title: Catania's Concept of the Operant Revisited: Empirical Analysis of Response Variation and Controlling Contingencies

authors: Oliver, Gary Kelson

subjects: Operant

abstract: Six Shaver‐Starcross hens with no prior experimental experience served as participants in two experiments which were designed to empirically test Catania's concept of the operant. The stimulus consisted of a cream coloured rectangle against a black background shown on a standard LCD computer monitor. An infrared touch screen mounted to the front of the LCD monitor recorded the location of all responses made by the participants. Experiment one consisted of autoshaping the rectangle pecking response. This was done using an automated computer program designed to eliminate latencies between responses and reinforcement, as well as positional biases which may have been introduced via manual autoshaping. The program successfully eliminated latencies and positional biases introduced by the experimenter, but took longer than anticipated to autoshape the desired response in the participants. It is suggested that procedural differences account for the unusual length of time taken to autoshape the participants in this experiment. Preliminary inquiry investigating procedural differences shows that it may be possible to model speed of acquisition more accurately than done so at present, without retrospective analysis of the acquisition data itself. In experiment two the active, reinforced zone of the rectangle was reduced. The participants had no visible cue demarcating active and inactive zones of the rectangle, yet in accordance with Catania's operant, responding across all participants came to fall within the active, reinforced zone of the rectangle. The results; shifts in response distributions in relation to the changes in contingencies, offer empirical support for Catania's operant in terms of positive reinforcement across a single parameter of responding. The implications of these findings imply that when variability in responding is important; for example in learning, exploring, creating, and problem solving, Catania's operant may be favourable over Skinner's operant as a vehicle for identifying and controlling variables associated with behavioural outcomes due to its greater topographical inclusivity. Contemporary behavioural analysis favours a behavioural systems approach where the respondent and operant class distinction merges; the environment affects the organism as much as the organism affects the environment. Catania's operant is complementary to behavioural analysis in this vein.

text: Catania's Concept of the Operant Revisited: Empirical Analysis of Response Variation and Controlling Contingencies Six Shaver‐Starcross hens with no prior experimental experience served as participants in two experiments which were designed to empirically test Catania's concept of the operant. The stimulus consisted of a cream coloured rectangle against a black background shown on a standard LCD computer monitor. An infrared touch screen mounted to the front of the LCD monitor recorded the location of all responses made by the participants. Experiment one consisted of autoshaping the rectangle pecking response. This was done using an automated computer program designed to eliminate latencies between responses and reinforcement, as well as positional biases which may have been introduced via manual autoshaping. The program successfully eliminated latencies and positional biases introduced by the experimenter, but took longer than anticipated to autoshape the desired response in the participants. It is suggested that procedural differences account for the unusual length of time taken to autoshape the participants in this experiment. Preliminary inquiry investigating procedural differences shows that it may be possible to model speed of acquisition more accurately than done so at present, without retrospective analysis of the acquisition data itself. In experiment two the active, reinforced zone of the rectangle was reduced. The participants had no visible cue demarcating active and inactive zones of the rectangle, yet in accordance with Catania's operant, responding across all participants came to fall within the active, reinforced zone of the rectangle. The results; shifts in response distributions in relation to the changes in contingencies, offer empirical support for Catania's operant in terms of positive reinforcement across a single parameter of responding. The implications of these findings imply that when variability in responding is important; for example in learning, exploring, creating, and problem solving, Catania's operant may be favourable over Skinner's operant as a vehicle for identifying and controlling variables associated with behavioural outcomes due to its greater topographical inclusivity. Contemporary behavioural analysis favours a behavioural systems approach where the respondent and operant class distinction merges; the environment affects the organism as much as the organism affects the environment. Catania's operant is complementary to behavioural analysis in this vein.

year: 2009

title: Synthesis and properties of some doped lithium transition-metal phosphates

authors: Butt, Garrett Phillip

abstract: Four structurally related materials; LiNiPO₄, LiCoPO₄, Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃, were synthesised, characterised and evaluated as potential cathode materials for lithium secondary batteries. 

The materials were synthesized using mainly solid-state techniques. Structural characterisation was performed using powder XRD with Rietveld refinement and Raman spectroscopy. Results showed that the pure forms of LiNiPO₄, LiCoPO₄ and Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ could be synthesised in air at various temperatures. Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ required a reducing atmosphere of 2%H₂/98%N₂ to achieve phase purity. Attempts were made to substitute all four materials with aliovalent dopants. Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ underwent a phase change depending on dopant content to a higher ionic conducting phase. 

AC impedance spectroscopy was used to determine conductivity of the materials. In general the phosphates are poor conductors. There was a significant increase in conductivity when substituting the transition metal Ti⁴⁺ for M³⁺ in Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃, and V³⁺ for Co²⁺ in LiCoPO₄. 

The four materials and their highest conducting doped analogues were evaluated as cathodes in coin type lithium cells to determine their viability in Li secondary batteries. LiCoPO₄ showed a first discharge capacity of 130 mAh/g at 4.6V, but could be cycled over only a limited number of charge-discharge cycles owing to electrolyte instability at the high oxidation potentials (>5V) required for full charge. LiNiPO₄ could not be charged at all to accessible voltages. Ti doped Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ had a relatively low discharge capacity of 60 mAh/g. Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ and Ti doped Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ showed a discharge capacity of 130 and 110 mAh/g respectively, although the Ti doped Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ showed better cycling characteristics. Therefore, although aliovalent doping could increase the total conductivity of the phosphate materials, the accessible capacities of these materials remained limited.

text: Synthesis and properties of some doped lithium transition-metal phosphates Four structurally related materials; LiNiPO₄, LiCoPO₄, Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃, were synthesised, characterised and evaluated as potential cathode materials for lithium secondary batteries. 

The materials were synthesized using mainly solid-state techniques. Structural characterisation was performed using powder XRD with Rietveld refinement and Raman spectroscopy. Results showed that the pure forms of LiNiPO₄, LiCoPO₄ and Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ could be synthesised in air at various temperatures. Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ required a reducing atmosphere of 2%H₂/98%N₂ to achieve phase purity. Attempts were made to substitute all four materials with aliovalent dopants. Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ underwent a phase change depending on dopant content to a higher ionic conducting phase. 

AC impedance spectroscopy was used to determine conductivity of the materials. In general the phosphates are poor conductors. There was a significant increase in conductivity when substituting the transition metal Ti⁴⁺ for M³⁺ in Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ and Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃, and V³⁺ for Co²⁺ in LiCoPO₄. 

The four materials and their highest conducting doped analogues were evaluated as cathodes in coin type lithium cells to determine their viability in Li secondary batteries. LiCoPO₄ showed a first discharge capacity of 130 mAh/g at 4.6V, but could be cycled over only a limited number of charge-discharge cycles owing to electrolyte instability at the high oxidation potentials (>5V) required for full charge. LiNiPO₄ could not be charged at all to accessible voltages. Ti doped Li₃Fe₂(PO₄)₃ had a relatively low discharge capacity of 60 mAh/g. Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ and Ti doped Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ showed a discharge capacity of 130 and 110 mAh/g respectively, although the Ti doped Li₃V₂(PO₄)₃ showed better cycling characteristics. Therefore, although aliovalent doping could increase the total conductivity of the phosphate materials, the accessible capacities of these materials remained limited.

year: 2000

title: Ngā ia nōnoke taketake

authors: Manuirirangi, Hōri

subjects: whātōtō nōnoke mamau

abstract: Tā tēnei tuhinga, he titiro ki ngā kōrero onamata mō ngā mahi nōnoke a te Māori. I mua, whāia ai te nōnoke e ētehi hapori Māori hei koringa tinana, hei tū hākinakina, hei tākaro hoki. Ko te nōnoke, te whātōtō, te taitai me te mamau, he rite katoa. Nō te kuhutanga mai o ngā tini whakaawenga a tauiwi, ka nui hoki te Māori i tahuri ki hākinakina kē. Nāwhai ā ka mimiti te whāia o te nōnoke. Kei tēnei tuhinga, ka āta wetekina ngā kupu me ngā kōrero o te reo nōnoke o mua, arā ngā tohutohu a ngā pāhake e whakaahua ana i ngā tūmomo neke, i ngā whiu me ngā puringa mahia ai e te kaiwhātōtō. Ka arohaehaetia tēnei mea te karakia, te waiata me te pepeha kia kuhuna ai te hinengaro o te kaiwhātōtō e mārama rawa ai te ia o ōna whakaaro, tōna waiaro me tōna whanonga. Waihoki ko ngā pūrākau o mua, kua whakaemia ētehi tauira kia tīroua ngā karere i whaona ki roto. Ko te tino whāinga, ko te whera i ngā rangahau nei kia āta mōhio ki ngā koronga me ngā horopaki whāia ai e te Māori o mua ngā mahi nōnoke.

text: Ngā ia nōnoke taketake Tā tēnei tuhinga, he titiro ki ngā kōrero onamata mō ngā mahi nōnoke a te Māori. I mua, whāia ai te nōnoke e ētehi hapori Māori hei koringa tinana, hei tū hākinakina, hei tākaro hoki. Ko te nōnoke, te whātōtō, te taitai me te mamau, he rite katoa. Nō te kuhutanga mai o ngā tini whakaawenga a tauiwi, ka nui hoki te Māori i tahuri ki hākinakina kē. Nāwhai ā ka mimiti te whāia o te nōnoke. Kei tēnei tuhinga, ka āta wetekina ngā kupu me ngā kōrero o te reo nōnoke o mua, arā ngā tohutohu a ngā pāhake e whakaahua ana i ngā tūmomo neke, i ngā whiu me ngā puringa mahia ai e te kaiwhātōtō. Ka arohaehaetia tēnei mea te karakia, te waiata me te pepeha kia kuhuna ai te hinengaro o te kaiwhātōtō e mārama rawa ai te ia o ōna whakaaro, tōna waiaro me tōna whanonga. Waihoki ko ngā pūrākau o mua, kua whakaemia ētehi tauira kia tīroua ngā karere i whaona ki roto. Ko te tino whāinga, ko te whera i ngā rangahau nei kia āta mōhio ki ngā koronga me ngā horopaki whāia ai e te Māori o mua ngā mahi nōnoke.

year: 2017