title: The use of infrared thermography and behavioural and physiological responses as early disease indicators in calves

authors: Lowe, Gemma Louise

subjects: infrared thermography

abstract: Disease is widely acknowledged to be detrimental to an animal’s welfare and generates significant economic losses. To minimise the impact of disease on animal welfare and consequently reduce economic costs, early disease detection is essential for promoting earlier diagnosis, treatment and isolation to prevent the spread of disease. As automation increases in the livestock industries, there is a need to develop and integrate early disease indicators into automated systems for remote monitoring of animal health and welfare. The aims of this thesis were to firstly, investigate the behavioural (milk feeding, lying and water drinking) and physiological (infrared temperatures and respiration rate) responses which occur during the onset of neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD), and to assess their suitability as early disease indicators. Additionally, due to an increasing trend towards providing calves with greater milk allowances, the influence of milk allowance on indicator suitability was assessed. Secondly, to determine the optimum anatomical location (eye, cheek, side, shoulder and back) for infrared image collection for early disease detection. Thirdly, to investigate the water intake and drinking behaviour of calves and how these behaviours are affected by disease onset and milk allowance. Further, to develop and validate an algorithm for the automated detection and analysis of the eye and cheek regions from infrared images and further validate the use of infrared thermography as an automated method of recording respiration rate (RR) in young calves. Finally, the thesis aimed to develop and validate an automated water system for the purpose of recording drinking behaviour and further assessed the suitability of setting up an infrared camera at a water station for monitoring calf health and welfare.
Calves were defined as being clinically ill when they were observed as being diarrhoeic. Milk feeding, lying and water drinking behaviours changed prior to clinical signs of disease. Changes in milk feeding and lying behaviours prior to clinical signs were thought to occur due to calves experiencing a reduction in appetite, becoming lethargic and attempting to conserve energy in response to the onset of disease. Infrared temperatures of the eye, cheek and shoulder decreased and side (situated over the rumen fossa) temperature increased prior to clinical signs. The decrease in infrared temperatures was attributed to the animal generating a fever to fight against the infection by restricting blood flow to the extremities, in order to maintain homeostasis. Further, the decrease in infrared temperature was likely a result of a reduction in feed and metabolic activity during the onset of disease. The side was identified as the optimum anatomical location for early disease detection. The increase in side temperature was attributed to the proximity of the area to the underlying site of infection and localised inflammation of the intestines. Prior to clinical signs, there was little change in water drinking behaviour (number and duration of visits to the water trough), which was considered to be due to the young age of the calves at the time of diagnosis. Additionally, a lack of a response in RR prior to clinical signs was thought to be due to sampling rate and NCD being an enteric disease as opposed to a respiratory disease.
Milk allowance influenced the suitability of behavioural and physiological measures as early disease indicators. When provided with either a high (10 L/d) or low (5 L/d) milk allowance, milk feeding behaviours typically only changed for calves on a high milk allowance and infrared temperatures (eye and cheek) only changed for calves on a low milk allowance. Additionally, as opposed to being used individually, combining behavioural and physiological measures provided stronger composite indicators of disease. Combinations of milk feeding and lying behaviours, and additionally infrared temperatures (eye and cheek) in the case of calves on a low milk allowance, provided the strongest composite indicators of disease.
Integrated into automated systems, behavioural and physiological measures could be utilised for early disease detection. In support of the future development of integrating infrared thermography (IRT) into automated systems, an algorithm was developed and validated for detection and analysis of the eye and cheek regions from infrared images. Further, the use of IRT as a method of recording respiration rate was validated for use in young calves. In addition, an automated water system was validated for the purpose of recording drinking behaviour (number and duration of visits to the water trough). Based on the findings that calves visited the water trough on average three times per day and began consuming water during the first week of life a water system was considered as a suitable and more affordable alternative to an automated calf feeder for setting up an infrared system to monitor calf health and welfare.
Although these measures have been assessed in relation to the detection of NCD, they have the potential to be applied further for the detection of other diseases and in other species. The integration of these measures into an automated on-farm system could enable earlier treatment and isolation of diseased animals to prevent the spread of disease, by alerting farmers to diseased animals earlier than is currently possible based on overt clinical signs. In addition to facilitating decision-making abilities for the farmer, the development of such a system would reduce costs on-farm and to the industry as a whole and would ultimately improve animal health and welfare.

text: The use of infrared thermography and behavioural and physiological responses as early disease indicators in calves Disease is widely acknowledged to be detrimental to an animal’s welfare and generates significant economic losses. To minimise the impact of disease on animal welfare and consequently reduce economic costs, early disease detection is essential for promoting earlier diagnosis, treatment and isolation to prevent the spread of disease. As automation increases in the livestock industries, there is a need to develop and integrate early disease indicators into automated systems for remote monitoring of animal health and welfare. The aims of this thesis were to firstly, investigate the behavioural (milk feeding, lying and water drinking) and physiological (infrared temperatures and respiration rate) responses which occur during the onset of neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD), and to assess their suitability as early disease indicators. Additionally, due to an increasing trend towards providing calves with greater milk allowances, the influence of milk allowance on indicator suitability was assessed. Secondly, to determine the optimum anatomical location (eye, cheek, side, shoulder and back) for infrared image collection for early disease detection. Thirdly, to investigate the water intake and drinking behaviour of calves and how these behaviours are affected by disease onset and milk allowance. Further, to develop and validate an algorithm for the automated detection and analysis of the eye and cheek regions from infrared images and further validate the use of infrared thermography as an automated method of recording respiration rate (RR) in young calves. Finally, the thesis aimed to develop and validate an automated water system for the purpose of recording drinking behaviour and further assessed the suitability of setting up an infrared camera at a water station for monitoring calf health and welfare.
Calves were defined as being clinically ill when they were observed as being diarrhoeic. Milk feeding, lying and water drinking behaviours changed prior to clinical signs of disease. Changes in milk feeding and lying behaviours prior to clinical signs were thought to occur due to calves experiencing a reduction in appetite, becoming lethargic and attempting to conserve energy in response to the onset of disease. Infrared temperatures of the eye, cheek and shoulder decreased and side (situated over the rumen fossa) temperature increased prior to clinical signs. The decrease in infrared temperatures was attributed to the animal generating a fever to fight against the infection by restricting blood flow to the extremities, in order to maintain homeostasis. Further, the decrease in infrared temperature was likely a result of a reduction in feed and metabolic activity during the onset of disease. The side was identified as the optimum anatomical location for early disease detection. The increase in side temperature was attributed to the proximity of the area to the underlying site of infection and localised inflammation of the intestines. Prior to clinical signs, there was little change in water drinking behaviour (number and duration of visits to the water trough), which was considered to be due to the young age of the calves at the time of diagnosis. Additionally, a lack of a response in RR prior to clinical signs was thought to be due to sampling rate and NCD being an enteric disease as opposed to a respiratory disease.
Milk allowance influenced the suitability of behavioural and physiological measures as early disease indicators. When provided with either a high (10 L/d) or low (5 L/d) milk allowance, milk feeding behaviours typically only changed for calves on a high milk allowance and infrared temperatures (eye and cheek) only changed for calves on a low milk allowance. Additionally, as opposed to being used individually, combining behavioural and physiological measures provided stronger composite indicators of disease. Combinations of milk feeding and lying behaviours, and additionally infrared temperatures (eye and cheek) in the case of calves on a low milk allowance, provided the strongest composite indicators of disease.
Integrated into automated systems, behavioural and physiological measures could be utilised for early disease detection. In support of the future development of integrating infrared thermography (IRT) into automated systems, an algorithm was developed and validated for detection and analysis of the eye and cheek regions from infrared images. Further, the use of IRT as a method of recording respiration rate was validated for use in young calves. In addition, an automated water system was validated for the purpose of recording drinking behaviour (number and duration of visits to the water trough). Based on the findings that calves visited the water trough on average three times per day and began consuming water during the first week of life a water system was considered as a suitable and more affordable alternative to an automated calf feeder for setting up an infrared system to monitor calf health and welfare.
Although these measures have been assessed in relation to the detection of NCD, they have the potential to be applied further for the detection of other diseases and in other species. The integration of these measures into an automated on-farm system could enable earlier treatment and isolation of diseased animals to prevent the spread of disease, by alerting farmers to diseased animals earlier than is currently possible based on overt clinical signs. In addition to facilitating decision-making abilities for the farmer, the development of such a system would reduce costs on-farm and to the industry as a whole and would ultimately improve animal health and welfare.

year: 2020

title: Technology Teachers' Perceptions of the Roles and Uses of ICT in Solomon Islands' Schools

authors: Pita, Solomon Vaji

subjects: ICT

abstract: Although the impact of ICT in teaching and learning is increasing, whether it will deliver its potential depends to a large extent on how teachers access and use ICT within the teaching and learning process (Balanskat  Blamire, 2007). Furthermore, teachers' understanding of how ICT contributes to teaching and learning can be invaluable to the decisions they make about the use of ICT tools to enhance or transform their teaching.
Therefore, this study investigates the perceptions of technology teachers on the use of ICT tools in Solomon Islands schools. It also explores technology teachers' views about the level of ICT resources in the schools. The study used semi-structured interview; a qualitative method of data collection that involved eight technology teachers selected from four schools in Honiara. I choose to do qualitative research because it helped to explain technology teachers' perceptions and beliefs of the use of ICT tools in Solomon Islands schools. The flexibility within the research process allows for an in-dept look at the issues pertaining to the views of the participants.
The study identifies a range of issues regarding teachers' perceptions and beliefs about the integration of ICT tools in the Solomon Islands schools. These included teachers' views on the issues of access and use of ICT tools in schools, teachers' beliefs about the benefits and roles of ICT tools, teachers' views on the infrastructures and resources in the schools, the need for ICT professional development (PD) for teachers and a national policy to guide and control the use of ICT tools in schools. The study also found that many teachers in the Solomon Islands also lack the basic knowledge and skills in using ICT tools.
Based on these findings, this study offers the following recommendations that can be used to improve and support the integration of ICT tools in the Solomon Islands schools. These included supporting teachers in developing their knowledge and skills in using ICT tools, providing a continuous professional development for teachers in ICT, the need to create a policy in education to guide the use of ICT tools in education and supporting schools to build their ICT resources and infrastructure. These will help teachers to effectively integrate ICT tools into teaching and learning.

text: Technology Teachers' Perceptions of the Roles and Uses of ICT in Solomon Islands' Schools Although the impact of ICT in teaching and learning is increasing, whether it will deliver its potential depends to a large extent on how teachers access and use ICT within the teaching and learning process (Balanskat  Blamire, 2007). Furthermore, teachers' understanding of how ICT contributes to teaching and learning can be invaluable to the decisions they make about the use of ICT tools to enhance or transform their teaching.
Therefore, this study investigates the perceptions of technology teachers on the use of ICT tools in Solomon Islands schools. It also explores technology teachers' views about the level of ICT resources in the schools. The study used semi-structured interview; a qualitative method of data collection that involved eight technology teachers selected from four schools in Honiara. I choose to do qualitative research because it helped to explain technology teachers' perceptions and beliefs of the use of ICT tools in Solomon Islands schools. The flexibility within the research process allows for an in-dept look at the issues pertaining to the views of the participants.
The study identifies a range of issues regarding teachers' perceptions and beliefs about the integration of ICT tools in the Solomon Islands schools. These included teachers' views on the issues of access and use of ICT tools in schools, teachers' beliefs about the benefits and roles of ICT tools, teachers' views on the infrastructures and resources in the schools, the need for ICT professional development (PD) for teachers and a national policy to guide and control the use of ICT tools in schools. The study also found that many teachers in the Solomon Islands also lack the basic knowledge and skills in using ICT tools.
Based on these findings, this study offers the following recommendations that can be used to improve and support the integration of ICT tools in the Solomon Islands schools. These included supporting teachers in developing their knowledge and skills in using ICT tools, providing a continuous professional development for teachers in ICT, the need to create a policy in education to guide the use of ICT tools in education and supporting schools to build their ICT resources and infrastructure. These will help teachers to effectively integrate ICT tools into teaching and learning.

year: 2010

title: Level 2 Māori medium programmes: What are the perceptions of parents and students on this form of education?

authors: Hill, Richard Kenneth

subjects: Māori medium

abstract: Māori medium education provides a range of options for families wishing to educate their children through the indigenous language of Aotearoa New Zealand. Level 2 programmes with 51–80% Māori language instruction, can play an important role in supporting students and their Māori language development, yet little is known about these programmes. This project explored the experiences of whānau (families) and students of level 2 Māori medium programmes to gauge the contribution they make to the education of students. It found that this form of education attracts whānau with wide ranging aims and expectations, but offers highly satisfactory educational options for them. However, there are some tensions, particularly in regard to the part they play in lifting students’ Māori language skills. Ensuring graduates of level 2 programmes have a pathway to learn the Māori language beyond primary school was also a cause for concern.

text: Level 2 Māori medium programmes: What are the perceptions of parents and students on this form of education? Māori medium education provides a range of options for families wishing to educate their children through the indigenous language of Aotearoa New Zealand. Level 2 programmes with 51–80% Māori language instruction, can play an important role in supporting students and their Māori language development, yet little is known about these programmes. This project explored the experiences of whānau (families) and students of level 2 Māori medium programmes to gauge the contribution they make to the education of students. It found that this form of education attracts whānau with wide ranging aims and expectations, but offers highly satisfactory educational options for them. However, there are some tensions, particularly in regard to the part they play in lifting students’ Māori language skills. Ensuring graduates of level 2 programmes have a pathway to learn the Māori language beyond primary school was also a cause for concern.

year: 2017