title: An investigation of two behavioural economic approaches to evaluating reinforcer value

authors: Lim, Bee Lan Linda

subjects: Behaviour economics

abstract: This study compares two approaches for comparing the value of two different reinforcers. The own-price demand method compares the changes in consumption of the reinforcers resulting from increases in the number of responses required to gain access to the reinforcers. Experiment 1 assessed own-price demand for two reinforcers. Six hens responded under increasing fixed-ratio schedules when either wheat or puffed wheat was delivered for key-pecking. The quantity consumed (measured as either numbers of reinforcers obtained or weight of food consumed) was plotted against the FR size on log-log coordinates to give the own-price demand functions. Three functions were fitted to the data and all described the data well. The parameter values from Hursh’s (1988) and Hursh and Winger’s (1995) equations were generally consistent with wheat being the preferred reinforcer data when derived from the weight of food consumed. Those derived from number of reinforcers were inconsistent. The essential value, α, from the equation proposed by Hursh and Silberberg (2008), when k was fixed at 6.5, were smaller when weight was used and were weight was used and were larger when number of reinforcers was used as the consumption measures and so suggested the essential value changed. These data show that the outcome is affected by how the consumption is measured. It seems that that the above models were similar. The cross-price demand method examines the divergence of the cross-point of two demand functions. In Experiment 2 assessed the cross-point using the same six hens responding under concurrent fixed-ratio fixed-ratio schedules over nine pairs of schedules: FR1/FR256, FR8/FR32, FR128/FR2, FR4/FR64, FR256/FR1, FR32/FR8, FR2/FR128, FR16/FR16 and FR64/FR4. In Condition 1 both schedules gave access to wheat, in Condition 2 both gave puffed wheat, and in Condition 3 one gave wheat and the other puffed wheat. The numbers of each reinforcer obtained and weight of each food consumed were plotted as functions of the left fixed-ratio values to give the cross-price demand functions. When the two reinforcers were identical the cross point tended to be around the ratio used for the equal schedules session (16) with both number of reinforcers and weight of food.. When the two reinforcers differed the cross point for most hens moved to higher ratio when weight of food consumed was used, suggesting that wheat was more valued than puffed wheat for these hens. This was not so for number of reinforcers. Both experiments show that how the consumption was assessed affected the conclusions from that method. Overall the cross-price demand analysis appeared to be the easier to interpret.

text: An investigation of two behavioural economic approaches to evaluating reinforcer value This study compares two approaches for comparing the value of two different reinforcers. The own-price demand method compares the changes in consumption of the reinforcers resulting from increases in the number of responses required to gain access to the reinforcers. Experiment 1 assessed own-price demand for two reinforcers. Six hens responded under increasing fixed-ratio schedules when either wheat or puffed wheat was delivered for key-pecking. The quantity consumed (measured as either numbers of reinforcers obtained or weight of food consumed) was plotted against the FR size on log-log coordinates to give the own-price demand functions. Three functions were fitted to the data and all described the data well. The parameter values from Hursh’s (1988) and Hursh and Winger’s (1995) equations were generally consistent with wheat being the preferred reinforcer data when derived from the weight of food consumed. Those derived from number of reinforcers were inconsistent. The essential value, α, from the equation proposed by Hursh and Silberberg (2008), when k was fixed at 6.5, were smaller when weight was used and were weight was used and were larger when number of reinforcers was used as the consumption measures and so suggested the essential value changed. These data show that the outcome is affected by how the consumption is measured. It seems that that the above models were similar. The cross-price demand method examines the divergence of the cross-point of two demand functions. In Experiment 2 assessed the cross-point using the same six hens responding under concurrent fixed-ratio fixed-ratio schedules over nine pairs of schedules: FR1/FR256, FR8/FR32, FR128/FR2, FR4/FR64, FR256/FR1, FR32/FR8, FR2/FR128, FR16/FR16 and FR64/FR4. In Condition 1 both schedules gave access to wheat, in Condition 2 both gave puffed wheat, and in Condition 3 one gave wheat and the other puffed wheat. The numbers of each reinforcer obtained and weight of each food consumed were plotted as functions of the left fixed-ratio values to give the cross-price demand functions. When the two reinforcers were identical the cross point tended to be around the ratio used for the equal schedules session (16) with both number of reinforcers and weight of food.. When the two reinforcers differed the cross point for most hens moved to higher ratio when weight of food consumed was used, suggesting that wheat was more valued than puffed wheat for these hens. This was not so for number of reinforcers. Both experiments show that how the consumption was assessed affected the conclusions from that method. Overall the cross-price demand analysis appeared to be the easier to interpret.

year: 2010

title: Navigating the waters: Swimming in Samoa; resistance, negotiation, acceptance and identity: a reflexive examination of the socio-cultural influences on competitive swimming participation in Samoa

authors: Schuster, Suzanne

subjects: Swimming

abstract: Swimming and water-based activities are replete within Polynesian history through missionary accounts, ethnographic writings and historical accounts. However, formal competitive swimming began in the Oceania region in 1963, with Samoa joining in 2003. For the past two decades, the sport has grown slowly and with little explanation. A growing corpus of research has found that Samoa’s historical landscape and its unique culture have influenced sport engagement, even though non-mainstream sports, such as swimming, have received less attention. 
This thesis examines the enablers and constraints on swimming participation in Samoa. The research used a Samoan conceptual framework, the Talanoa ile i’a, that has an inherent multiperspectival design. This proverbial expression, coupled with the talanoa method, was used to capture the voices of 32 participants living in Samoa who were affiliated with swimming, competitive swimming and sports development. The data were condensed into unique stories, vignettes, and poetry using thematic analysis and creative nonfiction practices to construct a multiperspectival window into the life of a swimmer in Samoa, traversing across a variety of periods, locales, geographical settings and experiences.
The stories of the participants were structured around several themes, including natural and built swimming environments, freedom, fear, and humour, disobedience and obedience, being seen but not heard, and becoming a swimmer. Written from the perspectives of the swimmer, parent, coach, swimming pool, and the code, the stories highlighted the challenges of negotiating traditional roles and expectations, infrastructure issues, rural and urban disparities, the parent-child divide, and sport-related conflict. 
There were three significant findings that could contribute to sports and swimming development in Samoa. The first discovery was the power and influence of the parent's voice, which directly supported or opposed the child's decision to become a swimmer which was hinged on the cultural value of time. Secondly, the challenges of being seen, metaphorically, geographically, and physically, in a new sport and context revealed novel evidence on gendered competitive swimming experiences, including the internationalisation of semi-nudity social norms. Lastly, the findings revealed that a young person's sense of agency and identity as a swimmer intersected and clashed with cultural elements, but through a process of resistance, negotiation, and self-acceptance within the family and community, a young person could successfully emerge as a contemporary competitive swimmer. 
Furthermore, the thesis provided new insights into the existing conceptual framework. The additional perspective of the shoreline represented the personal, historical, cultural, and sociopolitical legacies that hindered the growth of competitive swimming in Samoa. The study's findings shed light on the shifting practices and perceptions of the sport, the historical and cultural influences on swimming development and the complex role of Samoan youth participating in modern sports within a non-Western society.

text: Navigating the waters: Swimming in Samoa; resistance, negotiation, acceptance and identity: a reflexive examination of the socio-cultural influences on competitive swimming participation in Samoa Swimming and water-based activities are replete within Polynesian history through missionary accounts, ethnographic writings and historical accounts. However, formal competitive swimming began in the Oceania region in 1963, with Samoa joining in 2003. For the past two decades, the sport has grown slowly and with little explanation. A growing corpus of research has found that Samoa’s historical landscape and its unique culture have influenced sport engagement, even though non-mainstream sports, such as swimming, have received less attention. 
This thesis examines the enablers and constraints on swimming participation in Samoa. The research used a Samoan conceptual framework, the Talanoa ile i’a, that has an inherent multiperspectival design. This proverbial expression, coupled with the talanoa method, was used to capture the voices of 32 participants living in Samoa who were affiliated with swimming, competitive swimming and sports development. The data were condensed into unique stories, vignettes, and poetry using thematic analysis and creative nonfiction practices to construct a multiperspectival window into the life of a swimmer in Samoa, traversing across a variety of periods, locales, geographical settings and experiences.
The stories of the participants were structured around several themes, including natural and built swimming environments, freedom, fear, and humour, disobedience and obedience, being seen but not heard, and becoming a swimmer. Written from the perspectives of the swimmer, parent, coach, swimming pool, and the code, the stories highlighted the challenges of negotiating traditional roles and expectations, infrastructure issues, rural and urban disparities, the parent-child divide, and sport-related conflict. 
There were three significant findings that could contribute to sports and swimming development in Samoa. The first discovery was the power and influence of the parent's voice, which directly supported or opposed the child's decision to become a swimmer which was hinged on the cultural value of time. Secondly, the challenges of being seen, metaphorically, geographically, and physically, in a new sport and context revealed novel evidence on gendered competitive swimming experiences, including the internationalisation of semi-nudity social norms. Lastly, the findings revealed that a young person's sense of agency and identity as a swimmer intersected and clashed with cultural elements, but through a process of resistance, negotiation, and self-acceptance within the family and community, a young person could successfully emerge as a contemporary competitive swimmer. 
Furthermore, the thesis provided new insights into the existing conceptual framework. The additional perspective of the shoreline represented the personal, historical, cultural, and sociopolitical legacies that hindered the growth of competitive swimming in Samoa. The study's findings shed light on the shifting practices and perceptions of the sport, the historical and cultural influences on swimming development and the complex role of Samoan youth participating in modern sports within a non-Western society.

year: 2023

title: A critical analysis of Section 27 of the Sentencing Act (2002)

authors: Oakley, Tara Joan

subjects: Section 27

abstract: This thesis analyses the effectiveness of Section 27 of the Sentencing Act (2002) in achieving its primary objective of addressing the high rate of Māori incarceration. This problem largely stems from the destruction of Māori culture through colonisation and is held in place by systemic and institutional racism in the contemporary context. Theoretically, Section 27 provides a mechanism to off-set the societal dislocation and disadvantage Māori have experienced as a result of colonialism, crime control policies and urbanisation.

Analysis of the operational reality of Section 27 focused on the following questions:
•	Is Section 27 being utilised as intended by legislation?
•	What are the underlying rationale and reasons why the Section is utilised by Court officials?
•	What are the underlying rationale and reasons why the Section is not utilised by Court officials?
•	What changes to legislation, policy or institutional practice are required to enhance the use of Section 27?
The research involved qualitative interviews of eight lawyers from two different geographic locations in New Zealand, and four cultural consultants (those employed to write professional Section 27 reports). Their responses were analysed and grouped into three different themes: benefits, barriers, and improvement to legislation and practice.  

Major findings of the research include positive outcomes such as improved community re-engagement for offenders and improved sentencing outcomes. On the other hand, however, there is an inconsistency of use of Section 27, as well as a variable impact when it is used during the sentencing process. This inconsistency appears due to a lack of cultural knowledge and understanding within the court system. Thus, there is a need for cultural education of those working within the court system and for the development of a framework and guidelines.  For this to be imbedded as a consistent practice for use in sentencing decisions it needs to be backed up with adequate government funding and legislative and policy support.

text: A critical analysis of Section 27 of the Sentencing Act (2002) This thesis analyses the effectiveness of Section 27 of the Sentencing Act (2002) in achieving its primary objective of addressing the high rate of Māori incarceration. This problem largely stems from the destruction of Māori culture through colonisation and is held in place by systemic and institutional racism in the contemporary context. Theoretically, Section 27 provides a mechanism to off-set the societal dislocation and disadvantage Māori have experienced as a result of colonialism, crime control policies and urbanisation.

Analysis of the operational reality of Section 27 focused on the following questions:
•	Is Section 27 being utilised as intended by legislation?
•	What are the underlying rationale and reasons why the Section is utilised by Court officials?
•	What are the underlying rationale and reasons why the Section is not utilised by Court officials?
•	What changes to legislation, policy or institutional practice are required to enhance the use of Section 27?
The research involved qualitative interviews of eight lawyers from two different geographic locations in New Zealand, and four cultural consultants (those employed to write professional Section 27 reports). Their responses were analysed and grouped into three different themes: benefits, barriers, and improvement to legislation and practice.  

Major findings of the research include positive outcomes such as improved community re-engagement for offenders and improved sentencing outcomes. On the other hand, however, there is an inconsistency of use of Section 27, as well as a variable impact when it is used during the sentencing process. This inconsistency appears due to a lack of cultural knowledge and understanding within the court system. Thus, there is a need for cultural education of those working within the court system and for the development of a framework and guidelines.  For this to be imbedded as a consistent practice for use in sentencing decisions it needs to be backed up with adequate government funding and legislative and policy support.

year: 2020