title: Evaluating depression, anxiety, and stress assessment before and during the COVID-19 pandemic using Generalisability Theory

authors: Lightburn, Scott James

subjects: Depression

abstract: The evaluation of depression, anxiety, and stress requires distinguishing between state and trait changes. Otherwise, the accuracy of evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and the reliability and validity of research can be compromised. The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced extraneous variables that have the potential to significantly impact the measurement of affective conditions and the distinction between state or trait symptoms. The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) is the only psychometric scale that measures depression, anxiety, and stress, and the overall psychological distress simultaneously. It is widely used and applicable to both clinical and non-clinical populations. However, no study has assessed its ability to distinguish state from trait changes or investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its temporal reliability. In this study, Generalisability Theory (G-Theory) was applied to evaluate the DASS-21 under normal and COVID-19 pandemic conditions. Data was collected from two independent samples. The first sample was collected in the United States (n = 115) before the pandemic and the second sample was collected in New Zealand (n = 114) during the pandemic. In both samples the data were collected on three occasions with 2 to 4-week intervals. The total DASS-21 scale showed excellent reliability in measuring enduring symptoms of psychological distress (G = 0.94 to 0.96), and while all DASS-21 subscales demonstrated good reliability in the pre-pandemic US sample, they showed lower temporal reliability in the NZ sample during the pandemic. These findings suggest that the overall DASS-21 reliably measures psychological distress as a trait and its scores can be generalised across different populations and occasions. However, the DASS-21 subscales are not as reliable during emergencies and uncertainty as seen in the COVID-19 pandemic. The overall psychological distress remains stable across individuals and can be reliably measured by the DASS-21, but shifts in depression, anxiety, and stress levels are likely during emergencies and uncertainty.

text: Evaluating depression, anxiety, and stress assessment before and during the COVID-19 pandemic using Generalisability Theory The evaluation of depression, anxiety, and stress requires distinguishing between state and trait changes. Otherwise, the accuracy of evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and the reliability and validity of research can be compromised. The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced extraneous variables that have the potential to significantly impact the measurement of affective conditions and the distinction between state or trait symptoms. The Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales (DASS-21) is the only psychometric scale that measures depression, anxiety, and stress, and the overall psychological distress simultaneously. It is widely used and applicable to both clinical and non-clinical populations. However, no study has assessed its ability to distinguish state from trait changes or investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on its temporal reliability. In this study, Generalisability Theory (G-Theory) was applied to evaluate the DASS-21 under normal and COVID-19 pandemic conditions. Data was collected from two independent samples. The first sample was collected in the United States (n = 115) before the pandemic and the second sample was collected in New Zealand (n = 114) during the pandemic. In both samples the data were collected on three occasions with 2 to 4-week intervals. The total DASS-21 scale showed excellent reliability in measuring enduring symptoms of psychological distress (G = 0.94 to 0.96), and while all DASS-21 subscales demonstrated good reliability in the pre-pandemic US sample, they showed lower temporal reliability in the NZ sample during the pandemic. These findings suggest that the overall DASS-21 reliably measures psychological distress as a trait and its scores can be generalised across different populations and occasions. However, the DASS-21 subscales are not as reliable during emergencies and uncertainty as seen in the COVID-19 pandemic. The overall psychological distress remains stable across individuals and can be reliably measured by the DASS-21, but shifts in depression, anxiety, and stress levels are likely during emergencies and uncertainty.

year: 2023

title: Innovation and SME finance: Evidence from developing countries

authors: Wellalage, Nirosha Hewa

subjects: Social Sciences

abstract: This paper explores the relationship between firm-level innovation and external finance for small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Our sample consists of 13,430 firms from Eastern Europe and Central Asian countries. A propensity score matching approach reports a positive relationship between formal finance and product and process innovations, which is greater for early-stage SMEs than for mature counterparts. However, informal finance has more significant impact on mature firms’ product innovation. Our empirical evidence highlights policy implications for countries desiring to enhance the innovation of their SMEs by improving the external finance of these SMEs.

text: Innovation and SME finance: Evidence from developing countries This paper explores the relationship between firm-level innovation and external finance for small and medium enterprises (SMEs). Our sample consists of 13,430 firms from Eastern Europe and Central Asian countries. A propensity score matching approach reports a positive relationship between formal finance and product and process innovations, which is greater for early-stage SMEs than for mature counterparts. However, informal finance has more significant impact on mature firms’ product innovation. Our empirical evidence highlights policy implications for countries desiring to enhance the innovation of their SMEs by improving the external finance of these SMEs.

year: 2019-11-01

title: William Grey Nicholls and Rihitoto Mataia

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: The son of a Pakeha Maori, Nicholls had an illustrious ancestry on his mother’s side, and his wife Rihitoto Mataia also had a distinguished whakapapa. From the 1870s Nicholls farmed in Ohinemuri, and as a licensed interpreter played an important role in land transactions at the same time as he was becoming prominent in the Pakeha community. For over 30 years he invested in mining, starting at Te Aroha in 1880. He also invested in a variety of other enterprises, becoming prosperous through these investments, his farming, and in particular by acquiring and selling land. Over a 40-year period, Nicholls conducted many cases in the land court, and assisted Pakeha to acquire Maori land, and also acquired a considerable amount of land for himself and Rihitoto, who inherited many blocks from her father (but had to pay off his massive debts).
         Whereas Rihitoto was a prominent leader in the Maori community of Hauraki, Nicholls had the same role in Pakeha society. Active in a variety of initiatives to benefit the Ohinemuri community, he was a popular member and chairman of the Ohinemuri County Council, and late in life was elevated to the Legislative Council. Reputedly he assisted Maori in various ways, but clearly he identified rather more with his Pakeha ancestry. His career was a remarkably successful one, and his wife was also successful in maximizing the benefits that could be derived from her ancestry.

text: William Grey Nicholls and Rihitoto Mataia The son of a Pakeha Maori, Nicholls had an illustrious ancestry on his mother’s side, and his wife Rihitoto Mataia also had a distinguished whakapapa. From the 1870s Nicholls farmed in Ohinemuri, and as a licensed interpreter played an important role in land transactions at the same time as he was becoming prominent in the Pakeha community. For over 30 years he invested in mining, starting at Te Aroha in 1880. He also invested in a variety of other enterprises, becoming prosperous through these investments, his farming, and in particular by acquiring and selling land. Over a 40-year period, Nicholls conducted many cases in the land court, and assisted Pakeha to acquire Maori land, and also acquired a considerable amount of land for himself and Rihitoto, who inherited many blocks from her father (but had to pay off his massive debts).
         Whereas Rihitoto was a prominent leader in the Maori community of Hauraki, Nicholls had the same role in Pakeha society. Active in a variety of initiatives to benefit the Ohinemuri community, he was a popular member and chairman of the Ohinemuri County Council, and late in life was elevated to the Legislative Council. Reputedly he assisted Maori in various ways, but clearly he identified rather more with his Pakeha ancestry. His career was a remarkably successful one, and his wife was also successful in maximizing the benefits that could be derived from her ancestry.

year: 2016