title: Visitor’s perceptions of the use of cable cars and lifts in Wulingyuan World Heritage Site, China

authors: Zhang, C. Z.

subjects: China

abstract: This paper examines perceptions and attitudes towards the use of cable cars with specific reference to Wulingyuan World Heritage Site in China. A total of 45 respondents were interviewed using open-ended questioning and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis suggests six motives for the use of the lift: (1) tight schedules generated by travel agents and tour operators, (2) lack of physical strength to walk to the summit, (3) group membership influences, (4) the saving of time, (5) lack of information about alternative approaches and (6) novelty of the lift. However, when questioned about sources of satisfaction, respondents tended to refer to other aspects of their visit. This raises questions of managerial significance, as in the past the construction of such lifts and cableways has been based on a premise of enhancing visitors' satisfaction with their visit, and this perceived advantage has been seen as outweighing possible adverse environmental impacts

text: Visitor’s perceptions of the use of cable cars and lifts in Wulingyuan World Heritage Site, China This paper examines perceptions and attitudes towards the use of cable cars with specific reference to Wulingyuan World Heritage Site in China. A total of 45 respondents were interviewed using open-ended questioning and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis suggests six motives for the use of the lift: (1) tight schedules generated by travel agents and tour operators, (2) lack of physical strength to walk to the summit, (3) group membership influences, (4) the saving of time, (5) lack of information about alternative approaches and (6) novelty of the lift. However, when questioned about sources of satisfaction, respondents tended to refer to other aspects of their visit. This raises questions of managerial significance, as in the past the construction of such lifts and cableways has been based on a premise of enhancing visitors' satisfaction with their visit, and this perceived advantage has been seen as outweighing possible adverse environmental impacts

year: 2009

title: Sheet extrusion and plasticisation of Novatein thermoplastic protein

authors: Uitto, Jussi Matias

subjects: sheet extrusion

abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a relationship between protein structure, rheological properties and plasticization of Novatein. Novatein is a biomass-based thermoplastic in which the main constituent is blood meal, a highly aggregated protein-rich biopolymer, which is a by-product from the meat industry. It can be processed with industrially scalable thermo-mechanical processing methods such as extrusion and injection molding. However, its properties makes more challenging processing methods such as sheet extrusion limited. This is considered a rheology problem and is related to the protein’s structural characteristics that can be modified by using polyol plasticizers such as ethylene glycol (EG), glycerol (GLY), propylene glycol (PG) and triethylene glycol (TEG).

Rheological characterisation revealed the apparent shear viscosity of highly plasticized Novatein and polypropylene (PP) to be very similar even though only PP can be sheet extruded. Novatein’s extensional viscosity was significantly higher and its entrance pressure accounted for up to 80% of the total pressure drop with no-polyol plasticized Novatein. Increasing polyol content and temperature were found to decrease the extensional viscosity but simultaneously increased the shear viscosity due to better flow development in the capillary. In other words, poor elongational properties of the no-polyol composition led to flow behavior closer to plug flow. Thus, with longer capillaries apparent shear viscosity of polyol plasticized samples (at the same water content) could become even higher but also raises the question whether fully developed flow is a desired property for processing Novatein. 

Synchrotron-based FT-IR measurements with support of XRD explained the difference in the rheological performance further. Blood meal’s protein structure was highly aggregated, consisting of up to 50% -sheets that do not melt into a fully amorphous state at suitable processing temperatures. The behavior of Novatein was considered to be closer to filled polymers, consisting of nano-crystallite aggregates, rather than a semi-crystalline polymer that has reached a molten state. This made sufficient plasticization of the amorphous fraction crucial for processability. 

Plasticization was classified into primary and secondary plasticization. In primary plasticization, the plasticizer interacts directly with the protein network by replacing the protein’s hydrogen bonding sites with water. In secondary plasticization, the polymer network becomes saturated, leading to phase separation and increases hygroscopicity. The effect is substrate and plasticizer dependant and secondary plasticization was dominant with Novatein due to its aggregated structure. The plasticizer content at which the equilibrated moisture content (EMC) became equal to that of no-plasticizer compositions was called the point of equivalence (POE). This is also the point at which primary plasticization turns into secondary plasticization. 

The POE is unique for all plasticizers and dependant on molecular characteristics such as size and theoretical hydrogen bonding sites. The EMC is a result of these changes (including secondary structure) and strongly correlates with mechanical properties and the brittle-to-ductile transformation. Water provided the ability to form ideally mixed phases, explaining the applicability of the free volume-based plasticizer theory. The Novatein network consisted of protein-rich, plasticizer-rich and an intermediate phase, and the fractional composition and the relative magnitude of each phase was determined by using the Couchman-Karasz model. The role of the intermediate phase was found to make the biggest difference in plasticizer performance and behaved in accordance to the observed secondary structure changes. 

Of the selected plasticizers, GLY clearly showed the highest tendency to phase separate followed by TEG, PG, and EG. Of the tested plasticizers the POE values varied between 20 pphBM to 29 pphBM in the order of GLY, TEG, PG, and EG. However, TEG had the lowest POE on a molar basis and nearly three times the molar amount of EG was required to reach the POE in comparison to TEG, whereas for GLY it was only 1.3 times. TEG’s plasticization is based on its ability to interact efficiently with the protein network and modify the secondary structure sufficiently. GLY, instead, showed a strong tendency to phase separate leading to the highest hydrogen bonding potential above the POE, and therefore also raised the EMC above TEG level. Despite the increase in ordered secondary structures, GLY led to the highest strain at break, which was attributed to phase separation. EG and PG as smaller sized molecules were able to diffuse into polymer network more efficiently.

Even though the plasticization mechanism varied significantly, EMC was the dominant factor determining mechanical properties with a brittle-to-ductile transformation observed at 8%. However, it is important to understand that an EMC of 8% required different amounts of plasticizer for each polyol. In accordance to the constraint theory, the amount of theoretical hydrogen bonding sites of plasticizer was most appropriate to predict changes EMC. The role of water was significant in forming a ternary system that behaves in accordance to the free volume theory despite the protein’s heterogeneous structure. For dried samples, TEG and GLY formed clusters in the polymer network in the absence of water, whereas for hydrated samples the plasticizer was well distributed through the polymer network, albeit in micro-separated regions.

The concept of primary and secondary plasticization provided a better understanding of rheological behavior as well. Elongational flow was dominated by primary plasticization of the protein-rich and intermediate phases whereas secondary plasticization played a significant role in the reduction of the shear viscosity. Flow without secondary plasticization was characterised as a plug flow. PG showed the most efficient plasticization in both shear and elongational viscosity, which was attributed to the combination of its small molecular size and ability to enhance both primary and secondary plasticization. GLY acted mostly as a secondary plasticizer and had the higher elongational and the lowest shear viscosity. TEG as an efficient primary plasticizer with an ability to modify secondary structure performed exceptionally well in terms of extensional viscosity considering its high molecular weight. Higher shear viscosity levels were comparable to EG that was shown to diffuse very efficiently in the polymer network. 

With a fundamental understanding of plasticization and rheology, significant process improvements were made by increasing temperature and combining PG and TEG leading to efficient sheet extrusion.

text: Sheet extrusion and plasticisation of Novatein thermoplastic protein The purpose of this study was to develop a relationship between protein structure, rheological properties and plasticization of Novatein. Novatein is a biomass-based thermoplastic in which the main constituent is blood meal, a highly aggregated protein-rich biopolymer, which is a by-product from the meat industry. It can be processed with industrially scalable thermo-mechanical processing methods such as extrusion and injection molding. However, its properties makes more challenging processing methods such as sheet extrusion limited. This is considered a rheology problem and is related to the protein’s structural characteristics that can be modified by using polyol plasticizers such as ethylene glycol (EG), glycerol (GLY), propylene glycol (PG) and triethylene glycol (TEG).

Rheological characterisation revealed the apparent shear viscosity of highly plasticized Novatein and polypropylene (PP) to be very similar even though only PP can be sheet extruded. Novatein’s extensional viscosity was significantly higher and its entrance pressure accounted for up to 80% of the total pressure drop with no-polyol plasticized Novatein. Increasing polyol content and temperature were found to decrease the extensional viscosity but simultaneously increased the shear viscosity due to better flow development in the capillary. In other words, poor elongational properties of the no-polyol composition led to flow behavior closer to plug flow. Thus, with longer capillaries apparent shear viscosity of polyol plasticized samples (at the same water content) could become even higher but also raises the question whether fully developed flow is a desired property for processing Novatein. 

Synchrotron-based FT-IR measurements with support of XRD explained the difference in the rheological performance further. Blood meal’s protein structure was highly aggregated, consisting of up to 50% -sheets that do not melt into a fully amorphous state at suitable processing temperatures. The behavior of Novatein was considered to be closer to filled polymers, consisting of nano-crystallite aggregates, rather than a semi-crystalline polymer that has reached a molten state. This made sufficient plasticization of the amorphous fraction crucial for processability. 

Plasticization was classified into primary and secondary plasticization. In primary plasticization, the plasticizer interacts directly with the protein network by replacing the protein’s hydrogen bonding sites with water. In secondary plasticization, the polymer network becomes saturated, leading to phase separation and increases hygroscopicity. The effect is substrate and plasticizer dependant and secondary plasticization was dominant with Novatein due to its aggregated structure. The plasticizer content at which the equilibrated moisture content (EMC) became equal to that of no-plasticizer compositions was called the point of equivalence (POE). This is also the point at which primary plasticization turns into secondary plasticization. 

The POE is unique for all plasticizers and dependant on molecular characteristics such as size and theoretical hydrogen bonding sites. The EMC is a result of these changes (including secondary structure) and strongly correlates with mechanical properties and the brittle-to-ductile transformation. Water provided the ability to form ideally mixed phases, explaining the applicability of the free volume-based plasticizer theory. The Novatein network consisted of protein-rich, plasticizer-rich and an intermediate phase, and the fractional composition and the relative magnitude of each phase was determined by using the Couchman-Karasz model. The role of the intermediate phase was found to make the biggest difference in plasticizer performance and behaved in accordance to the observed secondary structure changes. 

Of the selected plasticizers, GLY clearly showed the highest tendency to phase separate followed by TEG, PG, and EG. Of the tested plasticizers the POE values varied between 20 pphBM to 29 pphBM in the order of GLY, TEG, PG, and EG. However, TEG had the lowest POE on a molar basis and nearly three times the molar amount of EG was required to reach the POE in comparison to TEG, whereas for GLY it was only 1.3 times. TEG’s plasticization is based on its ability to interact efficiently with the protein network and modify the secondary structure sufficiently. GLY, instead, showed a strong tendency to phase separate leading to the highest hydrogen bonding potential above the POE, and therefore also raised the EMC above TEG level. Despite the increase in ordered secondary structures, GLY led to the highest strain at break, which was attributed to phase separation. EG and PG as smaller sized molecules were able to diffuse into polymer network more efficiently.

Even though the plasticization mechanism varied significantly, EMC was the dominant factor determining mechanical properties with a brittle-to-ductile transformation observed at 8%. However, it is important to understand that an EMC of 8% required different amounts of plasticizer for each polyol. In accordance to the constraint theory, the amount of theoretical hydrogen bonding sites of plasticizer was most appropriate to predict changes EMC. The role of water was significant in forming a ternary system that behaves in accordance to the free volume theory despite the protein’s heterogeneous structure. For dried samples, TEG and GLY formed clusters in the polymer network in the absence of water, whereas for hydrated samples the plasticizer was well distributed through the polymer network, albeit in micro-separated regions.

The concept of primary and secondary plasticization provided a better understanding of rheological behavior as well. Elongational flow was dominated by primary plasticization of the protein-rich and intermediate phases whereas secondary plasticization played a significant role in the reduction of the shear viscosity. Flow without secondary plasticization was characterised as a plug flow. PG showed the most efficient plasticization in both shear and elongational viscosity, which was attributed to the combination of its small molecular size and ability to enhance both primary and secondary plasticization. GLY acted mostly as a secondary plasticizer and had the higher elongational and the lowest shear viscosity. TEG as an efficient primary plasticizer with an ability to modify secondary structure performed exceptionally well in terms of extensional viscosity considering its high molecular weight. Higher shear viscosity levels were comparable to EG that was shown to diffuse very efficiently in the polymer network. 

With a fundamental understanding of plasticization and rheology, significant process improvements were made by increasing temperature and combining PG and TEG leading to efficient sheet extrusion.

year: 2018

title: Kotahi anō te tupuna o te tangata Māori, ko Ranginui e tū nei, ko Papatūānuku e takato nei. Colonisation through Christianity

authors: Wallace, Ritane

subjects: Christianity

abstract: This thesis will look at the role that Christianity and the missionaries played in the colonisation of Māori during the 1800s. With discussion about the colonisation of Aotearoa, it is generally felt within the Christian community that the work of the missionaries and the Crown are separate and therefore the universal belief is that the missionaries are pardoned from the critique of their work here in Aotearoa. However, Christianity throughout history has always been a doorway for the British Empire to enter land that was not their own.
  
It is widely accepted from the viewpoint of Christianity that it holds a religious superiority over all Indigenous people and their religions dating back to Pope Alexander VI and the issuing of the Papal Bull “Inter Caetera” in 1493 to justify Christian European explorers’ claims on land and waterways they allegedly discovered. Christian hegemony shaped missionary views of the ‘other’ and justified the assimilation of Indigenous people into European Christianity. The negative effects of Christianity on Māori far outweigh the positives as mission stations up and down Aotearoa contributed heavily to the loss of language, religion, and land, the three foundational pillars of Māori and other Indigenous peoples around the world.
   
The thesis seeks to hold the missionaries and Christianity to account for its contribution to the colonisation and religious assimilation of Māori into a foreign and unrelated belief system.

text: Kotahi anō te tupuna o te tangata Māori, ko Ranginui e tū nei, ko Papatūānuku e takato nei. Colonisation through Christianity This thesis will look at the role that Christianity and the missionaries played in the colonisation of Māori during the 1800s. With discussion about the colonisation of Aotearoa, it is generally felt within the Christian community that the work of the missionaries and the Crown are separate and therefore the universal belief is that the missionaries are pardoned from the critique of their work here in Aotearoa. However, Christianity throughout history has always been a doorway for the British Empire to enter land that was not their own.
  
It is widely accepted from the viewpoint of Christianity that it holds a religious superiority over all Indigenous people and their religions dating back to Pope Alexander VI and the issuing of the Papal Bull “Inter Caetera” in 1493 to justify Christian European explorers’ claims on land and waterways they allegedly discovered. Christian hegemony shaped missionary views of the ‘other’ and justified the assimilation of Indigenous people into European Christianity. The negative effects of Christianity on Māori far outweigh the positives as mission stations up and down Aotearoa contributed heavily to the loss of language, religion, and land, the three foundational pillars of Māori and other Indigenous peoples around the world.
   
The thesis seeks to hold the missionaries and Christianity to account for its contribution to the colonisation and religious assimilation of Māori into a foreign and unrelated belief system.

year: 2021