title: Poverty impacts of agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka

authors: Ranathunga, Seetha P.B.

subjects: Agricultural trade liberalisation

abstract: There remains controversy over whether trade liberalisation in general, and agricultural trade liberalisation in particular, leads to poverty reduction in developing countries. Since the impacts of agricultural trade liberalisation differ according to the characteristics of the country and specific groups of people within that country, country-specific studies are imperative. It is both important and timely to investigate the poverty impact of agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka, a country that began opening its economy three decades ago and has reduced poverty tremendously, despite a civil war lasting nearly three decades.

This study focused primarily on changes in poverty due to agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka. Analysis was undertaken in three main areas. Firstly, it investigated poverty determinants and their behaviour over sectors and over expenditure deciles in Sri Lanka since the second wave of economic liberalisation, and found that remittances (both local and foreign) have been a leading factor in poverty reduction in Sri Lanka over the last two decades. Thus, secondly, an attempt was made to capture the economic impact of rural-to-urban labour migration and the use of remittances within agricultural communities in Sri Lanka. Finally, the poverty, impact of future agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka was assessed within a global computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling framework using the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model and database, augmented with poverty data for Sri Lanka (GTAP-POV). In addition, policies contributing to poverty reduction in Sri Lanka were analysed.  

The results of the econometric analysis using household survey data indicated that education and remittances were the primary factors which reduced poverty in Sri Lanka over the last two decades. Significant variations were identified regarding the direction and magnitude of the poverty determinants in Sri Lanka irrespective of the sector.  The local remittance variable was tested as a poverty determinant for the first time in the Sri Lankan context and found to be significant in poverty reduction in the rural and estate sectors in particular. The poverty decomposition result indicated that the redistribution component has dominated the growth component of the change in poverty in Sri Lanka over the last two decades.

This study also examined the economic impact of rural-to-urban labour migration and remittances using a sample survey data collected from Gampaha District, where the majority of the factories are located in Sri Lanka. It specifically investigated the “in-kind” variable as a determinant of remittances and confirmed a positive and significant impact.  Individual migrants’ average income gains from migration varied between 4,000 and 9,000 rupees per month and migrants who shifted from agricultural sector jobs to factory jobs had the highest income gain in rural-to-urban migration.  Individual income gain in the urban sector is rewarded by level of education and work experience, in contrast to rural sector earnings. 

Analysis using the GTAP-POV model indicated that agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka reduces poverty much more significantly in each population stratum under multilateral and unilateral trade liberalisations, than is the case with bilateral trade liberalisation.  Poverty elasticities were derived and applied for all household strata in Sri Lanka in the GTAP-POV framework.  It was estimated that more than one million individuals would escape from extreme poverty in the rural diversified stratum under the scenario of full trade liberalisation of the agricultural sector, as well as around four million individuals would move above the US$2/day poverty line. Rural labour stratum and diversified urban stratum also show a significant level of poverty reduction under the agricultural trade liberalisation. 

The analysis of poverty-focused policies in Sri Lanka indicated that poverty was initiated in the colonial period with the importation of Indian Tamil labour for the plantations. Welfare policies focused on the poor since independence have aimed at compensation of consumption expenditure rather than having an investment focus. Sri Lanka needs investment-focused poverty policies with welfare-focused compensation policies to achieve systematic poverty alleviation.

text: Poverty impacts of agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka There remains controversy over whether trade liberalisation in general, and agricultural trade liberalisation in particular, leads to poverty reduction in developing countries. Since the impacts of agricultural trade liberalisation differ according to the characteristics of the country and specific groups of people within that country, country-specific studies are imperative. It is both important and timely to investigate the poverty impact of agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka, a country that began opening its economy three decades ago and has reduced poverty tremendously, despite a civil war lasting nearly three decades.

This study focused primarily on changes in poverty due to agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka. Analysis was undertaken in three main areas. Firstly, it investigated poverty determinants and their behaviour over sectors and over expenditure deciles in Sri Lanka since the second wave of economic liberalisation, and found that remittances (both local and foreign) have been a leading factor in poverty reduction in Sri Lanka over the last two decades. Thus, secondly, an attempt was made to capture the economic impact of rural-to-urban labour migration and the use of remittances within agricultural communities in Sri Lanka. Finally, the poverty, impact of future agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka was assessed within a global computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling framework using the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model and database, augmented with poverty data for Sri Lanka (GTAP-POV). In addition, policies contributing to poverty reduction in Sri Lanka were analysed.  

The results of the econometric analysis using household survey data indicated that education and remittances were the primary factors which reduced poverty in Sri Lanka over the last two decades. Significant variations were identified regarding the direction and magnitude of the poverty determinants in Sri Lanka irrespective of the sector.  The local remittance variable was tested as a poverty determinant for the first time in the Sri Lankan context and found to be significant in poverty reduction in the rural and estate sectors in particular. The poverty decomposition result indicated that the redistribution component has dominated the growth component of the change in poverty in Sri Lanka over the last two decades.

This study also examined the economic impact of rural-to-urban labour migration and remittances using a sample survey data collected from Gampaha District, where the majority of the factories are located in Sri Lanka. It specifically investigated the “in-kind” variable as a determinant of remittances and confirmed a positive and significant impact.  Individual migrants’ average income gains from migration varied between 4,000 and 9,000 rupees per month and migrants who shifted from agricultural sector jobs to factory jobs had the highest income gain in rural-to-urban migration.  Individual income gain in the urban sector is rewarded by level of education and work experience, in contrast to rural sector earnings. 

Analysis using the GTAP-POV model indicated that agricultural trade liberalisation in Sri Lanka reduces poverty much more significantly in each population stratum under multilateral and unilateral trade liberalisations, than is the case with bilateral trade liberalisation.  Poverty elasticities were derived and applied for all household strata in Sri Lanka in the GTAP-POV framework.  It was estimated that more than one million individuals would escape from extreme poverty in the rural diversified stratum under the scenario of full trade liberalisation of the agricultural sector, as well as around four million individuals would move above the US$2/day poverty line. Rural labour stratum and diversified urban stratum also show a significant level of poverty reduction under the agricultural trade liberalisation. 

The analysis of poverty-focused policies in Sri Lanka indicated that poverty was initiated in the colonial period with the importation of Indian Tamil labour for the plantations. Welfare policies focused on the poor since independence have aimed at compensation of consumption expenditure rather than having an investment focus. Sri Lanka needs investment-focused poverty policies with welfare-focused compensation policies to achieve systematic poverty alleviation.

year: 2015

title: Temporal and spatial variation in active layer depth in the McMurdo Sound Region, Antarctica

authors: Adlam, Leah Seree

subjects: active layer prediction

abstract: A soil climate monitoring network, consisting of seven automated weather stations, was established between 1999 and 2003, ranging from Minna Bluff to Granite Harbour and from near sea level to about 1700m on the edge of the polar plateau. Active layer depth was calculated for each site for eight successive summers from 1999/2000 to 2006/2007. The active layer depth varied from year to year and was deepest in the warm summer of 2001–02 at all recording sites. No trends of overall increase or decrease in active layer depth were evident across the up-to-eight years of data investigated. Average active layer depth decreased with increasing latitude from Granite Harbour (778S, active layer depth of.90 cm) to Minna Bluff (78.58S, active layer depth of 22 ± 0.4 cm), and decreased with increasing altitude from Marble Point (50m altitude, active layer depth of 49 ± 9 cm) through to Mount Fleming (1700m altitude, active layer depth of 6 ± 2 cm). When all data from the sites were grouped together and used to predict active layer depth the mean summer air temperature, mean winter air temperature, total summer solar radiation and mean summer wind speed explained 73% of the variation (R250.73).

text: Temporal and spatial variation in active layer depth in the McMurdo Sound Region, Antarctica A soil climate monitoring network, consisting of seven automated weather stations, was established between 1999 and 2003, ranging from Minna Bluff to Granite Harbour and from near sea level to about 1700m on the edge of the polar plateau. Active layer depth was calculated for each site for eight successive summers from 1999/2000 to 2006/2007. The active layer depth varied from year to year and was deepest in the warm summer of 2001–02 at all recording sites. No trends of overall increase or decrease in active layer depth were evident across the up-to-eight years of data investigated. Average active layer depth decreased with increasing latitude from Granite Harbour (778S, active layer depth of.90 cm) to Minna Bluff (78.58S, active layer depth of 22 ± 0.4 cm), and decreased with increasing altitude from Marble Point (50m altitude, active layer depth of 49 ± 9 cm) through to Mount Fleming (1700m altitude, active layer depth of 6 ± 2 cm). When all data from the sites were grouped together and used to predict active layer depth the mean summer air temperature, mean winter air temperature, total summer solar radiation and mean summer wind speed explained 73% of the variation (R250.73).

year: 2010

title: Getting Deep:  Experiences of New Zealand Bodyboarders

authors: Nemani, Mihi Joy

subjects: bodyboarding

abstract: Since the mid 1990s, a growing body of literature on lifestyle sports has produced fresh insights into the nuances, esoteric terminology and social dynamics in an array of lifestyle sport cultures. While surf culture has gained considerable attention from both sociologists and historians, the voices of bodyboarders have been minimal.  Reflecting perceptions held by many in mainstream society, the literature on surf culture tended to marginalize bodyboarding participants, deeming the activity fit for children or teenagers.  Therefore, this project addresses the gap in academic literature on surf culture by adopting a socio-cultural, qualitative approach to give voice to bodyboarders, by revealing some of the complexities within bodyboarding culture, and revealing power relations operating between surfers and bodyboarders in the surf. 

As a three-time world amateur champion female bodyboarder of both Maori and Samoan heritage, I was particularly interested to understand experiences of gender and ethnicity in relation to bodyboarding.  Therefore, I conducted semi-structured interviews with eight bodyboarders living in New Zealand.  To analyse data from the interviews, I employed Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts of habitus, field and capital to explore bodyboarding with the intent of presenting fresh perspectives relating to masculinity and femininity, and experiences of Maori, Pacific Island and New Zealand European bodyboarders.  The participants revealed embodied characteristics of the bodyboarder as well as a variety of strategies used to negotiate space in the surf field.  The experiences of female participants resonated with current literature where opportunities to gain respect were limited based on their marginal position in the male-dominated lifestyle sport culture.  While some female participants successfully negotiated space within the surf field, male bodyboarders revealed other difficulties due to the hyper-masculinity of stand-up surfing culture, and the marginal position of bodyboarders.

In specifically examining the experiences of Maori and Pacific Island participants, I argue that a unique form of cultural capital exists in which respect, courtesy and fairness were given more value than demonstrations of physical capital.  Adopting a socio-cultural approach to analyse the operations of power in the surf field, and particularly how gender and ethnicity affect the experiences of New Zealand bodyboarders, this research project brings “new value to identities and experiences that are marginalized and stigmatized by the larger culture” (Denzin, 2002, p. 486).

text: Getting Deep:  Experiences of New Zealand Bodyboarders Since the mid 1990s, a growing body of literature on lifestyle sports has produced fresh insights into the nuances, esoteric terminology and social dynamics in an array of lifestyle sport cultures. While surf culture has gained considerable attention from both sociologists and historians, the voices of bodyboarders have been minimal.  Reflecting perceptions held by many in mainstream society, the literature on surf culture tended to marginalize bodyboarding participants, deeming the activity fit for children or teenagers.  Therefore, this project addresses the gap in academic literature on surf culture by adopting a socio-cultural, qualitative approach to give voice to bodyboarders, by revealing some of the complexities within bodyboarding culture, and revealing power relations operating between surfers and bodyboarders in the surf. 

As a three-time world amateur champion female bodyboarder of both Maori and Samoan heritage, I was particularly interested to understand experiences of gender and ethnicity in relation to bodyboarding.  Therefore, I conducted semi-structured interviews with eight bodyboarders living in New Zealand.  To analyse data from the interviews, I employed Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts of habitus, field and capital to explore bodyboarding with the intent of presenting fresh perspectives relating to masculinity and femininity, and experiences of Maori, Pacific Island and New Zealand European bodyboarders.  The participants revealed embodied characteristics of the bodyboarder as well as a variety of strategies used to negotiate space in the surf field.  The experiences of female participants resonated with current literature where opportunities to gain respect were limited based on their marginal position in the male-dominated lifestyle sport culture.  While some female participants successfully negotiated space within the surf field, male bodyboarders revealed other difficulties due to the hyper-masculinity of stand-up surfing culture, and the marginal position of bodyboarders.

In specifically examining the experiences of Maori and Pacific Island participants, I argue that a unique form of cultural capital exists in which respect, courtesy and fairness were given more value than demonstrations of physical capital.  Adopting a socio-cultural approach to analyse the operations of power in the surf field, and particularly how gender and ethnicity affect the experiences of New Zealand bodyboarders, this research project brings “new value to identities and experiences that are marginalized and stigmatized by the larger culture” (Denzin, 2002, p. 486).

year: 2013