title: Water relations of the endemic New Zealand frogs Leiopelma archeyi, L. Hamiltoni and L. Hochstetteri

authors: Cree, Alison

abstract: Aspects of habitat and water balance physiology were compared between the endemic and anatomically primitive New Zealand frogs Leiopelma archeyi, L. hamiltoni and L.  hochstetteri. Field studies in an area of the Coromandel Range showed that the partially sympatric L. archeyi and L. hochstetteri had nearly disjunct distributions. L. archeyi occurred in terrestrial habitats on the forested ridgetops, whereas most L. hochstetteri were found in semiaquatic habitats along the edges of streams. L. archeyi also showed less preference for water than L. hochstetteri in the laboratory. Climatic conditions in the ridgetop habitat of L. archeyi were usually cool and humid, and resembled those previously reported for the allopatric and completely terrestrial L. hamiltoni.
In laboratory studies, all three species dehydrated rapidly in dry conditions. Resistance to evaporative water loss (EWL) was similar to that for a free water surface. L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni rehydrated rapidly (in 1-2 h) when returned to shallow water after dehydration to 9-15% weight loss. Rapid rehydration was due to increased water uptake through ventral skin and to reduced bladder urine accumulation (cutaneous and antidiuretic water balance responses). L. hochstetteri rehydrated very slowly (rehydration incomplete within 16 h) and showed only an antidiuretic response. L. hochstetteri also rehydrated more slowly from moist soil when compared with L. archeyi.
Treatment with arginine vasotocin (AVT, 7 x 10⁻¹¹ mol g⁻¹) produced water balance responses similar to those seen during rehydration. L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni placed in shallow water showed rapid water retention, reaching weight gains of 31% and 29% respectively 4-5 h after treatment. L. hochstetteri gained weight at a slow and linear rate (9% over 9 h). Unlike L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni, L. hochstetteri showed no increase in cutaneous water uptake, and water retention was attributed solely to antidiuresis.
In vitro experiments confirmed that AVT (3 x 10⁻⁸ mol 1⁻¹) caused increased osmotic water flow (OWF) through ventral pelvic skin of L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni. However, pelvic skin from L. hochstetteri and ventral pectoral and dorsal skin from all three species showed no hydroosmotic response. The bladders of the three species showed small increases in OWF in response to AVT. In vivo, glomerular filtration rate fell following AVT treatment in all species, although the effect on L. hochstetteri was not statistically significant.
Pelvic skin of L. archeyi showed no obvious structural specialisation for rapid water uptake, when examined using light and scanning electron microscopy. Pelvic skin was smooth, structurally similar to non-glandular areas of pectoral or dorsal skin, and less vascularised than pelvic skin of L. hochstetteri.
Adults of all three species were ureotelic. In the terrestrial eggs and larvae of L. archeyi, intracapsular larvae were ammonotelic, but most larvae became ureotelic within 4 d after hatching. The eggs had no resistance to EWL, but absorbed water rapidly from moist surfaces. Male parental care (egg brooding, larval transport) led to reduced EWL from eggs and hatched larvae of L. archeyi. 
This study demonstrates that the presence of a cutaneous hydroosmotic response varies between adults of the three species in an inverse manner with habitat water availability. It also supports previous studies indicating a closer ecological similarity and evolutionary relationship between L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni, than between either and L. hochstetteri.

text: Water relations of the endemic New Zealand frogs Leiopelma archeyi, L. Hamiltoni and L. Hochstetteri Aspects of habitat and water balance physiology were compared between the endemic and anatomically primitive New Zealand frogs Leiopelma archeyi, L. hamiltoni and L.  hochstetteri. Field studies in an area of the Coromandel Range showed that the partially sympatric L. archeyi and L. hochstetteri had nearly disjunct distributions. L. archeyi occurred in terrestrial habitats on the forested ridgetops, whereas most L. hochstetteri were found in semiaquatic habitats along the edges of streams. L. archeyi also showed less preference for water than L. hochstetteri in the laboratory. Climatic conditions in the ridgetop habitat of L. archeyi were usually cool and humid, and resembled those previously reported for the allopatric and completely terrestrial L. hamiltoni.
In laboratory studies, all three species dehydrated rapidly in dry conditions. Resistance to evaporative water loss (EWL) was similar to that for a free water surface. L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni rehydrated rapidly (in 1-2 h) when returned to shallow water after dehydration to 9-15% weight loss. Rapid rehydration was due to increased water uptake through ventral skin and to reduced bladder urine accumulation (cutaneous and antidiuretic water balance responses). L. hochstetteri rehydrated very slowly (rehydration incomplete within 16 h) and showed only an antidiuretic response. L. hochstetteri also rehydrated more slowly from moist soil when compared with L. archeyi.
Treatment with arginine vasotocin (AVT, 7 x 10⁻¹¹ mol g⁻¹) produced water balance responses similar to those seen during rehydration. L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni placed in shallow water showed rapid water retention, reaching weight gains of 31% and 29% respectively 4-5 h after treatment. L. hochstetteri gained weight at a slow and linear rate (9% over 9 h). Unlike L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni, L. hochstetteri showed no increase in cutaneous water uptake, and water retention was attributed solely to antidiuresis.
In vitro experiments confirmed that AVT (3 x 10⁻⁸ mol 1⁻¹) caused increased osmotic water flow (OWF) through ventral pelvic skin of L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni. However, pelvic skin from L. hochstetteri and ventral pectoral and dorsal skin from all three species showed no hydroosmotic response. The bladders of the three species showed small increases in OWF in response to AVT. In vivo, glomerular filtration rate fell following AVT treatment in all species, although the effect on L. hochstetteri was not statistically significant.
Pelvic skin of L. archeyi showed no obvious structural specialisation for rapid water uptake, when examined using light and scanning electron microscopy. Pelvic skin was smooth, structurally similar to non-glandular areas of pectoral or dorsal skin, and less vascularised than pelvic skin of L. hochstetteri.
Adults of all three species were ureotelic. In the terrestrial eggs and larvae of L. archeyi, intracapsular larvae were ammonotelic, but most larvae became ureotelic within 4 d after hatching. The eggs had no resistance to EWL, but absorbed water rapidly from moist surfaces. Male parental care (egg brooding, larval transport) led to reduced EWL from eggs and hatched larvae of L. archeyi. 
This study demonstrates that the presence of a cutaneous hydroosmotic response varies between adults of the three species in an inverse manner with habitat water availability. It also supports previous studies indicating a closer ecological similarity and evolutionary relationship between L. archeyi and L. hamiltoni, than between either and L. hochstetteri.

year: 1986

title: Volcanic studies by members of the Royal Society of London 1665 - 1780

authors: Stokes, Evelyn

abstract: Late seventeenth century ideas about volcanic activity were largely derived from classical sources. The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London provided a vehicle for publication of information about volcanoes where many ancient notions were refuted and new hypotheses suggested. Volcanic studies by members included detailed field reports, eyewitness accounts of eruptions as well as expeditions to extinct or dormant volcanic peaks, experiments with volcanic rocks, and speculation on the nature of subterranean "fires" and causes of eruptions. The development of theories concerning the formation of the columnar basalts of the Giant's Causeway is also traced. By the 1770's there appeared a general acceptance among members of the Royal Society of the igneous origin of basalt, the existence of ancient extinct volcanoes and the implications of past geologic change.

text: Volcanic studies by members of the Royal Society of London 1665 - 1780 Late seventeenth century ideas about volcanic activity were largely derived from classical sources. The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London provided a vehicle for publication of information about volcanoes where many ancient notions were refuted and new hypotheses suggested. Volcanic studies by members included detailed field reports, eyewitness accounts of eruptions as well as expeditions to extinct or dormant volcanic peaks, experiments with volcanic rocks, and speculation on the nature of subterranean "fires" and causes of eruptions. The development of theories concerning the formation of the columnar basalts of the Giant's Causeway is also traced. By the 1770's there appeared a general acceptance among members of the Royal Society of the igneous origin of basalt, the existence of ancient extinct volcanoes and the implications of past geologic change.

year: 1971

title: How usable is a smartphone with a Māori-language interface?

authors: Mato, Paora James

subjects: Mäori

abstract: Major languages dominate contemporary technologies. For Mäori, there is opportunity to engage with some technologies using their language and to participate within Mäori- language communities in various digital media. A smartphone launched by Two Degrees Mobile Limited provides a Mäori- language interface option. An initial pilot study indicated users will engage with this interface, but when pushed for time will switch the interface to the English- language option. This paper reports on a study undertaken to test the usability of the smartphone Mäorilanguage interface. Participants reported diffi culties and some frustration as they struggled with new words and unfamiliar uses of words. They also expressed disappointment at poor translations and arbitrary truncations. The feedback highlights perceived shortcomings encountered when technologies that are normally developed and used in a major language are translated for use in minority Indigenous languages. Mäori-language strategies that consider using translated application interfaces should be cognisant of such issues.

text: How usable is a smartphone with a Māori-language interface? Major languages dominate contemporary technologies. For Mäori, there is opportunity to engage with some technologies using their language and to participate within Mäori- language communities in various digital media. A smartphone launched by Two Degrees Mobile Limited provides a Mäori- language interface option. An initial pilot study indicated users will engage with this interface, but when pushed for time will switch the interface to the English- language option. This paper reports on a study undertaken to test the usability of the smartphone Mäorilanguage interface. Participants reported diffi culties and some frustration as they struggled with new words and unfamiliar uses of words. They also expressed disappointment at poor translations and arbitrary truncations. The feedback highlights perceived shortcomings encountered when technologies that are normally developed and used in a major language are translated for use in minority Indigenous languages. Mäori-language strategies that consider using translated application interfaces should be cognisant of such issues.

year: 2016