title: The Representation of Gender in Contemporary Chinese Television Advertising: An Analysis of Content, Meaning, and Production

authors: Shao, Yun

subjects: advertising

abstract: This thesis examines how gender is portrayed in Chinese television commercials and how these representations reflect the social and cultural contexts of their production and the institutional practices of advertising production personnel. To date, while there have been a plethora of studies on gender representation in advertising in western contexts only limited attention has been given to Chinese advertising portrayals of gender. This study, therefore, explores particular ways in which femininity and masculinity are discursively constructed, and how this process, in turn, contributes to reinforcing and/or challenging certain gender ideologies, in particular those found in Chinese Confucian culture. The study is unique in its approach to Chinese television advertising in that it combines methods from textual analysis (quantitative content analysis, semiotic analysis and critical discourse analysis) and empirical research (interview). A sample of 679 television commercials was collected and analysed in this investigation. Content analysis was initially applied to identify recurrent patterns and characteristics of gender representation which, in turn, formed the basis for in-depth semiotic and discourse analysis. Specific signs, images, codes, discourses and myths were subsequently discussed. The study also included semi-structured interviews with 26 Chinese advertising personnel in order to understand their multiple dispositions toward gender and their actual experiences of depicting female and male characters in the creative process. Several main findings emerged from this study. The portrayal of gender in Chinese television commercials is complex because it embodies a series of simultaneously conflicting and complementary discourses on what constitute femininity and masculinity. The results of the content analysis revealed that the representation of gender in this study’s sample still remains stereotypical in terms of the different distribution of the sexes across product category, role, dress, age, credibility and voice-over. By focusing on the constructs of gender in domestic, occupational and recreational contexts, the use of semiotic and discourse analysis revealed that Chinese television advertising not only portrays women and men in line with the significant aspects embedded in both Chinese and western patriarchal traditions, but is also constitutive of cultural shifts in gender ideologies through highlighting modern (western) values. In addition, the interview findings yielded support for the conclusions of textual analysis, demonstrating that the process of advertising production is significantly influenced by traditional and modern gender values, the restriction of advertising regulations, client expectations, and the professionals’ divergent perceptions of gender and their assumptions about the audience.

text: The Representation of Gender in Contemporary Chinese Television Advertising: An Analysis of Content, Meaning, and Production This thesis examines how gender is portrayed in Chinese television commercials and how these representations reflect the social and cultural contexts of their production and the institutional practices of advertising production personnel. To date, while there have been a plethora of studies on gender representation in advertising in western contexts only limited attention has been given to Chinese advertising portrayals of gender. This study, therefore, explores particular ways in which femininity and masculinity are discursively constructed, and how this process, in turn, contributes to reinforcing and/or challenging certain gender ideologies, in particular those found in Chinese Confucian culture. The study is unique in its approach to Chinese television advertising in that it combines methods from textual analysis (quantitative content analysis, semiotic analysis and critical discourse analysis) and empirical research (interview). A sample of 679 television commercials was collected and analysed in this investigation. Content analysis was initially applied to identify recurrent patterns and characteristics of gender representation which, in turn, formed the basis for in-depth semiotic and discourse analysis. Specific signs, images, codes, discourses and myths were subsequently discussed. The study also included semi-structured interviews with 26 Chinese advertising personnel in order to understand their multiple dispositions toward gender and their actual experiences of depicting female and male characters in the creative process. Several main findings emerged from this study. The portrayal of gender in Chinese television commercials is complex because it embodies a series of simultaneously conflicting and complementary discourses on what constitute femininity and masculinity. The results of the content analysis revealed that the representation of gender in this study’s sample still remains stereotypical in terms of the different distribution of the sexes across product category, role, dress, age, credibility and voice-over. By focusing on the constructs of gender in domestic, occupational and recreational contexts, the use of semiotic and discourse analysis revealed that Chinese television advertising not only portrays women and men in line with the significant aspects embedded in both Chinese and western patriarchal traditions, but is also constitutive of cultural shifts in gender ideologies through highlighting modern (western) values. In addition, the interview findings yielded support for the conclusions of textual analysis, demonstrating that the process of advertising production is significantly influenced by traditional and modern gender values, the restriction of advertising regulations, client expectations, and the professionals’ divergent perceptions of gender and their assumptions about the audience.

year: 2011

title: Concurrent schedule performance of possums: a comparison of two models

authors: Bron, Angela

abstract: These experiments examined the behaviour of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) under concurrent variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. In the first experiment the lever pressing of six possums resulted in intermittent access to a barley/carob mixture under four pairs of variable-interval schedules. In most respects, the behaviour of the possums was similar to that observed with other species. However, the degree of undermatching of the response ratios to the obtained reinforcement-rate ratios was greater than is normally observed with these schedules. Both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability model described the data well, although, where overmatching was obtained, the parameter values given by the Contingency-Discriminability model did not make sense in terms of the original assumptions of the model. The second experiment examined the possibility that the undermatching related to the length of the changeover delay used. Six possums were exposed to five different pairs of concurrent schedules at each of four different changeover-delay lengths (ranging from 0 to 6 s). Time allocation and post-changeover delay responses more closely approximated matching with a 2-s changeover delay than with a 0-s delay, but no further changes in sensitivity were observed with further increases in changeover-delay length. Overmatching was consistently observed in the post changeover delay data, resulting in un-interpretable parameter values from Contingency-Discriminability analyses. The addition of the punishment parameter (w) to the Contingency-Discriminability model, suggested to deal with such data, did not generally result in more sensible parameter estimates. The third experiment attempted to bias possums responding using qualitatively different reinforcers. Equal variable-interval schedules were used with the barley/carob mixture available on one schedule and Cocopopsᵀᴹ or coconut on the other. Possums’ behaviour was biased by these foods, with a small bias away from the barley/carob mixture resulting from the Cocopops and a large bias towards the barley/carob mixture resulting from the coconut. In the fourth experiment, graded point estimates of bias were obtained by presenting four different concentrations of salted barley/carob mixture (ranging from 0% to 6%) on one schedule and plain barley/carob mixture on the other schedule. Small biases were found with 0% and 2% salt, and large biases were found towards the barley/carob mixture with 4% and 6% salt. To assess whether bias remains constant with changes in the reinforcer-rate ratio, further conditions were conducted with 4% and 6% salt, with four pairs of unequal concurrent variable-interval schedules. Analyses of these data with both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability Model revealed an interaction between bias and the reinforcement-rate ratio. This interaction may be due to an improvement in discriminability due to the different reinforcers. The behaviour of the possums was generally well described by both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability model. Overall, neither model was better at describing behaviour under the above conditions, although several problems were found with the application of the Contingency-Discriminability model.

text: Concurrent schedule performance of possums: a comparison of two models These experiments examined the behaviour of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) under concurrent variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. In the first experiment the lever pressing of six possums resulted in intermittent access to a barley/carob mixture under four pairs of variable-interval schedules. In most respects, the behaviour of the possums was similar to that observed with other species. However, the degree of undermatching of the response ratios to the obtained reinforcement-rate ratios was greater than is normally observed with these schedules. Both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability model described the data well, although, where overmatching was obtained, the parameter values given by the Contingency-Discriminability model did not make sense in terms of the original assumptions of the model. The second experiment examined the possibility that the undermatching related to the length of the changeover delay used. Six possums were exposed to five different pairs of concurrent schedules at each of four different changeover-delay lengths (ranging from 0 to 6 s). Time allocation and post-changeover delay responses more closely approximated matching with a 2-s changeover delay than with a 0-s delay, but no further changes in sensitivity were observed with further increases in changeover-delay length. Overmatching was consistently observed in the post changeover delay data, resulting in un-interpretable parameter values from Contingency-Discriminability analyses. The addition of the punishment parameter (w) to the Contingency-Discriminability model, suggested to deal with such data, did not generally result in more sensible parameter estimates. The third experiment attempted to bias possums responding using qualitatively different reinforcers. Equal variable-interval schedules were used with the barley/carob mixture available on one schedule and Cocopopsᵀᴹ or coconut on the other. Possums’ behaviour was biased by these foods, with a small bias away from the barley/carob mixture resulting from the Cocopops and a large bias towards the barley/carob mixture resulting from the coconut. In the fourth experiment, graded point estimates of bias were obtained by presenting four different concentrations of salted barley/carob mixture (ranging from 0% to 6%) on one schedule and plain barley/carob mixture on the other schedule. Small biases were found with 0% and 2% salt, and large biases were found towards the barley/carob mixture with 4% and 6% salt. To assess whether bias remains constant with changes in the reinforcer-rate ratio, further conditions were conducted with 4% and 6% salt, with four pairs of unequal concurrent variable-interval schedules. Analyses of these data with both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability Model revealed an interaction between bias and the reinforcement-rate ratio. This interaction may be due to an improvement in discriminability due to the different reinforcers. The behaviour of the possums was generally well described by both the Generalised Matching Law and the Contingency-Discriminability model. Overall, neither model was better at describing behaviour under the above conditions, although several problems were found with the application of the Contingency-Discriminability model.

year: 2001

title: Fanning the divine spark: Gaining understandings of micro-interactions in New Zealand classrooms

authors: Eley, Elizabeth Martha Ann

subjects: micro-interactions

abstract: New Zealand’s Treaty of Waitangi was signed by representatives of Iwi Māori (Indigenous tribal groups) and the British Crown.  Inherent in the heritages of both signatory groups is the ontological positioning that children are born of greatness; carriers of the divine spark from Tama-nui-te-rā (the central sun) and created in the image of God.  Almost all New Zealand children attend school.  For some, their ongoing classroom experiences with educators fans their divine spark and works towards the realisation of their innate potential.  For others, schooling is not a positive experience and their divine spark may be neither recognised nor celebrated.  

This research explores the relationships and pedagogical practices that underpin the classroom micro-interactions experienced by children.  Children’s schooling experience is made up of small interactions in classrooms that are situated in the social, political and legal contexts of schooling.  Therefore, this research applies both a centripetal and a centrifugal examination of the macro and micro contexts of classroom interactions.  

In examining the macro-context, ontological views of the child and the theoretical frameworks that guide pedagogy are considered.  The Education Acts governing New Zealand schooling have successively contained an ontological contradiction that enforces both a factory model as the preferred means of schooling for New Zealand and a requirement to honour the Treaty of Waitangi, including the worldviews of both signatories.  I conclude that educators within the compulsory schooling sector are not provided with specific guidance on how to navigate these contradictory worldviews.  Neither ontological views of how children are perceived within the system, nor theoretical frameworks that could and should inform views of knowledge and how learning occurs, are made explicit for educators.  

At the micro-context level, relationships and pedagogical practices are explored through case studies in three different New Zealand classrooms.  In each case, from video-recordings of classroom interactions, critical incidents were extracted and used to support interviews with participating teachers, students, parents and members of the wider school community.  Employing culturally responsive research methodologies, the interactions with participants were relational and dialogic.  The research found that classroom micro-interactions are pervasive and complex.  All participants, students, teachers and whānau, draw from the knowledge, understandings and positionings of the individual’s own cultural toolkits in classroom interactions.  Their cultural toolkits contain a range of factors to support learning, all of which were necessary and interdependent.  

The thesis calls for all children to receive an education that fans their inherent divine spark.  While this experience is not yet the case for all, there is opportunity in the rhetoric and structures already within New Zealand’s education system for this to occur.  Some schools and communities have begun to successfully challenge and address the prevailing theoretical and pedagogical status quo.  Therefore, there is reason for radical hope for a system-wide fanning of the divine spark in every child.

text: Fanning the divine spark: Gaining understandings of micro-interactions in New Zealand classrooms New Zealand’s Treaty of Waitangi was signed by representatives of Iwi Māori (Indigenous tribal groups) and the British Crown.  Inherent in the heritages of both signatory groups is the ontological positioning that children are born of greatness; carriers of the divine spark from Tama-nui-te-rā (the central sun) and created in the image of God.  Almost all New Zealand children attend school.  For some, their ongoing classroom experiences with educators fans their divine spark and works towards the realisation of their innate potential.  For others, schooling is not a positive experience and their divine spark may be neither recognised nor celebrated.  

This research explores the relationships and pedagogical practices that underpin the classroom micro-interactions experienced by children.  Children’s schooling experience is made up of small interactions in classrooms that are situated in the social, political and legal contexts of schooling.  Therefore, this research applies both a centripetal and a centrifugal examination of the macro and micro contexts of classroom interactions.  

In examining the macro-context, ontological views of the child and the theoretical frameworks that guide pedagogy are considered.  The Education Acts governing New Zealand schooling have successively contained an ontological contradiction that enforces both a factory model as the preferred means of schooling for New Zealand and a requirement to honour the Treaty of Waitangi, including the worldviews of both signatories.  I conclude that educators within the compulsory schooling sector are not provided with specific guidance on how to navigate these contradictory worldviews.  Neither ontological views of how children are perceived within the system, nor theoretical frameworks that could and should inform views of knowledge and how learning occurs, are made explicit for educators.  

At the micro-context level, relationships and pedagogical practices are explored through case studies in three different New Zealand classrooms.  In each case, from video-recordings of classroom interactions, critical incidents were extracted and used to support interviews with participating teachers, students, parents and members of the wider school community.  Employing culturally responsive research methodologies, the interactions with participants were relational and dialogic.  The research found that classroom micro-interactions are pervasive and complex.  All participants, students, teachers and whānau, draw from the knowledge, understandings and positionings of the individual’s own cultural toolkits in classroom interactions.  Their cultural toolkits contain a range of factors to support learning, all of which were necessary and interdependent.  

The thesis calls for all children to receive an education that fans their inherent divine spark.  While this experience is not yet the case for all, there is opportunity in the rhetoric and structures already within New Zealand’s education system for this to occur.  Some schools and communities have begun to successfully challenge and address the prevailing theoretical and pedagogical status quo.  Therefore, there is reason for radical hope for a system-wide fanning of the divine spark in every child.

year: 2020