title: Understanding decision problem structuring by executives

authors: Dillon, Stuart M.

abstract: This thesis reports on an investigation undertaken to determine the nature of the decision problem structuring behaviour of executives and the determinants of that behaviour.

Decision problem structuring is concerned with those activities that translate an identified decision problem into a form suitable for the making of a choice. Activities commonly associated with the structuring of decision problems include the defining of objectives, the generation of alternatives, and the collection of relevant supporting information.

Utilising a multiple case study approach, sixteen Chief Executive Officers or General Managers of medium to large (largest had 2800 employees) organisations, operating within a confined geographical region of New Zealand, were questioned on their decision problem structuring behaviour. Participants were asked to describe, in detail, the processes they followed in structuring decision problems, along with what they felt caused them to act as they did. In addition to the direct communication between the researcher and the participant, each executive completed a supplementary questionnaire and undertook a computer based cognitive style analysis test (the latter two for purposes of triangulation). Raw interview data was integrated with that from the other data sources (such as the questionnaire) through use of an adaptation of the data analysis aspects of the grounded theory approach.

Within the context of the study, described decision structuring behaviour was found to be more closely aligned with that of wider descriptive theory than any of the existing prescribed problem structuring methods. Described behaviour regularly exhibited the use of prior decision-making experiences, decision situations where an identified solution initiated the decision, and the existence of Satisficing behaviour. 

The most evident structuring process comprised the defining of objectives and the generating of alternatives, occurring in an iterative and cyclical manner. These activities were supported, where required, by the gathering of information.

It was observed that the contextual effects of time, limited finance, level of information and political interference played a significant part in not just the problem structuring activities, but they were also found to affect the decision-maker’s perception of the problem before any structuring occurred. As a result, the actual decision problem state and the perceived problem state often differed. Similarly, the executive decision-maker was also found to influence the perception of the problem and the subsequent activities that were carried out in structuring it. The executive’s experience, their understanding of decision problem structuring, and their overall confidence were found to be influential.

text: Understanding decision problem structuring by executives This thesis reports on an investigation undertaken to determine the nature of the decision problem structuring behaviour of executives and the determinants of that behaviour.

Decision problem structuring is concerned with those activities that translate an identified decision problem into a form suitable for the making of a choice. Activities commonly associated with the structuring of decision problems include the defining of objectives, the generation of alternatives, and the collection of relevant supporting information.

Utilising a multiple case study approach, sixteen Chief Executive Officers or General Managers of medium to large (largest had 2800 employees) organisations, operating within a confined geographical region of New Zealand, were questioned on their decision problem structuring behaviour. Participants were asked to describe, in detail, the processes they followed in structuring decision problems, along with what they felt caused them to act as they did. In addition to the direct communication between the researcher and the participant, each executive completed a supplementary questionnaire and undertook a computer based cognitive style analysis test (the latter two for purposes of triangulation). Raw interview data was integrated with that from the other data sources (such as the questionnaire) through use of an adaptation of the data analysis aspects of the grounded theory approach.

Within the context of the study, described decision structuring behaviour was found to be more closely aligned with that of wider descriptive theory than any of the existing prescribed problem structuring methods. Described behaviour regularly exhibited the use of prior decision-making experiences, decision situations where an identified solution initiated the decision, and the existence of Satisficing behaviour. 

The most evident structuring process comprised the defining of objectives and the generating of alternatives, occurring in an iterative and cyclical manner. These activities were supported, where required, by the gathering of information.

It was observed that the contextual effects of time, limited finance, level of information and political interference played a significant part in not just the problem structuring activities, but they were also found to affect the decision-maker’s perception of the problem before any structuring occurred. As a result, the actual decision problem state and the perceived problem state often differed. Similarly, the executive decision-maker was also found to influence the perception of the problem and the subsequent activities that were carried out in structuring it. The executive’s experience, their understanding of decision problem structuring, and their overall confidence were found to be influential.

year: 2002

title: Determining the risk of phosphite tolerance in Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United States: a case study on the implications of long-term use of  phosphite to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in avocado (Persea americana)

authors: Hunter, Shannon Renee

subjects: Phytophthora

abstract: Phytophthora species cause many major plant disease epidemics worldwide, impacting horticulture, plant trade and production planting industries through the loss of plants and the costs arising from disease management. Phytophthora species have specialised structures which enhance their dispersal, survival and infection. These include motile swimming spores, caducous sporangia and resting spores. Nurseries and orchards use integrated management to control phytophthora diseases, including cultural practises, biological control, resistant host plants and chemical control. The use of fungicides is a very effective control method; however, Phytophthora species can develop resistance to fungicides after prolonged exposure. For example, phosphite tolerant isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi have been found in avocado orchards in Australia and South Africa.
Phosphite is widely used in nurseries and orchards in New Zealand as a preventative and control treatment. The avocado industry largely relies on it for the control of avocado root rot caused by P. cinnamomi. Phosphite is most commonly applied to avocado trees using passive trunk injections but can also be applied as foliar sprays, soil drenches, high-pressure injections and capsule implants.
To assess phosphite tolerance of P. cinnamomi isolates from New Zealand avocado orchards, a high-throughput optical density (OD) assay was developed to measure mycelial growth inhibition in the presence of phosphite. The OD assay was used to screen 24 P. cinnamomi isolates from four orchards never treated with phosphite and 32 isolates from eight orchards treated with phosphite for 15 – 37 years. Four isolates had increased tolerance to phosphite and two were intermediately tolerant. These six isolates were from phosphite managed orchards and five were isolated from unhealthy trees.
To test if in vitro tolerance would be expressed in planta, three tolerant and three sensitive isolates were tested for their ability to colonise phosphite treated lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) roots. The tolerant isolates were more extensive colonisers of lupins treated with 5 and 10 g/L phosphite. In the presence of phosphite the tolerant isolates were able to produce more sporangia and release viable swimming zoospores more often.
Internationally important Phytophthora species from culture collections in New Zealand and the United States were assessed for sensitivity to phosphite and a subset of 32 isolates from the Berkeley collection was tested for mefenoxam sensitivity. The causal agent of kauri (Agathis australis) dieback, P. agathidicida, was found to be highly sensitive to phosphite while the possibly New Zealand native P. kernoviae, was found to be relatively tolerant. Intraspecific variation was found in lineages of P. ramorum, the causal agent of sudden oak death in the United States and the United Kingdom, NA2 was more tolerant than NA1. One P. megasperma isolate was more tolerant to mefenoxam compared to the other isolates tested. Of nine P. cinnamomi isolates from avocado orchards in southern California, one was relatively more tolerant to phosphite.
This study has shown phosphite tolerant isolates of P. cinnamomi have developed in phosphite managed avocado orchards in New Zealand and interspecific variation in sensitivity to fungicides is present across Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United states.

text: Determining the risk of phosphite tolerance in Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United States: a case study on the implications of long-term use of  phosphite to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in avocado (Persea americana) Phytophthora species cause many major plant disease epidemics worldwide, impacting horticulture, plant trade and production planting industries through the loss of plants and the costs arising from disease management. Phytophthora species have specialised structures which enhance their dispersal, survival and infection. These include motile swimming spores, caducous sporangia and resting spores. Nurseries and orchards use integrated management to control phytophthora diseases, including cultural practises, biological control, resistant host plants and chemical control. The use of fungicides is a very effective control method; however, Phytophthora species can develop resistance to fungicides after prolonged exposure. For example, phosphite tolerant isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi have been found in avocado orchards in Australia and South Africa.
Phosphite is widely used in nurseries and orchards in New Zealand as a preventative and control treatment. The avocado industry largely relies on it for the control of avocado root rot caused by P. cinnamomi. Phosphite is most commonly applied to avocado trees using passive trunk injections but can also be applied as foliar sprays, soil drenches, high-pressure injections and capsule implants.
To assess phosphite tolerance of P. cinnamomi isolates from New Zealand avocado orchards, a high-throughput optical density (OD) assay was developed to measure mycelial growth inhibition in the presence of phosphite. The OD assay was used to screen 24 P. cinnamomi isolates from four orchards never treated with phosphite and 32 isolates from eight orchards treated with phosphite for 15 – 37 years. Four isolates had increased tolerance to phosphite and two were intermediately tolerant. These six isolates were from phosphite managed orchards and five were isolated from unhealthy trees.
To test if in vitro tolerance would be expressed in planta, three tolerant and three sensitive isolates were tested for their ability to colonise phosphite treated lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) roots. The tolerant isolates were more extensive colonisers of lupins treated with 5 and 10 g/L phosphite. In the presence of phosphite the tolerant isolates were able to produce more sporangia and release viable swimming zoospores more often.
Internationally important Phytophthora species from culture collections in New Zealand and the United States were assessed for sensitivity to phosphite and a subset of 32 isolates from the Berkeley collection was tested for mefenoxam sensitivity. The causal agent of kauri (Agathis australis) dieback, P. agathidicida, was found to be highly sensitive to phosphite while the possibly New Zealand native P. kernoviae, was found to be relatively tolerant. Intraspecific variation was found in lineages of P. ramorum, the causal agent of sudden oak death in the United States and the United Kingdom, NA2 was more tolerant than NA1. One P. megasperma isolate was more tolerant to mefenoxam compared to the other isolates tested. Of nine P. cinnamomi isolates from avocado orchards in southern California, one was relatively more tolerant to phosphite.
This study has shown phosphite tolerant isolates of P. cinnamomi have developed in phosphite managed avocado orchards in New Zealand and interspecific variation in sensitivity to fungicides is present across Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United states.

year: 2018

title: The Environmental Justice Implications of the Planning Policy and Practice of Flood Risk Management in New Zealand

authors: Martynoga, Charlotte

subjects: environmental justce

abstract: Following an international trend, the flood defence approach historically applied in New Zealand has been superseded by a shift to flood risk management, an approach that aligns with the notion of ‘living with risk’ and devolves responsibility to risk-takers at the local level. Citizens are required to assume responsibility for assessing and minimising their own exposure, increasing their resilience and adapting to periodic flooding events. Inevitably, specific communities respond differently to flooding as their capabilities to understand, identify and manage flood risk varies. Environmental justice is the framework of inquiry within which issues of power, representation and participation in planning for flood risk management are examined to consider the injustices that are experienced by communities ‘living with risk’. 

Quantitative and qualitative methods are used to investigate the extent planning is complicit in delivering flood risk management processes that can create environmentally unjust outcomes. Flood hazard maps overlaid with contextual demographic data identify who is living in at risk spaces in three case-study communities. Primary data was collected through semi-structured interviews with local government representatives and iwi, and a questionnaire to local residents was followed by interviews. 

The analysis demonstrates how the environmental justice components of distributive justice, procedural justice, justice as recognition and a capabilities approach to justice are tied together in the political and social processes of managing floods. Procedural justice is based on participatory parity so ensuring all members of the affected community are treated fairly in the deliberative and discursive decision-making is essential. Evidence revealed a community’s limited access to extensive flood risk information, unequal power sharing in decision-making and community participation, and restricted ability for disadvantaged groups to access legal processes. Distributive justice demands the use of multi-criteria analysis, rather than cost-benefit analysis, in prioritising and directing flood risk management to vulnerable communities. Using direct benefit rating to fund flood mitigation works heightens existing inequalities within communities and demands consideration of social difference in flood risk vulnerabilities. To ensure justice as recognition, local and indigenous knowledge needs to be valued and included in decision-making processes. Whilst working party arrangements are not inclusive they empower communities to be actively involved, promote trust and ownership of their local place and flood risk project. Recognition of identities and cultural practices is crucial for self-determination and minimises the marginalisation of voices. Planners need to examine social aspects of how people perceive, adapt and cope with flood risk, alongside place-based vulnerability. Policy, in embracing a capabilities approach to justice, would focus on the functionings people actually achieve rather than the opportunities. This calls for removing aggregations to look at the capabilities of individuals and communities to manage and respond to their flood risk. Judgements on planning initiatives need to be based on whether distributional outcomes enhance the capabilities of the relatively disadvantaged, thereby improving the resilience capacity of a community to manage flood risk. 

This study bridges a research gap in drawing together flood risk management, planning and environmental justice; advancing understanding of the environmental injustices within flood risk management in New Zealand.

text: The Environmental Justice Implications of the Planning Policy and Practice of Flood Risk Management in New Zealand Following an international trend, the flood defence approach historically applied in New Zealand has been superseded by a shift to flood risk management, an approach that aligns with the notion of ‘living with risk’ and devolves responsibility to risk-takers at the local level. Citizens are required to assume responsibility for assessing and minimising their own exposure, increasing their resilience and adapting to periodic flooding events. Inevitably, specific communities respond differently to flooding as their capabilities to understand, identify and manage flood risk varies. Environmental justice is the framework of inquiry within which issues of power, representation and participation in planning for flood risk management are examined to consider the injustices that are experienced by communities ‘living with risk’. 

Quantitative and qualitative methods are used to investigate the extent planning is complicit in delivering flood risk management processes that can create environmentally unjust outcomes. Flood hazard maps overlaid with contextual demographic data identify who is living in at risk spaces in three case-study communities. Primary data was collected through semi-structured interviews with local government representatives and iwi, and a questionnaire to local residents was followed by interviews. 

The analysis demonstrates how the environmental justice components of distributive justice, procedural justice, justice as recognition and a capabilities approach to justice are tied together in the political and social processes of managing floods. Procedural justice is based on participatory parity so ensuring all members of the affected community are treated fairly in the deliberative and discursive decision-making is essential. Evidence revealed a community’s limited access to extensive flood risk information, unequal power sharing in decision-making and community participation, and restricted ability for disadvantaged groups to access legal processes. Distributive justice demands the use of multi-criteria analysis, rather than cost-benefit analysis, in prioritising and directing flood risk management to vulnerable communities. Using direct benefit rating to fund flood mitigation works heightens existing inequalities within communities and demands consideration of social difference in flood risk vulnerabilities. To ensure justice as recognition, local and indigenous knowledge needs to be valued and included in decision-making processes. Whilst working party arrangements are not inclusive they empower communities to be actively involved, promote trust and ownership of their local place and flood risk project. Recognition of identities and cultural practices is crucial for self-determination and minimises the marginalisation of voices. Planners need to examine social aspects of how people perceive, adapt and cope with flood risk, alongside place-based vulnerability. Policy, in embracing a capabilities approach to justice, would focus on the functionings people actually achieve rather than the opportunities. This calls for removing aggregations to look at the capabilities of individuals and communities to manage and respond to their flood risk. Judgements on planning initiatives need to be based on whether distributional outcomes enhance the capabilities of the relatively disadvantaged, thereby improving the resilience capacity of a community to manage flood risk. 

This study bridges a research gap in drawing together flood risk management, planning and environmental justice; advancing understanding of the environmental injustices within flood risk management in New Zealand.

year: 2018