provide for the nation's own security as well as expeditionary units to· serve with the British Imperial Forces ·. The last Section, of one Chapter only, concentrates on the demise of Volunteering and the moves to compulsory military training. The conclusion then draws together the analytical threads of the thesis. 
As the thesis is extensive in its coverage of time, it is only possible to outline the very nature of Volunteering. It will be for Regimental Historians to show the uniqueness of each of the 658 different units that comprised the New Zealand Volunteer Force over its fifty-two years of existence. What this broad survey does do, however, is provide a unique window for the examination of the development of an embryonic Colonial Army in the context of a developing nation.

year: 1990