title: Financial struggles and (rare) successes of miners in general and at Te Aroha in particular

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: The price for gold mined at Waiorongomai was comparatively good during the 1880s and 1890s. But miners hoping for a windfall from their efforts found that the reality of their lives was a constant struggle to make a reasonable living. Although the cost of living in the Te Aroha district was somewhat lower than in some other mining centres, they faced considerable costs in obtaining mining requisites, treating ore, and paying for tramway cartage.
As wages were low, usually not significantly above those of unskilled labourers, it was common to supplement wages with other work plus working small allotments. In general, miners preferred to be independent workers rather than ‘wage slaves’, in the expectation of higher rewards, but in practice such miners had to combine mining with other work. At least wages men (when in work) received a steady income compared with independent miners. Holidays were unpaid. Increasingly, contractors were preferred by mine owners, with competition for these sometimes driving down tenders to unprofitable levels. Wages were paid monthly, if then, forcing miners to sue for unpaid wages and to live on credit, which caused problems for storekeepers and miners alike, the latter being encouraged by this system to live beyond their means. Many were forced to borrow money, and many were sued for small debts. Bankruptcy was common, and some were fraudulent. Sometimes debts of both individuals and companies had to be waived, and sometimes debtors evaded paying, for instance by moving elsewhere.
Work was not always available, nor was it constant; shortage of water-power, for instance, meant batteries could not operate and mining had to cease, forcing miners to seek other work. Irregular employment usually meant poverty, and local and national government was asked to provide work in periods of high unemployment. Financially desperate miners (like others) sought work elsewhere, with varying success. Unemployment could lead to suicide, and in one case financial loss provoked an attempted murder. In general, the standard of living was low, and few miners were able to save much money. Indeed some did not try to save, wastefully spending any sudden (and rare) wealth, notably on alcohol. 
Examples are provided of poverty and its consequences for both miners and non-miners. Before old-age pensions were provided, children were required by law to assist their aged parents. Charity, both institutional and personal, assisted many poor, elderly, sick, or (in the case of wives and families) abandoned.
Although some examples of prosperity are given, these were unusual. It has been argued that nineteenth century miners should be seen as ‘free independent capitalists’, but their freedom rarely brought significant financial rewards.

text: Financial struggles and (rare) successes of miners in general and at Te Aroha in particular The price for gold mined at Waiorongomai was comparatively good during the 1880s and 1890s. But miners hoping for a windfall from their efforts found that the reality of their lives was a constant struggle to make a reasonable living. Although the cost of living in the Te Aroha district was somewhat lower than in some other mining centres, they faced considerable costs in obtaining mining requisites, treating ore, and paying for tramway cartage.
As wages were low, usually not significantly above those of unskilled labourers, it was common to supplement wages with other work plus working small allotments. In general, miners preferred to be independent workers rather than ‘wage slaves’, in the expectation of higher rewards, but in practice such miners had to combine mining with other work. At least wages men (when in work) received a steady income compared with independent miners. Holidays were unpaid. Increasingly, contractors were preferred by mine owners, with competition for these sometimes driving down tenders to unprofitable levels. Wages were paid monthly, if then, forcing miners to sue for unpaid wages and to live on credit, which caused problems for storekeepers and miners alike, the latter being encouraged by this system to live beyond their means. Many were forced to borrow money, and many were sued for small debts. Bankruptcy was common, and some were fraudulent. Sometimes debts of both individuals and companies had to be waived, and sometimes debtors evaded paying, for instance by moving elsewhere.
Work was not always available, nor was it constant; shortage of water-power, for instance, meant batteries could not operate and mining had to cease, forcing miners to seek other work. Irregular employment usually meant poverty, and local and national government was asked to provide work in periods of high unemployment. Financially desperate miners (like others) sought work elsewhere, with varying success. Unemployment could lead to suicide, and in one case financial loss provoked an attempted murder. In general, the standard of living was low, and few miners were able to save much money. Indeed some did not try to save, wastefully spending any sudden (and rare) wealth, notably on alcohol. 
Examples are provided of poverty and its consequences for both miners and non-miners. Before old-age pensions were provided, children were required by law to assist their aged parents. Charity, both institutional and personal, assisted many poor, elderly, sick, or (in the case of wives and families) abandoned.
Although some examples of prosperity are given, these were unusual. It has been argued that nineteenth century miners should be seen as ‘free independent capitalists’, but their freedom rarely brought significant financial rewards.

year: 2016

title: Gender and sexuality II: Activism

authors: Johnston, Lynda

subjects: activism

abstract: This report considers genders and sexualities within and across spaces of activism. Geographers concerned with social belonging, equity, human rights, civic duties, and gendered and sexed identities often engage in activism through participatory research and/or direct action. This report brings together geographical scholarship on feminist and queer (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer) – LGBTIQ – activism to examine the construction of transformative geographical knowledges. Feminist and queer activist geographers can be powerful forces for positive social change and challenge heteronormativity. They may also, however, reinforce normalizations and hierarchies within and beyond activist spaces. I bring together references that position geographers at the centre of activism, genders, sexualities and place.

text: Gender and sexuality II: Activism This report considers genders and sexualities within and across spaces of activism. Geographers concerned with social belonging, equity, human rights, civic duties, and gendered and sexed identities often engage in activism through participatory research and/or direct action. This report brings together geographical scholarship on feminist and queer (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer) – LGBTIQ – activism to examine the construction of transformative geographical knowledges. Feminist and queer activist geographers can be powerful forces for positive social change and challenge heteronormativity. They may also, however, reinforce normalizations and hierarchies within and beyond activist spaces. I bring together references that position geographers at the centre of activism, genders, sexualities and place.

year: 2016

title: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945

authors: Glen, Frank

abstract: This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

text: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945 This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

year: 1996