title: Occlusion prediction for kiwifruit yield estimation

authors: Seabright, Matthew James

subjects: kiwifruit

abstract: Kiwifruit is very important to the New Zealand economy, bringing in NZ$2.39 billion in the 2017/2018 season and projected to grow to NZ$4.5 billion by 2025. Every season, the expected yield from each orchard is estimated. These estimates are used for both on-orchard decisions regarding thinning and spraying, and industry level decisions regarding export pricing, supply agreements, labour requirements, packaging quantities and more. The current method for yield estimation is manual and prone to errors. In the 2016/17 growing season, green kiwifruit estimates were 5.9% lower than actual harvest yield, resulting in over 5 million trays (approximately 18,000 tons) of fruit being disposed of.

An automated system could reduce errors saving the industry significant amounts of money. Such a system could realise other benefits such as providing more granular information on orchard performance to growers and increasing labour efficiency and crop uniformity via targeted labour. Other automated fruit yield estimation systems have been developed but have suffered from sub-optimal performance due to occlusion of fruit. The work presented here introduces a system that has been developed with the aim of minimising occlusion where possible and employs an occlusion prediction model to account for remaining occlusion. The system utilises stereo vision, a 3D lidar unit, an inertial measurement unit and LED lighting mounted on an all terrain vehicle (ATV).
Data is captured across 16 maturity areas, consisting of 33.9 Ha of commercial kiwifruit orchards. A simultaneous localisation and mapping system is used to locate the ATV within the orchard. A convolutional neural network detects kiwifruit, which are localised via stereo triangulation. Individual fruit are tracked through overlapping images to reduce occlusion while ensuring no double counting. Fruit are counted and an occlusion prediction model is applied to account for the unseen fruit.

The system is able to predict orchard scale fruit yield with a mean absolute percentage error of 0.68%. This error rate was obtained from an independent test dataset and ground truth data obtained from a commercial kiwifruit packhouse. The system can also generate visualisations of orchards showing all individual detected fruit in 3D, fruit density maps and canopy density maps. The ability of the system to predict yield with high accuracy and at orchard scale sets it apart from previous work. It is also the largest scale study currently known, consisting of over 15 million fruit.

text: Occlusion prediction for kiwifruit yield estimation Kiwifruit is very important to the New Zealand economy, bringing in NZ$2.39 billion in the 2017/2018 season and projected to grow to NZ$4.5 billion by 2025. Every season, the expected yield from each orchard is estimated. These estimates are used for both on-orchard decisions regarding thinning and spraying, and industry level decisions regarding export pricing, supply agreements, labour requirements, packaging quantities and more. The current method for yield estimation is manual and prone to errors. In the 2016/17 growing season, green kiwifruit estimates were 5.9% lower than actual harvest yield, resulting in over 5 million trays (approximately 18,000 tons) of fruit being disposed of.

An automated system could reduce errors saving the industry significant amounts of money. Such a system could realise other benefits such as providing more granular information on orchard performance to growers and increasing labour efficiency and crop uniformity via targeted labour. Other automated fruit yield estimation systems have been developed but have suffered from sub-optimal performance due to occlusion of fruit. The work presented here introduces a system that has been developed with the aim of minimising occlusion where possible and employs an occlusion prediction model to account for remaining occlusion. The system utilises stereo vision, a 3D lidar unit, an inertial measurement unit and LED lighting mounted on an all terrain vehicle (ATV).
Data is captured across 16 maturity areas, consisting of 33.9 Ha of commercial kiwifruit orchards. A simultaneous localisation and mapping system is used to locate the ATV within the orchard. A convolutional neural network detects kiwifruit, which are localised via stereo triangulation. Individual fruit are tracked through overlapping images to reduce occlusion while ensuring no double counting. Fruit are counted and an occlusion prediction model is applied to account for the unseen fruit.

The system is able to predict orchard scale fruit yield with a mean absolute percentage error of 0.68%. This error rate was obtained from an independent test dataset and ground truth data obtained from a commercial kiwifruit packhouse. The system can also generate visualisations of orchards showing all individual detected fruit in 3D, fruit density maps and canopy density maps. The ability of the system to predict yield with high accuracy and at orchard scale sets it apart from previous work. It is also the largest scale study currently known, consisting of over 15 million fruit.

year: 2020

title: A simple graphical technique for conditional long range forecasting of below-average rainfall periods in the Tuvalu Islands, Western Pacific

authors: Bardsley, W. Earl

subjects: NINO4

abstract: For the Tuvalu Island group in the western Pacific, a simple graphical method is proposed as a means of forecasting whether rainfall totals for the next 1, 2,…,6 months will be below average. The method is based on scatter plots where the points are color-coded as above- or below-average rainfall, with the plot axes being lag-1 and lag-2 NINO4 sea surface temperatures. Within the scatter plots there are reasonably clear data fields with higher frequencies of below-average rainfalls associated with cooler precursor NINO4 temperatures. These data fields are defined by subjectively emplaced separation lines which bifurcate the scatter plots into “predictable” and “unpredictable” fields. If two precursor NINO4 temperature values define a point located in a predictable field then a warning would be issued for below-average rainfall over the next n-month period, depending on the time scale of the scatter plot. A long rainfall record at Funafuti in Tuvalu indicates that success in predictable-field forecasting of below-average rainfalls would range between 68% for 1-month rainfall totals and 89% for 6-month totals. The forecasting success derives from persistence of cooler NINO4 sea surface temperatures which are associated with lower rainfalls in Tuvalu. However, many dry periods are also located in the unpredictable field and cannot be forecast by this method.

text: A simple graphical technique for conditional long range forecasting of below-average rainfall periods in the Tuvalu Islands, Western Pacific For the Tuvalu Island group in the western Pacific, a simple graphical method is proposed as a means of forecasting whether rainfall totals for the next 1, 2,…,6 months will be below average. The method is based on scatter plots where the points are color-coded as above- or below-average rainfall, with the plot axes being lag-1 and lag-2 NINO4 sea surface temperatures. Within the scatter plots there are reasonably clear data fields with higher frequencies of below-average rainfalls associated with cooler precursor NINO4 temperatures. These data fields are defined by subjectively emplaced separation lines which bifurcate the scatter plots into “predictable” and “unpredictable” fields. If two precursor NINO4 temperature values define a point located in a predictable field then a warning would be issued for below-average rainfall over the next n-month period, depending on the time scale of the scatter plot. A long rainfall record at Funafuti in Tuvalu indicates that success in predictable-field forecasting of below-average rainfalls would range between 68% for 1-month rainfall totals and 89% for 6-month totals. The forecasting success derives from persistence of cooler NINO4 sea surface temperatures which are associated with lower rainfalls in Tuvalu. However, many dry periods are also located in the unpredictable field and cannot be forecast by this method.

year: 2009

title: Exploring Inclusion, Support and Culture in the Workplace: A Study of Māori and European Employees

authors: Brougham, David M.

subjects: Inclusion

abstract: New Zealand boasts a wide range of vibrant and contrasting cultures within the workplace. This level of cultural diversity within New Zealand is set to increase substantially over the next 15 years. This increase has already created a need for researchers and human resource managers to understand the importance and benefits of diversity within the workplace. However, recent research has found that the ‘apparent benefits’ of traditional diversity management cannot be fulfilled unless individuals feel included within the organisation. 
Inclusion is defined as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness” (Shore, Randel, Chung, Dean, Ehrhart & Singh, 2011, p. 1265). Despite a realisation that inclusion may be the future of managing diverse workplaces, the literature on inclusion is under developed and lacks empirical testing. The main contribution and focus of this thesis centres on cultural inclusion in the workplace. A secondary focus is on the benefits of other types of support, from various sources (e.g., organisation, supervisor, and family), within New Zealand’s rich cultural context. 
This PhD has been undertaken by publication. Thus, the majority of its chapters are stand-alone (although related) journal articles. Many of the journal articles within this thesis are either under review, or published/in press, and this is signalled at the start of each chapter. Chapters one and two overview the thesis and discuss the research methods used within this PhD by publication. The first journal article (chapter three) details the cultural context of New Zealand and the importance of managing diversity and including all employees. The second journal article (chapter four) focuses on the importance that Māori culture, collectivism and language has in the workplace for Māori well-being. Findings were based on a sample of Māori employees, with the results highlighting the importance of collectivism and cultural identity for Māori employees towards achieving greater well-being. These two published articles build the foundation for the next three journal articles, which discuss the importance of cultural inclusion in the workplace. 
In an endeavour to test the inclusiveness of organisations’ support for cultural values and beliefs, this thesis offers a new measure of perceived cultural inclusion (PCI). The PCI measure is based on perceived organisational support (POS) owing to the parallels between inclusion and POS. POS is also a strong and reliable predictor of employee outcomes. Data was collected from two culturally distinct groups (i.e., Māori n=349 and New Zealand Europeans n=144) within New Zealand. Findings showed that PCI predicted POS, which in turn predicted job outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organisational commitment, turnover intentions) and mental health outcomes (anxiety and depression) for both Māori and New Zealand Europeans (refer to chapters five and six). This thesis also investigated the effects of PCI to POS to work-family related outcomes on the sample of Māori employees, and findings suggested that PCI would predict POS, which would in turn predict work-family related outcomes in the expected direction (refer to chapter seven). These three chapters provide strong empirical evidence for POS mediating the influence of PCI on numerous employee outcomes. 
The literature has also highlighted the importance of supervisor and family support when predicting job and well-being outcomes. The effects that supervisor support for work-family issues and whānau (extended family) support have on job outcomes (chapter eight) and well-being outcomes (chapter nine) for Māori employees were also investigated. Findings from two Māori samples (N=260 and N=466) emphasised the importance that both supervisor and whānau support have on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, life satisfaction, cultural identity, health and well-being (see chapters eight and nine for more details). 
Overall, this thesis draws findings from both New Zealand European and Māori employee samples to provide evidence that supporting and understanding cultural values is highly important for job and well-being outcomes. These findings have many theoretical and managerial implications. The following chapters discuss in-depth, relevant theories, literature, methods and conclusions that form this thesis.

text: Exploring Inclusion, Support and Culture in the Workplace: A Study of Māori and European Employees New Zealand boasts a wide range of vibrant and contrasting cultures within the workplace. This level of cultural diversity within New Zealand is set to increase substantially over the next 15 years. This increase has already created a need for researchers and human resource managers to understand the importance and benefits of diversity within the workplace. However, recent research has found that the ‘apparent benefits’ of traditional diversity management cannot be fulfilled unless individuals feel included within the organisation. 
Inclusion is defined as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness” (Shore, Randel, Chung, Dean, Ehrhart & Singh, 2011, p. 1265). Despite a realisation that inclusion may be the future of managing diverse workplaces, the literature on inclusion is under developed and lacks empirical testing. The main contribution and focus of this thesis centres on cultural inclusion in the workplace. A secondary focus is on the benefits of other types of support, from various sources (e.g., organisation, supervisor, and family), within New Zealand’s rich cultural context. 
This PhD has been undertaken by publication. Thus, the majority of its chapters are stand-alone (although related) journal articles. Many of the journal articles within this thesis are either under review, or published/in press, and this is signalled at the start of each chapter. Chapters one and two overview the thesis and discuss the research methods used within this PhD by publication. The first journal article (chapter three) details the cultural context of New Zealand and the importance of managing diversity and including all employees. The second journal article (chapter four) focuses on the importance that Māori culture, collectivism and language has in the workplace for Māori well-being. Findings were based on a sample of Māori employees, with the results highlighting the importance of collectivism and cultural identity for Māori employees towards achieving greater well-being. These two published articles build the foundation for the next three journal articles, which discuss the importance of cultural inclusion in the workplace. 
In an endeavour to test the inclusiveness of organisations’ support for cultural values and beliefs, this thesis offers a new measure of perceived cultural inclusion (PCI). The PCI measure is based on perceived organisational support (POS) owing to the parallels between inclusion and POS. POS is also a strong and reliable predictor of employee outcomes. Data was collected from two culturally distinct groups (i.e., Māori n=349 and New Zealand Europeans n=144) within New Zealand. Findings showed that PCI predicted POS, which in turn predicted job outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organisational commitment, turnover intentions) and mental health outcomes (anxiety and depression) for both Māori and New Zealand Europeans (refer to chapters five and six). This thesis also investigated the effects of PCI to POS to work-family related outcomes on the sample of Māori employees, and findings suggested that PCI would predict POS, which would in turn predict work-family related outcomes in the expected direction (refer to chapter seven). These three chapters provide strong empirical evidence for POS mediating the influence of PCI on numerous employee outcomes. 
The literature has also highlighted the importance of supervisor and family support when predicting job and well-being outcomes. The effects that supervisor support for work-family issues and whānau (extended family) support have on job outcomes (chapter eight) and well-being outcomes (chapter nine) for Māori employees were also investigated. Findings from two Māori samples (N=260 and N=466) emphasised the importance that both supervisor and whānau support have on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, life satisfaction, cultural identity, health and well-being (see chapters eight and nine for more details). 
Overall, this thesis draws findings from both New Zealand European and Māori employee samples to provide evidence that supporting and understanding cultural values is highly important for job and well-being outcomes. These findings have many theoretical and managerial implications. The following chapters discuss in-depth, relevant theories, literature, methods and conclusions that form this thesis.

year: 2013