title: Alteration, formation, and occurrence of minerals in soils

authors: Churchman, G. Jock

abstract: This chapter, like Churchman (2000), seeks to bring readers up to date with information and understanding about the alteration of minerals and the nature of their products in the context of the formation and development of soils. It complements various articles by Bergaya et al. (2006), and the recent books by Velde and Meunier (2008) and Velde and Barré (2010). This current chapter differs from Churchman (2000) in that it discusses the manner in which minerals, and especially secondary minerals, actually occur in soils, i.e., it deals (in Section 20.3) with the occurrence, as well as the alteration and formation of minerals in soils.

text: Alteration, formation, and occurrence of minerals in soils This chapter, like Churchman (2000), seeks to bring readers up to date with information and understanding about the alteration of minerals and the nature of their products in the context of the formation and development of soils. It complements various articles by Bergaya et al. (2006), and the recent books by Velde and Meunier (2008) and Velde and Barré (2010). This current chapter differs from Churchman (2000) in that it discusses the manner in which minerals, and especially secondary minerals, actually occur in soils, i.e., it deals (in Section 20.3) with the occurrence, as well as the alteration and formation of minerals in soils.

year: 2012

title: Aspects of the root ecology of Neotyphodium endophytes in Lolium perenne

authors: Popay, Alison J.

abstract: Three different strains of the biotrophic endosymbiont, Neotyphodium, in perennial ryegrass were compared with endophyte-free ryegrass (Nil) for their effects on root herbivory, soil biota, root growth, root morphology and alkaloid and nutrient content in pot trials. 

Ryegrass infected with the endophyte strain, AR37, which produces janthitrem alkaloids, was toxic to a root aphid, Aploneura lentisci. Relative to Nil plants, ryegrass with Wild-type endophyte (producing the alkaloids peramine, ergovaline and lolitrem B) showed occasional resistance to A. lentisci whereas ryegrass with AR1 (producing peramine only) was highly susceptible. A high variability in root aphid populations among individual AR1 plants was related to plant genotype or a plant genotype/endophyte interaction. Differential effects of endophyte on A. lentisci were maintained under nutrient stress. Neither AR37 nor AR22 (a strain similar to AR1) in ryegrass affected feeding or survival of root-feeding larvae of the scarab Costelytra zealandica. 

Endophyte infection had no discernible adverse effects on populations of Collembola, oribatid mites or dorylaimid nematodes. Higher root aphid populations were associated with higher populations of Collembola and lower populations of nematodes. Rate of mycorrhizal colonisation of ryegrass infected with AR37 and Wild-type was slower than in AR1 and Nil but then proceeded rapidly to the extent that they became more heavily infected than AR1. After 2 years, infection of roots of AR1-infected plants was less than on AR37, Wild-type and Nil plants.

Alkaloid content of roots was very low relative to that of leaf sheaths. Two janthitrem fractions were consistently found in roots of AR37 plants and may be the cause of toxicity to root aphid. Ergovaline and lolitrem B were only found in roots under certain conditions and adverse effects of Wild-type infection on A. lentisci could not be attributed conclusively to the presence of either alkaloid.

Manipulation of herbivory by insecticide showed that root and foliar growth of AR1 and Nil plants were reduced by A. lentisci and also by an unidentified pseudococcid species infesting tillers. Root/shoot ratios were occasionally reduced in the presence of both species and in the presence of A. lentisci alone suggesting plant allocation to foliar growth in response to damage by these insects.

Not all effects of endophyte infection were mediated by herbivory. AR1-infected ryegrass had a higher specific root length than Nil plants with AR37 and Wild-type intermediate between these. Insecticide treatment increased specific root length in all plants but relative differences between endophyte treatments remained the same. AR37 differed from other endophyte treatments in having a lower investment in root growth and increasing root nitrogen concentrations during summer followed by a relatively larger investment in root growth in autumn and early winter. Protection from herbivory meant that actual root biomass of AR37 plants was not less than in other treatments. 

Endophyte-infected plants had higher concentrations of potassium and phosphorus than Nil plants in roots but not in leaf blades. Nitrogen concentrations in roots were inversely related to root biomass resulting in AR1-infected plants having the highest concentrations of nitrogen due to the adverse effects of A. lentisci on root growth. The higher nutrient content of AR1-infected ryegrass compared with Nil may increase its susceptibility to A. lentisci.

It is concluded that Neotyphodium infection has multiple but highly strain-specific effects on root ecology of perennial rye grass.

text: Aspects of the root ecology of Neotyphodium endophytes in Lolium perenne Three different strains of the biotrophic endosymbiont, Neotyphodium, in perennial ryegrass were compared with endophyte-free ryegrass (Nil) for their effects on root herbivory, soil biota, root growth, root morphology and alkaloid and nutrient content in pot trials. 

Ryegrass infected with the endophyte strain, AR37, which produces janthitrem alkaloids, was toxic to a root aphid, Aploneura lentisci. Relative to Nil plants, ryegrass with Wild-type endophyte (producing the alkaloids peramine, ergovaline and lolitrem B) showed occasional resistance to A. lentisci whereas ryegrass with AR1 (producing peramine only) was highly susceptible. A high variability in root aphid populations among individual AR1 plants was related to plant genotype or a plant genotype/endophyte interaction. Differential effects of endophyte on A. lentisci were maintained under nutrient stress. Neither AR37 nor AR22 (a strain similar to AR1) in ryegrass affected feeding or survival of root-feeding larvae of the scarab Costelytra zealandica. 

Endophyte infection had no discernible adverse effects on populations of Collembola, oribatid mites or dorylaimid nematodes. Higher root aphid populations were associated with higher populations of Collembola and lower populations of nematodes. Rate of mycorrhizal colonisation of ryegrass infected with AR37 and Wild-type was slower than in AR1 and Nil but then proceeded rapidly to the extent that they became more heavily infected than AR1. After 2 years, infection of roots of AR1-infected plants was less than on AR37, Wild-type and Nil plants.

Alkaloid content of roots was very low relative to that of leaf sheaths. Two janthitrem fractions were consistently found in roots of AR37 plants and may be the cause of toxicity to root aphid. Ergovaline and lolitrem B were only found in roots under certain conditions and adverse effects of Wild-type infection on A. lentisci could not be attributed conclusively to the presence of either alkaloid.

Manipulation of herbivory by insecticide showed that root and foliar growth of AR1 and Nil plants were reduced by A. lentisci and also by an unidentified pseudococcid species infesting tillers. Root/shoot ratios were occasionally reduced in the presence of both species and in the presence of A. lentisci alone suggesting plant allocation to foliar growth in response to damage by these insects.

Not all effects of endophyte infection were mediated by herbivory. AR1-infected ryegrass had a higher specific root length than Nil plants with AR37 and Wild-type intermediate between these. Insecticide treatment increased specific root length in all plants but relative differences between endophyte treatments remained the same. AR37 differed from other endophyte treatments in having a lower investment in root growth and increasing root nitrogen concentrations during summer followed by a relatively larger investment in root growth in autumn and early winter. Protection from herbivory meant that actual root biomass of AR37 plants was not less than in other treatments. 

Endophyte-infected plants had higher concentrations of potassium and phosphorus than Nil plants in roots but not in leaf blades. Nitrogen concentrations in roots were inversely related to root biomass resulting in AR1-infected plants having the highest concentrations of nitrogen due to the adverse effects of A. lentisci on root growth. The higher nutrient content of AR1-infected ryegrass compared with Nil may increase its susceptibility to A. lentisci.

It is concluded that Neotyphodium infection has multiple but highly strain-specific effects on root ecology of perennial rye grass.

year: 2004

title: Understanding the construction of belonging in a for-profit ECE centre: An ethnographic study

authors: Westerbeke, Lynley Ann

subjects: Belonging

abstract: Participation in high quality early childhood education [ECE] is recognised as having long ranging academic and social benefits for children, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Mitchell, Wylie & Carr, 2008).   In 2010 the ECE Participation Programme was successfully introduced to increase enrolment in ECE for targeted groups, such as Māori, Pasifika, and low income families.  I argue that focusing on increased participation alone is limiting and participation requires being viewed alongside the notion of belonging.  With the majority of children participating in for-profit ECE centres in Aotearoa New Zealand (Ministry of Education, 2015) I suggest that what children are participating in merits greater investigation.    
In this thesis belonging is positioned as not simply obtaining membership, but utilising Rogoff’s (2003) understanding of participation, it is viewed as something which is highly influential, where core values are transmitted and transformed.
The research questions guiding this thesis are:
1.	What affordances and challenges to belonging are identified by stakeholders participating in a privately owned, for-profit, ECE centre?
2.	How is the ethical stewardship of Te Whāriki reflected in the leadership’s decision making?
This thesis used a critical ethnographic methodology, and was conducted over a nine month period in a for-profit ECE centre, with the researcher in the role of participant observer.  The centre is located in a lower socio-economic area of an inner city suburb and is accessed by families who at the time of the study had only 30% of its parents in paid employment.  The majority of children identified as Māori and lived in close proximity to the centre, and all teachers at the centre identified as Pākehā.  The stakeholders identified for this study were the children, their parents and the teachers.  Three teachers participated in the study and four children were selected for case study, aged between two and four and a half years.  Data was generated primarily through semi-structured interviews with the children, their parents and the teachers, and observation of the setting.  The data was viewed utilising Rogoff’s (2003) three foci of analysis, with three contributing factors to belonging identified by participants; values, relationships and leadership.
The thesis argues that belonging is complex and participation in for-profit ECE services is an ethical concern, not only for the children and their families but also for teachers.  To make sense of the aligned yet often contradicting perspectives of the stakeholders I propose a belonging framework, conceptualised to bring understanding to the construction of belonging within the centre.  It suggests that belonging to the centre can be viewed from three distinct viewpoints; it can be observed, lived, and framed.   The study evidenced that the day-to-day lived experiences of the children are not fully known by parents and, while also lived, belonging is primarily observed for this cohort.  Within the context of lived belonging the teachers’ and leadership’s philosophical and pedagogical approaches meet, and often collide.  The child is placed at the heart of the framework where belonging is lived and it is here that meaning for this group is primarily created, and cultural values are transmitted and transformed.  The third perspective is how belonging is framed, with the leaders’ operational decision making setting the parameters for the stakeholders’ participation.  It is in this space that the actual values guiding the setting are revealed.
My thesis aims to explain the impact on the stakeholders’ sense of belonging when a government funded centre is driven by agendas not fully aligned with the intentions of the democratic and bicultural curriculum, Te Whāriki.  This study adds to the literature on for-profit ECE services, participation in ECE in Aotearoa New Zealand, and leadership in ECE.

text: Understanding the construction of belonging in a for-profit ECE centre: An ethnographic study Participation in high quality early childhood education [ECE] is recognised as having long ranging academic and social benefits for children, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds (Mitchell, Wylie & Carr, 2008).   In 2010 the ECE Participation Programme was successfully introduced to increase enrolment in ECE for targeted groups, such as Māori, Pasifika, and low income families.  I argue that focusing on increased participation alone is limiting and participation requires being viewed alongside the notion of belonging.  With the majority of children participating in for-profit ECE centres in Aotearoa New Zealand (Ministry of Education, 2015) I suggest that what children are participating in merits greater investigation.    
In this thesis belonging is positioned as not simply obtaining membership, but utilising Rogoff’s (2003) understanding of participation, it is viewed as something which is highly influential, where core values are transmitted and transformed.
The research questions guiding this thesis are:
1.	What affordances and challenges to belonging are identified by stakeholders participating in a privately owned, for-profit, ECE centre?
2.	How is the ethical stewardship of Te Whāriki reflected in the leadership’s decision making?
This thesis used a critical ethnographic methodology, and was conducted over a nine month period in a for-profit ECE centre, with the researcher in the role of participant observer.  The centre is located in a lower socio-economic area of an inner city suburb and is accessed by families who at the time of the study had only 30% of its parents in paid employment.  The majority of children identified as Māori and lived in close proximity to the centre, and all teachers at the centre identified as Pākehā.  The stakeholders identified for this study were the children, their parents and the teachers.  Three teachers participated in the study and four children were selected for case study, aged between two and four and a half years.  Data was generated primarily through semi-structured interviews with the children, their parents and the teachers, and observation of the setting.  The data was viewed utilising Rogoff’s (2003) three foci of analysis, with three contributing factors to belonging identified by participants; values, relationships and leadership.
The thesis argues that belonging is complex and participation in for-profit ECE services is an ethical concern, not only for the children and their families but also for teachers.  To make sense of the aligned yet often contradicting perspectives of the stakeholders I propose a belonging framework, conceptualised to bring understanding to the construction of belonging within the centre.  It suggests that belonging to the centre can be viewed from three distinct viewpoints; it can be observed, lived, and framed.   The study evidenced that the day-to-day lived experiences of the children are not fully known by parents and, while also lived, belonging is primarily observed for this cohort.  Within the context of lived belonging the teachers’ and leadership’s philosophical and pedagogical approaches meet, and often collide.  The child is placed at the heart of the framework where belonging is lived and it is here that meaning for this group is primarily created, and cultural values are transmitted and transformed.  The third perspective is how belonging is framed, with the leaders’ operational decision making setting the parameters for the stakeholders’ participation.  It is in this space that the actual values guiding the setting are revealed.
My thesis aims to explain the impact on the stakeholders’ sense of belonging when a government funded centre is driven by agendas not fully aligned with the intentions of the democratic and bicultural curriculum, Te Whāriki.  This study adds to the literature on for-profit ECE services, participation in ECE in Aotearoa New Zealand, and leadership in ECE.

year: 2016