title: Comparison between several operant procedures with severely retarded children

authors: Fugler, Alan Norman Ewen

abstract: This study was designed to examine: 
(a)	The effects of social and token reinforcement in increasing instruction-following behaviour in retarded children, where the class was addressed as a whole; 
(b)	The effects of time-out and verbal reprimand as methods of reducing disruptive behaviour; 
(c)	The effects of the administration of social reinforcement (verbal praise), in increasing behaviour defined as helping other children. 
Results show that token reinforcement is significantly more effective than social reinforcement in generating and maintaining instruction-following behaviour in a sample of severely retarded children. This supports the results of a growing body of literature relating to both the theoretical and applied aspects of reinforcement procedures. 
The time-out procedure was found to reduce disruptive responses at a more rapid rate than that of verbal reprimand and the effects were more lasting over time. This result was achieved using a 60 second isolation period. Verbal reprimand was found to reduce disruptive responses to slightly below the non punished level. Suggestions are made as to further developments in both procedures. 
The administration of verbal praise, delivered contingent upon one child helping another, led to an increase in this class of response in three children. No general conclusions can be made as to the effectiveness of this type of reinforcement in increasing helping behaviour in a group situation. 
The results obtained in this study further suggest that the approach taken can be successfully applied to the problem of altering the behaviour of individuals treated as a group, in a group setting. This applies to both the reinforcement and punishment conditions. The results further indicate that the systematic application of operant learning principles will both increase adaptive and decrease maladaptive behaviour in retarded children.

text: Comparison between several operant procedures with severely retarded children This study was designed to examine: 
(a)	The effects of social and token reinforcement in increasing instruction-following behaviour in retarded children, where the class was addressed as a whole; 
(b)	The effects of time-out and verbal reprimand as methods of reducing disruptive behaviour; 
(c)	The effects of the administration of social reinforcement (verbal praise), in increasing behaviour defined as helping other children. 
Results show that token reinforcement is significantly more effective than social reinforcement in generating and maintaining instruction-following behaviour in a sample of severely retarded children. This supports the results of a growing body of literature relating to both the theoretical and applied aspects of reinforcement procedures. 
The time-out procedure was found to reduce disruptive responses at a more rapid rate than that of verbal reprimand and the effects were more lasting over time. This result was achieved using a 60 second isolation period. Verbal reprimand was found to reduce disruptive responses to slightly below the non punished level. Suggestions are made as to further developments in both procedures. 
The administration of verbal praise, delivered contingent upon one child helping another, led to an increase in this class of response in three children. No general conclusions can be made as to the effectiveness of this type of reinforcement in increasing helping behaviour in a group situation. 
The results obtained in this study further suggest that the approach taken can be successfully applied to the problem of altering the behaviour of individuals treated as a group, in a group setting. This applies to both the reinforcement and punishment conditions. The results further indicate that the systematic application of operant learning principles will both increase adaptive and decrease maladaptive behaviour in retarded children.

year: 1971

title: Looking in: Mapping representations of teachers' discursive writing practices

authors: Dix, Stephanie Margaret

subjects: teaching writing

abstract: Over the past four decades changes in political, social, and educational curriculum policies have created discursive shifts in writing theory and practice. While these policies have historically privileged a particular view of writing over others, very little is known about how New Zealand teachers engage with discourses of writing. Research in the field of literacy has traditionally favoured reading, creating variable opportunities for building knowledge of writing theory and practice, and often leaving teachers querying how to teach writing now.

Employing an interpretive methodology and a qualitative approach, this study sought to understand how a group of New Zealand primary school teachers taught writing in their classrooms at a particular time. The research was conducted in two phases. Phase One employed thematic analysis to identify how the teachers taught writing in their classrooms. The teachers’ self-reported practice described their beliefs about teaching writing, the ways they grouped students for writing, the practices they valued, planning decisions they made and assessment strategies they employed in their writing communities. It became evident that while there were strong commonalities, as a group the teachers demonstrated discursive practices.

The development of a conceptual tool enabled further analysis of the teachers’ talk. Three Writing Discourses, Writer, Text and Social, each representing different ideologies, beliefs, theories and practices, provided a framework to analyse why teachers subscribed to different Writing Discourses. The findings revealed that the teachers engaged in various ways, taking dominant, merging and often conflicting positions which created complex identities for them as teachers of writing. The study argues that when teachers confidently work from a dominant Writing Discourse they present a narrowed perspective that may exclude their students from opportunities to participate in other writing experiences. Enhancement of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, in particular an awareness of the available Writing Discourses, is required for self- reflection and a deepening understanding of “ways of working and being a teacher of writing”.

Phase Two of the investigation, a case study, closely observed one teacher’s enacted practice in her classroom. The case study focused on how this teacher apprenticed her Year 2 and 3 children (6-8 years old) to write a character description. A participatory scaffolding framework (PSFW) was developed for analysis. Key indicators signifying characteristics of scaffolding practice identified in the literature were adjusted to accommodate student responses from the data to interpret teacher-student learning interactions. An analysis of the teacher’s pedagogy demonstrated that dialogic conversations, student participation and negotiation of the task developed powerful learning. A further analytical framework was developed to investigate how the teacher systematically scaffolded learning writing over time. Five factors were identified as crucial for signifying a synergy of participatory scaffolding (SPSFW). The study revealed that the teacher wove layers of scaffolding at the macro, micro and close-up levels. These scaffolding interactions were flexible, complex but connected and responsive to the students’ participation. When students and teacher collaborated in the construction zone, a magical place where minds could meet, it became evident that learning was enhanced but for each of the participants learning was different.

text: Looking in: Mapping representations of teachers' discursive writing practices Over the past four decades changes in political, social, and educational curriculum policies have created discursive shifts in writing theory and practice. While these policies have historically privileged a particular view of writing over others, very little is known about how New Zealand teachers engage with discourses of writing. Research in the field of literacy has traditionally favoured reading, creating variable opportunities for building knowledge of writing theory and practice, and often leaving teachers querying how to teach writing now.

Employing an interpretive methodology and a qualitative approach, this study sought to understand how a group of New Zealand primary school teachers taught writing in their classrooms at a particular time. The research was conducted in two phases. Phase One employed thematic analysis to identify how the teachers taught writing in their classrooms. The teachers’ self-reported practice described their beliefs about teaching writing, the ways they grouped students for writing, the practices they valued, planning decisions they made and assessment strategies they employed in their writing communities. It became evident that while there were strong commonalities, as a group the teachers demonstrated discursive practices.

The development of a conceptual tool enabled further analysis of the teachers’ talk. Three Writing Discourses, Writer, Text and Social, each representing different ideologies, beliefs, theories and practices, provided a framework to analyse why teachers subscribed to different Writing Discourses. The findings revealed that the teachers engaged in various ways, taking dominant, merging and often conflicting positions which created complex identities for them as teachers of writing. The study argues that when teachers confidently work from a dominant Writing Discourse they present a narrowed perspective that may exclude their students from opportunities to participate in other writing experiences. Enhancement of teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge, in particular an awareness of the available Writing Discourses, is required for self- reflection and a deepening understanding of “ways of working and being a teacher of writing”.

Phase Two of the investigation, a case study, closely observed one teacher’s enacted practice in her classroom. The case study focused on how this teacher apprenticed her Year 2 and 3 children (6-8 years old) to write a character description. A participatory scaffolding framework (PSFW) was developed for analysis. Key indicators signifying characteristics of scaffolding practice identified in the literature were adjusted to accommodate student responses from the data to interpret teacher-student learning interactions. An analysis of the teacher’s pedagogy demonstrated that dialogic conversations, student participation and negotiation of the task developed powerful learning. A further analytical framework was developed to investigate how the teacher systematically scaffolded learning writing over time. Five factors were identified as crucial for signifying a synergy of participatory scaffolding (SPSFW). The study revealed that the teacher wove layers of scaffolding at the macro, micro and close-up levels. These scaffolding interactions were flexible, complex but connected and responsive to the students’ participation. When students and teacher collaborated in the construction zone, a magical place where minds could meet, it became evident that learning was enhanced but for each of the participants learning was different.

year: 2014

title: The discovery of the Waiorongomai goldfield in 1881

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: The first reports of gold being found in the vicinity of the Waiorongomai Stream were made in early November 1880, and after the opening of the goldfield a small rush took place to this part of the mountain. The first claims were pegged out in December and the following January, encouraged by some gold being found, but few claims were registered, for most prospectors were quickly disappointed. Prospecting was difficult because of the rugged terrain and heavy bush, and interest quickly faded.
Then, in early October, Hone Werahiko announced his latest and best find and provided samples of payable ore taken from a large reef. Immense excitement ensued, as this was the first payable reef to be found, and after Werahiko led miners on an exhausting trip to his ‘New Find’ a rush set in and many claims were pegged out. The first official to inspect the ground anticipated that the reefs could be easily worked, once an access track was constructed. The small settlement of Te Aroha was revived because a real goldfield had been found, at last.

text: The discovery of the Waiorongomai goldfield in 1881 The first reports of gold being found in the vicinity of the Waiorongomai Stream were made in early November 1880, and after the opening of the goldfield a small rush took place to this part of the mountain. The first claims were pegged out in December and the following January, encouraged by some gold being found, but few claims were registered, for most prospectors were quickly disappointed. Prospecting was difficult because of the rugged terrain and heavy bush, and interest quickly faded.
Then, in early October, Hone Werahiko announced his latest and best find and provided samples of payable ore taken from a large reef. Immense excitement ensued, as this was the first payable reef to be found, and after Werahiko led miners on an exhausting trip to his ‘New Find’ a rush set in and many claims were pegged out. The first official to inspect the ground anticipated that the reefs could be easily worked, once an access track was constructed. The small settlement of Te Aroha was revived because a real goldfield had been found, at last.

year: 2016