title: Putting self-determination theory into practice: Autonomy-supportive training for supervisors in low-skilled jobs

authors: Yong, Amy

subjects: Self-determination theory

abstract: According to self-determination theory (SDT), supervisors’ autonomy support (SAS) is one of the main factors that contributes to employees’ well-being and other positive outcomes. Wider studies on the outcomes of autonomy support have been conducted in sectors such as education, healthcare, sports and financial institutions and with occupational groups such as teachers, upper managers and coaches. While all of these studies demonstrate the importance of autonomy support in facilitating positive outcomes, the importance of SAS in enhancing the well-being of employees in low-skilled occupations is often neglected, despite the continued contribution of this sector to the economy and total workforce in New Zealand. Furthermore, limited studies within the workplace have also shown that (upper) management can be trained to be more autonomy-supportive. To date, however, this training has not been designed for supervisors in low-skilled occupations, who have different learning needs than those in higher-skilled occupations. Similarly, the effect of autonomy-supportive training on employees has been established in higher-skilled occupations, but not with employees in low-skilled occupations. Finally, according to Grossman and Salas (2011), various organisational factors can weaken the effect of training, which, in turn, undermines the long-term benefit of SAS. Nevertheless, this aspect of maintaining SAS after the training has often also been neglected in autonomy-supportive training studies. 
To address these issues, this thesis aims to: (1) develop the autonomy-supportive training (AST) and conduct a preliminary evaluation of the AST with supervisors in low-skilled occupations; (2) establish the perceived effect of SAS on employees in low-skilled occupations; (3) evaluate the outcomes of AST on supervisors and employees; and, (4) explore the factors affecting the maintenance of SAS with supervisors. To achieve these aims, a mixed-method approach was employed to collect data from supervisors and employees; these data were then presented as three separate research articles. The articles were submitted to peer-reviewed journals; all three articles have been published.   
	Study 1 reports on the development and preliminary evaluation of the AST for supervisors in low-skilled occupations. Drawing on and integrating both SDT and adult learning principles, the resultant training module is one of the first training modules in SDT designed to suit the learning needs of supervisors in low-skilled occupations. The study reports on the development of the training material as well as the preliminary evaluation of the AST using reaction evaluation. In general, supervisors found the AST relevant, easy to understand, and applicable to their work setting. 
	Study 2 examined the effect of employees’ perceived SAS on employees’ well-being and job performance. This study included analyses of need satisfaction and need frustration as mediators. Using mediation analyses, the results showed employees’ perceived SAS predicted well-being and job performance through need satisfaction but not through need frustration. The findings were the first to demonstrate the importance of employees’ perceived SAS on their well-being and job performance through need satisfaction in low-skilled occupations. 
	Study 3 used a two-stage mixed-method approach. First, the quantitative phase employed a quasi-experimental approach with AST as the manipulated variable and a longitudinal survey completed by both employees and supervisors. The second phase, the qualitative phase, employed both focus groups and interview with supervisors as its data gathering methods. The quantitative phase demonstrated an initial change in supervisory style after the training, although this effect was not perceived by employees in the longitudinal analysis. The qualitative phase unravelled factors affecting the maintenance of SAS. This study found that, although AST can increase SAS, the effects were diluted when upper-management autonomy support, and essential resources to complete tasks, are lacking. 
	Overall, this thesis expands the organisational and SDT literature by including an understudied occupational group: low-skilled employees and their supervisors. The findings of this thesis emphasise not only the benefits of AST and SAS for employees and supervisors, but also highlight the importance of senior managerial autonomy support and organisational support in leading low-skilled occupations.

text: Putting self-determination theory into practice: Autonomy-supportive training for supervisors in low-skilled jobs According to self-determination theory (SDT), supervisors’ autonomy support (SAS) is one of the main factors that contributes to employees’ well-being and other positive outcomes. Wider studies on the outcomes of autonomy support have been conducted in sectors such as education, healthcare, sports and financial institutions and with occupational groups such as teachers, upper managers and coaches. While all of these studies demonstrate the importance of autonomy support in facilitating positive outcomes, the importance of SAS in enhancing the well-being of employees in low-skilled occupations is often neglected, despite the continued contribution of this sector to the economy and total workforce in New Zealand. Furthermore, limited studies within the workplace have also shown that (upper) management can be trained to be more autonomy-supportive. To date, however, this training has not been designed for supervisors in low-skilled occupations, who have different learning needs than those in higher-skilled occupations. Similarly, the effect of autonomy-supportive training on employees has been established in higher-skilled occupations, but not with employees in low-skilled occupations. Finally, according to Grossman and Salas (2011), various organisational factors can weaken the effect of training, which, in turn, undermines the long-term benefit of SAS. Nevertheless, this aspect of maintaining SAS after the training has often also been neglected in autonomy-supportive training studies. 
To address these issues, this thesis aims to: (1) develop the autonomy-supportive training (AST) and conduct a preliminary evaluation of the AST with supervisors in low-skilled occupations; (2) establish the perceived effect of SAS on employees in low-skilled occupations; (3) evaluate the outcomes of AST on supervisors and employees; and, (4) explore the factors affecting the maintenance of SAS with supervisors. To achieve these aims, a mixed-method approach was employed to collect data from supervisors and employees; these data were then presented as three separate research articles. The articles were submitted to peer-reviewed journals; all three articles have been published.   
	Study 1 reports on the development and preliminary evaluation of the AST for supervisors in low-skilled occupations. Drawing on and integrating both SDT and adult learning principles, the resultant training module is one of the first training modules in SDT designed to suit the learning needs of supervisors in low-skilled occupations. The study reports on the development of the training material as well as the preliminary evaluation of the AST using reaction evaluation. In general, supervisors found the AST relevant, easy to understand, and applicable to their work setting. 
	Study 2 examined the effect of employees’ perceived SAS on employees’ well-being and job performance. This study included analyses of need satisfaction and need frustration as mediators. Using mediation analyses, the results showed employees’ perceived SAS predicted well-being and job performance through need satisfaction but not through need frustration. The findings were the first to demonstrate the importance of employees’ perceived SAS on their well-being and job performance through need satisfaction in low-skilled occupations. 
	Study 3 used a two-stage mixed-method approach. First, the quantitative phase employed a quasi-experimental approach with AST as the manipulated variable and a longitudinal survey completed by both employees and supervisors. The second phase, the qualitative phase, employed both focus groups and interview with supervisors as its data gathering methods. The quantitative phase demonstrated an initial change in supervisory style after the training, although this effect was not perceived by employees in the longitudinal analysis. The qualitative phase unravelled factors affecting the maintenance of SAS. This study found that, although AST can increase SAS, the effects were diluted when upper-management autonomy support, and essential resources to complete tasks, are lacking. 
	Overall, this thesis expands the organisational and SDT literature by including an understudied occupational group: low-skilled employees and their supervisors. The findings of this thesis emphasise not only the benefits of AST and SAS for employees and supervisors, but also highlight the importance of senior managerial autonomy support and organisational support in leading low-skilled occupations.

year: 2020

title: A mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy - Is there a place in New Zealand?

authors: Sugimoto, Irene

subjects: COVID-19

abstract: It has been nearly a year and a half since COVID-19 emerged in New Zealand. Although New Zealand has been fortunate enough to have little to no active community cases, it is still enduring the effects of COVID-19. The COVID-19 lockdown measures and continued strict border closures has caused the New Zealand economy as well as the New Zealand population’s mental health to deteriorate. Current COVID-19 management strategies are too costly and are detrimental to New Zealand. Therefore, to minimise the damage caused by COVID-19, it is crucial that New Zealand achieves herd immunity against COVID-19 through vaccinations. However, New Zealand may struggle to reach herd immunity due to the presence of vaccine hesitancy. Accordingly, the New Zealand Government may need to introduce a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy to achieve herd immunity.

A mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy would engage and limit the right to refuse medical treatment which is affirmed under s 11 of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act. The New Zealand Government would need to ensure that a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy is a justified limitation placed upon the s 11 right. To do this, the New Zealand Government must balance the public health interests with the right to personal autonomy. Although New Zealand places a high value on personal autonomy, the New Zealand Government has previously overridden personal autonomy to protect the nation’s health and well-being from public health crises (including COVID-19). Because New Zealand has a precedent of prioritising the population’s well-being over individuals’ rights, it is possible for the New Zealand Government to implement a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy. However, to introduce such policy, the New Zealand Government must observe the rule of law to uphold the foundation of a liberal democracy. If the New Zealand Government fails to consider the rule of law, a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy can be deemed ultra vires and is likely that public trust and confidence in vaccinations and governments will decline.

In summary, this paper argues that if New Zealand struggles to achieve herd immunity, people who can receive COVID-19 vaccinations should be subject to a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy. This is because the right to exercise personal autonomy turns into a privilege from a right if it causes harm upon others. If COVID-19 vaccinations are not mandated, people who actively chose to not be vaccinated will increase the spread of COVID-19 and create significant health risks. One may argue that being vaccinated against COVID-19 comes with the risk of experiencing adverse reactions. However, such risks are small compared to the risk of contracting COVID-19 and are outweighed by the benefits associated with COVID-19 vaccinations.

text: A mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy - Is there a place in New Zealand? It has been nearly a year and a half since COVID-19 emerged in New Zealand. Although New Zealand has been fortunate enough to have little to no active community cases, it is still enduring the effects of COVID-19. The COVID-19 lockdown measures and continued strict border closures has caused the New Zealand economy as well as the New Zealand population’s mental health to deteriorate. Current COVID-19 management strategies are too costly and are detrimental to New Zealand. Therefore, to minimise the damage caused by COVID-19, it is crucial that New Zealand achieves herd immunity against COVID-19 through vaccinations. However, New Zealand may struggle to reach herd immunity due to the presence of vaccine hesitancy. Accordingly, the New Zealand Government may need to introduce a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy to achieve herd immunity.

A mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy would engage and limit the right to refuse medical treatment which is affirmed under s 11 of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act. The New Zealand Government would need to ensure that a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy is a justified limitation placed upon the s 11 right. To do this, the New Zealand Government must balance the public health interests with the right to personal autonomy. Although New Zealand places a high value on personal autonomy, the New Zealand Government has previously overridden personal autonomy to protect the nation’s health and well-being from public health crises (including COVID-19). Because New Zealand has a precedent of prioritising the population’s well-being over individuals’ rights, it is possible for the New Zealand Government to implement a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy. However, to introduce such policy, the New Zealand Government must observe the rule of law to uphold the foundation of a liberal democracy. If the New Zealand Government fails to consider the rule of law, a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy can be deemed ultra vires and is likely that public trust and confidence in vaccinations and governments will decline.

In summary, this paper argues that if New Zealand struggles to achieve herd immunity, people who can receive COVID-19 vaccinations should be subject to a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination policy. This is because the right to exercise personal autonomy turns into a privilege from a right if it causes harm upon others. If COVID-19 vaccinations are not mandated, people who actively chose to not be vaccinated will increase the spread of COVID-19 and create significant health risks. One may argue that being vaccinated against COVID-19 comes with the risk of experiencing adverse reactions. However, such risks are small compared to the risk of contracting COVID-19 and are outweighed by the benefits associated with COVID-19 vaccinations.

year: 2021

title: An Assessment of the Cognitive Ability and the Attitude to Rehabilitation of European and Maori Trainees at a Borstal Institution.

authors: Zimmerman, Malcolm Laird

subjects: Borstal Institution

abstract: The incidence of delinquency in New Zealand has risen and is a cause for serious concern for the future of the nation. "As in all fields of social inquiry it is much easier to specify the problem than it is to account for its occurrence ... In the case of delinquency, it is much easier to record what has occurred as opposed to why - it is even more difficult to prevent delinquency from occurring at all. Why should this be so?" (Blizard, 1967, p.i.)
There are no easy answers: there are no short cuts to understanding: there will never be an easily worked out, or easily administered programme for prevention. The road is hard, costly both in terms of men, money and time.

text: An Assessment of the Cognitive Ability and the Attitude to Rehabilitation of European and Maori Trainees at a Borstal Institution. The incidence of delinquency in New Zealand has risen and is a cause for serious concern for the future of the nation. "As in all fields of social inquiry it is much easier to specify the problem than it is to account for its occurrence ... In the case of delinquency, it is much easier to record what has occurred as opposed to why - it is even more difficult to prevent delinquency from occurring at all. Why should this be so?" (Blizard, 1967, p.i.)
There are no easy answers: there are no short cuts to understanding: there will never be an easily worked out, or easily administered programme for prevention. The road is hard, costly both in terms of men, money and time.

year: 1971