title: Acts of reference and the miscommunication of referents by first and second language speakers of English

authors: Ryan, Jonathon

subjects: reference

abstract: Central to communication are acts of reference, in which speakers clarify to hearers the identity of specific individuals (referents) through the use of referring expressions. Consequently, pragmatic competence in referring is likely to be an important skill for second language learners (SLLs). One of the complexities that speakers face is that the most appropriate referring expression (RE) on one occasion may be entirely inappropriate for that same individual on a different occasion. To explore pragmatic appropriateness in the use of REs, two approaches appear particularly apt. Firstly, Accessibility Theory (Ariel, 1990) holds that speakers select an RE type based on their best estimate of how recoverable the referent is in the addressee’s memory. Secondly, acts of reference may be most helpfully viewed as occurring across discoursal units above the level of the noun phrase. However, it appears that neither of these frameworks has been adopted in previous studies of SLL reference. In addition, it appears that little has been reported in relation to the factors that trigger referential miscommunication.

This study examined references by relatively advanced SLLs and by L1 participants. The focus was on pragmatic appropriateness in marking accessibility, and factors implicated in referential miscommunication. A film retelling task was used to elicit data from participants in twenty SLL-L1 and ten L1-L1 dyads; following each retelling, a two-part stimulated recall interview was conducted with the addressee to identify miscommunications. Individual acts of reference were analyzed according to an accessibility coding system. Miscommunications were analyzed and likely triggers identified in terms of, for example, accessibility marking and NP errors. Findings are reported in relation to SLL referential competence, triggers of referential miscommunication, and some more general issues relating to the nature of reference.

When introducing hearer-known referents into discourse, the SLL participants tended to be under-explicit for entities with low-accessibility but over-explicit for central characters. The least accessible entities were frequently either avoided or were under-explicit and, for this reason, were often miscommunicated, suggesting that these learners had difficulties constructing references across larger discourse units. In subsequent references (referent tracking), the SLLs tended to be over-explicit, particularly in certain contexts. It appears that this resulted partly from a communicative strategy and partly from cognitive load. The most frequent trigger of miscommunication in referent tracking was pronoun errors. More generally, I argue that the present approach to miscommunication analysis complements error analysis.

The theoretical framework for the study involves a core definition of reference (adopted from Bach, 2008), which is then relaxed in two stages, thereby distinguishing three levels of reference. I argue that this framework enables principled definitions of reference and referential miscommunication, which partially bridge contrasting views found in philosophy and linguistics. The findings challenge three widespread assumptions about reference: (a) that all references require resolution, (b) that interactants attempt to clarify all references, and (c) that only highly accessible referents are felicitously referred to with pronouns. I propose a theory of referentiality in which speakers are held to signal the extent to which references require resolution.

text: Acts of reference and the miscommunication of referents by first and second language speakers of English Central to communication are acts of reference, in which speakers clarify to hearers the identity of specific individuals (referents) through the use of referring expressions. Consequently, pragmatic competence in referring is likely to be an important skill for second language learners (SLLs). One of the complexities that speakers face is that the most appropriate referring expression (RE) on one occasion may be entirely inappropriate for that same individual on a different occasion. To explore pragmatic appropriateness in the use of REs, two approaches appear particularly apt. Firstly, Accessibility Theory (Ariel, 1990) holds that speakers select an RE type based on their best estimate of how recoverable the referent is in the addressee’s memory. Secondly, acts of reference may be most helpfully viewed as occurring across discoursal units above the level of the noun phrase. However, it appears that neither of these frameworks has been adopted in previous studies of SLL reference. In addition, it appears that little has been reported in relation to the factors that trigger referential miscommunication.

This study examined references by relatively advanced SLLs and by L1 participants. The focus was on pragmatic appropriateness in marking accessibility, and factors implicated in referential miscommunication. A film retelling task was used to elicit data from participants in twenty SLL-L1 and ten L1-L1 dyads; following each retelling, a two-part stimulated recall interview was conducted with the addressee to identify miscommunications. Individual acts of reference were analyzed according to an accessibility coding system. Miscommunications were analyzed and likely triggers identified in terms of, for example, accessibility marking and NP errors. Findings are reported in relation to SLL referential competence, triggers of referential miscommunication, and some more general issues relating to the nature of reference.

When introducing hearer-known referents into discourse, the SLL participants tended to be under-explicit for entities with low-accessibility but over-explicit for central characters. The least accessible entities were frequently either avoided or were under-explicit and, for this reason, were often miscommunicated, suggesting that these learners had difficulties constructing references across larger discourse units. In subsequent references (referent tracking), the SLLs tended to be over-explicit, particularly in certain contexts. It appears that this resulted partly from a communicative strategy and partly from cognitive load. The most frequent trigger of miscommunication in referent tracking was pronoun errors. More generally, I argue that the present approach to miscommunication analysis complements error analysis.

The theoretical framework for the study involves a core definition of reference (adopted from Bach, 2008), which is then relaxed in two stages, thereby distinguishing three levels of reference. I argue that this framework enables principled definitions of reference and referential miscommunication, which partially bridge contrasting views found in philosophy and linguistics. The findings challenge three widespread assumptions about reference: (a) that all references require resolution, (b) that interactants attempt to clarify all references, and (c) that only highly accessible referents are felicitously referred to with pronouns. I propose a theory of referentiality in which speakers are held to signal the extent to which references require resolution.

year: 2012

title: Methods of household consumption measurement through surveys: Experimental results from Tanzania

authors: Beegle, Kathleen

subjects: consumption

abstract: Surveys of consumption expenditure vary widely across many dimensions, including the level of reporting, the length of the reference period, and the degree of commodity detail. These variations occur both across countries and also over time within countries, with little current understanding of the implications of such changes for spatially and temporally consistent measurement of household consumption and poverty. A field experiment in Tanzania tests eight alternative methods of measuring household consumption, finding significant differences between consumption reported by the benchmark personal diary and other diary and recall formats. Under-reporting is particularly apparent for illiterate households and for urban respondents completing household diaries; recall modules measure lower consumption than a personal diary, with larger gaps among poorer households and for households with more adult members. Variations in reporting accuracy by household characteristics are also discussed and differences in measured poverty as a result of survey design are explored.

text: Methods of household consumption measurement through surveys: Experimental results from Tanzania Surveys of consumption expenditure vary widely across many dimensions, including the level of reporting, the length of the reference period, and the degree of commodity detail. These variations occur both across countries and also over time within countries, with little current understanding of the implications of such changes for spatially and temporally consistent measurement of household consumption and poverty. A field experiment in Tanzania tests eight alternative methods of measuring household consumption, finding significant differences between consumption reported by the benchmark personal diary and other diary and recall formats. Under-reporting is particularly apparent for illiterate households and for urban respondents completing household diaries; recall modules measure lower consumption than a personal diary, with larger gaps among poorer households and for households with more adult members. Variations in reporting accuracy by household characteristics are also discussed and differences in measured poverty as a result of survey design are explored.

year: 2011

title: Making the invisible visible: Exploring the complex pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm

authors: Dempster-Rivett, Kirsty

subjects: Childhood maltreatment

abstract: Preventing family harm and providing care for those affected is a high priority for governments and social services worldwide. Adverse consequences of family harm continue to place demands on justice, mental health and care and protection services. The costs to individuals, families and communities are beyond measure, given that rates of family harm are under-reported. Quantitative researchers have demonstrated a link between childhood maltreatment and family harm perpetration with existing psychological theories used to explain this link. However, mainstream theories were first developed many decades ago, at a time when the notion of gender was not inclusively factored into theory development. Neither were they developed with or by Indigenous peoples, calling into question the translatability of mainstream theories for stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. 
The main aim of this thesis was to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm by investigating two research questions. How could psychological theories better explain the pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and family harm perpetration? And, to what extent do psychological theories about the cycle of family harm reflect the experiences of Māori and non-Māori men and women in Aotearoa New Zealand? To answer these questions, interviews were conducted with 16 individuals who self-identified as perpetrating family harm and had childhood histories of maltreatment. (n=8 men, n=8 women). Purposive sampling ensured an equal number of Māori (Indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand) and non-Māori participated in the research. Thematic analysis was utilised to examine the personal conceptualisations regarding the association between experiences of childhood maltreatment and subsequent perpetration of family harm. The core corpus of data explored the maltreatment-family harm relationship within and between Māori and non-Māori men and women. This thesis is comprised of three studies that investigate the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence.

The first study analysed the interviews of the seven participants removed from their families of origin as children. All described ongoing experiences of poly-victimisation in subsequent placements, whether through adoption, foster or residential settings. When examined alongside all women interviewed in this thesis, men more often reported that their childhood maltreatment was overlooked by professionals. The findings of this study highlighted a relationship between the perpetration of family harm and limited relational and emotional experiences during childhood. Intervention points across the life span were identified to stop the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence for people removed from their family of origin as children.

The second study focused on the experiences of the eight Māori men and women interviewed. A culture of silence surrounding childhood maltreatment pervaded all interviewees’ childhood experiences. However, additional issues, including cultural isolation, were evident for Māori from the adults and professionals charged with their care. Māori interviewees identified three core Indigenous concepts that facilitated healing and intergenerational wellbeing: Wairua (spiritual connection), Pou (becoming a symbol of strength and support for self and others), and Tūrangawaewae (finding a sense of belonging). A return to Indigenous knowledge and practices was integral to stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. This highlights the importance of privileging Indigenous knowledge in existing theoretical understanding of the cycle of family harm and incorporation in prevention initiatives.

The final study explored the impact of psychological distress within the cycle of family harm. Everyone interviewed experienced severe adverse trauma reactions linked to mental health and addiction issues, self-harm and suicidality, and instances of family harm. A significant barrier to psychological and familial wellbeing was the lack of access to integrated models of care capable of responding to complex and intertwined issues in trauma informed and Indigenous informed ways. Thus, family harm, trauma and mental health and addiction services need to work together to tailor and deliver treatment according to the individual and family needs to break the cycle of family harm and ongoing adverse life course trajectories. 

This research identifies significant limitations in the psychological theories that usually contribute to thinking about family harm. There has been a particular failure to develop a theory that accounts for the heterogeneous cultural and gendered experiences of the cycle of family harm. Going forward, expanding the? view of traditional psychological theories of intergenerational trauma and violence is required to account for the historical trauma of colonisation and the ongoing adverse consequences for Indigenous communities. Family harm prevention initiatives must be led by and/or developed in partnership with and by Indigenous peoples to ensure responsivity through active incorporation of traditional practices for intergenerational healing and wellbeing.

The impact of poly-victimisation in childhood had severe and ongoing adverse consequences for both men and women that outweighed any obvious gender difference. For people who have experienced childhood maltreatment, it is essential to imbue initiatives with opportunities to understand emotions in relational contexts. Children who are placed in the care of the state must be cared for and, unlike the interviewees in this thesis, free from further childhood maltreatment. A therapeutic web should be established to stop the systemic issues identified in this thesis by providing cohesive and coherent services in a timely fashion for children and adults affected by the cycle of family harm. In conclusion, adopting practices that are informed by understandings of trauma, gender, and Indigenous knowledge are needed to replace the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence with hope and wellbeing.

text: Making the invisible visible: Exploring the complex pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm Preventing family harm and providing care for those affected is a high priority for governments and social services worldwide. Adverse consequences of family harm continue to place demands on justice, mental health and care and protection services. The costs to individuals, families and communities are beyond measure, given that rates of family harm are under-reported. Quantitative researchers have demonstrated a link between childhood maltreatment and family harm perpetration with existing psychological theories used to explain this link. However, mainstream theories were first developed many decades ago, at a time when the notion of gender was not inclusively factored into theory development. Neither were they developed with or by Indigenous peoples, calling into question the translatability of mainstream theories for stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. 
The main aim of this thesis was to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm by investigating two research questions. How could psychological theories better explain the pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and family harm perpetration? And, to what extent do psychological theories about the cycle of family harm reflect the experiences of Māori and non-Māori men and women in Aotearoa New Zealand? To answer these questions, interviews were conducted with 16 individuals who self-identified as perpetrating family harm and had childhood histories of maltreatment. (n=8 men, n=8 women). Purposive sampling ensured an equal number of Māori (Indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand) and non-Māori participated in the research. Thematic analysis was utilised to examine the personal conceptualisations regarding the association between experiences of childhood maltreatment and subsequent perpetration of family harm. The core corpus of data explored the maltreatment-family harm relationship within and between Māori and non-Māori men and women. This thesis is comprised of three studies that investigate the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence.

The first study analysed the interviews of the seven participants removed from their families of origin as children. All described ongoing experiences of poly-victimisation in subsequent placements, whether through adoption, foster or residential settings. When examined alongside all women interviewed in this thesis, men more often reported that their childhood maltreatment was overlooked by professionals. The findings of this study highlighted a relationship between the perpetration of family harm and limited relational and emotional experiences during childhood. Intervention points across the life span were identified to stop the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence for people removed from their family of origin as children.

The second study focused on the experiences of the eight Māori men and women interviewed. A culture of silence surrounding childhood maltreatment pervaded all interviewees’ childhood experiences. However, additional issues, including cultural isolation, were evident for Māori from the adults and professionals charged with their care. Māori interviewees identified three core Indigenous concepts that facilitated healing and intergenerational wellbeing: Wairua (spiritual connection), Pou (becoming a symbol of strength and support for self and others), and Tūrangawaewae (finding a sense of belonging). A return to Indigenous knowledge and practices was integral to stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. This highlights the importance of privileging Indigenous knowledge in existing theoretical understanding of the cycle of family harm and incorporation in prevention initiatives.

The final study explored the impact of psychological distress within the cycle of family harm. Everyone interviewed experienced severe adverse trauma reactions linked to mental health and addiction issues, self-harm and suicidality, and instances of family harm. A significant barrier to psychological and familial wellbeing was the lack of access to integrated models of care capable of responding to complex and intertwined issues in trauma informed and Indigenous informed ways. Thus, family harm, trauma and mental health and addiction services need to work together to tailor and deliver treatment according to the individual and family needs to break the cycle of family harm and ongoing adverse life course trajectories. 

This research identifies significant limitations in the psychological theories that usually contribute to thinking about family harm. There has been a particular failure to develop a theory that accounts for the heterogeneous cultural and gendered experiences of the cycle of family harm. Going forward, expanding the? view of traditional psychological theories of intergenerational trauma and violence is required to account for the historical trauma of colonisation and the ongoing adverse consequences for Indigenous communities. Family harm prevention initiatives must be led by and/or developed in partnership with and by Indigenous peoples to ensure responsivity through active incorporation of traditional practices for intergenerational healing and wellbeing.

The impact of poly-victimisation in childhood had severe and ongoing adverse consequences for both men and women that outweighed any obvious gender difference. For people who have experienced childhood maltreatment, it is essential to imbue initiatives with opportunities to understand emotions in relational contexts. Children who are placed in the care of the state must be cared for and, unlike the interviewees in this thesis, free from further childhood maltreatment. A therapeutic web should be established to stop the systemic issues identified in this thesis by providing cohesive and coherent services in a timely fashion for children and adults affected by the cycle of family harm. In conclusion, adopting practices that are informed by understandings of trauma, gender, and Indigenous knowledge are needed to replace the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence with hope and wellbeing.

year: 2022