title: Group model building to understand ‘wicked’ problems in New Zealand freshwater management

authors: Connolly, Justin Dennis

subjects: group model building

abstract: Freshwater resources are coming under increasing pressure across New Zealand. High levels of water use and contaminant loss from both point and non-point sources are contributing to growing concern around both the quality of freshwater and its availability. National government regulation has provided greater guidance on the freshwater standards required in water ways, while increasingly collaborative processes are being applied to develop directions for both national and regional policy. A shift towards the inclusion of stakeholders in policy development follows global trends; however, its application in reality is difficult, due to scarce resources (especially data and time) and the high biophysical and social complexity of the issues being addressed.
This research investigates whether the use of causal-loop diagrams (CLDs), applied in a group model building (GMB) process, increases the shared understanding of a freshwater issue by a group. CLDs are a qualitative system dynamics (SD) modelling tool, which seeks to identify the interdependency between elements of a system and the direction of these relationships. They are straightforward to generate and can provide insight into the underlying causes of suboptimal behaviour in complex, dynamic environments. 
The GMB process applied in this research involves the extension of an existing script-driven process, after extensive piloting. It is applied with only two supporting personnel within a limited timeframe, to explore how useful this process is within an environment involving scarce resources. The developed process is applied to two case studies, both involving freshwater management by New Zealand communities. The effectiveness of the GMB process was explored using a mixed methods approach. A post-workshop survey gathered self-reported quantitative and qualitative findings, while a qualitative analysis of data from semi-structured follow-up interviews was undertaken using thematic analysis. 
The self-reported data indicated not only very high levels of individual satisfaction with the process, but also that the process had helped the group’s shared understanding of the issues and that the output (the CLD) would be useful to the group in the future. The thematic analysis identified four broad themes: that there was a desire for a different approach to decision-making; that the GMB process was a refreshing change; that the GMB process built both a group AND a group model; and that, while it was useful, it also did not provide enough detail for decision-making on its own.
The desire for a different approach was underpinned by the complexity of the decision-making process; as well as frustration from some of those involved that they either did not feel that their views were being (or had been) appreciated or from a direct sense of frustration from dealing with council (currently or in the past). It was felt that the GMB approach was a refreshing change as it was a simple and focused process, involving a small group of relevant stakeholders. More importantly, the fact that the group members were actively involved in the process, it was participant led and independently facilitated were all very positive aspects identified.
However, the process for GMB that was applied was found not to be a panacea for solving problems, with more detailed, numerical modelling required to provide insight into the relative importance of key factors.

text: Group model building to understand ‘wicked’ problems in New Zealand freshwater management Freshwater resources are coming under increasing pressure across New Zealand. High levels of water use and contaminant loss from both point and non-point sources are contributing to growing concern around both the quality of freshwater and its availability. National government regulation has provided greater guidance on the freshwater standards required in water ways, while increasingly collaborative processes are being applied to develop directions for both national and regional policy. A shift towards the inclusion of stakeholders in policy development follows global trends; however, its application in reality is difficult, due to scarce resources (especially data and time) and the high biophysical and social complexity of the issues being addressed.
This research investigates whether the use of causal-loop diagrams (CLDs), applied in a group model building (GMB) process, increases the shared understanding of a freshwater issue by a group. CLDs are a qualitative system dynamics (SD) modelling tool, which seeks to identify the interdependency between elements of a system and the direction of these relationships. They are straightforward to generate and can provide insight into the underlying causes of suboptimal behaviour in complex, dynamic environments. 
The GMB process applied in this research involves the extension of an existing script-driven process, after extensive piloting. It is applied with only two supporting personnel within a limited timeframe, to explore how useful this process is within an environment involving scarce resources. The developed process is applied to two case studies, both involving freshwater management by New Zealand communities. The effectiveness of the GMB process was explored using a mixed methods approach. A post-workshop survey gathered self-reported quantitative and qualitative findings, while a qualitative analysis of data from semi-structured follow-up interviews was undertaken using thematic analysis. 
The self-reported data indicated not only very high levels of individual satisfaction with the process, but also that the process had helped the group’s shared understanding of the issues and that the output (the CLD) would be useful to the group in the future. The thematic analysis identified four broad themes: that there was a desire for a different approach to decision-making; that the GMB process was a refreshing change; that the GMB process built both a group AND a group model; and that, while it was useful, it also did not provide enough detail for decision-making on its own.
The desire for a different approach was underpinned by the complexity of the decision-making process; as well as frustration from some of those involved that they either did not feel that their views were being (or had been) appreciated or from a direct sense of frustration from dealing with council (currently or in the past). It was felt that the GMB approach was a refreshing change as it was a simple and focused process, involving a small group of relevant stakeholders. More importantly, the fact that the group members were actively involved in the process, it was participant led and independently facilitated were all very positive aspects identified.
However, the process for GMB that was applied was found not to be a panacea for solving problems, with more detailed, numerical modelling required to provide insight into the relative importance of key factors.

year: 2017

title: Evaluating soil and landscape models to predict liquefaction susceptibility in the Hinuera Formation, Hamilton Basin

authors: McKay, Aleesha May

abstract: The Hinuera Formation, being an extensive alluvial deposit throughout the Hamilton Basin plains, has been identified by Kleyburg (2015) as being susceptible to liquefaction. As much of the infrastructure of the Hamilton Basin is based on the Hinuera Formation, liquefaction thus poses a risk to the population of the area. This research project aims to develop a susceptibility model for liquefaction within the Hinuera Formation.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data collected during investigation for the Hamilton Section of the Waikato Expressway were acquired from the NZ Geotechnical Database. CLiqᵀᴹ software was used to analyse these data and determine the liquefaction potential index (LPI) of each CPT site. Soil map information (S-Map) was provided by Waikato Regional Council with the permission of Landcare Research, and Digital Elevation Data (DEM) by Waikato Regional Council. Parameters of slope, elevation, soil family and sibling number as well as the LPI derived from CLiqᵀᴹ were input into STATISTICAᵀᴹ and analysed using I-Tree analysis to determine the most influential factor to liquefaction. ArcGIS was then implemented to create landscape/soil models based on CLiqᵀᴹ data as well as calculations identified by statistical analysis.
The Hinuera Formation was found to have an overall susceptibility to liquefaction, ranging from low to high LPI dependant on depth. At a depth of 10 m, liquefaction potential on average was high, when compared to 3 and 5 m depths that showed a low to moderate LPI. At 3 m depth, which is most likely to show surface manifestation, liquefaction potential was low to moderate with the majority being considered as having a low LPI.

Soil textures ranged from coarse sand, to silt, to clay with few organics. When LPI was related to soil behaviour index (Ic) soil that had a ‘mixed’ texture of silty sand/sandy silt were most susceptible to liquefaction (~1.8-2.4 Ic). Much of the calculated liquefaction occurrence within CLiqᵀᴹ directly correlated to these sand/silt soil textures. Soil that was nearer to granular (coarse sand) or clay–like in behaviour were shown to likely inhibit liquefaction occurrence.
Soil family, a pedological map (and taxonomic) class, was shown to provide a good initial indication of the physical conditions of the underlying liquefiable soil, and therefore in turn liquefaction potential of land on the plains within the Hamilton Basin. A correlation between soil family and topography was identified using statistical analysis showing Utuhinaf and Kaipakif as most susceptible. Both Utuhinaf and Kaipakif soil families are of an organic texture (associated with peat formation). This observation led to the conclusion that areas of peat formation are likely correlated to the underlying soils having a relatively high susceptibility to liquefaction. This correlation is based on the knowledge that for peat formation to occur the land must have little relief (flat to a slight depression) and a high water table, both of which are prerequisites for liquefaction.
Elevation was also shown as a good initial indicator of liquefaction potential where a range between 38–39 m showed the highest liquefaction potential. When compared to a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) it was found that liquefaction potential was higher within interfluve and floodplain zones and lower in topography with a greater relief such as within the many paleo channels or low ridges of the Hamilton Basin. This is likely a result of the soil textures being finer with a higher silt component within the interfluve and floodplains due to the low energy depositional environment that is associated with these topographic features.
Based on the observations of soil family and topography being correlated to liquefaction susceptibility, two liquefaction susceptibility maps were developed to provide a preliminary assessment map.

text: Evaluating soil and landscape models to predict liquefaction susceptibility in the Hinuera Formation, Hamilton Basin The Hinuera Formation, being an extensive alluvial deposit throughout the Hamilton Basin plains, has been identified by Kleyburg (2015) as being susceptible to liquefaction. As much of the infrastructure of the Hamilton Basin is based on the Hinuera Formation, liquefaction thus poses a risk to the population of the area. This research project aims to develop a susceptibility model for liquefaction within the Hinuera Formation.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data collected during investigation for the Hamilton Section of the Waikato Expressway were acquired from the NZ Geotechnical Database. CLiqᵀᴹ software was used to analyse these data and determine the liquefaction potential index (LPI) of each CPT site. Soil map information (S-Map) was provided by Waikato Regional Council with the permission of Landcare Research, and Digital Elevation Data (DEM) by Waikato Regional Council. Parameters of slope, elevation, soil family and sibling number as well as the LPI derived from CLiqᵀᴹ were input into STATISTICAᵀᴹ and analysed using I-Tree analysis to determine the most influential factor to liquefaction. ArcGIS was then implemented to create landscape/soil models based on CLiqᵀᴹ data as well as calculations identified by statistical analysis.
The Hinuera Formation was found to have an overall susceptibility to liquefaction, ranging from low to high LPI dependant on depth. At a depth of 10 m, liquefaction potential on average was high, when compared to 3 and 5 m depths that showed a low to moderate LPI. At 3 m depth, which is most likely to show surface manifestation, liquefaction potential was low to moderate with the majority being considered as having a low LPI.

Soil textures ranged from coarse sand, to silt, to clay with few organics. When LPI was related to soil behaviour index (Ic) soil that had a ‘mixed’ texture of silty sand/sandy silt were most susceptible to liquefaction (~1.8-2.4 Ic). Much of the calculated liquefaction occurrence within CLiqᵀᴹ directly correlated to these sand/silt soil textures. Soil that was nearer to granular (coarse sand) or clay–like in behaviour were shown to likely inhibit liquefaction occurrence.
Soil family, a pedological map (and taxonomic) class, was shown to provide a good initial indication of the physical conditions of the underlying liquefiable soil, and therefore in turn liquefaction potential of land on the plains within the Hamilton Basin. A correlation between soil family and topography was identified using statistical analysis showing Utuhinaf and Kaipakif as most susceptible. Both Utuhinaf and Kaipakif soil families are of an organic texture (associated with peat formation). This observation led to the conclusion that areas of peat formation are likely correlated to the underlying soils having a relatively high susceptibility to liquefaction. This correlation is based on the knowledge that for peat formation to occur the land must have little relief (flat to a slight depression) and a high water table, both of which are prerequisites for liquefaction.
Elevation was also shown as a good initial indicator of liquefaction potential where a range between 38–39 m showed the highest liquefaction potential. When compared to a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) it was found that liquefaction potential was higher within interfluve and floodplain zones and lower in topography with a greater relief such as within the many paleo channels or low ridges of the Hamilton Basin. This is likely a result of the soil textures being finer with a higher silt component within the interfluve and floodplains due to the low energy depositional environment that is associated with these topographic features.
Based on the observations of soil family and topography being correlated to liquefaction susceptibility, two liquefaction susceptibility maps were developed to provide a preliminary assessment map.

year: 2017

title: Schooling  for  'lesser beings'

authors: Holdom, Jim

subjects: Maori

abstract: Using Edward Said’s notion of ‘lesser beings’, it is argued that the political culture of schooling for Maori was and still is part of a pervasive Western European intellectual climate and culture which has a quite recent history, and which provided powerful support for the notion of Europe possessing a categorical superiority over all other continents, which in turn justified imperialism or neo-colonialism as civilising missions.
Racism and violence were endemic in colonialism and, despite the claimed moral high ground, were endemic in Aotearoa/New Zealand.  War was eulogised in the Native School system more than once.  The rise and demise of the World War II Maori War Organisation is illustrative of the rejection of Maori aspirations.  There were still no Maori in the senior echelons of the Maori Department in 1972.
The Native, later Maori, School system was overtly designed to 'Europeanise' Maori children and therefore Maori society.  Individualism was deeply embedded in English and set-tler thinking, whilst communal, ‘communist’ Maori society was to be destroyed.
The thesis examines images of colonialism, empire and imperialism in fiction and non-fiction, New Zealand and British, for adults and children, and notes the attitudes of think-ers like J S Mill and Darwin, of children’s authors Jules Verne and G H Henty, and of New Zealand author William Satchell.  The images continue, pervasive and endemic, in recent adult novels.  Science also played a role, as did history.
 Ranginui Walker, who is Maori, is the only historian to have written a history of New Zea-land which addressed the issue of waste lands, an issue on which Pakeha historians have a blind spot.  New Zealand encyclopedia do not index ‘waste land’ or ‘confiscation’.  Only two Waikato histories deal adequately, or even accurately, with confiscation, the central episode in the history of the Waikato.  Tourist material is equally illustrative.
The Native Schools section of the Education Department ran the Native Schools like a fiefdom, operating in legislative and regulatory black holes for the first thirty years and for much of the time after that.  Teachers were moved around at will.  
The practice of James H Pope, the first inspector of Native Schools, is closely and critically examined, and negatively assessed.  His official writings were consistently derogatory of Maori, and his decisions in respect of Te Kopua Native School were at times detrimental to the pupils.  Pope was a product of his times.
The Te Kopua record is closely scrutinised, and the practice of the Education Department is frequently found wanting.  It is probable that the establishment of the school was aimed to destabilise King Country Maori, not to benefit the children.  It is a story of Maori co-operation and contribution.
Part Two is a detailed partial biography of Te Kopua, it being argued that until there is a significant corpus of studies of Native Schools a valid history of the Native/Maori School system and of schooling for Maori is not possible

text: Schooling  for  'lesser beings' Using Edward Said’s notion of ‘lesser beings’, it is argued that the political culture of schooling for Maori was and still is part of a pervasive Western European intellectual climate and culture which has a quite recent history, and which provided powerful support for the notion of Europe possessing a categorical superiority over all other continents, which in turn justified imperialism or neo-colonialism as civilising missions.
Racism and violence were endemic in colonialism and, despite the claimed moral high ground, were endemic in Aotearoa/New Zealand.  War was eulogised in the Native School system more than once.  The rise and demise of the World War II Maori War Organisation is illustrative of the rejection of Maori aspirations.  There were still no Maori in the senior echelons of the Maori Department in 1972.
The Native, later Maori, School system was overtly designed to 'Europeanise' Maori children and therefore Maori society.  Individualism was deeply embedded in English and set-tler thinking, whilst communal, ‘communist’ Maori society was to be destroyed.
The thesis examines images of colonialism, empire and imperialism in fiction and non-fiction, New Zealand and British, for adults and children, and notes the attitudes of think-ers like J S Mill and Darwin, of children’s authors Jules Verne and G H Henty, and of New Zealand author William Satchell.  The images continue, pervasive and endemic, in recent adult novels.  Science also played a role, as did history.
 Ranginui Walker, who is Maori, is the only historian to have written a history of New Zea-land which addressed the issue of waste lands, an issue on which Pakeha historians have a blind spot.  New Zealand encyclopedia do not index ‘waste land’ or ‘confiscation’.  Only two Waikato histories deal adequately, or even accurately, with confiscation, the central episode in the history of the Waikato.  Tourist material is equally illustrative.
The Native Schools section of the Education Department ran the Native Schools like a fiefdom, operating in legislative and regulatory black holes for the first thirty years and for much of the time after that.  Teachers were moved around at will.  
The practice of James H Pope, the first inspector of Native Schools, is closely and critically examined, and negatively assessed.  His official writings were consistently derogatory of Maori, and his decisions in respect of Te Kopua Native School were at times detrimental to the pupils.  Pope was a product of his times.
The Te Kopua record is closely scrutinised, and the practice of the Education Department is frequently found wanting.  It is probable that the establishment of the school was aimed to destabilise King Country Maori, not to benefit the children.  It is a story of Maori co-operation and contribution.
Part Two is a detailed partial biography of Te Kopua, it being argued that until there is a significant corpus of studies of Native Schools a valid history of the Native/Maori School system and of schooling for Maori is not possible

year: 1998