title: Kua Tupu Te Pā Harakeke: Developing Healthy Whānau Relationships

authors: Pihama, Leonie

abstract: We have opened this chapter with our ‘pēpeha’. Pēpeha are ways through which our people introduce ourselves. These vary from tribe to tribe. The essence of pēpeha is that they link us to our tribes and all associated with that. Our mountains, our rivers, our canoes, our ancestral lines. It links us to each other. It places us, as Māori, within a wider collective consciousness and relationships. It is important to highlight that the term ‘Māori’ is a term that brings us as tribal peoples together. It is a term that our people have chosen to use as a means of unifying ourselves in the wake of the arrival of our colonizers. Prior to colonization all identification was done through our whānau (extended family structure), hapū (subtribes) or iwi (tribes). The term Māori means to be ‘normal’ or ‘pure’, as such it is a fitting term for an Indigenous People. We have, however, also been active in maintaining our hapū and iwi identities and it is through pēpeha that we can culturally share that identity with each other. Our people have been doing this for generations. And in spite of colonization seeking to undermine our cultural identity, many of us continue to do this.

text: Kua Tupu Te Pā Harakeke: Developing Healthy Whānau Relationships We have opened this chapter with our ‘pēpeha’. Pēpeha are ways through which our people introduce ourselves. These vary from tribe to tribe. The essence of pēpeha is that they link us to our tribes and all associated with that. Our mountains, our rivers, our canoes, our ancestral lines. It links us to each other. It places us, as Māori, within a wider collective consciousness and relationships. It is important to highlight that the term ‘Māori’ is a term that brings us as tribal peoples together. It is a term that our people have chosen to use as a means of unifying ourselves in the wake of the arrival of our colonizers. Prior to colonization all identification was done through our whānau (extended family structure), hapū (subtribes) or iwi (tribes). The term Māori means to be ‘normal’ or ‘pure’, as such it is a fitting term for an Indigenous People. We have, however, also been active in maintaining our hapū and iwi identities and it is through pēpeha that we can culturally share that identity with each other. Our people have been doing this for generations. And in spite of colonization seeking to undermine our cultural identity, many of us continue to do this.

year: 2012

title: No explanation required: Entrenchment and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic newspaper corpus of New Zealand English

authors: Levendis, Katharine Joy

subjects: New Zealand English

abstract: Māori loanwords are uncontestably the most notable feature of New Zealand English (Gordon, 2005; Macalister, 2006b). Although frequencies of Māori loanwords are reported to be increasing in recent years (Macalister, 2006b), and analyses strongly indicate a skew in loanwords across certain topics (Davies & Maclagan, 2006; de Bres, 2006), no studies have yet addressed whether Māori loanword behaviour differs in a corpus restricted to a single topic (with the exception of Calude, Miller, Harper, & Whaanga, Forthcoming). Nor has a thorough diachronic analysis been made on the subject since Davies and Maclagan (2006) and Macalister (2006b). This thesis is concerned with frequency of use and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic corpus restricted to a singular theme: te Wiki o te Reo Māori, Māori Language Week. Using a quantitative methodology in a corpus constructed from New Zealand regional and national newspaper articles spanning 2008-2017, average Māori loanword frequencies are found to be almost 5 times that of the most recent comparable diachronic study (Macalister, 2006b), and demonstrate a statistically significant diachronic increase in use. In contrast, the markedness (or translation) of Māori loanwords shows a statistically significant decreasing diachronic trend over the 10-year period. However, practice of marking appears to be affected by user perceptions and intention to educate, and therefore cannot be relied upon as a gauge of loanword entrenchment. Other conventional measures of loanword entrenchment such as frequency, listedness and morphological assimilation are also shown to be unreliable when considered independently from one another, and in cases such as that of New Zealand English where a change from above influenced by social and cultural factors (Māori loanwords functioning as an expression of political attitude and stance) appears to be interfering in loanword use. Measurement of Māori loanword entrenchment cannot be made using the same criteria as loanwords from non-threatened languages, and suggestions are made for the revised criteria for studying loanword entrenchment which takes into account the sociolinguistic context in which the loanwords are used.

text: No explanation required: Entrenchment and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic newspaper corpus of New Zealand English Māori loanwords are uncontestably the most notable feature of New Zealand English (Gordon, 2005; Macalister, 2006b). Although frequencies of Māori loanwords are reported to be increasing in recent years (Macalister, 2006b), and analyses strongly indicate a skew in loanwords across certain topics (Davies & Maclagan, 2006; de Bres, 2006), no studies have yet addressed whether Māori loanword behaviour differs in a corpus restricted to a single topic (with the exception of Calude, Miller, Harper, & Whaanga, Forthcoming). Nor has a thorough diachronic analysis been made on the subject since Davies and Maclagan (2006) and Macalister (2006b). This thesis is concerned with frequency of use and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic corpus restricted to a singular theme: te Wiki o te Reo Māori, Māori Language Week. Using a quantitative methodology in a corpus constructed from New Zealand regional and national newspaper articles spanning 2008-2017, average Māori loanword frequencies are found to be almost 5 times that of the most recent comparable diachronic study (Macalister, 2006b), and demonstrate a statistically significant diachronic increase in use. In contrast, the markedness (or translation) of Māori loanwords shows a statistically significant decreasing diachronic trend over the 10-year period. However, practice of marking appears to be affected by user perceptions and intention to educate, and therefore cannot be relied upon as a gauge of loanword entrenchment. Other conventional measures of loanword entrenchment such as frequency, listedness and morphological assimilation are also shown to be unreliable when considered independently from one another, and in cases such as that of New Zealand English where a change from above influenced by social and cultural factors (Māori loanwords functioning as an expression of political attitude and stance) appears to be interfering in loanword use. Measurement of Māori loanword entrenchment cannot be made using the same criteria as loanwords from non-threatened languages, and suggestions are made for the revised criteria for studying loanword entrenchment which takes into account the sociolinguistic context in which the loanwords are used.

year: 2018

title: The germination of seeds

authors: Irwin, Gail Patricia

abstract: Literature Reviews of seed dormancy, the germination of seeds (restricted as closely as possible to the period actually preceding radicle protrusion) and the effects of gamma radiation are included in this thesis.
Tritiated water studies of heavily irradiated Sinapis alba seeds showed that these seeds can carry out active metabolism, leading to the formation of tritiated gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), alanine, malic acid and citric acid. The compounds which were not labelled by tritiated water in heavily irradiated seeds but which were labelled in non-irradiated seeds were the following: lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and sugar phosphates.
Difficulty was experienced in enabling sufficient C-14 substrate to enter the seeds for studying the metabolism of these compounds. The seeds were therefore ground in liquid air prior to the C14-tracer studies. The metabolism of this powder was examined using tritiated water. Over short time intervals this metabolism was similar to that of whole seeds except for the heavy labelling of lipid material which was shown to be ninhydrin positive. At longer time intervals this powder did not develop the complex patterns typical of whole seeds. The metabolites lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose and sugar phosphates were not labelled during 24 hours imbibition in tritiated water, of the Liquid Air Powder (LAP) but were labelled on imbibition of whole seeds.
Imbibition of the LAP of both irradiated and non-irradiated seeds with the C-14 substrates gave similar distributions of radioactivity. Aspartate-U-C14 was not rapidly metabolised within 4 hours. In non-irradiated seeds traces of a ninhydrin positive compound (U1) postulated to be succinylarginine were found after 4 hours. Incubation with GABA-1-C14 led to labelled flavonoids within one hour and to labelled alanine and an unknown (U2) within 4 hours. The metabolism of glutamate-U-C14 rapidly led to the formation of GABA at short time intervals and at longer time intervals (4 hours) to labelled GABA, alanine, and two unknowns called “YPN” and U3. In the irradiated seeds labelled lipid was also formed. The unknowns U2 and U3 are postulated to be the same ninhydrin positive compound, possibly a peptide. 
The transaminases, glutamate-oxaloacetate and glutamate-pyruvate were found to be active in enzyme extractions of dry seeds. Evidence showing a reduction in the activity of transaminases with time of imbibition is also reported. Paper chromatographic analyses of seed metabolism, including a novel method developed for a rapid enzyme assay are included. These results were similar to those obtained using C-14 substrates. In addition conversion of GABA and glutamate to an unknown called UVGB was found. The metabolism of aspartate led to alanine and of alanine, to GABA. 
The limited metabolism displayed by heavily irradiated seeds immediately after irradiation did not lead to the formation of a seedling for those Sinapis alba seeds which had received a dose of 2.98 Mrep or more. The germination of a very large range of seed species was examined after receiving chronic doses of irradiation. Only parsnip seeds would not germinate after receiving a dose of 0.5 Mrads. Most seeds showed similar responses to that for mustard seeds. 
One group of irradiated mustard seeds were left in a drawer in the laboratory. These seeds showed complete recovery in both the ability to germinate and in their labelling patterns when imbibed with tritiated water after less than 6 months storage. A similar set of seeds stored over silica gel did not display any recovery. A large experiment was undertaken in which seeds of many species were examined after various periods of storage at fixed or room humidities. Some recovery was observed although not of the same order as that found earlier. Storage at very high humidities led to loss of the ability to germinate. The effects of various solutions were also examined and once again a limited amount of recovery was observed. It is therefore postulated that some other factor, not a fixed relative humidity, was responsible for the dramatic recovery of the first group of mustard seeds. This could be a short period at high relative humidities followed by a longer period at low humidities or possibly some gas in the atmosphere of the laboratory at that time. 
Plants were grown from the fully recovered mustard seeds. The greater weight and height of these plants compared to those from non-irradiated seeds were shown to be statistically significant.

text: The germination of seeds Literature Reviews of seed dormancy, the germination of seeds (restricted as closely as possible to the period actually preceding radicle protrusion) and the effects of gamma radiation are included in this thesis.
Tritiated water studies of heavily irradiated Sinapis alba seeds showed that these seeds can carry out active metabolism, leading to the formation of tritiated gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), alanine, malic acid and citric acid. The compounds which were not labelled by tritiated water in heavily irradiated seeds but which were labelled in non-irradiated seeds were the following: lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and sugar phosphates.
Difficulty was experienced in enabling sufficient C-14 substrate to enter the seeds for studying the metabolism of these compounds. The seeds were therefore ground in liquid air prior to the C14-tracer studies. The metabolism of this powder was examined using tritiated water. Over short time intervals this metabolism was similar to that of whole seeds except for the heavy labelling of lipid material which was shown to be ninhydrin positive. At longer time intervals this powder did not develop the complex patterns typical of whole seeds. The metabolites lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose and sugar phosphates were not labelled during 24 hours imbibition in tritiated water, of the Liquid Air Powder (LAP) but were labelled on imbibition of whole seeds.
Imbibition of the LAP of both irradiated and non-irradiated seeds with the C-14 substrates gave similar distributions of radioactivity. Aspartate-U-C14 was not rapidly metabolised within 4 hours. In non-irradiated seeds traces of a ninhydrin positive compound (U1) postulated to be succinylarginine were found after 4 hours. Incubation with GABA-1-C14 led to labelled flavonoids within one hour and to labelled alanine and an unknown (U2) within 4 hours. The metabolism of glutamate-U-C14 rapidly led to the formation of GABA at short time intervals and at longer time intervals (4 hours) to labelled GABA, alanine, and two unknowns called “YPN” and U3. In the irradiated seeds labelled lipid was also formed. The unknowns U2 and U3 are postulated to be the same ninhydrin positive compound, possibly a peptide. 
The transaminases, glutamate-oxaloacetate and glutamate-pyruvate were found to be active in enzyme extractions of dry seeds. Evidence showing a reduction in the activity of transaminases with time of imbibition is also reported. Paper chromatographic analyses of seed metabolism, including a novel method developed for a rapid enzyme assay are included. These results were similar to those obtained using C-14 substrates. In addition conversion of GABA and glutamate to an unknown called UVGB was found. The metabolism of aspartate led to alanine and of alanine, to GABA. 
The limited metabolism displayed by heavily irradiated seeds immediately after irradiation did not lead to the formation of a seedling for those Sinapis alba seeds which had received a dose of 2.98 Mrep or more. The germination of a very large range of seed species was examined after receiving chronic doses of irradiation. Only parsnip seeds would not germinate after receiving a dose of 0.5 Mrads. Most seeds showed similar responses to that for mustard seeds. 
One group of irradiated mustard seeds were left in a drawer in the laboratory. These seeds showed complete recovery in both the ability to germinate and in their labelling patterns when imbibed with tritiated water after less than 6 months storage. A similar set of seeds stored over silica gel did not display any recovery. A large experiment was undertaken in which seeds of many species were examined after various periods of storage at fixed or room humidities. Some recovery was observed although not of the same order as that found earlier. Storage at very high humidities led to loss of the ability to germinate. The effects of various solutions were also examined and once again a limited amount of recovery was observed. It is therefore postulated that some other factor, not a fixed relative humidity, was responsible for the dramatic recovery of the first group of mustard seeds. This could be a short period at high relative humidities followed by a longer period at low humidities or possibly some gas in the atmosphere of the laboratory at that time. 
Plants were grown from the fully recovered mustard seeds. The greater weight and height of these plants compared to those from non-irradiated seeds were shown to be statistically significant.

year: 1971