title: The demand, selection, and health impacts of household energy in Pakistan

authors: Irfan, Muhammad

subjects: Household Energy

abstract: Globally, almost four million people die prematurely annually due to indoor air pollution (IAP), and millions are facing serious diseases. These adverse health impacts place a great burden on national health budgets, increase medical expenditures, and reduce the overall productivity of the economy. Worryingly, almost three billion people still depend upon solid fuels such as firewood, biomass, crop residues, animal dung, and coal, which are the major contributors to IAP. This thesis investigates the causal relationship between solid fuel consumption and both child mortality and life expectancy, the price and non-price determinants of solid fuel use (using Pakistan as a case study), and finally uses cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to evaluate alternative policies. Specifically, the thesis includes four empirical studies related to solid fuel use and IAP.
In the first study, panel data covering 101 countries over the period 2000-2012 were used to examine the causal impacts of solid fuel use on health outcomes. Utilizing an instrumental variables approach, it was concluded that solid fuel combustion causes increases in child mortality and decreases in male and female life expectancy. 
The second study investigated the factors associated with the selection of solid and cleaner fuels by households. Using data from the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2013-14, the study identified that agricultural occupation, large family size, and having cattle, were associated with solid fuel consumption. In contrast, higher income, higher education, and living in an urban area were factors associated with cleaner fuel consumption. However, the study concluded that income growth alone will not be sufficient to ensure that households switch to cleaner fuel use, particularly households in rural areas. Hence, the results challenge the practical aspects of countries moving along the Environmental Kuznets Curve, and suggest that in order to reduce IAP, direct policy intervention will be required.
The third study further explores household energy use by estimating the own and cross-price elasticities of household energy sources in Pakistan. For this, three PSLM data sets (2007-08, 2011-12, and 2013-14) were pooled and a Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System model was estimated. The study found that cleaner fuels (natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) were more price elastic than solid fuels, implying that lowering the prices of these cleaner fuels would lead many households to adopt them. In the final study, a CBA of several policy options for encouraging reductions in solid fuel use was undertaken. The study evaluated five major policy options: (1) natural gas; (2) LPG; (3) electric stoves; (4) biogas plants; and (5) improved cook stoves. The World Health Organization’s guidelines for CBA were followed and it was found that encouraging LPG adoption has the highest benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 3.68, while improved cook stoves had a BCR of 0.58. Encouraging natural gas adoption, electric stoves, and biogas plants have BCRs of 2.87, 2.22, and 1.39 respectively. The study concluded that, in order to mitigate the negative impacts of IAP, Pakistan should encourage cleaner energy sources in preference to adoption of alternative cooking appliances.

text: The demand, selection, and health impacts of household energy in Pakistan Globally, almost four million people die prematurely annually due to indoor air pollution (IAP), and millions are facing serious diseases. These adverse health impacts place a great burden on national health budgets, increase medical expenditures, and reduce the overall productivity of the economy. Worryingly, almost three billion people still depend upon solid fuels such as firewood, biomass, crop residues, animal dung, and coal, which are the major contributors to IAP. This thesis investigates the causal relationship between solid fuel consumption and both child mortality and life expectancy, the price and non-price determinants of solid fuel use (using Pakistan as a case study), and finally uses cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to evaluate alternative policies. Specifically, the thesis includes four empirical studies related to solid fuel use and IAP.
In the first study, panel data covering 101 countries over the period 2000-2012 were used to examine the causal impacts of solid fuel use on health outcomes. Utilizing an instrumental variables approach, it was concluded that solid fuel combustion causes increases in child mortality and decreases in male and female life expectancy. 
The second study investigated the factors associated with the selection of solid and cleaner fuels by households. Using data from the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Survey 2013-14, the study identified that agricultural occupation, large family size, and having cattle, were associated with solid fuel consumption. In contrast, higher income, higher education, and living in an urban area were factors associated with cleaner fuel consumption. However, the study concluded that income growth alone will not be sufficient to ensure that households switch to cleaner fuel use, particularly households in rural areas. Hence, the results challenge the practical aspects of countries moving along the Environmental Kuznets Curve, and suggest that in order to reduce IAP, direct policy intervention will be required.
The third study further explores household energy use by estimating the own and cross-price elasticities of household energy sources in Pakistan. For this, three PSLM data sets (2007-08, 2011-12, and 2013-14) were pooled and a Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System model was estimated. The study found that cleaner fuels (natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)) were more price elastic than solid fuels, implying that lowering the prices of these cleaner fuels would lead many households to adopt them. In the final study, a CBA of several policy options for encouraging reductions in solid fuel use was undertaken. The study evaluated five major policy options: (1) natural gas; (2) LPG; (3) electric stoves; (4) biogas plants; and (5) improved cook stoves. The World Health Organization’s guidelines for CBA were followed and it was found that encouraging LPG adoption has the highest benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 3.68, while improved cook stoves had a BCR of 0.58. Encouraging natural gas adoption, electric stoves, and biogas plants have BCRs of 2.87, 2.22, and 1.39 respectively. The study concluded that, in order to mitigate the negative impacts of IAP, Pakistan should encourage cleaner energy sources in preference to adoption of alternative cooking appliances.

year: 2019

title: Public perceptions and expectations of the forensic use of DNA

authors: Curtis, Cate

subjects: DNA

abstract: The forensic use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is demonstrating significant success as a crime-solving tool. However, numerous concerns have been raised regarding the potential for DNA use to contravene cultural, ethical, and legal codes. In this article the expectations and level of knowledge of the New Zealand public of the DNA data-bank and the surrounding processes are discussed. A questionnaire was developed in consultation with key stakeholders, comprising a combination of open and closed questions. The ensuing survey comprised a sample of 100 participants. Although participants initially appeared in favor of the forensic use of DNA, particularly in regard to the collection of DNA from sex offenders, perceptions and attitudes were based on limited knowledge of processes, policies, and implications. Upon further discussion and reflection a number of concerns were raised, such as ownership of DNA samples and the potential for misuse.

text: Public perceptions and expectations of the forensic use of DNA The forensic use of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is demonstrating significant success as a crime-solving tool. However, numerous concerns have been raised regarding the potential for DNA use to contravene cultural, ethical, and legal codes. In this article the expectations and level of knowledge of the New Zealand public of the DNA data-bank and the surrounding processes are discussed. A questionnaire was developed in consultation with key stakeholders, comprising a combination of open and closed questions. The ensuing survey comprised a sample of 100 participants. Although participants initially appeared in favor of the forensic use of DNA, particularly in regard to the collection of DNA from sex offenders, perceptions and attitudes were based on limited knowledge of processes, policies, and implications. Upon further discussion and reflection a number of concerns were raised, such as ownership of DNA samples and the potential for misuse.

year: 2009

title: Maori perspectives of the environment: A review of policy submissions made by iwi to Environment Waikato.

authors: Whangapirita, Laura

subjects: Maori

abstract: As part of our broader brief to gather, summarise, analyse and distribute information held by Environment Waikato on Maori and the environment, we evaluated and summarised those iwi policy submissions made toward the Proposed Waikato Regional Plan (1998). This report refers to values and beliefs sourced from iwi submissions held by Environment Waikato and are presented within a Maori values framework to highlight environmental perspectives of tangata whenua in the Waikato region.

text: Maori perspectives of the environment: A review of policy submissions made by iwi to Environment Waikato. As part of our broader brief to gather, summarise, analyse and distribute information held by Environment Waikato on Maori and the environment, we evaluated and summarised those iwi policy submissions made toward the Proposed Waikato Regional Plan (1998). This report refers to values and beliefs sourced from iwi submissions held by Environment Waikato and are presented within a Maori values framework to highlight environmental perspectives of tangata whenua in the Waikato region.

year: 2003-10