title: Impact of migration costs, microcredit, and remittances on cross-border labour migration decisions: Evidence from a Cambodian household survey

authors: Oum, Chan Mono

subjects: Migration costs

abstract: Over the past two decades, the migration of Cambodian workers has contributed to poverty reduction and economic development. However, it has also constituted a substantial challenge, in view of the significant increase in the exodus of Cambodian migrant workers, particularly the migration to Thailand. This challenge has highlighted the need for a better understanding of the process, as well as of the interconnectedness and complementarity of migration and policies. Given the prominence of the topic, this thesis provides an examination of the Cambodian labour migration process. 

There are four key research papers in this thesis. Using survey data from 422 households in three northern provinces of Cambodia, the thesis begins with an attempt to evaluate and quantify the monetary costs of migration and evaluate the impact of worker-paid migration costs on decision whether to migrate through legal and illegal channels. In the first core paper, migration cost is a critical factor in international labour mobility, but little is known about the pay of migrant workers in foreign jobs. Previous studies do not capture the effects of direct worker-paid migration costs on migration decisions. An alternative specific conditional logit model is used in this chapter to account for alternative migration costs, and the control function method is used to control for endogenous moving costs. Our results show that lowering the total cost of labour migration reduces irregular migration by 15.8 percentage points. Factors such as Thailand’s immigration policy, as measured by the deportation rate, migrant length of stay, and wages, also influence whether migration is regular or irregular. These findings should prompt policymakers to consider alternative approaches to reducing migration costs and maximising the net gain on migration.

The second paper, constituting Chapter 3 in this thesis, investigates the microcredit-migration linkage through the lens of South–South Migration (SSM). Evidence from the literature evaluating the linkage between microcredit and migration is ambiguous. This chapter analyses the effect of microcredit on labour migration decisions in the context of South-South Migration (SSM) through the Cambodia to Thailand migration corridor. The study uses the endogenous switching probit model (ESP) to control for endogenous selection bias in borrowing and for the structural differences between decisions to borrow or not to borrow that influence the resolve to migrate. The findings suggest that households with access to credit are more likely to have migrant family members than their non-borrowing counterparts. It is evident that households that have borrowed from financial institutions are 5.6 percentage points more likely to migrate, whereas households that borrow informally show a 3.2 percentage points likelihood of migrating. The findings of this study are important for policymakers to reassess policies on credit availability and redesign microfinance programmes to maximise gains from labour migration. 

An investigation of the impact of remittances on household debt performance and levels of indebtedness is carried out in the third empirical paper, presented in Chapter 4 of the thesis. The findings suggest that households view remittances as transitory income, which declines as a migrant’s length of stay away from home increases. Because remittance transfers are transitory, the results suggest that they have a positive impact on household debt performance, particularly in low-debt households. Thus, remittances can lower the debt of recipient households. Given the importance of remittances in households' debt reduction, policies promoting remittance transferring options and fee deduction should be endorsed in order to maximise remittances received by recipient households.

The final paper is elaborated in Chapter 5 of the thesis. This chapter examines two intertwined policy issues in the Cambodia-Thailand migration corridor during the COVID-19 period, focusing on labour recruitment practices and debt-related migration. This paper first identifies existing labour migration issues and policy gaps prior to the pandemic, then argues that these pre-existing challenges caused a delayed response, negatively affecting labour migration. Current labour migration during COVID-19 is heavily influenced by the motivations of private recruitment agencies (PRAs) engaged in this lucrative business, by high migration costs, and debt-induced and debt-financed migration. In the aftermath of the pandemic, the study recommends that key stakeholders discuss how to regulate labour mobility. With the evidence of Cambodia-Thailand labour mobility, policymakers can enhance policy designs and interventions to mitigate the effect of COVID-19 and manage future migration crises.

text: Impact of migration costs, microcredit, and remittances on cross-border labour migration decisions: Evidence from a Cambodian household survey Over the past two decades, the migration of Cambodian workers has contributed to poverty reduction and economic development. However, it has also constituted a substantial challenge, in view of the significant increase in the exodus of Cambodian migrant workers, particularly the migration to Thailand. This challenge has highlighted the need for a better understanding of the process, as well as of the interconnectedness and complementarity of migration and policies. Given the prominence of the topic, this thesis provides an examination of the Cambodian labour migration process. 

There are four key research papers in this thesis. Using survey data from 422 households in three northern provinces of Cambodia, the thesis begins with an attempt to evaluate and quantify the monetary costs of migration and evaluate the impact of worker-paid migration costs on decision whether to migrate through legal and illegal channels. In the first core paper, migration cost is a critical factor in international labour mobility, but little is known about the pay of migrant workers in foreign jobs. Previous studies do not capture the effects of direct worker-paid migration costs on migration decisions. An alternative specific conditional logit model is used in this chapter to account for alternative migration costs, and the control function method is used to control for endogenous moving costs. Our results show that lowering the total cost of labour migration reduces irregular migration by 15.8 percentage points. Factors such as Thailand’s immigration policy, as measured by the deportation rate, migrant length of stay, and wages, also influence whether migration is regular or irregular. These findings should prompt policymakers to consider alternative approaches to reducing migration costs and maximising the net gain on migration.

The second paper, constituting Chapter 3 in this thesis, investigates the microcredit-migration linkage through the lens of South–South Migration (SSM). Evidence from the literature evaluating the linkage between microcredit and migration is ambiguous. This chapter analyses the effect of microcredit on labour migration decisions in the context of South-South Migration (SSM) through the Cambodia to Thailand migration corridor. The study uses the endogenous switching probit model (ESP) to control for endogenous selection bias in borrowing and for the structural differences between decisions to borrow or not to borrow that influence the resolve to migrate. The findings suggest that households with access to credit are more likely to have migrant family members than their non-borrowing counterparts. It is evident that households that have borrowed from financial institutions are 5.6 percentage points more likely to migrate, whereas households that borrow informally show a 3.2 percentage points likelihood of migrating. The findings of this study are important for policymakers to reassess policies on credit availability and redesign microfinance programmes to maximise gains from labour migration. 

An investigation of the impact of remittances on household debt performance and levels of indebtedness is carried out in the third empirical paper, presented in Chapter 4 of the thesis. The findings suggest that households view remittances as transitory income, which declines as a migrant’s length of stay away from home increases. Because remittance transfers are transitory, the results suggest that they have a positive impact on household debt performance, particularly in low-debt households. Thus, remittances can lower the debt of recipient households. Given the importance of remittances in households' debt reduction, policies promoting remittance transferring options and fee deduction should be endorsed in order to maximise remittances received by recipient households.

The final paper is elaborated in Chapter 5 of the thesis. This chapter examines two intertwined policy issues in the Cambodia-Thailand migration corridor during the COVID-19 period, focusing on labour recruitment practices and debt-related migration. This paper first identifies existing labour migration issues and policy gaps prior to the pandemic, then argues that these pre-existing challenges caused a delayed response, negatively affecting labour migration. Current labour migration during COVID-19 is heavily influenced by the motivations of private recruitment agencies (PRAs) engaged in this lucrative business, by high migration costs, and debt-induced and debt-financed migration. In the aftermath of the pandemic, the study recommends that key stakeholders discuss how to regulate labour mobility. With the evidence of Cambodia-Thailand labour mobility, policymakers can enhance policy designs and interventions to mitigate the effect of COVID-19 and manage future migration crises.

year: 2023

title: An Investigation of Factors that Contribute to Dihydroxyacetone Variation Observed in New Zealand Leptospermum scoparium

authors: King, Jessica

abstract: Honey derived from Leptospermum scoparium (commonly known as mānuka) is known to have anti-bacterial activity that is not entirely accounted for by the presence of hydrogen peroxide.1 This is known as non-peroxide activity (NPA). The discovery of this medical benefit has led to mānuka honey being a major export for New Zealand. In order to assure supply, mānuka trees are being investigated to determine why certain specimens yield honeys with a greater NPA than others. This might result in plantations of L. scoparium that would yield honey with a consistently high NPA. 
The compound responsible for the NPA is a 1,2-dicarbonyl known as methylglyoxal (MGO).2 The precursor to this molecule was found in nectar of the mānuka flowers and was identified as dihydroxyacetone (DHA).3 An investigation of DHA in the nectar of L. scoparium across different regions of New Zealand was carried out by Williams (2012).4 It was confirmed that trees vary within and between regions across New Zealand. 
This thesis describes different investigations into why the variation of DHA observed in various mānuka flowers is so great. Flowers were collected during flowering periods from 2011-2013 and were frozen prior to processing. The extraction method used ten flowers (10F) and samples were analysed by gas chromatography with flame ionisation detection (GC-FID). The DHA quantity was expressed with respect to the total sugar (Tsugar) in the nectar (DHA/Tsugar) in order to allow for comparison between samples.
The study by Williams (2012) was extended to include the Northland region.4 Wild L. scoparium var. incanum specimens were collected from this region and it was determined that these trees only produced a low to moderate amount of DHA/Tsugar. Williams (2012) also investigated the DHA variability of trees in close proximity to each other as these are supposed to be genetically similar.4 This study was repeated in a different region and the findings were the same; that is trees that were in close proximity to each other can have different DHA/Tsugar. 
One possibility of why DHA is observed in mānuka flowers is that it is used to combat stress as a compatible osmolyte. This was tested using chemical additives and it was found that the DHA/Tsugar varied as a result of the Tsugar as opposed to the amount of DHA. This response was cultivar dependent.
Different flower physiologies were also investigated. This included the andromonoecious nature of mānuka and the specific colour change in the hypanthium of the flower. Male flowers were found to have a larger amount of DHA/Tsugar as a result of a higher level of DHA than hermaphrodite flowers. This could suggest that DHA is being used in the hermaphrodite flowers for processes such as seed production. The DHA/Tsugar of flowers with different hypanthium colour was shown to be dependent on the variety type. The source and reason for DHA still remains unclear and therefore further study is required.

text: An Investigation of Factors that Contribute to Dihydroxyacetone Variation Observed in New Zealand Leptospermum scoparium Honey derived from Leptospermum scoparium (commonly known as mānuka) is known to have anti-bacterial activity that is not entirely accounted for by the presence of hydrogen peroxide.1 This is known as non-peroxide activity (NPA). The discovery of this medical benefit has led to mānuka honey being a major export for New Zealand. In order to assure supply, mānuka trees are being investigated to determine why certain specimens yield honeys with a greater NPA than others. This might result in plantations of L. scoparium that would yield honey with a consistently high NPA. 
The compound responsible for the NPA is a 1,2-dicarbonyl known as methylglyoxal (MGO).2 The precursor to this molecule was found in nectar of the mānuka flowers and was identified as dihydroxyacetone (DHA).3 An investigation of DHA in the nectar of L. scoparium across different regions of New Zealand was carried out by Williams (2012).4 It was confirmed that trees vary within and between regions across New Zealand. 
This thesis describes different investigations into why the variation of DHA observed in various mānuka flowers is so great. Flowers were collected during flowering periods from 2011-2013 and were frozen prior to processing. The extraction method used ten flowers (10F) and samples were analysed by gas chromatography with flame ionisation detection (GC-FID). The DHA quantity was expressed with respect to the total sugar (Tsugar) in the nectar (DHA/Tsugar) in order to allow for comparison between samples.
The study by Williams (2012) was extended to include the Northland region.4 Wild L. scoparium var. incanum specimens were collected from this region and it was determined that these trees only produced a low to moderate amount of DHA/Tsugar. Williams (2012) also investigated the DHA variability of trees in close proximity to each other as these are supposed to be genetically similar.4 This study was repeated in a different region and the findings were the same; that is trees that were in close proximity to each other can have different DHA/Tsugar. 
One possibility of why DHA is observed in mānuka flowers is that it is used to combat stress as a compatible osmolyte. This was tested using chemical additives and it was found that the DHA/Tsugar varied as a result of the Tsugar as opposed to the amount of DHA. This response was cultivar dependent.
Different flower physiologies were also investigated. This included the andromonoecious nature of mānuka and the specific colour change in the hypanthium of the flower. Male flowers were found to have a larger amount of DHA/Tsugar as a result of a higher level of DHA than hermaphrodite flowers. This could suggest that DHA is being used in the hermaphrodite flowers for processes such as seed production. The DHA/Tsugar of flowers with different hypanthium colour was shown to be dependent on the variety type. The source and reason for DHA still remains unclear and therefore further study is required.

year: 2013

title: Accommodating multiculturalism and biculturalism in Aotearoa New Zealand: implication for language education.

authors: May, Stephen

subjects: bilingual education

abstract: The field of language education in Aotearoa New Zealand, as elsewhere, has developed significantly since its early and almost exclusive focus on the acquisition of English literacy in schools. As the field has expanded, so too has the range of language education sectors addressed and the theoretical approaches and understandings employed in relation to language and literacy education. Both developments have resulted in a more coordinated literacy education policy - exemplified to date most clearly in the New Zealand Literacy Taskforce - and a more situated, less monolithic understanding of the widely different literacies available to learners. Despite these developments, however, one area still remains noticeably under-theorised and marginalized in relation to the ongoing development of language and literacy education policy in Aotearoa New Zealand - the place of second language learners within it. This paper explores this lacuna and the potential policy implications of addressing and integrating first and second language educational concerns within an evolving national literacy education policy. This has particular implications for the further development of bilingual education - both for Maori and, possibly, other minority groups - and for the related possibilities of multicultural education. It also requires a wider and clearer recognition of minority language education rights, as developed within both international law and political theory, in order to apply these rights appropriately to an Aotearoa New Zealand context which is currently witnessing rapid and extensive demographic (and linguistic) change.

text: Accommodating multiculturalism and biculturalism in Aotearoa New Zealand: implication for language education. The field of language education in Aotearoa New Zealand, as elsewhere, has developed significantly since its early and almost exclusive focus on the acquisition of English literacy in schools. As the field has expanded, so too has the range of language education sectors addressed and the theoretical approaches and understandings employed in relation to language and literacy education. Both developments have resulted in a more coordinated literacy education policy - exemplified to date most clearly in the New Zealand Literacy Taskforce - and a more situated, less monolithic understanding of the widely different literacies available to learners. Despite these developments, however, one area still remains noticeably under-theorised and marginalized in relation to the ongoing development of language and literacy education policy in Aotearoa New Zealand - the place of second language learners within it. This paper explores this lacuna and the potential policy implications of addressing and integrating first and second language educational concerns within an evolving national literacy education policy. This has particular implications for the further development of bilingual education - both for Maori and, possibly, other minority groups - and for the related possibilities of multicultural education. It also requires a wider and clearer recognition of minority language education rights, as developed within both international law and political theory, in order to apply these rights appropriately to an Aotearoa New Zealand context which is currently witnessing rapid and extensive demographic (and linguistic) change.

year: 2002