title: Workload demands during ball-in-play periods: A comparative study of locomotive and contact metrics in professional male and female rugby union players.

authors: MacDonald, Chantal

abstract: Title: Workload Demands during Ball-in-Play Periods: A Comparative Study of Locomotive and Contact Metrics in Professional Male for Female Rugby Union Players. 
Purpose: Rugby Union is a high collision-based sport demanding the best physical, technical, tactical and decision-making capabilities of players to influence success on the field. Various factors affect the ability of females and males to perform and meet the demands of match-play. This thesis was developed as a pilot study and employed an innovative design that examined and compared contact and workload metrics between female and male professional rugby players, aiming to explore differences in match play. 
Methods: Data were collected from 60 professional male and female rugby players, from two professional 2023 New Zealand National Provincial Rugby teams. All participants wore GPS units (Apex Pro Pod, STATSport, Newry, NIR). Each match was filmed and coded using a Sportscode video analysis software package (Sportscode 12.4.3, Sportstec, Australia), where contact and GPS metrics during Ball-in-Play periods were identified and recorded throughout the match. GPS and Sportscode data for each Ball-in-Play period for each match were combined in a bespoke software package. Differences between the sexes for each metric were analysed using Welch’s t-test with the level of significance set at P<0.05 and the magnitudes of the standardised differences were calculated using effect sizes determined by Cohen’s d (Hopkins, 2009, 2017). Tests for equality of variances, normality, and the examination of outliers were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 27) and the few metrics that failed normality testing were log-transformed. 
Results: Males locomotive metrics (GPS measures) and impacts (accelerometer measures) were typically significantly greater than females showing large to moderate magnitude differences. On the other hand, contacts were often significantly higher for females with small to large magnitude differences. 
Conclusion: The differences between males and females were likely a combination of genetic differences, and differences in how the respective games were played, and the males in this study typically had greater full-time professional training support and resources. Due to these differences, altering female threshold standards for specific intensive locomotion metrics to suit the physical capabilities of females, may give more of an accurate representation of game demands. On the other hand, providing greater resources to female rugby union players for similar periods to the males may reduce the differences observed in this study.

text: Workload demands during ball-in-play periods: A comparative study of locomotive and contact metrics in professional male and female rugby union players. Title: Workload Demands during Ball-in-Play Periods: A Comparative Study of Locomotive and Contact Metrics in Professional Male for Female Rugby Union Players. 
Purpose: Rugby Union is a high collision-based sport demanding the best physical, technical, tactical and decision-making capabilities of players to influence success on the field. Various factors affect the ability of females and males to perform and meet the demands of match-play. This thesis was developed as a pilot study and employed an innovative design that examined and compared contact and workload metrics between female and male professional rugby players, aiming to explore differences in match play. 
Methods: Data were collected from 60 professional male and female rugby players, from two professional 2023 New Zealand National Provincial Rugby teams. All participants wore GPS units (Apex Pro Pod, STATSport, Newry, NIR). Each match was filmed and coded using a Sportscode video analysis software package (Sportscode 12.4.3, Sportstec, Australia), where contact and GPS metrics during Ball-in-Play periods were identified and recorded throughout the match. GPS and Sportscode data for each Ball-in-Play period for each match were combined in a bespoke software package. Differences between the sexes for each metric were analysed using Welch’s t-test with the level of significance set at P<0.05 and the magnitudes of the standardised differences were calculated using effect sizes determined by Cohen’s d (Hopkins, 2009, 2017). Tests for equality of variances, normality, and the examination of outliers were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 27) and the few metrics that failed normality testing were log-transformed. 
Results: Males locomotive metrics (GPS measures) and impacts (accelerometer measures) were typically significantly greater than females showing large to moderate magnitude differences. On the other hand, contacts were often significantly higher for females with small to large magnitude differences. 
Conclusion: The differences between males and females were likely a combination of genetic differences, and differences in how the respective games were played, and the males in this study typically had greater full-time professional training support and resources. Due to these differences, altering female threshold standards for specific intensive locomotion metrics to suit the physical capabilities of females, may give more of an accurate representation of game demands. On the other hand, providing greater resources to female rugby union players for similar periods to the males may reduce the differences observed in this study.

year: 2024-10-31

title: Carbon inputs to soil from roots of two contrasting pasture swards

authors: McNally, Samuel Rae

subjects: Soil Carbon

abstract: The soil carbon (C) pool is one of the largest pools of C in the terrestrial environment. Soil management strategies to increase soil C are of interest globally to reduce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations which are contributing to climate change. Changes in land use and land management can result in gains, or losses of soil C, and consequently change in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Increasing the C inputs to soil by either increasing plant root mass has been suggested as one method to increase soil C. 
In New Zealand, pastoral agriculture is dominated by the use of perennial ryegrass and white clover pastures which are typically shallow rooting species. The use of more diverse pastures including additional species such as lucerne, chicory and plantain, may increase root mass or rooting depth. However, there is limited data on root mass and C inputs from roots to soil under ryegrass-clover pasture systems and no data on more diverse pasture swards in New Zealand pasture systems. The objective of this research was to investigate whether more diverse pasture swards had greater root mass and C inputs to soil compared to ryegrassclover and whether diverse pastures offered scope to increase soil C. 
Root mass was measured under a moderately diverse and a ryegrass-clover pasture in an existing plant diversity trial at a research dairy farm (Scott Farm, DairyNZ) containing 6 replicate paddocks of each pasture type. Soil cores were collected seasonally over one year to 300 mm depth and divided into three 100 mm depth sections (0 – 100, 100 – 200, 200 – 300 mm) and root mass measured after soil was washed off. There was greater root mass (0 – 300 mm) under the moderately diverse pasture (5320-9350 kg ha⁻¹ ) compared to the ryegrass-clover pasture (3810-5700 kg ha⁻¹) for all seasons. Additionally, there was greater root mass lower in the soil profile (100 – 200, 200 – 300 mm) in the moderately diverse pasture. The increased root mass in the moderately diverse pasture resulted in an estimated additional C input to soil of about 1203 kg C ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ (0 – 300 mm) but this estimate did not include contributions from root exudates. Root trait measurements of individual plant species also demonstrated a greater diversity of root traits (specific root length, surface area, and diameter) in the moderately diverse pasture, which may be important for the C input and C stabilisation processes in soil. 
Root turnover and C input to soil was measured on three replicate paddocks each of moderately diverse and ryegrass-clover pastures, also at Scott Farm. An isotope (¹³CO₂) pulse labelling method was used whereby clear chambers (1 m² ) were placed over pasture and ¹³CO₂ taken up following photosynthesis. Labelling was carried out once weekly for a period of five weeks, giving a total of 5 labelling events. Soil cores were collected at regular intervals following isotope labelling for up to 138 days and δ13C measured in the roots (0 – 100, 100 – 200 mm depth) and soil (0 – 100 mm depth) to calculate root turnover and C input. 
There was no difference in root turnover rates between the moderately diverse (298 days) and ryegrass-clover (260 days) pastures, with a combined root turnover rate of 276 days for both pastures. However, large variability in data meant that the ability to detect differences between pasture swards was low. The average C input to soil for both pastures was 58 kg C ha⁻¹ d⁻¹ over an 88 day period which was greater than other reported studies in New Zealand. A likely cause of this high C input from roots to soil was the severe drought conditions during the study that may have increased root death and C inputs from roots to soil.
While previous work determined similar root turnover and C inputs under both conventional and moderately diverse pastures, a final experiment focussed on whether pasture renewal of a ryegrass-clover pasture could result in increased root turnover, and therefore, greater C input to soil. Root turnover and C input to soil under ryegrass-clover pasture with and without pasture renewal was measured using an isotope pulse labelling method. Pastures (paired plots in 3 replicate paddocks) were labelled with ¹³CO₂ daily for five days within clear chambers (1 m² ) before one replicate in each pair was sprayed with herbicide and seed direct drilled. Soil cores were collected (0 – 100, 100 – 200 mm depths) at regular intervals over a 89 day period following isotope labelling and root turnover and C input measured by following the decline in ¹³C in extracted roots. 
Following herbicide application, there was an initial rapid increase in root turnover (17 days) followed by a more similar turnover (524 days) compared to the unsprayed treatment (585 days). The increased root turnover following the use of herbicide resulted in increased C input to the soil in the sprayed treatment (3238 kg C ha⁻¹ ) compared to the unsprayed ryegrass-clover treatment (1726 kg C ha⁻¹ ). This suggested that during pasture renewal there is a large input of C. However, the proportion of this C that is stabilised in soil requires further investigation. 
This research demonstrated there is potential to increase soil C by using more diverse pastures through increased root mass and rooting depth. This work also provided the first measurements of root mass and C input to soil under moderately diverse pastures in New Zealand and adds to the limited information on the root mass, root turnover and C input under ryegrass-clover pasture systems. Furthermore, this work provided the first measurements of root turnover and C input to soil during a pasture renewal event involving herbicide. The data from this research will contribute better information for use in modelling and increase the knowledge and understanding of soil C under grazed pasture systems in New Zealand. 
Further research on investigating the root dynamics under more diverse pastures with respect to root traits such as diameter, surface area and specific root length within these pastures and how these traits influence the root turnover and C input to soil would be beneficial. Improving the understanding on the quantity of C that is stabilised and the C stabilisation processes in these pasture systems is also important in order to achieve meaningful reductions in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.

text: Carbon inputs to soil from roots of two contrasting pasture swards The soil carbon (C) pool is one of the largest pools of C in the terrestrial environment. Soil management strategies to increase soil C are of interest globally to reduce atmospheric CO₂ concentrations which are contributing to climate change. Changes in land use and land management can result in gains, or losses of soil C, and consequently change in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Increasing the C inputs to soil by either increasing plant root mass has been suggested as one method to increase soil C. 
In New Zealand, pastoral agriculture is dominated by the use of perennial ryegrass and white clover pastures which are typically shallow rooting species. The use of more diverse pastures including additional species such as lucerne, chicory and plantain, may increase root mass or rooting depth. However, there is limited data on root mass and C inputs from roots to soil under ryegrass-clover pasture systems and no data on more diverse pasture swards in New Zealand pasture systems. The objective of this research was to investigate whether more diverse pasture swards had greater root mass and C inputs to soil compared to ryegrassclover and whether diverse pastures offered scope to increase soil C. 
Root mass was measured under a moderately diverse and a ryegrass-clover pasture in an existing plant diversity trial at a research dairy farm (Scott Farm, DairyNZ) containing 6 replicate paddocks of each pasture type. Soil cores were collected seasonally over one year to 300 mm depth and divided into three 100 mm depth sections (0 – 100, 100 – 200, 200 – 300 mm) and root mass measured after soil was washed off. There was greater root mass (0 – 300 mm) under the moderately diverse pasture (5320-9350 kg ha⁻¹ ) compared to the ryegrass-clover pasture (3810-5700 kg ha⁻¹) for all seasons. Additionally, there was greater root mass lower in the soil profile (100 – 200, 200 – 300 mm) in the moderately diverse pasture. The increased root mass in the moderately diverse pasture resulted in an estimated additional C input to soil of about 1203 kg C ha⁻¹ y⁻¹ (0 – 300 mm) but this estimate did not include contributions from root exudates. Root trait measurements of individual plant species also demonstrated a greater diversity of root traits (specific root length, surface area, and diameter) in the moderately diverse pasture, which may be important for the C input and C stabilisation processes in soil. 
Root turnover and C input to soil was measured on three replicate paddocks each of moderately diverse and ryegrass-clover pastures, also at Scott Farm. An isotope (¹³CO₂) pulse labelling method was used whereby clear chambers (1 m² ) were placed over pasture and ¹³CO₂ taken up following photosynthesis. Labelling was carried out once weekly for a period of five weeks, giving a total of 5 labelling events. Soil cores were collected at regular intervals following isotope labelling for up to 138 days and δ13C measured in the roots (0 – 100, 100 – 200 mm depth) and soil (0 – 100 mm depth) to calculate root turnover and C input. 
There was no difference in root turnover rates between the moderately diverse (298 days) and ryegrass-clover (260 days) pastures, with a combined root turnover rate of 276 days for both pastures. However, large variability in data meant that the ability to detect differences between pasture swards was low. The average C input to soil for both pastures was 58 kg C ha⁻¹ d⁻¹ over an 88 day period which was greater than other reported studies in New Zealand. A likely cause of this high C input from roots to soil was the severe drought conditions during the study that may have increased root death and C inputs from roots to soil.
While previous work determined similar root turnover and C inputs under both conventional and moderately diverse pastures, a final experiment focussed on whether pasture renewal of a ryegrass-clover pasture could result in increased root turnover, and therefore, greater C input to soil. Root turnover and C input to soil under ryegrass-clover pasture with and without pasture renewal was measured using an isotope pulse labelling method. Pastures (paired plots in 3 replicate paddocks) were labelled with ¹³CO₂ daily for five days within clear chambers (1 m² ) before one replicate in each pair was sprayed with herbicide and seed direct drilled. Soil cores were collected (0 – 100, 100 – 200 mm depths) at regular intervals over a 89 day period following isotope labelling and root turnover and C input measured by following the decline in ¹³C in extracted roots. 
Following herbicide application, there was an initial rapid increase in root turnover (17 days) followed by a more similar turnover (524 days) compared to the unsprayed treatment (585 days). The increased root turnover following the use of herbicide resulted in increased C input to the soil in the sprayed treatment (3238 kg C ha⁻¹ ) compared to the unsprayed ryegrass-clover treatment (1726 kg C ha⁻¹ ). This suggested that during pasture renewal there is a large input of C. However, the proportion of this C that is stabilised in soil requires further investigation. 
This research demonstrated there is potential to increase soil C by using more diverse pastures through increased root mass and rooting depth. This work also provided the first measurements of root mass and C input to soil under moderately diverse pastures in New Zealand and adds to the limited information on the root mass, root turnover and C input under ryegrass-clover pasture systems. Furthermore, this work provided the first measurements of root turnover and C input to soil during a pasture renewal event involving herbicide. The data from this research will contribute better information for use in modelling and increase the knowledge and understanding of soil C under grazed pasture systems in New Zealand. 
Further research on investigating the root dynamics under more diverse pastures with respect to root traits such as diameter, surface area and specific root length within these pastures and how these traits influence the root turnover and C input to soil would be beneficial. Improving the understanding on the quantity of C that is stabilised and the C stabilisation processes in these pasture systems is also important in order to achieve meaningful reductions in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations.

year: 2016

title: Culture is our business: Issues and challenges for forensic and correctional psychologists

authors: Tamatea, Armon J.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Psychology has made significant advances in the development of more empirical, standardized, and consistent approaches to the prediction, assessment, and treatment of offending behaviour. However, crime occurs in a cultural context. Similarly, forensic and correctional psychology derive from a cultural basis that privileges certain types of knowledge and promotes certain forms of practice that are incommensurate with the outlook and realities of some offenders and their communities. While there is an emerging literature on ethnicity and race in criminal justice psychology, very little research that addresses culture is published. The reasons for this knowledge gap are complex, not least because the worldviews of indigenous and diverse communities do not superimpose neatly onto current best-practice models of risk assessment or offender rehabilitation. Given Australia and New Zealand’s commitment to the involvement and wellbeing of indigenous peoples as well as the shared experience of progressively more pluralistic societies, it is argued that there is a critical need to bring the somewhat disparate domains of forensic psychology and culture into conversation with a view to informing policy and practice. The example of risk assessment is used to illustrate some of the complexities of working with cultural difference. Central to this article is a call for a culturally-engaged and proactive philosophy of practice that embraces the needs of diverse offenders, victims and communities.

text: Culture is our business: Issues and challenges for forensic and correctional psychologists Psychology has made significant advances in the development of more empirical, standardized, and consistent approaches to the prediction, assessment, and treatment of offending behaviour. However, crime occurs in a cultural context. Similarly, forensic and correctional psychology derive from a cultural basis that privileges certain types of knowledge and promotes certain forms of practice that are incommensurate with the outlook and realities of some offenders and their communities. While there is an emerging literature on ethnicity and race in criminal justice psychology, very little research that addresses culture is published. The reasons for this knowledge gap are complex, not least because the worldviews of indigenous and diverse communities do not superimpose neatly onto current best-practice models of risk assessment or offender rehabilitation. Given Australia and New Zealand’s commitment to the involvement and wellbeing of indigenous peoples as well as the shared experience of progressively more pluralistic societies, it is argued that there is a critical need to bring the somewhat disparate domains of forensic psychology and culture into conversation with a view to informing policy and practice. The example of risk assessment is used to illustrate some of the complexities of working with cultural difference. Central to this article is a call for a culturally-engaged and proactive philosophy of practice that embraces the needs of diverse offenders, victims and communities.

year: 2017