title: Temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand

authors: Islam, Ahmed Zohirul

abstract: This thesis seeks to explore the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand. The transition in migration policy preferences in Aotearoa New Zealand, moving away from traditional source countries to a human capital regime, and subsequent changes in policies, particularly in the past two decades, have influenced the growth of temporary migrants and alterations in their nationality composition. Moreover, migration policies and regulations establish differentiated status among temporary migrants based on skills and visa status, incorporating limitations on changing employers, the type of employment opportunities available to migrants, and the duration of their visas. In this context, this thesis argues that the interplay between the stratified status of temporary migrants shaped by the migration system and their nationality composition, along with other attributes such as skills, occupations, and demographic composition, may impact wage inequality among this group.
The thesis includes three interconnected quantitative studies to offer a detailed exploration of the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand, analysing different linked administrative data available in the Integrated Data Infrastructure of Statistics New Zealand. The first study focuses on the effects of high volume of international migration on income inequality in the labour market at the national level. The population sub-groups decomposition approach is employed to disentangle within-group and between-group contributions of different population sub-groups to overall income inequality. The study reveals that recent migrants, predominantly constituting temporary migrants, experience the highest level of income inequality compared to earlier immigrants and the New Zealand-born population. The second study investigates the role of multiple factors on wage inequality among temporary migrants, employing the Shapley-value regression-based decomposition approach. The study identifies two main factors that influence wage inequality in the context of temporary migration: the migration system, which imposes varying conditions for migrants based on skills and visa status, including restrictions on employer switching, types of employment, and visa duration; and the composition of migrants, emphasizing how shifts in the nationality composition can impact wage inequality due to racialized discrimination in the workforce. The third study investigates the wage gap between temporary migrants from UK, Ireland, North America, and South Africa (group A) and those from other nationalities (group B), given that migrants in group A are predominantly white while those in group B may be perceived as racialized minorities distinct from the native population of Aotearoa New Zealand. The study uses the unconditional quantile decomposition method to examine whether the wage gap results from nationality-specific differences in migrants' characteristics or variations in nationality-specific returns to these characteristics. The findings reveal that the structural effect is the primary factor explaining the wage gap across the entire wage distribution, possibly indicating nationality-based discrimination. The impact of this discrimination decreases at the bottom and middle quantiles over time but shows a slight decline at the top end of the wage distribution. The study highlights that the migration system, which establishes a stratified status among migrants based on skills and remuneration bands, coupled with the nationality composition of temporary migrants, may contribute to the decrease in the wage gap at the bottom and middle quantiles. The significance of these insights lies in the finding that, instead of serving as a neutral mechanism to address labour market gaps, the rules and regulations within temporary migration systems play a role in creating the wage inequality among temporary migrants.
Overall, the thesis provides both a detailed examination of inequality as it pertains to temporary migrants as well as providing key insights into the immigration dynamics associated with employment, migration policy, nationality and income. This dual emphasis on both inequality and immigration enriches the research, making noteworthy contributions to the literature on temporary migration, discussions surrounding social and economic inequality, and inquiries into social inclusion within Aotearoa New Zealand.

text: Temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand This thesis seeks to explore the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand. The transition in migration policy preferences in Aotearoa New Zealand, moving away from traditional source countries to a human capital regime, and subsequent changes in policies, particularly in the past two decades, have influenced the growth of temporary migrants and alterations in their nationality composition. Moreover, migration policies and regulations establish differentiated status among temporary migrants based on skills and visa status, incorporating limitations on changing employers, the type of employment opportunities available to migrants, and the duration of their visas. In this context, this thesis argues that the interplay between the stratified status of temporary migrants shaped by the migration system and their nationality composition, along with other attributes such as skills, occupations, and demographic composition, may impact wage inequality among this group.
The thesis includes three interconnected quantitative studies to offer a detailed exploration of the relationship between temporary migration and wage inequality in Aotearoa New Zealand, analysing different linked administrative data available in the Integrated Data Infrastructure of Statistics New Zealand. The first study focuses on the effects of high volume of international migration on income inequality in the labour market at the national level. The population sub-groups decomposition approach is employed to disentangle within-group and between-group contributions of different population sub-groups to overall income inequality. The study reveals that recent migrants, predominantly constituting temporary migrants, experience the highest level of income inequality compared to earlier immigrants and the New Zealand-born population. The second study investigates the role of multiple factors on wage inequality among temporary migrants, employing the Shapley-value regression-based decomposition approach. The study identifies two main factors that influence wage inequality in the context of temporary migration: the migration system, which imposes varying conditions for migrants based on skills and visa status, including restrictions on employer switching, types of employment, and visa duration; and the composition of migrants, emphasizing how shifts in the nationality composition can impact wage inequality due to racialized discrimination in the workforce. The third study investigates the wage gap between temporary migrants from UK, Ireland, North America, and South Africa (group A) and those from other nationalities (group B), given that migrants in group A are predominantly white while those in group B may be perceived as racialized minorities distinct from the native population of Aotearoa New Zealand. The study uses the unconditional quantile decomposition method to examine whether the wage gap results from nationality-specific differences in migrants' characteristics or variations in nationality-specific returns to these characteristics. The findings reveal that the structural effect is the primary factor explaining the wage gap across the entire wage distribution, possibly indicating nationality-based discrimination. The impact of this discrimination decreases at the bottom and middle quantiles over time but shows a slight decline at the top end of the wage distribution. The study highlights that the migration system, which establishes a stratified status among migrants based on skills and remuneration bands, coupled with the nationality composition of temporary migrants, may contribute to the decrease in the wage gap at the bottom and middle quantiles. The significance of these insights lies in the finding that, instead of serving as a neutral mechanism to address labour market gaps, the rules and regulations within temporary migration systems play a role in creating the wage inequality among temporary migrants.
Overall, the thesis provides both a detailed examination of inequality as it pertains to temporary migrants as well as providing key insights into the immigration dynamics associated with employment, migration policy, nationality and income. This dual emphasis on both inequality and immigration enriches the research, making noteworthy contributions to the literature on temporary migration, discussions surrounding social and economic inequality, and inquiries into social inclusion within Aotearoa New Zealand.

year: 2024

title: Monitoring of subtidal reef biota off Motuotau Island in relation to dredge spoil dumping by the Port of Tauranga Ltd 2014-2018

authors: Ross, Philip M.

abstract: Background
• Dredge spoils generated from the development and maintenance of the Port of Tauranga is disposed of on the inner shelf off Mt Maunganui.
• Major channel deepening and widening programmes were undertaken in 1992 and 2015/16. Maintenance dredging is undertaken more regularly.
• Since 1990, monitoring has been conducted to determine if the dumping of dredge spoils was affecting subtidal reef communities around Motuotau Island, as island off Mt Maunganui beach and inshore of the dredge spoils disposal area.
• Three sites at Motuotau have been monitored since 1990. A site to the east of Motuotau has been monitored as a control site and two sites to the north-east and north-west of Motuotau have been monitored as impact sites.
• Monitoring has consisted of photographic monitoring of permanent transects close to the reef-sand boundary to record (a) changes in the elevation of the seabed relative to the rocky reef, and (b) changes in the biological community over time.
• Monitoring has taken place in 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2006, 2009 and 2012.
• One of the difficulties of the monitoring programs was that the marker pins, which are cemented onto the reef, would often be dislodged between surveys and would need to be reinstated prior to each new survey taking place. This made it difficult to be sure that the same section of reef was monitored on each occasion and that the measurement of changes in seabed height was accurate.
• In 2013, a decision was made to reinstate marker pins for the permanent transects. In January 2014, holes were drilled into the reef and stainless steel rods were secured in these holes using epoxy cement. It is unlikely that these marker pins will ever be dislodged from the reef.
• At the same time, the monitoring methodology was reviewed and a number of changes recommended. Most significantly, it was decided that the reef being monitored as a control site did not really constitute a control against the effects of dredge spoil dumping and subsequently all three sites would be considered as impact sites.
• Monitoring took place in January and May 2014, November 2015 and April 2018 and is reported on here.
Findings
• Marker pins were reinstated in January 2014 and four and a half years later remain solidly in place.
• In general terms, the reefs around Motuotau appear to be healthy and in a state that is comparable to other reefs of similar depth, aspect and exposure along the Bay of Plenty coastline.
• The 2014, 2015 and 2018 surveys did not record any major changes in the biological communities of the reefs around Motuotau.
• Measurements of the distance between the bottom marker pin at each site and the reefsand boundary indicate that the reefs are not being inundated by dredge spoils. Seabed heights have fluctuated by as much as 30 cm since 2014 and this is not thought to be outside the scale of fluctuations that would naturally occur given the aspect and energy environment of the surveyed reefs.
• Photographic surveys continue to prove useful in capturing information about the diversity of subtidal reef communities. Although there is some evidence of minor changes in these communities over time this is to be expected. There is also evidence of stability in these communities with a number of sponges on these transects having been present for several decades.

text: Monitoring of subtidal reef biota off Motuotau Island in relation to dredge spoil dumping by the Port of Tauranga Ltd 2014-2018 Background
• Dredge spoils generated from the development and maintenance of the Port of Tauranga is disposed of on the inner shelf off Mt Maunganui.
• Major channel deepening and widening programmes were undertaken in 1992 and 2015/16. Maintenance dredging is undertaken more regularly.
• Since 1990, monitoring has been conducted to determine if the dumping of dredge spoils was affecting subtidal reef communities around Motuotau Island, as island off Mt Maunganui beach and inshore of the dredge spoils disposal area.
• Three sites at Motuotau have been monitored since 1990. A site to the east of Motuotau has been monitored as a control site and two sites to the north-east and north-west of Motuotau have been monitored as impact sites.
• Monitoring has consisted of photographic monitoring of permanent transects close to the reef-sand boundary to record (a) changes in the elevation of the seabed relative to the rocky reef, and (b) changes in the biological community over time.
• Monitoring has taken place in 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2006, 2009 and 2012.
• One of the difficulties of the monitoring programs was that the marker pins, which are cemented onto the reef, would often be dislodged between surveys and would need to be reinstated prior to each new survey taking place. This made it difficult to be sure that the same section of reef was monitored on each occasion and that the measurement of changes in seabed height was accurate.
• In 2013, a decision was made to reinstate marker pins for the permanent transects. In January 2014, holes were drilled into the reef and stainless steel rods were secured in these holes using epoxy cement. It is unlikely that these marker pins will ever be dislodged from the reef.
• At the same time, the monitoring methodology was reviewed and a number of changes recommended. Most significantly, it was decided that the reef being monitored as a control site did not really constitute a control against the effects of dredge spoil dumping and subsequently all three sites would be considered as impact sites.
• Monitoring took place in January and May 2014, November 2015 and April 2018 and is reported on here.
Findings
• Marker pins were reinstated in January 2014 and four and a half years later remain solidly in place.
• In general terms, the reefs around Motuotau appear to be healthy and in a state that is comparable to other reefs of similar depth, aspect and exposure along the Bay of Plenty coastline.
• The 2014, 2015 and 2018 surveys did not record any major changes in the biological communities of the reefs around Motuotau.
• Measurements of the distance between the bottom marker pin at each site and the reefsand boundary indicate that the reefs are not being inundated by dredge spoils. Seabed heights have fluctuated by as much as 30 cm since 2014 and this is not thought to be outside the scale of fluctuations that would naturally occur given the aspect and energy environment of the surveyed reefs.
• Photographic surveys continue to prove useful in capturing information about the diversity of subtidal reef communities. Although there is some evidence of minor changes in these communities over time this is to be expected. There is also evidence of stability in these communities with a number of sponges on these transects having been present for several decades.

year: 2018

title: The Oral Transmission of Mātauranga Māori in regard to Traditional Hokianga Stories and the Revitalization of Significant Place Names.

authors: Barnes, Maria

subjects: Hokianga

abstract: This thesis researched the oral transmission of mātauranga Māori from one generation to another with a particular focus on the significance of place names in the Hokianga area from Waimamaku through to Opononi. It also sought to understand the stories and history that accompany this area. Our oral traditions are critical in helping to define our identity as Māori, and our relationship with the land.

This thesis begins by looking at the ways in which we as Māori are connected to the land and some of our traditional values regarding cultural practices and the way our tūpuna lived.  It also shares an example of the way in which our oral traditions and histories were preserved and taught.  There is then a detailed section regarding the significance of Hokianga place names within the Waimamaku, Omapere and Opononi area of Hokianga.  This information has been provided orally from the generosity of kaumātua of our area.  Following this I have concluded by providing an overall statement about the significance of findings and outcomes of my research.

This kaupapa is important as more and more of these place names and their histories will continue to be lost if records are not kept and shared with future generations.  I also understand the importance of protecting this knowledge.  Through colonisation and over time the use of our traditional educational practices and our place names and their histories have been forgotten, watered down, and sometimes lost.  Our learning methods, histories and whakapapa constitute important elements of who we are as Māori. They recognise the past, help us to understand today and guide us into the future. 

The research strategy used in my thesis is collaborative storying co-constructed between myself the researcher and local kaumātua deemed to hold traditional knowledge of our area.  This has provided the opportunity to find out significant place names and our local histories. Prior to working on this thesis only a few names were known and understood.  However in the end we are able to get a more detailed picture of our history.  There are still plenty more place names to be found and understood.


We live and come from a beautiful place.

text: The Oral Transmission of Mātauranga Māori in regard to Traditional Hokianga Stories and the Revitalization of Significant Place Names. This thesis researched the oral transmission of mātauranga Māori from one generation to another with a particular focus on the significance of place names in the Hokianga area from Waimamaku through to Opononi. It also sought to understand the stories and history that accompany this area. Our oral traditions are critical in helping to define our identity as Māori, and our relationship with the land.

This thesis begins by looking at the ways in which we as Māori are connected to the land and some of our traditional values regarding cultural practices and the way our tūpuna lived.  It also shares an example of the way in which our oral traditions and histories were preserved and taught.  There is then a detailed section regarding the significance of Hokianga place names within the Waimamaku, Omapere and Opononi area of Hokianga.  This information has been provided orally from the generosity of kaumātua of our area.  Following this I have concluded by providing an overall statement about the significance of findings and outcomes of my research.

This kaupapa is important as more and more of these place names and their histories will continue to be lost if records are not kept and shared with future generations.  I also understand the importance of protecting this knowledge.  Through colonisation and over time the use of our traditional educational practices and our place names and their histories have been forgotten, watered down, and sometimes lost.  Our learning methods, histories and whakapapa constitute important elements of who we are as Māori. They recognise the past, help us to understand today and guide us into the future. 

The research strategy used in my thesis is collaborative storying co-constructed between myself the researcher and local kaumātua deemed to hold traditional knowledge of our area.  This has provided the opportunity to find out significant place names and our local histories. Prior to working on this thesis only a few names were known and understood.  However in the end we are able to get a more detailed picture of our history.  There are still plenty more place names to be found and understood.


We live and come from a beautiful place.

year: 2010