title: Contingent Valuation of Organic Cotton: An Empirical Investigation into the WTA-WTP Disparity

authors: Powley, Francis Deva

subjects: Contingent Valuation Method

abstract: Contingent valuation is a non-market valuation technique which elicits preference data from participants by asking them to value a change in the provision of a specific good or service, contingent on the specifications outlined in a hypothetical market scenario. A commonly observed feature of CV results is a significant and pervasive disparity that develops between willingness to accept and willingness to pay measures of value. While these two measures should theoretically produce the same value estimate for a particular good, with the exception of a small difference due to the income effect, this is not the case in a majority of the experimental CV literature. This WTA-WTP disparity is the focus of this thesis’ investigation, which aims to offer a more accurate understanding of the phenomenon. This thesis provides a detailed review of past research experiments investigating the WTA-WTP gap, identifying two main alternate explanations for the disparity: one which explains the discrepancy as resulting from flaws in the methodological design of the CV experiments (weak experimental design) and one which suggests the gap is caused the fact that people place a higher value on a good they own than an identical good they do not own (endowment effect theory). To assess the legitimacy of each of these two explanations, this thesis presents an experimental investigation into the WTA-WTP gap, where a basic CV survey is design and then used to elicit preference data from participants for organic cotton. The experimental design includes six CV surveys, all of which are fundamentally identical except for small specific alterations, which will allow valuation results to be compared across survey groups in an attempt to isolate the effect that the specified survey design features have on valuation estimates. Two of the surveys collect WTP and WTA data from participants under a binding condition where the average valuation stated by the group would determine a binding monetary outcome for all of the participants. Two further surveys collect WTP and WTA data from participants where no binding monetary outcome is specified (i.e. purely hypothetical), and the final two treatment groups are asked to estimate the WTP and WTA of the binding groups, rather than provide their own personal value estimates. The core comparisons possible between these survey designs include: assessing whether a WTA-WTP gap is observed even when controlling for features of weak experimental design, assessing how the hypothetical nature of a CV experiment impacts on the valuation results, and whether participants are able to provide an unbiased estimate of others’ preferences. Data was collected from 178 participants with between 27 and 31 respondents involved in each of the six survey groups. The data was then analysed using SPSS to test whether there were significant differences between the valuation estimates collected from the different participant groups. The results of the experiment found that the WTA-WTP gap is caused by the endowment effect rather than weak experimental design, that hypothetical and binding treatments do not differ significantly in terms of valuation estimates, and that participants are able to provide unbiased estimates of others’ preferences, so long as they are not first asked to state their own preferences.

text: Contingent Valuation of Organic Cotton: An Empirical Investigation into the WTA-WTP Disparity Contingent valuation is a non-market valuation technique which elicits preference data from participants by asking them to value a change in the provision of a specific good or service, contingent on the specifications outlined in a hypothetical market scenario. A commonly observed feature of CV results is a significant and pervasive disparity that develops between willingness to accept and willingness to pay measures of value. While these two measures should theoretically produce the same value estimate for a particular good, with the exception of a small difference due to the income effect, this is not the case in a majority of the experimental CV literature. This WTA-WTP disparity is the focus of this thesis’ investigation, which aims to offer a more accurate understanding of the phenomenon. This thesis provides a detailed review of past research experiments investigating the WTA-WTP gap, identifying two main alternate explanations for the disparity: one which explains the discrepancy as resulting from flaws in the methodological design of the CV experiments (weak experimental design) and one which suggests the gap is caused the fact that people place a higher value on a good they own than an identical good they do not own (endowment effect theory). To assess the legitimacy of each of these two explanations, this thesis presents an experimental investigation into the WTA-WTP gap, where a basic CV survey is design and then used to elicit preference data from participants for organic cotton. The experimental design includes six CV surveys, all of which are fundamentally identical except for small specific alterations, which will allow valuation results to be compared across survey groups in an attempt to isolate the effect that the specified survey design features have on valuation estimates. Two of the surveys collect WTP and WTA data from participants under a binding condition where the average valuation stated by the group would determine a binding monetary outcome for all of the participants. Two further surveys collect WTP and WTA data from participants where no binding monetary outcome is specified (i.e. purely hypothetical), and the final two treatment groups are asked to estimate the WTP and WTA of the binding groups, rather than provide their own personal value estimates. The core comparisons possible between these survey designs include: assessing whether a WTA-WTP gap is observed even when controlling for features of weak experimental design, assessing how the hypothetical nature of a CV experiment impacts on the valuation results, and whether participants are able to provide an unbiased estimate of others’ preferences. Data was collected from 178 participants with between 27 and 31 respondents involved in each of the six survey groups. The data was then analysed using SPSS to test whether there were significant differences between the valuation estimates collected from the different participant groups. The results of the experiment found that the WTA-WTP gap is caused by the endowment effect rather than weak experimental design, that hypothetical and binding treatments do not differ significantly in terms of valuation estimates, and that participants are able to provide unbiased estimates of others’ preferences, so long as they are not first asked to state their own preferences.

year: 2011

title: Possible Jurassic age for part of Rakaia Terrane: implications for tectonic development of the Torlesse accretionary prism

authors: Kamp, Peter J.J.

subjects: Torlesse Complex

abstract: Greywacke sandstone and argillite beds comprising Rakaia Terrane (Torlesse Complex) in mid Canterbury, South Island, New Zealand, are widely regarded as Late Triassic (Norian) in age based on the occurrence of Torlessia trace fossils, Monotis, and other taxa. This paleontological age assignment is tested using published 40Ar/39Ar mica and U-Pb zircon ages for these rocks and published and new zircon fission track (FT) ages. The youngest U-Pb zircon ages in the Rakaia Terrane rocks in mid Canterbury are Norian, whereas 10-20% of the 40Ar/39Ar muscovite ages are younger than Norian. Numerical modelling of these mica ages shows that they cannot have originated from partial thermal overprinting in the Torlesse prism if the thermal maximum was short-lived and early in the prism history (210-190 Ma), as commonly inferred for these rocks. The young component of mica ages could, however, be explained by extended residence (200-100 Ma) at 265-290deg.C in the prism. Early Jurassic (c. 189 Ma) zircon FT ages for sandstone beds from Arthur's Pass, the Rakaia valley, and the Hermitage (Mt Cook) are interpreted not to have experienced maximum temperatures above 210deg.C, and therefore cannot have been reduced as a result of partial annealing in the Torlesse prism. This is based on identification of a fossil Cretaceous, zircon FT, partial annealing zone in low-grade schists to the west, and the characteristics of the age data. The Early Jurassic zircon FT ages and the young component of 40Ar/39Ar mica ages are regarded therefore as detrital ages reflecting cooling in the source area, and constrain the maximum depositional age of parts of the Rakaia Terrane in mid Canterbury. The zircon FT data also show the initiation (c. 100 Ma) of marked and widespread Late Cretaceous cooling of Rakaia Terrane throughout Canterbury, which is attributed to uplift and erosion of inboard parts of the Torlesse prism due to continuing subduction accretion at its toe. 
The critical wedge concept is proposed as a new framework for investigating the development of the Torlesse Complex. The Rakaia Terrane may have formed the core of an accretionary wedge imbricated against the New Zealand margin during the Middle or Late Jurassic. Late Jurassic nonmarine sediments (e.g., Clent Hills Formation) accumulated upon the inner parts of the prism as it enlarged, emerged, and continued to be imbricated. Exhumation of Otago Schist from c. 135 Ma may mark the development of a balance (steady state) between sediments entering the prism at the toe and material exiting at the inboard margin. The enlargement of the area of exhumation to all of Canterbury from c. 100 Ma may reflect a dynamic response to widening of the prism through the accretion of Cretaceous sediments. The model of a dynamic critical wedge may help to explain the various expressions of the Rangitata Orogeny.

text: Possible Jurassic age for part of Rakaia Terrane: implications for tectonic development of the Torlesse accretionary prism Greywacke sandstone and argillite beds comprising Rakaia Terrane (Torlesse Complex) in mid Canterbury, South Island, New Zealand, are widely regarded as Late Triassic (Norian) in age based on the occurrence of Torlessia trace fossils, Monotis, and other taxa. This paleontological age assignment is tested using published 40Ar/39Ar mica and U-Pb zircon ages for these rocks and published and new zircon fission track (FT) ages. The youngest U-Pb zircon ages in the Rakaia Terrane rocks in mid Canterbury are Norian, whereas 10-20% of the 40Ar/39Ar muscovite ages are younger than Norian. Numerical modelling of these mica ages shows that they cannot have originated from partial thermal overprinting in the Torlesse prism if the thermal maximum was short-lived and early in the prism history (210-190 Ma), as commonly inferred for these rocks. The young component of mica ages could, however, be explained by extended residence (200-100 Ma) at 265-290deg.C in the prism. Early Jurassic (c. 189 Ma) zircon FT ages for sandstone beds from Arthur's Pass, the Rakaia valley, and the Hermitage (Mt Cook) are interpreted not to have experienced maximum temperatures above 210deg.C, and therefore cannot have been reduced as a result of partial annealing in the Torlesse prism. This is based on identification of a fossil Cretaceous, zircon FT, partial annealing zone in low-grade schists to the west, and the characteristics of the age data. The Early Jurassic zircon FT ages and the young component of 40Ar/39Ar mica ages are regarded therefore as detrital ages reflecting cooling in the source area, and constrain the maximum depositional age of parts of the Rakaia Terrane in mid Canterbury. The zircon FT data also show the initiation (c. 100 Ma) of marked and widespread Late Cretaceous cooling of Rakaia Terrane throughout Canterbury, which is attributed to uplift and erosion of inboard parts of the Torlesse prism due to continuing subduction accretion at its toe. 
The critical wedge concept is proposed as a new framework for investigating the development of the Torlesse Complex. The Rakaia Terrane may have formed the core of an accretionary wedge imbricated against the New Zealand margin during the Middle or Late Jurassic. Late Jurassic nonmarine sediments (e.g., Clent Hills Formation) accumulated upon the inner parts of the prism as it enlarged, emerged, and continued to be imbricated. Exhumation of Otago Schist from c. 135 Ma may mark the development of a balance (steady state) between sediments entering the prism at the toe and material exiting at the inboard margin. The enlargement of the area of exhumation to all of Canterbury from c. 100 Ma may reflect a dynamic response to widening of the prism through the accretion of Cretaceous sediments. The model of a dynamic critical wedge may help to explain the various expressions of the Rangitata Orogeny.

year: 2001

title: Maori and psychology: Indigenous psychology in New Zealand

authors: Nikora, Linda Waimarie

subjects: Maori

abstract: Maori have their own approaches to health and well-being, which stem from a world view that values balance, continuity, unity and purpose. The world view is not typically thought of as 'psychology', yet it is a foundation for shared understandings and intelligible action among Maori. Maori behaviours, values, ways of doing things and understandings are often not visible nor valued. However, through these opening years of the twenty-first century, psychologists are slowly turning their attention to addressing this invisibility with the explicit agenda of building 'indigenous psychologies'

text: Maori and psychology: Indigenous psychology in New Zealand Maori have their own approaches to health and well-being, which stem from a world view that values balance, continuity, unity and purpose. The world view is not typically thought of as 'psychology', yet it is a foundation for shared understandings and intelligible action among Maori. Maori behaviours, values, ways of doing things and understandings are often not visible nor valued. However, through these opening years of the twenty-first century, psychologists are slowly turning their attention to addressing this invisibility with the explicit agenda of building 'indigenous psychologies'

year: 2007