title: Comparing human and computational models of music prediction

authors: Witten, Ian H.

subjects: Machine learning

abstract: The information content of each successive note in a piece of music is not an intrinsic musical property but depends on the listener's own model of a genre of music. Human listeners' models can be elicited by having them guess successive notes and assign probabilities to their guesses by gambling. Computational models can be constructed by developing a structural framework for prediction, and "training" the system by having it assimilate a corpus of sample compositions and adjust its internal probability estimates accordingly. These two modeling techniques turn out to yield remarkably similar values for the information content, or "entropy," of the Bach chorale melodies. While previous research has concentrated on the overall information content of whole pieces of music, the present study evaluates and compares the two kinds of model in fine detail. Their predictions for two particular chorale melodies are analyzed on a note-by-note basis, and the smoothed information profiles of the chorales are examined and compared. Apart from the intrinsic interest of comparing human with computational models of music, several conclusions are drawn for the improvement of computational models.

text: Comparing human and computational models of music prediction The information content of each successive note in a piece of music is not an intrinsic musical property but depends on the listener's own model of a genre of music. Human listeners' models can be elicited by having them guess successive notes and assign probabilities to their guesses by gambling. Computational models can be constructed by developing a structural framework for prediction, and "training" the system by having it assimilate a corpus of sample compositions and adjust its internal probability estimates accordingly. These two modeling techniques turn out to yield remarkably similar values for the information content, or "entropy," of the Bach chorale melodies. While previous research has concentrated on the overall information content of whole pieces of music, the present study evaluates and compares the two kinds of model in fine detail. Their predictions for two particular chorale melodies are analyzed on a note-by-note basis, and the smoothed information profiles of the chorales are examined and compared. Apart from the intrinsic interest of comparing human with computational models of music, several conclusions are drawn for the improvement of computational models.

year: 1992

title: Recent studies of sediment capping and flocculation for nutrient stabilisation

authors: Özkundakci, Deniz

subjects: New Zealand

abstract: Water quality in the Rotorua Lakes has declined in the past 30 to 40 years due to increasing nutrient loads, specifically nitrogen and phosphorus. In situ restoration techniques, including sediment capping and flocculation, have been developed to attempt to reduce internal nutrient loads, which can be comparable in magnitude to external loads in eutrophic lakes. The aim of this report is to summarise the current state of knowledge, and to documents some recent studies of sediment capping and flocculation techniques designed to remove nutrients from the water column by retaining them permanently within the bottom sediments. Experimental set-ups for testing the efficacy of different materials range from conventional batch adsorption studies to sediment reactor experiments. Natural ecosystems have also been simulated with mesocosms in Lake Okaro. A full scale application of aluminium sulphate (alum) in Lake Okar. A full scale application of aluminium sulphate (alum) in Lake Okaro has also been intensively monitored. The different studies have provided information on the restoration potential of some sediment capping agents and flocculants, but many questions still remain. Given the current state of knowledge it is not possible to confirm a priori the circumstances under which a whole lake trial would be successful. Future research should be carried out on the follow foci:
•	Establishment of chronic or acute toxic effects of the adsorbent materials.
•	Effect of treatment applications on benthic biota, particularly capping materials that may alter physical characteristics of the sediments.
•	Application of computer models for the purpose of both hindcasting and better understanding effects of application of an adsorbent to a lake, and for the purpose of predicting the changes in trophic status.
•	Application techniques and costs, particularly in view of potential for quite radical changes in source of adsorbent materials, grain sizes and methods of application for a single adsorbent.

text: Recent studies of sediment capping and flocculation for nutrient stabilisation Water quality in the Rotorua Lakes has declined in the past 30 to 40 years due to increasing nutrient loads, specifically nitrogen and phosphorus. In situ restoration techniques, including sediment capping and flocculation, have been developed to attempt to reduce internal nutrient loads, which can be comparable in magnitude to external loads in eutrophic lakes. The aim of this report is to summarise the current state of knowledge, and to documents some recent studies of sediment capping and flocculation techniques designed to remove nutrients from the water column by retaining them permanently within the bottom sediments. Experimental set-ups for testing the efficacy of different materials range from conventional batch adsorption studies to sediment reactor experiments. Natural ecosystems have also been simulated with mesocosms in Lake Okaro. A full scale application of aluminium sulphate (alum) in Lake Okar. A full scale application of aluminium sulphate (alum) in Lake Okaro has also been intensively monitored. The different studies have provided information on the restoration potential of some sediment capping agents and flocculants, but many questions still remain. Given the current state of knowledge it is not possible to confirm a priori the circumstances under which a whole lake trial would be successful. Future research should be carried out on the follow foci:
•	Establishment of chronic or acute toxic effects of the adsorbent materials.
•	Effect of treatment applications on benthic biota, particularly capping materials that may alter physical characteristics of the sediments.
•	Application of computer models for the purpose of both hindcasting and better understanding effects of application of an adsorbent to a lake, and for the purpose of predicting the changes in trophic status.
•	Application techniques and costs, particularly in view of potential for quite radical changes in source of adsorbent materials, grain sizes and methods of application for a single adsorbent.

year: 2006

title: Beyond structuralism: Exploring a semantic based approach for describing the Māori language in grammar books and textbooks for pedagogical purposes

authors: Taiapa, Michael William

subjects: Māori

abstract: Since the 1950s, the advancements and developments in English language studies has had a profound impact on its description that has made it less syntactically driven and more communicatively oriented. This has the potential to influence language description moving it from a purely structurally focused orientation to a more semantically focused one that could influence pedagogic outcomes in more meaningful and useful ways. Nevertheless, in the case of the Māori language, its description has largely focused on structure linguistics that was prevalent in the 19th and early 20th centuries. There has been very little focus on a semantic description and this, in turn, is reflected in grammar books and textbooks on te reo. This thesis set out to explore a semantic approach to describe te reo and to rethink how this type of description may be realized and included in the design of grammar books and textbooks for the teaching and learning of te reo in the broader field of second language pedagogy and acquisition. The thesis also includes a practical component in which a small sample of Māori language teachers were interviewed to determine how linguistic and/ or semantic approaches to describe te reo may have or have impacted on their own beliefs, attitudes, and teaching practices (See, Chapter 7). Thus, it is argued here that research-based studies, advancements, and developments in language descriptions over the past five decades (See, for example, Council of Europe, 1949; Fillmore, 1967; Longacre, 1968; & Crombie, 1985b) should play central roles in the design of a semantic based description of the Māori language from which a linguistic based description can significantly benefit.

text: Beyond structuralism: Exploring a semantic based approach for describing the Māori language in grammar books and textbooks for pedagogical purposes Since the 1950s, the advancements and developments in English language studies has had a profound impact on its description that has made it less syntactically driven and more communicatively oriented. This has the potential to influence language description moving it from a purely structurally focused orientation to a more semantically focused one that could influence pedagogic outcomes in more meaningful and useful ways. Nevertheless, in the case of the Māori language, its description has largely focused on structure linguistics that was prevalent in the 19th and early 20th centuries. There has been very little focus on a semantic description and this, in turn, is reflected in grammar books and textbooks on te reo. This thesis set out to explore a semantic approach to describe te reo and to rethink how this type of description may be realized and included in the design of grammar books and textbooks for the teaching and learning of te reo in the broader field of second language pedagogy and acquisition. The thesis also includes a practical component in which a small sample of Māori language teachers were interviewed to determine how linguistic and/ or semantic approaches to describe te reo may have or have impacted on their own beliefs, attitudes, and teaching practices (See, Chapter 7). Thus, it is argued here that research-based studies, advancements, and developments in language descriptions over the past five decades (See, for example, Council of Europe, 1949; Fillmore, 1967; Longacre, 1968; & Crombie, 1985b) should play central roles in the design of a semantic based description of the Māori language from which a linguistic based description can significantly benefit.

year: 2023