title: Pinnip pinainthu kidakkum oorangattthalkalai kattudaiththal: Reimagining social activism with intersectional subaltern activist consciousness

authors: Divakalala, Cayathri

subjects: Social activism

abstract: People have been marginalised and oppressed due to their beliefs, identities, and expressions based on race, ethnicity, sex, gender, language, religion, class, caste, disability, neurodiversity, and sexuality for centuries. In Sri Lanka, these are deeply rooted and intertwined with historical violence, colonisation, and generational pain and suffering. Every instance of marginalisation and oppression, especially in the North and the East of this war-torn ‘teardrop island’ in the Indian Ocean, is a product of multiple crimes against humanity at various levels. Alongside marginalisations and oppressions exist the powerful instances, journeys, and stories of resistance, social organising, celebrations, and social movement building based on a profound sense of solidarity. Over the years, they have produced many seedlings of manifestations that keep these powerful instances alive and continually evolving. This doctoral thesis is one such seedling. 
Driven by the desire to theorise with subaltern activist journeys, this thesis explores the textures and contours of social activism organised by young trans, intersex and women activists from the margins who seek social justice in post-war Northern Sri Lanka. It searches for voices and experiences pushed to the margins by hegemonic and destructive powers and structures of society. By treating them as credible knowers, the thesis co-weaves a metaphorical mat of activist consciousness to argue i) particular experiences of subalternity emerge in post-war justice movements, ii) activist consciousnesses are shaped by everyday struggles that are constantly changing and evolving as activists navigate precarious living due to multiple and intersecting forms of marginalisation, iii) activists engage in reactive and proactive processes to manifest purposes beyond their differences and challenge forms of marginalisation, address the legacies of differences, and work towards justice and changes, iv) collaborative consciousness promotes collective growth, v) activists produce imaginaries of justice beyond binary thinking and understanding of their social worlds, and vi) critiquing practices aimed at critical reflections on the self as well collectives deepen understanding of the subalternity of social transformations. Conceptual frameworks from particular subaltern locations and histories substantiate these claims. The thesis concludes with suggestions for future researchers to further generate knowledge in collaboration with collective social processes.

text: Pinnip pinainthu kidakkum oorangattthalkalai kattudaiththal: Reimagining social activism with intersectional subaltern activist consciousness People have been marginalised and oppressed due to their beliefs, identities, and expressions based on race, ethnicity, sex, gender, language, religion, class, caste, disability, neurodiversity, and sexuality for centuries. In Sri Lanka, these are deeply rooted and intertwined with historical violence, colonisation, and generational pain and suffering. Every instance of marginalisation and oppression, especially in the North and the East of this war-torn ‘teardrop island’ in the Indian Ocean, is a product of multiple crimes against humanity at various levels. Alongside marginalisations and oppressions exist the powerful instances, journeys, and stories of resistance, social organising, celebrations, and social movement building based on a profound sense of solidarity. Over the years, they have produced many seedlings of manifestations that keep these powerful instances alive and continually evolving. This doctoral thesis is one such seedling. 
Driven by the desire to theorise with subaltern activist journeys, this thesis explores the textures and contours of social activism organised by young trans, intersex and women activists from the margins who seek social justice in post-war Northern Sri Lanka. It searches for voices and experiences pushed to the margins by hegemonic and destructive powers and structures of society. By treating them as credible knowers, the thesis co-weaves a metaphorical mat of activist consciousness to argue i) particular experiences of subalternity emerge in post-war justice movements, ii) activist consciousnesses are shaped by everyday struggles that are constantly changing and evolving as activists navigate precarious living due to multiple and intersecting forms of marginalisation, iii) activists engage in reactive and proactive processes to manifest purposes beyond their differences and challenge forms of marginalisation, address the legacies of differences, and work towards justice and changes, iv) collaborative consciousness promotes collective growth, v) activists produce imaginaries of justice beyond binary thinking and understanding of their social worlds, and vi) critiquing practices aimed at critical reflections on the self as well collectives deepen understanding of the subalternity of social transformations. Conceptual frameworks from particular subaltern locations and histories substantiate these claims. The thesis concludes with suggestions for future researchers to further generate knowledge in collaboration with collective social processes.

year: 2023

title: Effect of sapstaining fungi on structural wood integrity of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don)

authors: Schirp, Anke

abstract: Selected sapstaining fungi belonging to the Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti isolated in New Zealand were evaluated for potential degradation of unseasoned radiata pine sapwood using four independent methods: i) toughness and weight loss measurements, ii) chemical analysis of wood composition, iii) enzyme assays and iv) light and scanning electron microscopy. Several isolates of albino-strains, potential candidates for use as biocontrol agents against sapstain on radiata pine, were included in the experiments.

Sets of side-matched specimens were inoculated with isolates of Ophiostoma floccosum, O. pluriannulatum, O. ips, O. piceae, Leptographium procerum and Sphaeropsis sapinea and incubated for 8 or 16 weeks, along with non-inoculated control samples. Three decay fungi, Gloeophyllum trabeum, Phlebiopsis gigantea and Schizophyllum commune, were included in the tests to serve as references for weight and toughness loss. After incubation, the samples were equilibrated to 14% moisture content before recording toughness and weight losses. Weight loss was determined by comparing the dry weights of the inoculated samples to the untreated controls rather than expressing weight loss as a percentage of the original weight of a sample.

Neither toughness nor dry weight were significantly (p<0.05) different between specimens inoculated with sapstaining fungi and their controls, except for an isolate of O. ips in one out of three experiments. This isolate of O. ips caused 18% toughness loss without causing weight loss. In one out of four experiments, there was a slight, but statistically significant (p < 0.05) overall weight loss of samples inoculated with different sapstaining isolates which was attributed to the degradation of non-lignified parenchyma cells and extractives. In comparison, the brown-rot fungus G. trabeum caused up to 61% toughness loss after 4 months’ incubation, accompanied by a weight loss of 8%, and the white-rot fungus S. commune produced a toughness loss of 32% without any significant weight loss which indicates that toughness loss is a more sensitive indicator of decay than weight loss.

None of the sapstaining fungi tested caused significant reductions of lignin or structural carbohydrates (arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose and mannose) in radiata pine sapwood after 16 weeks’ incubation, but all fungal strains, with the exception of O. pluriannulatum, reduced the amount of extractives significantly. Of the isolates tested, O. floccosum degraded extractives most effectively (53.6% reduction). The fact that there were no major differences with regard to the composition of the structural cell wall components of sapstained wood and controls complements the results obtained in the weight loss experiments. Significant amylose and extractives consumption reflect the observation of sapstaining fungi growing extensively in the parenchyma cells and resin canals of radiata pine.

Sapstaining fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes into the growth substrate and subsequently absorb the products of hydrolysis in the fungal mycelium. Enzyme assays demonstrated that all sapstaining isolates tested secreted low amounts of xylanase (up to 1.64 μmoles/min/ml) and pectinase (up to 0.11 μmoles/min/ml) into the growth medium, but extracellular cellulose was not detected. Under the conditions tested, mannanase was secreted only by O. piceae (0.29 μmole/min/ml). The results suggest that although galactoglucomannans are the major hemicelluloses in softwoods, the arabino-4-methylglucuronoxylans are preferably used by sapstaining as well as decay fungi when growing in softwoods. This may be attributed to the accessibility of the xylans in the S₃-layer of the wood cell wall. Amylase activity of the fungal species tested was more significant than xylanase, mannanase and pectinase activities which confirms that sapstaining fungi preferably metabolize easily accessible, non-structural wood components like starch.

A possible function of the cell-wall degrading enzymes may be the facilitation of the colonization of wood cells, specifically, pectinase may assist the fungal penetration of pit membranes. It is likely that the extracellular sheath which has been observed around hyphae of S. sapinea contains these enzymes and represents an important source of support and hyphal contact with the host cell wall. In addition, pectinase and xylanase could be involved in the pathogenesis of certain sapstaining fungi, as has been demonstrated for O. ulmi and O. novoulmi. The production of specific antibodies against xylanase and pectinase and the subsequent immunohistochemical localization in the host might resolve this question.

Hyphae of sapstaining fungi pass from one wood cell to another by growing through the pit membranes. No differences were observed with regard to the spatial distribution of the sapstaining fungi. Direct cell wall penetration was not observed. The non-lignified parenchyma cell walls of the wood samples infected with sapstaining fungi appeared to be degraded. The ray tracheids in radiata pine were less colonized than the parenchyma cells. 

Although low amounts of hemicellulolytic enzymes and pectinase were detected, the effect of sapstaining fungi on wood quality of radiata pine has to be considered cosmetic and non-degradative which confirms the evaluation of sapstain according to the New Zealand Timber Grading Rules (NZS 3631, 1988). In general, sapstaining fungi do not affect the structural wood integrity of radiata pine. If severe sapstain occurs which obscures the grain, there is a possibility that decay fungi may also be present, and since decay fungi do affect the strength of timber, it seems justified not to allow for the use of severely sapstained timber for structural purposes, consistent with NZS 3631 (1988). The use of selected albino-strains of the naturally occurring sapstain population in New Zealand as biocontrol agents on radiata pine logs and timber can be recommended since these fungi were also not found to decrease toughness nor to cause weight loss in radiata pine.

text: Effect of sapstaining fungi on structural wood integrity of radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) Selected sapstaining fungi belonging to the Ascomycetes and Fungi Imperfecti isolated in New Zealand were evaluated for potential degradation of unseasoned radiata pine sapwood using four independent methods: i) toughness and weight loss measurements, ii) chemical analysis of wood composition, iii) enzyme assays and iv) light and scanning electron microscopy. Several isolates of albino-strains, potential candidates for use as biocontrol agents against sapstain on radiata pine, were included in the experiments.

Sets of side-matched specimens were inoculated with isolates of Ophiostoma floccosum, O. pluriannulatum, O. ips, O. piceae, Leptographium procerum and Sphaeropsis sapinea and incubated for 8 or 16 weeks, along with non-inoculated control samples. Three decay fungi, Gloeophyllum trabeum, Phlebiopsis gigantea and Schizophyllum commune, were included in the tests to serve as references for weight and toughness loss. After incubation, the samples were equilibrated to 14% moisture content before recording toughness and weight losses. Weight loss was determined by comparing the dry weights of the inoculated samples to the untreated controls rather than expressing weight loss as a percentage of the original weight of a sample.

Neither toughness nor dry weight were significantly (p<0.05) different between specimens inoculated with sapstaining fungi and their controls, except for an isolate of O. ips in one out of three experiments. This isolate of O. ips caused 18% toughness loss without causing weight loss. In one out of four experiments, there was a slight, but statistically significant (p < 0.05) overall weight loss of samples inoculated with different sapstaining isolates which was attributed to the degradation of non-lignified parenchyma cells and extractives. In comparison, the brown-rot fungus G. trabeum caused up to 61% toughness loss after 4 months’ incubation, accompanied by a weight loss of 8%, and the white-rot fungus S. commune produced a toughness loss of 32% without any significant weight loss which indicates that toughness loss is a more sensitive indicator of decay than weight loss.

None of the sapstaining fungi tested caused significant reductions of lignin or structural carbohydrates (arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose and mannose) in radiata pine sapwood after 16 weeks’ incubation, but all fungal strains, with the exception of O. pluriannulatum, reduced the amount of extractives significantly. Of the isolates tested, O. floccosum degraded extractives most effectively (53.6% reduction). The fact that there were no major differences with regard to the composition of the structural cell wall components of sapstained wood and controls complements the results obtained in the weight loss experiments. Significant amylose and extractives consumption reflect the observation of sapstaining fungi growing extensively in the parenchyma cells and resin canals of radiata pine.

Sapstaining fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes into the growth substrate and subsequently absorb the products of hydrolysis in the fungal mycelium. Enzyme assays demonstrated that all sapstaining isolates tested secreted low amounts of xylanase (up to 1.64 μmoles/min/ml) and pectinase (up to 0.11 μmoles/min/ml) into the growth medium, but extracellular cellulose was not detected. Under the conditions tested, mannanase was secreted only by O. piceae (0.29 μmole/min/ml). The results suggest that although galactoglucomannans are the major hemicelluloses in softwoods, the arabino-4-methylglucuronoxylans are preferably used by sapstaining as well as decay fungi when growing in softwoods. This may be attributed to the accessibility of the xylans in the S₃-layer of the wood cell wall. Amylase activity of the fungal species tested was more significant than xylanase, mannanase and pectinase activities which confirms that sapstaining fungi preferably metabolize easily accessible, non-structural wood components like starch.

A possible function of the cell-wall degrading enzymes may be the facilitation of the colonization of wood cells, specifically, pectinase may assist the fungal penetration of pit membranes. It is likely that the extracellular sheath which has been observed around hyphae of S. sapinea contains these enzymes and represents an important source of support and hyphal contact with the host cell wall. In addition, pectinase and xylanase could be involved in the pathogenesis of certain sapstaining fungi, as has been demonstrated for O. ulmi and O. novoulmi. The production of specific antibodies against xylanase and pectinase and the subsequent immunohistochemical localization in the host might resolve this question.

Hyphae of sapstaining fungi pass from one wood cell to another by growing through the pit membranes. No differences were observed with regard to the spatial distribution of the sapstaining fungi. Direct cell wall penetration was not observed. The non-lignified parenchyma cell walls of the wood samples infected with sapstaining fungi appeared to be degraded. The ray tracheids in radiata pine were less colonized than the parenchyma cells. 

Although low amounts of hemicellulolytic enzymes and pectinase were detected, the effect of sapstaining fungi on wood quality of radiata pine has to be considered cosmetic and non-degradative which confirms the evaluation of sapstain according to the New Zealand Timber Grading Rules (NZS 3631, 1988). In general, sapstaining fungi do not affect the structural wood integrity of radiata pine. If severe sapstain occurs which obscures the grain, there is a possibility that decay fungi may also be present, and since decay fungi do affect the strength of timber, it seems justified not to allow for the use of severely sapstained timber for structural purposes, consistent with NZS 3631 (1988). The use of selected albino-strains of the naturally occurring sapstain population in New Zealand as biocontrol agents on radiata pine logs and timber can be recommended since these fungi were also not found to decrease toughness nor to cause weight loss in radiata pine.

year: 2001

title: Kaitiakitanga o te Taiao - Reconciling Legislative Provisions and Outcomes for Māori

authors: Kennedy, Nathan Charles Karaua

subjects: Kaitiakitanga

abstract: The Resource Management Act (1991) (RMA) was heralded as internationally ground-breaking for its integrated approach, and for cementing 'sustainable management' as its overarching purpose. It was ground-breaking also for its recognition of First Nations’ rights and values. This includes directing decision-makers to recognise and provide for the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters and treasured resources, to have particular regard to Māori customary practices, and to take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. The RMA provides for councils to transfer or delegate functions and powers to Māori, and for joint management arrangements.
In 16 years as environment officer for my iwi, I witnessed the failure of the RMA to protect Māori values and interests. This experience prompted me to undertake research to thoroughly investigate outcomes of the operation of the RMA for Māori. Two questions framed my research; the first asking whether kaitiaki have been empowered by the Māori provisions in the RMA, and the second seeking to determine overall outcomes for Māori from the Act.
Assessing such outcomes required an understanding of Māori values and interests, evaluation of the law, of the statutory plans that govern council administration of the RMA, implementation of these by councils and the Crown, and their treatment by the courts. To answer the two questions I present in this thesis a geographically focused study of two take (causes or significant issues) at Whangamatā, the construction of a marina, and the removal of mangroves.
I compare Ngāti Whanaunga experiences with those of Māori nationally. By doing so I provide the evidence base for an 'overall broad judgement' (as the RMA requires) that despite apparent empowerment by the Act and its statutory plans, Māori have suffered widespread and significantly negative outcomes under the RMA. Rather than being empowered, Māori struggle to participate in planning processes, and see ancestral values and interests eroded by waves of resource consent processes, in which effects on Māori are little considered.

text: Kaitiakitanga o te Taiao - Reconciling Legislative Provisions and Outcomes for Māori The Resource Management Act (1991) (RMA) was heralded as internationally ground-breaking for its integrated approach, and for cementing 'sustainable management' as its overarching purpose. It was ground-breaking also for its recognition of First Nations’ rights and values. This includes directing decision-makers to recognise and provide for the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters and treasured resources, to have particular regard to Māori customary practices, and to take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. The RMA provides for councils to transfer or delegate functions and powers to Māori, and for joint management arrangements.
In 16 years as environment officer for my iwi, I witnessed the failure of the RMA to protect Māori values and interests. This experience prompted me to undertake research to thoroughly investigate outcomes of the operation of the RMA for Māori. Two questions framed my research; the first asking whether kaitiaki have been empowered by the Māori provisions in the RMA, and the second seeking to determine overall outcomes for Māori from the Act.
Assessing such outcomes required an understanding of Māori values and interests, evaluation of the law, of the statutory plans that govern council administration of the RMA, implementation of these by councils and the Crown, and their treatment by the courts. To answer the two questions I present in this thesis a geographically focused study of two take (causes or significant issues) at Whangamatā, the construction of a marina, and the removal of mangroves.
I compare Ngāti Whanaunga experiences with those of Māori nationally. By doing so I provide the evidence base for an 'overall broad judgement' (as the RMA requires) that despite apparent empowerment by the Act and its statutory plans, Māori have suffered widespread and significantly negative outcomes under the RMA. Rather than being empowered, Māori struggle to participate in planning processes, and see ancestral values and interests eroded by waves of resource consent processes, in which effects on Māori are little considered.

year: 2017