title: Cyberbystanders: Behind the screens

authors: Hodge, Emma-Leigh

subjects: cyberbullying

abstract: Behaviour that occurs online is an important component of many people’s social interactions. It is, therefore, crucial that the detrimental impacts of cyberbullying and similar behaviour (i.e., online aversive behaviour) are addressed. To this end, I present research that progresses from an exploration of online social behaviour in general (Chapter 2) through to quantitative discounting studies that examine an avenue for behaviour change initiatives that improve the online social environment.
In the exploratory phase (Chapter 2), I conducted a series of focus groups with young people between 12- and 21-years old on the broad topic of Social Networking Site use (SNS). Participants spoke about how they manage their use of SNS, which coalesced around several key themes. One of these ideas was the importance of showing and receiving support from their online social communities, especially in instances of adversity.
An effective way to show support for another person online is to actively intervene when witnessing adverse (or aversive) behaviour directed toward that person. In Chapter 3, I explored a novel application of discounting methods to assess whether social outcomes related to online bystander (i.e., cyberbystander) intervention are discounted similarly to outcomes more common within the discounting literature. I used discounting methods in conjunction with the framework of the Bystander Intervention Model (BIM; Latané & Darley, 1970), reframing the latter to be congruent with the concepts of behaviour analysis. 
In Chapter 4, I tested the applicability of discounting methods to the decision-making of young adult cyberbystanders. As discounting studies using monetary outcomes have been well-established, I compared the probabilistic discounting of money to that of social outcomes related to cyberbystander behaviour. Having established that probability discounting can be applied to cyberbystander’s decision-making, in Chapter 5, I examined whether scenario severity, audience size, or locus of responsibility (i.e., whether responses related to participant’s own behaviour or their perception of how someone else would respond) impacted the willingness of young adults to intervene in online aversive behaviour. Intervention was marginally more likely when participants considered whether someone else would intervene (rather than themselves) and if the severity were high, but the larger audience size had a negligible effect. Chapter 6 contains a study designed to follow up on the promising findings regarding the impact that perceived scenario severity had on cyberbystander’s decisions to intervene themselves, particularly when compared to what participants considered the social norm to be (i.e., how they thought someone else would respond). The difference between the likelihood of intervention when participants responded for themselves versus what they considered normative was most evident when the scenario was moderate-to-high in severity.
In all, my research supports the premise that discounting methods can be applied to cyberbystander decision-making and used to assess aspects of the BIM to identify avenues for cyberbystander behaviour change initiatives. Cyberbystanders’ actions can fundamentally change whether acts of aversive behaviour are reinforced (or punished), as well as mitigate the extent of the harm experienced by a target of online aversive behaviour.

text: Cyberbystanders: Behind the screens Behaviour that occurs online is an important component of many people’s social interactions. It is, therefore, crucial that the detrimental impacts of cyberbullying and similar behaviour (i.e., online aversive behaviour) are addressed. To this end, I present research that progresses from an exploration of online social behaviour in general (Chapter 2) through to quantitative discounting studies that examine an avenue for behaviour change initiatives that improve the online social environment.
In the exploratory phase (Chapter 2), I conducted a series of focus groups with young people between 12- and 21-years old on the broad topic of Social Networking Site use (SNS). Participants spoke about how they manage their use of SNS, which coalesced around several key themes. One of these ideas was the importance of showing and receiving support from their online social communities, especially in instances of adversity.
An effective way to show support for another person online is to actively intervene when witnessing adverse (or aversive) behaviour directed toward that person. In Chapter 3, I explored a novel application of discounting methods to assess whether social outcomes related to online bystander (i.e., cyberbystander) intervention are discounted similarly to outcomes more common within the discounting literature. I used discounting methods in conjunction with the framework of the Bystander Intervention Model (BIM; Latané & Darley, 1970), reframing the latter to be congruent with the concepts of behaviour analysis. 
In Chapter 4, I tested the applicability of discounting methods to the decision-making of young adult cyberbystanders. As discounting studies using monetary outcomes have been well-established, I compared the probabilistic discounting of money to that of social outcomes related to cyberbystander behaviour. Having established that probability discounting can be applied to cyberbystander’s decision-making, in Chapter 5, I examined whether scenario severity, audience size, or locus of responsibility (i.e., whether responses related to participant’s own behaviour or their perception of how someone else would respond) impacted the willingness of young adults to intervene in online aversive behaviour. Intervention was marginally more likely when participants considered whether someone else would intervene (rather than themselves) and if the severity were high, but the larger audience size had a negligible effect. Chapter 6 contains a study designed to follow up on the promising findings regarding the impact that perceived scenario severity had on cyberbystander’s decisions to intervene themselves, particularly when compared to what participants considered the social norm to be (i.e., how they thought someone else would respond). The difference between the likelihood of intervention when participants responded for themselves versus what they considered normative was most evident when the scenario was moderate-to-high in severity.
In all, my research supports the premise that discounting methods can be applied to cyberbystander decision-making and used to assess aspects of the BIM to identify avenues for cyberbystander behaviour change initiatives. Cyberbystanders’ actions can fundamentally change whether acts of aversive behaviour are reinforced (or punished), as well as mitigate the extent of the harm experienced by a target of online aversive behaviour.

year: 2024

title: Balance, cognitive tuning, status and positivity bias in communication of impressions

authors: Armstrong, Warwick David

abstract: Experiment 1 (n=120) was a 3x2x2 analysis of variance design, investigating the interaction of the effect of cognitive tuning, balance and sex on polarization of personality impressions. While balance variables influenced polarization it did not mask the different polarization effects of the cognitive tuning sets, transmission and reception. The checking of positive traits outstriped the checking of negative traits by a factor of 2. 25. Males polarized more than females. Experiment 2 (n=40) investigated the interaction of tuning, sex and status. Status and sex effects on polarization were significantly different on transmission tuning only.

text: Balance, cognitive tuning, status and positivity bias in communication of impressions Experiment 1 (n=120) was a 3x2x2 analysis of variance design, investigating the interaction of the effect of cognitive tuning, balance and sex on polarization of personality impressions. While balance variables influenced polarization it did not mask the different polarization effects of the cognitive tuning sets, transmission and reception. The checking of positive traits outstriped the checking of negative traits by a factor of 2. 25. Males polarized more than females. Experiment 2 (n=40) investigated the interaction of tuning, sex and status. Status and sex effects on polarization were significantly different on transmission tuning only.

year: 1969

title: Characteristics and outcomes of patients with small cell lung cancer - findings from a New Zealand SACT database

authors: Lawrenson, Ross

abstract: Background Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) SCLC generally presents late and is treated with systemic anti-cancer treatment (SACT). Māori are over represented in Lung Cancer statistics but disparities between Māori and non-Māori in patterns of care and survival from SCLC have not been previously reported. 
Methods We used the custom-built SACT database collected by the Oncology Department at Waikato Hospital NZ, which recorded comprehensive lung cancer patient factors and SACT regimens from 2000 to 2021. We reported summary statistics to review the treatment by ethnicity, explored Kaplan Meier all-cause survival of patients, and estimated the unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of surviving 12 months. 
Results 742 patients with SCLC were included in this study, with 43% identified as Māori. Approximately 75% of patients received SACT, and there was no difference in the uptake of SACT between Māori and non-Māori. The median survival for SCLC was 8.5 months. After adjustment, patients treated with carboplatin plus etoposide (with/without durvalumab) or cisplatin plus etoposide were 1.5 times or 4.9 times respectively more likely to survive 12 months than those without a SACT regimen.
Conclusion There was no significant evidence of disparities in patterns of care and outcomes between Māori and non-Māori with SCLC. Carboplatin/cisplatin in combination with etoposide remained the primary first line SACT regimen for patients with SCLC in this New Zealand cancer treatment centre.

text: Characteristics and outcomes of patients with small cell lung cancer - findings from a New Zealand SACT database Background Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC) SCLC generally presents late and is treated with systemic anti-cancer treatment (SACT). Māori are over represented in Lung Cancer statistics but disparities between Māori and non-Māori in patterns of care and survival from SCLC have not been previously reported. 
Methods We used the custom-built SACT database collected by the Oncology Department at Waikato Hospital NZ, which recorded comprehensive lung cancer patient factors and SACT regimens from 2000 to 2021. We reported summary statistics to review the treatment by ethnicity, explored Kaplan Meier all-cause survival of patients, and estimated the unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios of surviving 12 months. 
Results 742 patients with SCLC were included in this study, with 43% identified as Māori. Approximately 75% of patients received SACT, and there was no difference in the uptake of SACT between Māori and non-Māori. The median survival for SCLC was 8.5 months. After adjustment, patients treated with carboplatin plus etoposide (with/without durvalumab) or cisplatin plus etoposide were 1.5 times or 4.9 times respectively more likely to survive 12 months than those without a SACT regimen.
Conclusion There was no significant evidence of disparities in patterns of care and outcomes between Māori and non-Māori with SCLC. Carboplatin/cisplatin in combination with etoposide remained the primary first line SACT regimen for patients with SCLC in this New Zealand cancer treatment centre.

year: 2023-02-10