title: Selected Econometric Models of Social Capital Formation in New Zealand

authors: Roskruge, Matthew James

subjects: Economics

abstract: This thesis examines the factors contributing to the formation of social capital in New Zealand from three distinct angles. Each of these angles concerns a form of geographically referenced investment, either by individuals through settlement post-migration or their homeownership, or by local government investing in local social infrastructure. The aim of this thesis is to provide the first empirical analysis of social capital formation within New Zealand and to contribute to the existing body of international literature on the subject in areas which have as yet received little or no attention.
The first aspect considered is the relationship between homeownership and social capital formation. Prior studies suggest that homeownership is positively related to social capital formation. However, many of these studies find it difficult to control adequately for personal attributes that may be correlated with homeownership while also impacting on social capital formation. The New Zealand Quality of Life survey provides data that enable analysis that controls for these selection effects with propensity score matching methods, while also benchmarking the results by means of regression methods. The results confirm that homeownership exerts positive impacts on the formation of social capital. Concurrently, homeownership demands greater accountability of local government and leads to reduced satisfaction with local government performance – thereby negatively bringing impact upon community social capital. Hence these two dimensions of housing-related social capital work in opposite directions from each other, a finding which has not been previously observed.
The role of immigration in social capital formation in New Zealand is the second aspect considered, an important issue for New Zealand given that a quarter of the population was born overseas. Using cross-sectional data from two separate surveys, the 2006 Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey and the 2008 New Zealand General Social Survey, this thesis evaluates the relationship connecting the birthplace of a migrant and the years since migration with social capital formation. It examines, through a range of regression methods, the factors influencing the stock of social capital held by migrants and the investment of social capital migrants undertake, where social capital investment is separated into bridging and bonding. This chapter finds that stocks of social capital are lowest for migrants in their new host country when they first migrate. This disadvantage appears to decrease over the first five years since migration. In addition, it shows region of birth to be an important factor, with noticeable heterogeneity between different migrant groups. Finally, the section finds that migrant clustering between regions decreases the formation of bridging social capital, while migrant clustering within regions increases the formation of bonding social capital.
Thirdly, the thesis investigates the role of local government investment in spatially fixed social capital infrastructure. To achieve this, it links unique data on local social infrastructure expenditure with micro-level individual survey data, which explores self-reported social capital measures of trust and participation in community activities. It uses both probit and tobit models to estimate the impact of social infrastructure expenditure on social capital formation. The results imply that the links between social capital, demographic characteristics, human capital, geography and public social infrastructure investment are more subtle and complex than much of the literature suggests. The analysis presents evidence in support of many of the hypothesized relationships discussed in the social capital literature. The results also suggest that both selection effects and free rider processes shape the impact of public social infrastructure investment.

text: Selected Econometric Models of Social Capital Formation in New Zealand This thesis examines the factors contributing to the formation of social capital in New Zealand from three distinct angles. Each of these angles concerns a form of geographically referenced investment, either by individuals through settlement post-migration or their homeownership, or by local government investing in local social infrastructure. The aim of this thesis is to provide the first empirical analysis of social capital formation within New Zealand and to contribute to the existing body of international literature on the subject in areas which have as yet received little or no attention.
The first aspect considered is the relationship between homeownership and social capital formation. Prior studies suggest that homeownership is positively related to social capital formation. However, many of these studies find it difficult to control adequately for personal attributes that may be correlated with homeownership while also impacting on social capital formation. The New Zealand Quality of Life survey provides data that enable analysis that controls for these selection effects with propensity score matching methods, while also benchmarking the results by means of regression methods. The results confirm that homeownership exerts positive impacts on the formation of social capital. Concurrently, homeownership demands greater accountability of local government and leads to reduced satisfaction with local government performance – thereby negatively bringing impact upon community social capital. Hence these two dimensions of housing-related social capital work in opposite directions from each other, a finding which has not been previously observed.
The role of immigration in social capital formation in New Zealand is the second aspect considered, an important issue for New Zealand given that a quarter of the population was born overseas. Using cross-sectional data from two separate surveys, the 2006 Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey and the 2008 New Zealand General Social Survey, this thesis evaluates the relationship connecting the birthplace of a migrant and the years since migration with social capital formation. It examines, through a range of regression methods, the factors influencing the stock of social capital held by migrants and the investment of social capital migrants undertake, where social capital investment is separated into bridging and bonding. This chapter finds that stocks of social capital are lowest for migrants in their new host country when they first migrate. This disadvantage appears to decrease over the first five years since migration. In addition, it shows region of birth to be an important factor, with noticeable heterogeneity between different migrant groups. Finally, the section finds that migrant clustering between regions decreases the formation of bridging social capital, while migrant clustering within regions increases the formation of bonding social capital.
Thirdly, the thesis investigates the role of local government investment in spatially fixed social capital infrastructure. To achieve this, it links unique data on local social infrastructure expenditure with micro-level individual survey data, which explores self-reported social capital measures of trust and participation in community activities. It uses both probit and tobit models to estimate the impact of social infrastructure expenditure on social capital formation. The results imply that the links between social capital, demographic characteristics, human capital, geography and public social infrastructure investment are more subtle and complex than much of the literature suggests. The analysis presents evidence in support of many of the hypothesized relationships discussed in the social capital literature. The results also suggest that both selection effects and free rider processes shape the impact of public social infrastructure investment.

year: 2013

title: Virtue in measurement: An interdisciplinary study of conscientiousness through Aristotelian theory

authors: McManus, James

subjects: Aristotle

abstract: Virtues are traits that promote happiness, well-being, and the good of others. Understanding which traits constitute virtues has direct implications for education, character development, and well-being interventions. Aristotelian virtue theory remains highly influential, yet it overlooks conscientiousness, which is a trait that psychological research shows as one of the strongest predictors of life success, health, and longevity. This disconnect is not only theoretical: it means our approaches to character education and personal development may be missing a vital component. The overarching aim of this thesis was to investigate conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective, bridging philosophical and psychological insights to better guide how we cultivate beneficial character traits.

To address this aim, this thesis investigated conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective by (1) developing a theoretical framework aligning conscientiousness with core features of Aristotelian virtue theory, (2) addressing limitations of current approaches to virtue assessment, (3) validating the Aristotelian Virtue of Conscientiousness Scale (AVCS) through Rasch analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and network modelling, and (4) examining how virtuous conscientiousness and its facets relate to one another and to well-being outcomes such as life satisfaction, positive affect, mindfulness, and virtuous gratitude.

Across three independent samples from New Zealand and the United States (total N = 1,478), the AVCS showed strong psychometric properties, conformed to fundamental measurement principles, and was best represented by a multifaceted eight-factor model. Network analyses indicated that excellent behaviours were especially central to the virtue, and that mindfulness may buffer against excessive forms of conscientiousness. Virtuous conscientiousness was positively associated with life satisfaction, positive affect, gratitude, and Big Five conscientiousness, while excessive tendencies were linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.

These findings advance both the theory and science of virtue by showing that Aristotelian constructs can be operationalised and empirically validated. The results provide a foundation for future research on character development and suggest practical applications for education, organisational contexts, and well-being interventions aimed at fostering virtuous forms of conscientiousness while mitigating maladaptive excess.

text: Virtue in measurement: An interdisciplinary study of conscientiousness through Aristotelian theory Virtues are traits that promote happiness, well-being, and the good of others. Understanding which traits constitute virtues has direct implications for education, character development, and well-being interventions. Aristotelian virtue theory remains highly influential, yet it overlooks conscientiousness, which is a trait that psychological research shows as one of the strongest predictors of life success, health, and longevity. This disconnect is not only theoretical: it means our approaches to character education and personal development may be missing a vital component. The overarching aim of this thesis was to investigate conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective, bridging philosophical and psychological insights to better guide how we cultivate beneficial character traits.

To address this aim, this thesis investigated conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective by (1) developing a theoretical framework aligning conscientiousness with core features of Aristotelian virtue theory, (2) addressing limitations of current approaches to virtue assessment, (3) validating the Aristotelian Virtue of Conscientiousness Scale (AVCS) through Rasch analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and network modelling, and (4) examining how virtuous conscientiousness and its facets relate to one another and to well-being outcomes such as life satisfaction, positive affect, mindfulness, and virtuous gratitude.

Across three independent samples from New Zealand and the United States (total N = 1,478), the AVCS showed strong psychometric properties, conformed to fundamental measurement principles, and was best represented by a multifaceted eight-factor model. Network analyses indicated that excellent behaviours were especially central to the virtue, and that mindfulness may buffer against excessive forms of conscientiousness. Virtuous conscientiousness was positively associated with life satisfaction, positive affect, gratitude, and Big Five conscientiousness, while excessive tendencies were linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.

These findings advance both the theory and science of virtue by showing that Aristotelian constructs can be operationalised and empirically validated. The results provide a foundation for future research on character development and suggest practical applications for education, organisational contexts, and well-being interventions aimed at fostering virtuous forms of conscientiousness while mitigating maladaptive excess.

year: 2026-03-27

title: The Aroha block from 1880 onwards

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: With the discovery of gold in 1880 and the pressure to open the land for mining, there was a need to determine the boundaries of the Ngati Rahiri reserves and to subdivide these amongst the owners. As well, terms for paying goldfields revenue had to be negotiated before the goldfield could be opened, and after its opening the claims of Maori with little or no basis for their claims of ownership had to be investigated. Wairakau reserve, outside the goldfield, was not subdivided until mid-1882, and arguments over the ownership of Tui Pa continued well into the twentieth century. 
At first, sales of Crown land found few takers, especially because the farm sections required draining before they could be developed. Ngati Rahiri reserves were designated as being inalienable, but they could be leased for 21 years, as some portions were, at low rates. Very quickly, officials, who feared Maori would become landless, had to fend off requests to remove restrictions on sale made by owners who in some instances lived far from Te Aroha and who all wanted to obtain money from selling land of little use to them. The indebtedness of some owners led to continued pressure to sell, though often the money they received was wasted. With the fading of the goldfield, miners sought land for farms, and were frustrated at the Crown not purchasing the Ngati Rahiri reserves. 
Land was acquired by the Crown to extend the hot springs domain, and after negotiating improved leases in the Te Aroha township the freehold of this settlement was acquired. Some Maori retained their land, which Pakeha accused them of not improving; Maori requests that the government provide training in farming methods were ignored. By the twentieth century most Ngati Rahiri had become landless, but as many examples illustrate, this was commonly because cash-strapped owners insisted on selling their interests for an immediate financial return.

text: The Aroha block from 1880 onwards With the discovery of gold in 1880 and the pressure to open the land for mining, there was a need to determine the boundaries of the Ngati Rahiri reserves and to subdivide these amongst the owners. As well, terms for paying goldfields revenue had to be negotiated before the goldfield could be opened, and after its opening the claims of Maori with little or no basis for their claims of ownership had to be investigated. Wairakau reserve, outside the goldfield, was not subdivided until mid-1882, and arguments over the ownership of Tui Pa continued well into the twentieth century. 
At first, sales of Crown land found few takers, especially because the farm sections required draining before they could be developed. Ngati Rahiri reserves were designated as being inalienable, but they could be leased for 21 years, as some portions were, at low rates. Very quickly, officials, who feared Maori would become landless, had to fend off requests to remove restrictions on sale made by owners who in some instances lived far from Te Aroha and who all wanted to obtain money from selling land of little use to them. The indebtedness of some owners led to continued pressure to sell, though often the money they received was wasted. With the fading of the goldfield, miners sought land for farms, and were frustrated at the Crown not purchasing the Ngati Rahiri reserves. 
Land was acquired by the Crown to extend the hot springs domain, and after negotiating improved leases in the Te Aroha township the freehold of this settlement was acquired. Some Maori retained their land, which Pakeha accused them of not improving; Maori requests that the government provide training in farming methods were ignored. By the twentieth century most Ngati Rahiri had become landless, but as many examples illustrate, this was commonly because cash-strapped owners insisted on selling their interests for an immediate financial return.

year: 2016