title: Eccentric resistance exercise as a method of inducing post-activation potentiation to acutely influence force, speed, and power in resistance-trained males

authors: Olsen, Cam

abstract: Novel methods of acutely improving an individual’s athletic performance are regularly utilised in an effort to gain unique advantages in competitive contexts. One such method is post-activation potentiation (PAP). Eccentric resistance exercise has been demonstrated to have unique properties to that of traditional resistance methods. Few studies have investigated the effects eccentric resistance exercise may have on potentiating physiological characteristics such as force, speed, and power. This thesis aims to: (1) review and synthesise existing literature regarding physiological and neuromuscular underpinnings of PAP and eccentric exercise (Chapter One); (2) examine test-retest reliability of the test conditions used to measure physiological aspects pertinent to athletic populations (Chapter Two); and (3), investigate the acute effects isokinetic eccentric resistance exercise has on expressions of force, speed, and power (Chapter Three). Chapter Four discusses and summarises key findings of the studies undertaken, outlining strengths and limitations, and provides recommendations for future research. 
As part of the literature review in Chapter One, research regarding the pertinent variables of PAP and eccentric exercise was examined. While there is a consensus that PAP can occur and that eccentric exercise can have superior adaptive qualities to traditional exercise methods, it is evident there is little quantification for what training volumes, recovery periods, and individual characteristics are most conducive to the application of eccentric exercise to elicit PAP.
Chapter Two examined the inter-day reliability of the drop-jump, loaded counter-movement jump, and six-second peak power test metrics using equipment from OptoJumpᵀᴹ, Kinetic Performance Technology, and Wattbike Ltd. The experimental set-up and metrics were found to be reliable (<10% CV) for measuring flight time, relative power, and jump height in the drop jump; jump height and peak velocity for the lighter loaded counter-movement jump (25 kg); jump height, peak power, peak force, peak velocity and peak relative power for the heavier loaded counter-movement jump (45 kg); and peak power, relative power,  peak cadence and cadence at which peak power occurred in the six-second peak power test.
In Chapter Three, 19 resistance trained males completed three sessions of drop jumps, loaded counter-movement jumps, and six-second peak power cycling tests pre- and post-interventions using an isokinetic eccentric ergometer to induce PAP or a concentric cycling control. Measures of relative power in heavier loaded counter-movement jumps were found to be significantly improved (0.02) with moderate effect sizes found in time to peak power (0.80) and cadence at which peak power occurred (0.92) in the six-second peak power cycling test. Results from this research demonstrate a need for higher quality methodological studies to be undertaken examining variables involved in novel training methods such as PAP and eccentric resistance training including volume, intensity, recovery times, and individual characteristics required for beneficial adaptations in this population.

text: Eccentric resistance exercise as a method of inducing post-activation potentiation to acutely influence force, speed, and power in resistance-trained males Novel methods of acutely improving an individual’s athletic performance are regularly utilised in an effort to gain unique advantages in competitive contexts. One such method is post-activation potentiation (PAP). Eccentric resistance exercise has been demonstrated to have unique properties to that of traditional resistance methods. Few studies have investigated the effects eccentric resistance exercise may have on potentiating physiological characteristics such as force, speed, and power. This thesis aims to: (1) review and synthesise existing literature regarding physiological and neuromuscular underpinnings of PAP and eccentric exercise (Chapter One); (2) examine test-retest reliability of the test conditions used to measure physiological aspects pertinent to athletic populations (Chapter Two); and (3), investigate the acute effects isokinetic eccentric resistance exercise has on expressions of force, speed, and power (Chapter Three). Chapter Four discusses and summarises key findings of the studies undertaken, outlining strengths and limitations, and provides recommendations for future research. 
As part of the literature review in Chapter One, research regarding the pertinent variables of PAP and eccentric exercise was examined. While there is a consensus that PAP can occur and that eccentric exercise can have superior adaptive qualities to traditional exercise methods, it is evident there is little quantification for what training volumes, recovery periods, and individual characteristics are most conducive to the application of eccentric exercise to elicit PAP.
Chapter Two examined the inter-day reliability of the drop-jump, loaded counter-movement jump, and six-second peak power test metrics using equipment from OptoJumpᵀᴹ, Kinetic Performance Technology, and Wattbike Ltd. The experimental set-up and metrics were found to be reliable (<10% CV) for measuring flight time, relative power, and jump height in the drop jump; jump height and peak velocity for the lighter loaded counter-movement jump (25 kg); jump height, peak power, peak force, peak velocity and peak relative power for the heavier loaded counter-movement jump (45 kg); and peak power, relative power,  peak cadence and cadence at which peak power occurred in the six-second peak power test.
In Chapter Three, 19 resistance trained males completed three sessions of drop jumps, loaded counter-movement jumps, and six-second peak power cycling tests pre- and post-interventions using an isokinetic eccentric ergometer to induce PAP or a concentric cycling control. Measures of relative power in heavier loaded counter-movement jumps were found to be significantly improved (0.02) with moderate effect sizes found in time to peak power (0.80) and cadence at which peak power occurred (0.92) in the six-second peak power cycling test. Results from this research demonstrate a need for higher quality methodological studies to be undertaken examining variables involved in novel training methods such as PAP and eccentric resistance training including volume, intensity, recovery times, and individual characteristics required for beneficial adaptations in this population.

year: 2021

title: Photosynthesis of lichens from lichen-dominated communities in the alpine/nival belt of the Alps – II: Laboratory and field measurements of CO₂ exchange and water relations

authors: Reiter, Robert

subjects: lichen

abstract: CO₂ exchange and water relations of selected lichen species were investigated in the field and also in the laboratory, at a height of 3106 m above sea level in the Austrian Alps, during the short snowless summer period from middle of July to the end of August. In the course of the field investigations, clear summer days were quite rare. Altogether 14 diurnal courses of CO₂ exchange were measured spanning a time of 255 h of measurements.
The air temperatures measured close to the ground ranged between −0.7 and 17.1 °C and their daily fluctuation was lower than 10.7 °C. Fog was present for more than one-third of the measuring period and relative humidity (RH) exceeded 90% in almost half of the time. Temperature optimum of net photosynthesis (NP) of Xanthoria elegans and Brodoa atrofusca determined in the laboratory increased with increasing photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) from 1.5 to 11.3 °C and the maximal CO₂ uptake was found to be at 10 °C. In the field the lichens were metabolically active at air temperatures between −0.7 and 12.8 °C. The light compensation points (LCP) of both lichen species ranged in the laboratory between 50 and 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD (0–20 °C) and in the field between 22 and 56 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD (3–8 °C). At 30 °C the NP of X. elegans surpassed the LCP, whereas B. atrofusca remained below the LCP. NP in X. elegans did not reach light saturation at 1500 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD. NP in B. atrofusca reached light saturation at low temperatures (−5 to +5 °C). At higher temperatures light saturation was almost detectable. On sunny days the lichens in the field were metabolically active only for 3 h during the early morning. In this time they reached the maximal values or values close to their maximal CO₂ uptake in situ. Under dry weather conditions the lichens dried out to a minimal water content (WC) of 5–12% which is below the moisture compensation point (MCP) of 34–25%. The optimal WC was between 90% and 120% dry weight (DW) in B. atrofusca and Umbilicaria cylindrica, in X. elegans between 140% and 180% DW. Species specific differences in water-holding capacity, desiccation intensity and in the compensation points of temperature, light and moisture are responsible for differences in metabolic activity. The lichens were active during less than half of the observation time. Total time of NP of X. elegans was 24% of the measuring period, for U. cylindrica 22% and for B. atrofusca 16%.

text: Photosynthesis of lichens from lichen-dominated communities in the alpine/nival belt of the Alps – II: Laboratory and field measurements of CO₂ exchange and water relations CO₂ exchange and water relations of selected lichen species were investigated in the field and also in the laboratory, at a height of 3106 m above sea level in the Austrian Alps, during the short snowless summer period from middle of July to the end of August. In the course of the field investigations, clear summer days were quite rare. Altogether 14 diurnal courses of CO₂ exchange were measured spanning a time of 255 h of measurements.
The air temperatures measured close to the ground ranged between −0.7 and 17.1 °C and their daily fluctuation was lower than 10.7 °C. Fog was present for more than one-third of the measuring period and relative humidity (RH) exceeded 90% in almost half of the time. Temperature optimum of net photosynthesis (NP) of Xanthoria elegans and Brodoa atrofusca determined in the laboratory increased with increasing photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) from 1.5 to 11.3 °C and the maximal CO₂ uptake was found to be at 10 °C. In the field the lichens were metabolically active at air temperatures between −0.7 and 12.8 °C. The light compensation points (LCP) of both lichen species ranged in the laboratory between 50 and 200 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD (0–20 °C) and in the field between 22 and 56 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹ PPFD (3–8 °C). At 30 °C the NP of X. elegans surpassed the LCP, whereas B. atrofusca remained below the LCP. NP in X. elegans did not reach light saturation at 1500 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD. NP in B. atrofusca reached light saturation at low temperatures (−5 to +5 °C). At higher temperatures light saturation was almost detectable. On sunny days the lichens in the field were metabolically active only for 3 h during the early morning. In this time they reached the maximal values or values close to their maximal CO₂ uptake in situ. Under dry weather conditions the lichens dried out to a minimal water content (WC) of 5–12% which is below the moisture compensation point (MCP) of 34–25%. The optimal WC was between 90% and 120% dry weight (DW) in B. atrofusca and Umbilicaria cylindrica, in X. elegans between 140% and 180% DW. Species specific differences in water-holding capacity, desiccation intensity and in the compensation points of temperature, light and moisture are responsible for differences in metabolic activity. The lichens were active during less than half of the observation time. Total time of NP of X. elegans was 24% of the measuring period, for U. cylindrica 22% and for B. atrofusca 16%.

year: 2008

title: He pakiriha

authors: Temara, Pou

subjects: Tikanga

abstract: Kua tae ki te wā hai kōrero i ētahi tikanga marae, ētahi tikanga kawa e kawa ana ki tā te mātanga titiro. Tērā ētahi tikanga e whakamahia ana e ngā kaumātua o nāianei e uru atu ana ki te pae o rorirori, ka mutu, e ai ki tā ngā kaumātua nei, ko te mutunga mai o te tika ā rātau i whakatau ai. Nā hei whakarāpopoto i te whakaaro whānui, i ētahi wā kāore ko te mea e tika ana ki ō tātau whakaaro te huarahi pai. Ko tā te tikanga he kimi i te huarahi e tika ana, kia kore ai e whara ngā whakaaro o te tangata. Ko te tikanga ehara i te mea i whakairotia ki te kōhatu, engari e taea ana te neke i ngā pae o te tikanga kia pai ai te whakahaere a te tangata i āna mahi, kia tau ai te rangimārie, kia mau tonu ai te mana o te tangata. E whakapae ana ahau e kūmea ana e ētahi kaumātua ētahi tikanga kia hāngai ki tā rātau i whakaaro ai kai te tika, kai te hē rānei. Mā ētahi tauira e mārama ai te kaipānui ki te kaupapa me te whakaaro o te kaituhi.

text: He pakiriha Kua tae ki te wā hai kōrero i ētahi tikanga marae, ētahi tikanga kawa e kawa ana ki tā te mātanga titiro. Tērā ētahi tikanga e whakamahia ana e ngā kaumātua o nāianei e uru atu ana ki te pae o rorirori, ka mutu, e ai ki tā ngā kaumātua nei, ko te mutunga mai o te tika ā rātau i whakatau ai. Nā hei whakarāpopoto i te whakaaro whānui, i ētahi wā kāore ko te mea e tika ana ki ō tātau whakaaro te huarahi pai. Ko tā te tikanga he kimi i te huarahi e tika ana, kia kore ai e whara ngā whakaaro o te tangata. Ko te tikanga ehara i te mea i whakairotia ki te kōhatu, engari e taea ana te neke i ngā pae o te tikanga kia pai ai te whakahaere a te tangata i āna mahi, kia tau ai te rangimārie, kia mau tonu ai te mana o te tangata. E whakapae ana ahau e kūmea ana e ētahi kaumātua ētahi tikanga kia hāngai ki tā rātau i whakaaro ai kai te tika, kai te hē rānei. Mā ētahi tauira e mārama ai te kaipānui ki te kaupapa me te whakaaro o te kaituhi.

year: 2017