title: Macroclimate and topography interact to influence the abundance of divaricate plants in New Zealand

authors: Lusk, Christopher H.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: The abundance of the divaricate growth form in New Zealand has been interpreted as either (a) the response of an isolated flora to cool, dry, Plio-Pleistocene climates; or (b) a defense against large browsing birds (moa) that were hunted to extinction shortly after human arrival during the last millennium. We used patterns of divaricate plant abundance across present-day landscapes to test a novel synthetic hypothesis: that the divaricate form is of most value to plants on fertile soils that attract herbivores, on sites where climatic constraints prevent plants from quickly growing out of the browse zone. This hypothesis predicts that divaricate species should be most abundant on terraces (landforms that are both fertile and frost-prone) in regions that are cold and dry, and should be scarce across all topographic positions in the warmest (largely frost-free) regions. To address our hypothesis, we first tested the influence of topography on frost regimes and nutrient levels by measuring temperatures and soil total C, N, and P at four standard topographic positions at five localities differing widely in macroclimate. We then extracted a dataset of 236 surveys comprising 9,877 relevé plots from the New Zealand National Vegetation Survey databank. We calculated the proportion of arborescent species with a divaricate growth form and the proportion of total arborescentcover contributed by divaricates on each plot; we then fitted linear mixed-effect models predicting these response variables as functions of topographic position and climate. The number of frosts recorded averaged <1 yr–1 at the warmest of the five sites studied, to >60 yr–1 on all topographic positions at the coldest site. Terraces were subject to more frequent and harder frosts than any other topographic position. Topography had no significant influence on total N or C:N, but total P was higher on terraces and in gullies than on faces or ridges. Frost-free period was the dominant influence on both species representation and cover of divaricate plants throughout the country. The effect of topography was also significant, but weaker. The effect of frost-free period was stronger on sites with water deficits than on sites where precipitation exceeded evapotranspiration. Divaricates made their largest contributions on terraces in cold, dry regions; as predicted, they were scarce on all topographic positions on sites with frost-free periods >300 days. Our hypothesis was generally supported, although the effect of topography on divaricate abundance was not as strong as some previous studies led us to expect. Divaricates made their largest contributions to arborescent species richness and cover on sites where climatic restrictions on growth coincide with relatively high nutrient availability. The contemporary distribution of the divaricate form across New Zealand landscapes thus appears to be reasonably well explained by the hypothesized interaction of climate and fertility-mediated browsing, although experiments may provide more conclusive tests of this hypothesis.

text: Macroclimate and topography interact to influence the abundance of divaricate plants in New Zealand The abundance of the divaricate growth form in New Zealand has been interpreted as either (a) the response of an isolated flora to cool, dry, Plio-Pleistocene climates; or (b) a defense against large browsing birds (moa) that were hunted to extinction shortly after human arrival during the last millennium. We used patterns of divaricate plant abundance across present-day landscapes to test a novel synthetic hypothesis: that the divaricate form is of most value to plants on fertile soils that attract herbivores, on sites where climatic constraints prevent plants from quickly growing out of the browse zone. This hypothesis predicts that divaricate species should be most abundant on terraces (landforms that are both fertile and frost-prone) in regions that are cold and dry, and should be scarce across all topographic positions in the warmest (largely frost-free) regions. To address our hypothesis, we first tested the influence of topography on frost regimes and nutrient levels by measuring temperatures and soil total C, N, and P at four standard topographic positions at five localities differing widely in macroclimate. We then extracted a dataset of 236 surveys comprising 9,877 relevé plots from the New Zealand National Vegetation Survey databank. We calculated the proportion of arborescent species with a divaricate growth form and the proportion of total arborescentcover contributed by divaricates on each plot; we then fitted linear mixed-effect models predicting these response variables as functions of topographic position and climate. The number of frosts recorded averaged <1 yr–1 at the warmest of the five sites studied, to >60 yr–1 on all topographic positions at the coldest site. Terraces were subject to more frequent and harder frosts than any other topographic position. Topography had no significant influence on total N or C:N, but total P was higher on terraces and in gullies than on faces or ridges. Frost-free period was the dominant influence on both species representation and cover of divaricate plants throughout the country. The effect of topography was also significant, but weaker. The effect of frost-free period was stronger on sites with water deficits than on sites where precipitation exceeded evapotranspiration. Divaricates made their largest contributions on terraces in cold, dry regions; as predicted, they were scarce on all topographic positions on sites with frost-free periods >300 days. Our hypothesis was generally supported, although the effect of topography on divaricate abundance was not as strong as some previous studies led us to expect. Divaricates made their largest contributions to arborescent species richness and cover on sites where climatic restrictions on growth coincide with relatively high nutrient availability. The contemporary distribution of the divaricate form across New Zealand landscapes thus appears to be reasonably well explained by the hypothesized interaction of climate and fertility-mediated browsing, although experiments may provide more conclusive tests of this hypothesis.

year: 2020

title: Patriotism and the New Zealand primary school: the decisive years of the twenties

authors: Openshaw, Roger

abstract: This thesis is concerned with patriotism, its impact on and its implications for the New Zealand primary school. The term “patriotism” is employed in a wide sense to refer to a number of activities and concepts which vitally affected both teachers and pupils. These included citizenship instruction taught under history and civics, special patriotic and commemorative observances such as Anzac Day, and a growing preoccupation with loyalty and conformity which led to the introduction of flag-saluting and loyalty oaths. 
The 1920s were decisive years for school patriotism. Initially the Great War upset the earlier relationship between patriotism and the primary school. Before 1914 school patriotism had been based on character training and steeped in the mystique of Empire, particularly the imperial romanticism of Newbolt and Kipling. By 1918 these had become less important as new and more urgent considerations began to claim the attention of politicians and educationalists. War was now regarded as being a struggle between societies in which education played a crucial role. The necessity of national survival had largely ousted the ideal of the knightly crusade implicit in school patriotism prior to the outbreak of war. At the same time patriotism itself had become more intense, more zealous and more dynamic than ever before. As a result, its impact on the primary school was to be correspondingly distinctive. 
1. The Zenith of Patriotic Zeal, 1918 - 1922. 
The first section of this thesis traces the development of patriotic fervour during the early post-war period and analyses its impact on the primary schools. Three important factors; the continuing influence of the Great War, the unresolved problem of external security and the apparent threat to society posed by militant socialism, had considerable effect on the teaching of patriotism. On one plane this led to an extension of patriotic observances in the schools, to a continuing School Journal bias towards patriotic and imperial articles, and to a growing emphasis on citizenship training as reflected in the 1919 Syllabus. On a quite different and ultimately more significant plane, however, the political, economic and social uncertainties of the early post-war period helped focus attention on the perplexing question of ensuring loyalty within the school system, for without loyalty, neither instruction in patriotism nor exposure to patriotic ritual could be successful. The gazetting of compulsory flag-saluting regulations and the introduction of loyalty oaths for teachers were measures which indicated a decisive shift in concern from the inculcation of patriotism, to the maintenance of loyalty in the teaching service. 
2. The Decline of Patriotic Fervour, 1922 - 1930. 
The second section of this thesis analyses the reasons behind the decline of patriotic zeal in the schools. Despite the initial fervour behind the early post-war extension of school patriotism, its impact on pupils had been limited by various environmental, administrative and educational difficulties. More important however, attitudes towards the teaching of patriotism changed during the 1920s, due to the existence of several new factors. 
Excessive pre-occupation with teacher loyalty, especially on the part of the Government, provoked a number of confrontations and contributed in large measure to a growing public distaste for the direction school patriotism appeared to have taken. As the decade advanced, a growing movement towards the social and cultural aspects of education began to supersede the older, more narrow stress on patriotism. In a world which was beginning to find the ideal of human brotherhood more attractive, there appeared less place for the strident nationalism which had characterised patriotic instruction a few years earlier. By the late 1920s internationalist sentiment was beginning to have an impact in New Zealand, and this was to prove vital in both influencing the type of reading material available to pupils and in modifying the attitudes of politicians, education administrators and teachers. 
The 1920s, therefore, were decisive years for patriotism and for the New Zealand primary school. In the years immediately following the Armistice, patriotism appeared destined to play a dominant role in education. By the end of the decade, its militancy and even its raison d’etre were being challenged. As far as the teaching of political values was concerned a new order was beginning to take shape in the primary schools which, while owing its existence to the events and decisions of the 1920s, was to last until the mid-1970s.

text: Patriotism and the New Zealand primary school: the decisive years of the twenties This thesis is concerned with patriotism, its impact on and its implications for the New Zealand primary school. The term “patriotism” is employed in a wide sense to refer to a number of activities and concepts which vitally affected both teachers and pupils. These included citizenship instruction taught under history and civics, special patriotic and commemorative observances such as Anzac Day, and a growing preoccupation with loyalty and conformity which led to the introduction of flag-saluting and loyalty oaths. 
The 1920s were decisive years for school patriotism. Initially the Great War upset the earlier relationship between patriotism and the primary school. Before 1914 school patriotism had been based on character training and steeped in the mystique of Empire, particularly the imperial romanticism of Newbolt and Kipling. By 1918 these had become less important as new and more urgent considerations began to claim the attention of politicians and educationalists. War was now regarded as being a struggle between societies in which education played a crucial role. The necessity of national survival had largely ousted the ideal of the knightly crusade implicit in school patriotism prior to the outbreak of war. At the same time patriotism itself had become more intense, more zealous and more dynamic than ever before. As a result, its impact on the primary school was to be correspondingly distinctive. 
1. The Zenith of Patriotic Zeal, 1918 - 1922. 
The first section of this thesis traces the development of patriotic fervour during the early post-war period and analyses its impact on the primary schools. Three important factors; the continuing influence of the Great War, the unresolved problem of external security and the apparent threat to society posed by militant socialism, had considerable effect on the teaching of patriotism. On one plane this led to an extension of patriotic observances in the schools, to a continuing School Journal bias towards patriotic and imperial articles, and to a growing emphasis on citizenship training as reflected in the 1919 Syllabus. On a quite different and ultimately more significant plane, however, the political, economic and social uncertainties of the early post-war period helped focus attention on the perplexing question of ensuring loyalty within the school system, for without loyalty, neither instruction in patriotism nor exposure to patriotic ritual could be successful. The gazetting of compulsory flag-saluting regulations and the introduction of loyalty oaths for teachers were measures which indicated a decisive shift in concern from the inculcation of patriotism, to the maintenance of loyalty in the teaching service. 
2. The Decline of Patriotic Fervour, 1922 - 1930. 
The second section of this thesis analyses the reasons behind the decline of patriotic zeal in the schools. Despite the initial fervour behind the early post-war extension of school patriotism, its impact on pupils had been limited by various environmental, administrative and educational difficulties. More important however, attitudes towards the teaching of patriotism changed during the 1920s, due to the existence of several new factors. 
Excessive pre-occupation with teacher loyalty, especially on the part of the Government, provoked a number of confrontations and contributed in large measure to a growing public distaste for the direction school patriotism appeared to have taken. As the decade advanced, a growing movement towards the social and cultural aspects of education began to supersede the older, more narrow stress on patriotism. In a world which was beginning to find the ideal of human brotherhood more attractive, there appeared less place for the strident nationalism which had characterised patriotic instruction a few years earlier. By the late 1920s internationalist sentiment was beginning to have an impact in New Zealand, and this was to prove vital in both influencing the type of reading material available to pupils and in modifying the attitudes of politicians, education administrators and teachers. 
The 1920s, therefore, were decisive years for patriotism and for the New Zealand primary school. In the years immediately following the Armistice, patriotism appeared destined to play a dominant role in education. By the end of the decade, its militancy and even its raison d’etre were being challenged. As far as the teaching of political values was concerned a new order was beginning to take shape in the primary schools which, while owing its existence to the events and decisions of the 1920s, was to last until the mid-1970s.

year: 1978

title: Diacritic Restoration and the Development of a Part-of-Speech Tagset for the Māori Language

authors: Cocks, John

subjects: Māori

abstract: This thesis investigates two fundamental problems in natural language processing: diacritic restoration and part-of-speech tagging. Over the past three decades, statistical approaches to diacritic restoration and part-of-speech tagging have grown in interest as a consequence of the increasing availability of manually annotated training data in major languages such as English and French. However, these approaches are not practical for most minority languages, where appropriate training data is either non-existent or not publically available. Furthermore, before developing a part-of-speech tagging system, a suitable tagset is required for that language. In this thesis, we make the following contributions to bridge this gap:

Firstly, we propose a method for diacritic restoration based on naive Bayes classifiers that act at word-level. Classifications are based on a rich set of features, extracted automatically from training data in the form of diacritically marked text. This method requires no additional resources, which makes it language independent. The algorithm was evaluated on one language, namely Māori, and an accuracy exceeding 99% was observed.

Secondly, we present our work on creating one of the necessary resources for the development of a part-of-speech tagging system in Māori, that of a suitable tagset. The tagset described was developed in accordance with the EAGLES guidelines for morphosyntactic annotation of corpora, and was the result of in-depth analysis of the Māori grammar.

text: Diacritic Restoration and the Development of a Part-of-Speech Tagset for the Māori Language This thesis investigates two fundamental problems in natural language processing: diacritic restoration and part-of-speech tagging. Over the past three decades, statistical approaches to diacritic restoration and part-of-speech tagging have grown in interest as a consequence of the increasing availability of manually annotated training data in major languages such as English and French. However, these approaches are not practical for most minority languages, where appropriate training data is either non-existent or not publically available. Furthermore, before developing a part-of-speech tagging system, a suitable tagset is required for that language. In this thesis, we make the following contributions to bridge this gap:

Firstly, we propose a method for diacritic restoration based on naive Bayes classifiers that act at word-level. Classifications are based on a rich set of features, extracted automatically from training data in the form of diacritically marked text. This method requires no additional resources, which makes it language independent. The algorithm was evaluated on one language, namely Māori, and an accuracy exceeding 99% was observed.

Secondly, we present our work on creating one of the necessary resources for the development of a part-of-speech tagging system in Māori, that of a suitable tagset. The tagset described was developed in accordance with the EAGLES guidelines for morphosyntactic annotation of corpora, and was the result of in-depth analysis of the Māori grammar.

year: 2012