title: Servant leadership and passive leadership:  A comparison of the effects of two non-heroic leadership styles on engagement, burnout, and performance

authors: Campbell, Elizabeth

subjects: Servant Leadership

abstract: Leadership is a phenomenon that has fascinated the academic and corporate communities for decades. Its definition has evolved significantly over time and in recent decades it has become understood that there are many different leadership styles at play within the workplace. Typically, research has been focused on active or ‘heroic’ forms of leadership, primarily positive in nature. However, recently there has been a shift towards looking at ‘non-heroic’ leadership styles as well as an increasing interest in destructive leadership styles. 
The present study looks at two distinct leadership styles; one positive in nature (servant leadership) and one negative in nature (passive leadership). This thesis examines the impact that these leadership styles have upon the work outcomes engagement, burnout, and performance over time. It was proposed that servant leadership would be positively related with engagement, and performance and negatively correlated with burnout at Time 1 and Time 2. Conversely, it was proposed that passive leadership would be negatively related with engagement, wellbeing, and performance and positively related with burnout at Time 1 and Time 2. It was also expected that these relationships would persist over time. 
697 participants responded to the questionnaires administered at Time 1 with 331 responses to the same questionnaire administered four weeks later at Time 2 yielding a response rate of 47.5%. Following this, relationships between servant and passive leadership and the outcomes of engagement, burnout, wellbeing, and performance were investigated using a Pearson’s r correlation, and regression analysis at Time 1 and Time 2. T tests were also carried out to test whether these relationships were stronger at Time 2 than Time 1 as post hoc analysis.
Findings suggest that servant leadership has a positive relationship with engagement, and a negative relationship with burnout and that these relationships persist over time. The relationship between servant leadership and performance was only significant at Time 1. A regression analysis revealed that servant leadership is a positive predictor of engagement and a negative predictor of burnout but not a significant predictor of performance. These findings confirm that servant leadership is a ‘good’ leadership style and that although a servant leader’s behaviours may not be observed, the positive effect upon employees is instrumental to organisational success.
A negative relationship was revealed between passive leadership and engagement, and burnout. These relationships persisted over time. However, the relationship between passive leadership and performance was insignificant at both Time 1 and Time 2. A regression analysis revealed that passive leadership is a negative predictor of engagement and a positive predictor of burnout but not a significant predictor of performance. These findings suggest that passive leadership is a ‘bad’ or destructive leadership style with detrimental implications for both employees and organisations. 
Post hoc analysis revealed that servant leadership had greater statistically significant impact on engagement, than passive leadership did at both Time 1 and Time 2, whereas passive leadership had a more significant impact on burnout than servant leadership at Time 1 and Time 2. Furthermore, neither servant nor passive leadership was found to have a stronger influence on performance. 
These results present important implications for leadership theory as it reveals that leadership behaviours do not necessarily need to be heroic and active or manifest in order to evoke change in followers’ behaviours. Both ‘good’ leadership and ‘bad’ leadership of non-heroic nature impacts work outcomes albeit differentially. This research highlights a need to recognise ‘good’ and ‘bad’ leadership behaviours that currently go unnoticed. If left unaddressed, the cost to both employees and organisations is huge.
This study is the first of its kind to compare the effects of two non-heroic leadership styles and addresses a unique gap in the literature. Furthermore, this study contributes to the growing body of literature by exploring the longitudinal relationship between two leadership styles and the work outcomes of engagement, burnout, and performance which have previously received little attention. 
Future research should focus on continuing to explore non-heroic forms of leadership such as servant and passive leadership as this thesis highlights how behaviours or lack thereof can have significant effects on both employees and organisations.

text: Servant leadership and passive leadership:  A comparison of the effects of two non-heroic leadership styles on engagement, burnout, and performance Leadership is a phenomenon that has fascinated the academic and corporate communities for decades. Its definition has evolved significantly over time and in recent decades it has become understood that there are many different leadership styles at play within the workplace. Typically, research has been focused on active or ‘heroic’ forms of leadership, primarily positive in nature. However, recently there has been a shift towards looking at ‘non-heroic’ leadership styles as well as an increasing interest in destructive leadership styles. 
The present study looks at two distinct leadership styles; one positive in nature (servant leadership) and one negative in nature (passive leadership). This thesis examines the impact that these leadership styles have upon the work outcomes engagement, burnout, and performance over time. It was proposed that servant leadership would be positively related with engagement, and performance and negatively correlated with burnout at Time 1 and Time 2. Conversely, it was proposed that passive leadership would be negatively related with engagement, wellbeing, and performance and positively related with burnout at Time 1 and Time 2. It was also expected that these relationships would persist over time. 
697 participants responded to the questionnaires administered at Time 1 with 331 responses to the same questionnaire administered four weeks later at Time 2 yielding a response rate of 47.5%. Following this, relationships between servant and passive leadership and the outcomes of engagement, burnout, wellbeing, and performance were investigated using a Pearson’s r correlation, and regression analysis at Time 1 and Time 2. T tests were also carried out to test whether these relationships were stronger at Time 2 than Time 1 as post hoc analysis.
Findings suggest that servant leadership has a positive relationship with engagement, and a negative relationship with burnout and that these relationships persist over time. The relationship between servant leadership and performance was only significant at Time 1. A regression analysis revealed that servant leadership is a positive predictor of engagement and a negative predictor of burnout but not a significant predictor of performance. These findings confirm that servant leadership is a ‘good’ leadership style and that although a servant leader’s behaviours may not be observed, the positive effect upon employees is instrumental to organisational success.
A negative relationship was revealed between passive leadership and engagement, and burnout. These relationships persisted over time. However, the relationship between passive leadership and performance was insignificant at both Time 1 and Time 2. A regression analysis revealed that passive leadership is a negative predictor of engagement and a positive predictor of burnout but not a significant predictor of performance. These findings suggest that passive leadership is a ‘bad’ or destructive leadership style with detrimental implications for both employees and organisations. 
Post hoc analysis revealed that servant leadership had greater statistically significant impact on engagement, than passive leadership did at both Time 1 and Time 2, whereas passive leadership had a more significant impact on burnout than servant leadership at Time 1 and Time 2. Furthermore, neither servant nor passive leadership was found to have a stronger influence on performance. 
These results present important implications for leadership theory as it reveals that leadership behaviours do not necessarily need to be heroic and active or manifest in order to evoke change in followers’ behaviours. Both ‘good’ leadership and ‘bad’ leadership of non-heroic nature impacts work outcomes albeit differentially. This research highlights a need to recognise ‘good’ and ‘bad’ leadership behaviours that currently go unnoticed. If left unaddressed, the cost to both employees and organisations is huge.
This study is the first of its kind to compare the effects of two non-heroic leadership styles and addresses a unique gap in the literature. Furthermore, this study contributes to the growing body of literature by exploring the longitudinal relationship between two leadership styles and the work outcomes of engagement, burnout, and performance which have previously received little attention. 
Future research should focus on continuing to explore non-heroic forms of leadership such as servant and passive leadership as this thesis highlights how behaviours or lack thereof can have significant effects on both employees and organisations.

year: 2020

title: Student engagement: Potential causes and solutions

authors: Weijers, Dan M.

abstract: I will briefly discuss what I take to be some potential causes and solutions to student disengagement at the University of Waikato. As educators responsible to our students, our employers, and taxpayers, we are facing pressures from multiple directions. We face pressure to increase pass rates and flexible learning options, while ensuring students achieve learning outcomes and become work-ready. Perhaps due to having too many options and no conscious priorities, combined with an ever increasing array of distractions, students are not making time to take study seriously. And, for the most part, we are enabling them to do that. A regular part of our jobs has become chasing students up because they don't come to class, they miss deadlines, or they haven't even taken the time to look at the paper outline. I think that a university-wide initiative to structure our courses more effectively, have higher expectations of students, and educate students about "how to do university" could reinvigorate the student body and improve outcomes for students, the university, and taxpayers.

text: Student engagement: Potential causes and solutions I will briefly discuss what I take to be some potential causes and solutions to student disengagement at the University of Waikato. As educators responsible to our students, our employers, and taxpayers, we are facing pressures from multiple directions. We face pressure to increase pass rates and flexible learning options, while ensuring students achieve learning outcomes and become work-ready. Perhaps due to having too many options and no conscious priorities, combined with an ever increasing array of distractions, students are not making time to take study seriously. And, for the most part, we are enabling them to do that. A regular part of our jobs has become chasing students up because they don't come to class, they miss deadlines, or they haven't even taken the time to look at the paper outline. I think that a university-wide initiative to structure our courses more effectively, have higher expectations of students, and educate students about "how to do university" could reinvigorate the student body and improve outcomes for students, the university, and taxpayers.

year: 2017

title: Pākehā Roots: Is claiming a Pākehā identity based on ethnic heritage or ethical choice?

authors: Green, Lynda

subjects: Authenticity

abstract: Development of a Pākehā identity has been an ongoing process since the first influx of people from the Northern Hemisphere set foot on the shores of Aotearoa. Originally the term Pākehā served as a generic term to distinguish early European colonisers from the Indigenous population who came to be known under the generic term of Māori. Both of these terms separated two groups of residents that have come to be known under the broader title of New Zealander. 

Chapter 2 begins with providing definitions from a range of sources describing some origins and definitions of the term Pākehā, discussion around the appropriateness of the term and how it can be used in our current timeframe to show empathy with Māori and their struggle for self-determination. A brief overview of human migration to the British Isles then the resulting migration to Aotearoa provides historical context to our pre-Pākehā heritage. Following this is a snapshot of some of our earliest Pākehā settlers which leads into the extent our governing bodies enlisted assisted immigrants to populate and provide infrastructure for this new colony of the British Empire. 

Chapter 3 delves into the angst-ridden territory of authentic existence championed through the existential philosophical movement. Tempered with a more compassionate approach from communitarian philosophy we are provided with a means to explore the many layers that build not only individual identity, but a collective identity also. Evidence is offered for the accommodation of the similarities, and more importantly differences we all experience in our wider relationships. Finally, focus is narrowed to specific issues attached to identifying as Pākehā in Aotearoa.

Underpinning this research are the nine semi-structured interviews which have provided tangible evidence of the complex elements accompanying the decision to self-identify as Pākehā (Chapter 4).  The very nature of identifying as Pākehā, as illustrated through the interview is not straightforward eliciting responses ranging from abundantly clear, to confusing and to contentious.  

The sheer diversity of responses generated an initial observance that, if this level of diversity in defining the term Pākehā is shown by nine people, how much more diversity would be operating throughout the general population. Here we can see how the basic premise of existential philosophy, that is, there is no essential nature to our existence, can be applied to attempting to seek a definition of being Pākehā that encapsulates all of the possible elements. What became abundantly apparent was the heartening feeling of most people striving for a sense of connectedness, on various levels, and a sense of belonging to this country we all call home.

text: Pākehā Roots: Is claiming a Pākehā identity based on ethnic heritage or ethical choice? Development of a Pākehā identity has been an ongoing process since the first influx of people from the Northern Hemisphere set foot on the shores of Aotearoa. Originally the term Pākehā served as a generic term to distinguish early European colonisers from the Indigenous population who came to be known under the generic term of Māori. Both of these terms separated two groups of residents that have come to be known under the broader title of New Zealander. 

Chapter 2 begins with providing definitions from a range of sources describing some origins and definitions of the term Pākehā, discussion around the appropriateness of the term and how it can be used in our current timeframe to show empathy with Māori and their struggle for self-determination. A brief overview of human migration to the British Isles then the resulting migration to Aotearoa provides historical context to our pre-Pākehā heritage. Following this is a snapshot of some of our earliest Pākehā settlers which leads into the extent our governing bodies enlisted assisted immigrants to populate and provide infrastructure for this new colony of the British Empire. 

Chapter 3 delves into the angst-ridden territory of authentic existence championed through the existential philosophical movement. Tempered with a more compassionate approach from communitarian philosophy we are provided with a means to explore the many layers that build not only individual identity, but a collective identity also. Evidence is offered for the accommodation of the similarities, and more importantly differences we all experience in our wider relationships. Finally, focus is narrowed to specific issues attached to identifying as Pākehā in Aotearoa.

Underpinning this research are the nine semi-structured interviews which have provided tangible evidence of the complex elements accompanying the decision to self-identify as Pākehā (Chapter 4).  The very nature of identifying as Pākehā, as illustrated through the interview is not straightforward eliciting responses ranging from abundantly clear, to confusing and to contentious.  

The sheer diversity of responses generated an initial observance that, if this level of diversity in defining the term Pākehā is shown by nine people, how much more diversity would be operating throughout the general population. Here we can see how the basic premise of existential philosophy, that is, there is no essential nature to our existence, can be applied to attempting to seek a definition of being Pākehā that encapsulates all of the possible elements. What became abundantly apparent was the heartening feeling of most people striving for a sense of connectedness, on various levels, and a sense of belonging to this country we all call home.

year: 2014