title: The Development and Genetic Variation of  Sophora prostrata – A New Zealand  Divaricating Shrub

authors: Grierson, Ella

subjects: Sophora prostrata

abstract: This research contributes to our understanding of the development and genetic variation of Sophora prostrata Buchanan (Fabaceae). This has provided a basis for further study into the evolution and development of divaricate branching, and relationships within Sophora. A comprehensive review of divaricate literature and assessment of published indices has identified the next steps in understanding and defining divaricates. Assembling and reviewing the available literature on S. prostrata has highlighted gaps in our knowledge, as well as issues that need to be addressed. 

Sophora prostrata is one of approximately 60 species displaying the divaricate habit in New Zealand. Many passionately debated hypotheses have been put forward to explain the evolution of divaricates, including adaptation to climatic factors, browsing by moa, or light intensities. The theories proposed to explain divaricate evolution are reviewed, and the indices of Atkinson (1992) and Kelly (1994) that are used to quantify divarication are assessed, using divaricate and non-divaricate species pairs. Despite Atkinson’s focus on branching parameters, and Kelly’s focus on aspects of the leaves, the species distinguished as divaricates were correlated in both indices. However, a more robust definition, and therefore a more comprehensive index, would allow the exact number of divaricates within the various potential divaricate subtypes to be established. Clarifying what exactly defines and unifies divaricate subtypes is essential to be able to properly address the evolution of this habit in New Zealand.

The differences in branching and decapitation response were measured and compared between S. prostrata and S. tetraptera (using three decapitated individuals and three intact of each species), and patterns in axillary bud development along three branches of S. prostrata were investigated. Proportions of established branches were found to be the same in both species, contradicting the idea that divaricates have more branches than non-divaricating species. However, in S. prostrata short shoots were found to be a significant contributor to the architecture, which allows S. prostrata to be able to exploit space that has already been colonised. Sophora prostrata also displayed increased growth and node activation in response to decapitation, which could be due to weak apical control resulting in no new leader shoot gaining absolute dominance over the overall plant. Further investigation into the architecture and development of decapitated and intact S. prostrata and S. tetraptera, along with other divaricate and non-divaricate species pairs, could help in understanding the complexities of apical control and apical dominance in woody species, and contribute to our knowledge of branching in general.

Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers were used in effort to further test the previously shown distinctness of S. prostrata, using a larger sample size across a wider geographic range than had previously been used, and assess the genetic variation across the geographic range of S. prostrata (throughout the Canterbury and Marlborough regions). The nine ISSR primers and 29 samples (18 of S. prostrata, 5 of S. tetraptera, and 6 of S. microphylla) were unable to support the distinctness of S. prostrata, or identify distinct relationships between the localities. Further research into the population genetics of S. prostrata is necessary to clarify any distinct populations, which could then educate ecosourcing. Variation that is shared across taxa could be a result of hybridisation, which has been widely documented in New Zealand Sophora species. The high number of fragments shared among all species (55%) is evidence of the close relationship between New Zealand Sophora species, which has been previously demonstrated. 

Information relevant to S. prostrata from the present thesis as well as other published and unpublished sources is presented as a contribution to the New Zealand Biological Flora series. In some areas such as the lower Waimakariri catchment, S. prostrata populations are declining due to browse damage, and there is a lack of seedling recruitment due to grazing and competition from grasses. Sophora prostrata populations will continue to decline without artificial replacement and other conservation measures. 

Increased interest and conservation effort involving S. prostrata and other divaricates can ensure that these valuable and iconic plants remain a unique and significant part of New Zealand’s native flora. Divaricates are individually and collectively a valuable resource that should be further utilised to answer many important ecological, evolutionary, and developmental questions.

text: The Development and Genetic Variation of  Sophora prostrata – A New Zealand  Divaricating Shrub This research contributes to our understanding of the development and genetic variation of Sophora prostrata Buchanan (Fabaceae). This has provided a basis for further study into the evolution and development of divaricate branching, and relationships within Sophora. A comprehensive review of divaricate literature and assessment of published indices has identified the next steps in understanding and defining divaricates. Assembling and reviewing the available literature on S. prostrata has highlighted gaps in our knowledge, as well as issues that need to be addressed. 

Sophora prostrata is one of approximately 60 species displaying the divaricate habit in New Zealand. Many passionately debated hypotheses have been put forward to explain the evolution of divaricates, including adaptation to climatic factors, browsing by moa, or light intensities. The theories proposed to explain divaricate evolution are reviewed, and the indices of Atkinson (1992) and Kelly (1994) that are used to quantify divarication are assessed, using divaricate and non-divaricate species pairs. Despite Atkinson’s focus on branching parameters, and Kelly’s focus on aspects of the leaves, the species distinguished as divaricates were correlated in both indices. However, a more robust definition, and therefore a more comprehensive index, would allow the exact number of divaricates within the various potential divaricate subtypes to be established. Clarifying what exactly defines and unifies divaricate subtypes is essential to be able to properly address the evolution of this habit in New Zealand.

The differences in branching and decapitation response were measured and compared between S. prostrata and S. tetraptera (using three decapitated individuals and three intact of each species), and patterns in axillary bud development along three branches of S. prostrata were investigated. Proportions of established branches were found to be the same in both species, contradicting the idea that divaricates have more branches than non-divaricating species. However, in S. prostrata short shoots were found to be a significant contributor to the architecture, which allows S. prostrata to be able to exploit space that has already been colonised. Sophora prostrata also displayed increased growth and node activation in response to decapitation, which could be due to weak apical control resulting in no new leader shoot gaining absolute dominance over the overall plant. Further investigation into the architecture and development of decapitated and intact S. prostrata and S. tetraptera, along with other divaricate and non-divaricate species pairs, could help in understanding the complexities of apical control and apical dominance in woody species, and contribute to our knowledge of branching in general.

Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers were used in effort to further test the previously shown distinctness of S. prostrata, using a larger sample size across a wider geographic range than had previously been used, and assess the genetic variation across the geographic range of S. prostrata (throughout the Canterbury and Marlborough regions). The nine ISSR primers and 29 samples (18 of S. prostrata, 5 of S. tetraptera, and 6 of S. microphylla) were unable to support the distinctness of S. prostrata, or identify distinct relationships between the localities. Further research into the population genetics of S. prostrata is necessary to clarify any distinct populations, which could then educate ecosourcing. Variation that is shared across taxa could be a result of hybridisation, which has been widely documented in New Zealand Sophora species. The high number of fragments shared among all species (55%) is evidence of the close relationship between New Zealand Sophora species, which has been previously demonstrated. 

Information relevant to S. prostrata from the present thesis as well as other published and unpublished sources is presented as a contribution to the New Zealand Biological Flora series. In some areas such as the lower Waimakariri catchment, S. prostrata populations are declining due to browse damage, and there is a lack of seedling recruitment due to grazing and competition from grasses. Sophora prostrata populations will continue to decline without artificial replacement and other conservation measures. 

Increased interest and conservation effort involving S. prostrata and other divaricates can ensure that these valuable and iconic plants remain a unique and significant part of New Zealand’s native flora. Divaricates are individually and collectively a valuable resource that should be further utilised to answer many important ecological, evolutionary, and developmental questions.

year: 2014

title: Living standards, wellbeing, and Public Policy

authors: Weijers, Dan M.

abstract: It has been five years since the publication of the Treasury paper that first set out its Living Standards Framework (LSF) (Treasury 2011). Since then, the LSF has become an increasingly central part of Treasury’s strategic direction. Treasury is now explicit about its aspiration to be “working towards higher living standards for New Zealanders” (Treasury 2015a), and the LSF itself has been used across a wide range of Treasury’s policy advising work (Treasury 2015c). But after five years of implementation and development, there remain questions about what exactly the LSF is and how it ought to, or could be, used by Treasury. The aim of this paper is to provide answers to these sorts of questions. It is intended as an update of Treasury’s 2011 paper, drawing on the rapid developments in the academic and policy literature on wellbeing in the last five years. We argue that the LSF can be understood as a wellbeing framework that articulates, justifies and helps enable the provision of comprehensive economic policy advice that improves wellbeing. The remainder of this introduction clarifies the main claims we will be advancing in this paper.

text: Living standards, wellbeing, and Public Policy It has been five years since the publication of the Treasury paper that first set out its Living Standards Framework (LSF) (Treasury 2011). Since then, the LSF has become an increasingly central part of Treasury’s strategic direction. Treasury is now explicit about its aspiration to be “working towards higher living standards for New Zealanders” (Treasury 2015a), and the LSF itself has been used across a wide range of Treasury’s policy advising work (Treasury 2015c). But after five years of implementation and development, there remain questions about what exactly the LSF is and how it ought to, or could be, used by Treasury. The aim of this paper is to provide answers to these sorts of questions. It is intended as an update of Treasury’s 2011 paper, drawing on the rapid developments in the academic and policy literature on wellbeing in the last five years. We argue that the LSF can be understood as a wellbeing framework that articulates, justifies and helps enable the provision of comprehensive economic policy advice that improves wellbeing. The remainder of this introduction clarifies the main claims we will be advancing in this paper.

year: 2021

title: Traditional plant harvesting in contemporary fragmented and urban landscapes

authors: Wehi, Priscilla M.

subjects: ethnobiology

abstract: Ecosystem fragmentation and destruction can lead to restrictive administration policies on traditional harvesting by indigenous peoples from remaining ecosystem tracts. In New Zealand, concerns about endangered species and governmental policies that focus on species and ecosystem preservation have resulted in severely curtailed traditional harvesting rights. Although provision has been made for limited gathering of traditional plants from government-administered conservation lands, it is unclear how much harvesting is undertaken on these lands and elsewhere and what this harvest might consist of. We interviewed seven expert Maori elders from the Waikato, New Zealand, to identify plant species they currently harvested and from where. We compared these data with the data we collected on permits issued for plant collecting on conservation lands in the same region. We sought to gain information on indigenous plant harvesting to determine the extent of permitted harvesting from conservation lands in the Waikato and to identify issues that might affect plant harvesting and management. Elders identified 58 species they harvest regularly or consider culturally important; over 50% of these species are harvested for medicinal use. Permit data from 1996 to 2006 indicated no apparent relationship between species of reported cultural significance and the number of permits issued for each of these species. Currently, few plant species are harvested from conservation lands, although some unofficial harvesting occurs. Elders instead reported that medicinal plants are frequently collected from urban and other public areas. They reported that plant species used for dyeing, carving, and weaving are difficult to access. Elders also discussed concerns such as spraying of roadsides, which resulted in the death of medicinal species, and use of commercial hybrids in urban planning. Local government may have an increasingly important role in supporting native traditions through urban planning, which takes account of cultural harvesting needs while potentially reducing future harvesting pressure on conservation lands. We suggest that active participation by the Māori community in the development and management of urban harvesting resources will result in positive outcomes.

text: Traditional plant harvesting in contemporary fragmented and urban landscapes Ecosystem fragmentation and destruction can lead to restrictive administration policies on traditional harvesting by indigenous peoples from remaining ecosystem tracts. In New Zealand, concerns about endangered species and governmental policies that focus on species and ecosystem preservation have resulted in severely curtailed traditional harvesting rights. Although provision has been made for limited gathering of traditional plants from government-administered conservation lands, it is unclear how much harvesting is undertaken on these lands and elsewhere and what this harvest might consist of. We interviewed seven expert Maori elders from the Waikato, New Zealand, to identify plant species they currently harvested and from where. We compared these data with the data we collected on permits issued for plant collecting on conservation lands in the same region. We sought to gain information on indigenous plant harvesting to determine the extent of permitted harvesting from conservation lands in the Waikato and to identify issues that might affect plant harvesting and management. Elders identified 58 species they harvest regularly or consider culturally important; over 50% of these species are harvested for medicinal use. Permit data from 1996 to 2006 indicated no apparent relationship between species of reported cultural significance and the number of permits issued for each of these species. Currently, few plant species are harvested from conservation lands, although some unofficial harvesting occurs. Elders instead reported that medicinal plants are frequently collected from urban and other public areas. They reported that plant species used for dyeing, carving, and weaving are difficult to access. Elders also discussed concerns such as spraying of roadsides, which resulted in the death of medicinal species, and use of commercial hybrids in urban planning. Local government may have an increasingly important role in supporting native traditions through urban planning, which takes account of cultural harvesting needs while potentially reducing future harvesting pressure on conservation lands. We suggest that active participation by the Māori community in the development and management of urban harvesting resources will result in positive outcomes.

year: 2010