title: Effects of severe cattle treading on soil physical properties and pasture productivity

authors: Zegwaard, Karsten E.

abstract: Severe cattle treading can result in compaction and pugging, of which the latter was the focus of this thesis. Pugging is one of the severest forms of treading damage to soil, and occurs when soil is grazed while near saturation, resulting in plastic and liquid soil deformation. The research objectives were to quantify effects from one-off treading events, at different severities, on soil physical properties and sward characteristics, to monitor recovery from the one-off treading event, and to develop methods of estimating potential effects of treading on pasture productivity. 
Three field experiments were carried out on a Te Kowhai silt loam soil (NZ soil classification, Typic Orthic Gley; USDA soil taxonomic classification, Typic Endoaqualj) supporting a mixed sward of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). A oneoff treading event of either O ( control), 3, 9, or 24 hours was carried out using lactating Holstein-Friesian cattle (300 cows ha- 1) at three soil moisture contents (65%, 71 %, and 81 % gravimetric soil moisture content). Soil physical properties, soil surface features, and sward characteristics were monitored for up to 34 weeks after the treading event. 
Longer treading durations at wetter soil conditions had increasingly detrimental effects on soil macroporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksai), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K_40), surface roughness, depths of pug prints, bare ground area, ryegrass tiller density, and herbage accumulation. Soil dry bulk density and total porosity did not change, even under the severest of treading damage, because decreases in macroporosity were offset by increases in microporosity (r2 = 0.63; P <0.001). 
The area of bare ground increased to up to 87% of the soil surface and correlated with decreased in herbage accumulation (r2 = 0.73; P <0.001). Sward botanical composition did not change after treading damage, except when large patches of bare ground persisted into spring, resulting in the establishment of broad-leaved plantain (Plantago major L.). 
Soil and sward recovered (i.e. no significant difference compared to simultaneous controls) following treading damage and when the pasture continued to be rotationally grazed. The recovery of macroporosity, Ksat, and K_40 indicated that the soil had an increased susceptibility to further treading damage for up to 13 weeks after the initial treading event. However, soil susceptibility to direct hoof damage after a one-off severe treading damage event may persist for up to 25 weeks, as sward recovery (decreases in area of bare ground) took longer than the recovery of soil physical properties. 
When the gravimetric soil moisture content was >71 %, a three hour grazing caused a total decline of 1,100 kg OM ha- 1 in pasture productivity, however, at lower soil moisture contents grazing of ::,;3 hours was unlikely to cause significant pasture productivity decline. 
When ~50% of soil penetrations using the AgResearch Penetrometer are ~2 cm, a three hour grazing with 300 cows ha -I is likely to result in pasture productivity decline. Statistical models (multivariate regression models) were used to describe the relationship of soil physical and sward properties with pasture productivity after treading. Assuming that during the grazing rotation no further severe treading damage takes place before recovery is complete, the models can be used to estimate potential pasture productivity decline from a one-off severe treading event on a pugging susceptible Te Kowhai soil using variables measured immediately before or after cattle treading. The models with the best potential for practical applications were: 

DPP*= -1770.98 + l 96.35HR - 4.47HR2 + 32.1 lAP 	                r2 = 0.72, P <0.001
DPP = -1057.55 + 43.17BG 				                                r2 = 0.61, P <0.001
DPP = -863.78 + 179.lOSR					                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
DPP = -701.16- 155.89HR + 5.49HR2 + 26.61PD + 122.68SR 	r2 = 0.84, P <0.001
RT* = -6.94 + l .35HR - 0.032HR2 + 0.16AP 		                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
RT  = -6.10 + 0.36HR + 0.1 OAP+ 0.58SR 			                r2 = 0.80, P <0.001

Where:
DPP= total decline in pasture productivity (kg OM ha- 1) 
RT= time (weeks) required until no significant difference in herbage accumulation compared to controls 
HR = proposed or actual hours of treading 
AP = AgResearch Penetrometer results (% of readings penetrating soil by ~2 cm) immediately before treading 
BG= proportion of bare ground ('Yc,) after treading 
SR= soil surface roughness index(%) after treading 
PD= mean depth of pug prints (mm) after treading 
* = models using only pre-treading variables 

The declines in spring pasture productivity correlated with declines in macroporosity (r2 = 0.70, P <0.001) and Ksat (r2 = 0.61, P <O.OI ), complementing findings from similar treading studies carried out on soils with compaction rather than pugging damage. A Treading Field Guide was constructed, using bare ground, soil surface roughness, depth of pugging, and photography, which indicated the likely pasture productivity decline. The likely pasture productivity declines were also combined with the potential benefits of using stand-off pads to derive a cost-benefit model.

text: Effects of severe cattle treading on soil physical properties and pasture productivity Severe cattle treading can result in compaction and pugging, of which the latter was the focus of this thesis. Pugging is one of the severest forms of treading damage to soil, and occurs when soil is grazed while near saturation, resulting in plastic and liquid soil deformation. The research objectives were to quantify effects from one-off treading events, at different severities, on soil physical properties and sward characteristics, to monitor recovery from the one-off treading event, and to develop methods of estimating potential effects of treading on pasture productivity. 
Three field experiments were carried out on a Te Kowhai silt loam soil (NZ soil classification, Typic Orthic Gley; USDA soil taxonomic classification, Typic Endoaqualj) supporting a mixed sward of ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and white clover (Trifolium repens L.). A oneoff treading event of either O ( control), 3, 9, or 24 hours was carried out using lactating Holstein-Friesian cattle (300 cows ha- 1) at three soil moisture contents (65%, 71 %, and 81 % gravimetric soil moisture content). Soil physical properties, soil surface features, and sward characteristics were monitored for up to 34 weeks after the treading event. 
Longer treading durations at wetter soil conditions had increasingly detrimental effects on soil macroporosity, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksai), unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (K_40), surface roughness, depths of pug prints, bare ground area, ryegrass tiller density, and herbage accumulation. Soil dry bulk density and total porosity did not change, even under the severest of treading damage, because decreases in macroporosity were offset by increases in microporosity (r2 = 0.63; P <0.001). 
The area of bare ground increased to up to 87% of the soil surface and correlated with decreased in herbage accumulation (r2 = 0.73; P <0.001). Sward botanical composition did not change after treading damage, except when large patches of bare ground persisted into spring, resulting in the establishment of broad-leaved plantain (Plantago major L.). 
Soil and sward recovered (i.e. no significant difference compared to simultaneous controls) following treading damage and when the pasture continued to be rotationally grazed. The recovery of macroporosity, Ksat, and K_40 indicated that the soil had an increased susceptibility to further treading damage for up to 13 weeks after the initial treading event. However, soil susceptibility to direct hoof damage after a one-off severe treading damage event may persist for up to 25 weeks, as sward recovery (decreases in area of bare ground) took longer than the recovery of soil physical properties. 
When the gravimetric soil moisture content was >71 %, a three hour grazing caused a total decline of 1,100 kg OM ha- 1 in pasture productivity, however, at lower soil moisture contents grazing of ::,;3 hours was unlikely to cause significant pasture productivity decline. 
When ~50% of soil penetrations using the AgResearch Penetrometer are ~2 cm, a three hour grazing with 300 cows ha -I is likely to result in pasture productivity decline. Statistical models (multivariate regression models) were used to describe the relationship of soil physical and sward properties with pasture productivity after treading. Assuming that during the grazing rotation no further severe treading damage takes place before recovery is complete, the models can be used to estimate potential pasture productivity decline from a one-off severe treading event on a pugging susceptible Te Kowhai soil using variables measured immediately before or after cattle treading. The models with the best potential for practical applications were: 

DPP*= -1770.98 + l 96.35HR - 4.47HR2 + 32.1 lAP 	                r2 = 0.72, P <0.001
DPP = -1057.55 + 43.17BG 				                                r2 = 0.61, P <0.001
DPP = -863.78 + 179.lOSR					                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
DPP = -701.16- 155.89HR + 5.49HR2 + 26.61PD + 122.68SR 	r2 = 0.84, P <0.001
RT* = -6.94 + l .35HR - 0.032HR2 + 0.16AP 		                        r2 = 0.78, P <0.001
RT  = -6.10 + 0.36HR + 0.1 OAP+ 0.58SR 			                r2 = 0.80, P <0.001

Where:
DPP= total decline in pasture productivity (kg OM ha- 1) 
RT= time (weeks) required until no significant difference in herbage accumulation compared to controls 
HR = proposed or actual hours of treading 
AP = AgResearch Penetrometer results (% of readings penetrating soil by ~2 cm) immediately before treading 
BG= proportion of bare ground ('Yc,) after treading 
SR= soil surface roughness index(%) after treading 
PD= mean depth of pug prints (mm) after treading 
* = models using only pre-treading variables 

The declines in spring pasture productivity correlated with declines in macroporosity (r2 = 0.70, P <0.001) and Ksat (r2 = 0.61, P <O.OI ), complementing findings from similar treading studies carried out on soils with compaction rather than pugging damage. A Treading Field Guide was constructed, using bare ground, soil surface roughness, depth of pugging, and photography, which indicated the likely pasture productivity decline. The likely pasture productivity declines were also combined with the potential benefits of using stand-off pads to derive a cost-benefit model.

year: 2006

title: Thomas William Carr: a Te Aroha storekeeper and speculator

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: Thomas William Carr arrived in New Zealand in January 1881 accompanied by his large family and, reportedly, with extensive business experience and a large amount of capital. After first settling at Gisborne he moved to Te Aroha in mid-1882, acquiring land in the township and nearby and establishing stores at Te Aroha, Waiorongomai, Quartzville, and Shaftesbury. He was involved in a variety of commercial activities, and invested in local mining. He was also prominent in the community in general, including in the Anglican Church.
In early 1883, it all fell apart. After being adjudged bankrupt, he was shown to have been careless and indeed reckless in running his businesses; and instead of having large amounts of capital at his disposal, he had started with no capital at all, prompting suggestions of fraudulent dealings. After others acquired his properties and businesses, he fled New Zealand to try his luck in Australia, where he was much more successful. 
Others involved with him also went bankrupt, for his bankruptcy was by no means unusual.

text: Thomas William Carr: a Te Aroha storekeeper and speculator Thomas William Carr arrived in New Zealand in January 1881 accompanied by his large family and, reportedly, with extensive business experience and a large amount of capital. After first settling at Gisborne he moved to Te Aroha in mid-1882, acquiring land in the township and nearby and establishing stores at Te Aroha, Waiorongomai, Quartzville, and Shaftesbury. He was involved in a variety of commercial activities, and invested in local mining. He was also prominent in the community in general, including in the Anglican Church.
In early 1883, it all fell apart. After being adjudged bankrupt, he was shown to have been careless and indeed reckless in running his businesses; and instead of having large amounts of capital at his disposal, he had started with no capital at all, prompting suggestions of fraudulent dealings. After others acquired his properties and businesses, he fled New Zealand to try his luck in Australia, where he was much more successful. 
Others involved with him also went bankrupt, for his bankruptcy was by no means unusual.

year: 2016

title: Understanding the Happiness of Māori and the Role of Consumption: Experiences of the Millennial Generation

authors: de Thierry, Ebony

subjects: Māori Well-Being

abstract: Happiness is commonly perceived as the ideal state of being for  all of human kind. Although a universal definition of the term remains elusive, happiness is a goal that everybody wants to achieve. In understanding the different aspects that shape happiness, the literature has shown that this can vary depending on the cultural context. As such, this study investigates the essence of happiness as it is experienced by Māori. In understanding the experiences of the Millennial generation, the role that consumption plays is also explored. This group of young adults have been raised in an era when consumerism and cultural revitalisation are the norm.  

This investigation was guided by hermeneutic phenomenology using a kaupapa Māori research perspective. Through this, thirteen young Māori individuals were interviewed to gain their experiences of happiness. Photo elicitation techniques were utilised as a means to facilitate these interviews. Stories of the participants’ experiences of happiness were crafted and then analysed to explore the role of consumption.

Findings show that the happiness of Māori is shaped by the five themes of; sense of belonging, whānau and relationships, spirituality, achievement and success, and sense of freedom. These themes interrelate as they are underpinned by the collective values of Māori. In particular, the aspects of spirituality and sense of belonging appear to be specific to the Māori realm. These are based on customs, values and beliefs that are inherited from our ancestors yet are still prevalent today. In terms of consumption, happiness can be positively linked to experiential consumption. In this case, it can play three different roles on the happiness of Māori through either; a direct connection, an indirect connection, or a negative connection. For Māori, consumption is more likely to have an indirect connection. This implies that it is able to facilitate, maintain and enhance happiness, but is not essential to creating these feelings. This investigation contributes to the literature in four ways. First, this study serves as a starting point to developing a comprehensive framework of happiness that is specific to the culture, views and values of Māori. This will assist Māori through ensuring that they are accurately represented in policies, frameworks and statistics. Second, it proposes five guidelines for Māori which suggest how they can maximise happiness through consumption. Third, this study provides a more up-to-date understanding of the happiness of Māori at the individual level whilst incorporating the impact of collective values. Marketers, researchers and practitioners can utilise this information in an attempt to aid in improving the happiness of Māori society. Finally, it shows that consumption can continue to be positively related to happiness once basic needs have been met. The positive role that consumption can play on happiness is identified, showing that marketers and consumers can work together to achieve happiness.

text: Understanding the Happiness of Māori and the Role of Consumption: Experiences of the Millennial Generation Happiness is commonly perceived as the ideal state of being for  all of human kind. Although a universal definition of the term remains elusive, happiness is a goal that everybody wants to achieve. In understanding the different aspects that shape happiness, the literature has shown that this can vary depending on the cultural context. As such, this study investigates the essence of happiness as it is experienced by Māori. In understanding the experiences of the Millennial generation, the role that consumption plays is also explored. This group of young adults have been raised in an era when consumerism and cultural revitalisation are the norm.  

This investigation was guided by hermeneutic phenomenology using a kaupapa Māori research perspective. Through this, thirteen young Māori individuals were interviewed to gain their experiences of happiness. Photo elicitation techniques were utilised as a means to facilitate these interviews. Stories of the participants’ experiences of happiness were crafted and then analysed to explore the role of consumption.

Findings show that the happiness of Māori is shaped by the five themes of; sense of belonging, whānau and relationships, spirituality, achievement and success, and sense of freedom. These themes interrelate as they are underpinned by the collective values of Māori. In particular, the aspects of spirituality and sense of belonging appear to be specific to the Māori realm. These are based on customs, values and beliefs that are inherited from our ancestors yet are still prevalent today. In terms of consumption, happiness can be positively linked to experiential consumption. In this case, it can play three different roles on the happiness of Māori through either; a direct connection, an indirect connection, or a negative connection. For Māori, consumption is more likely to have an indirect connection. This implies that it is able to facilitate, maintain and enhance happiness, but is not essential to creating these feelings. This investigation contributes to the literature in four ways. First, this study serves as a starting point to developing a comprehensive framework of happiness that is specific to the culture, views and values of Māori. This will assist Māori through ensuring that they are accurately represented in policies, frameworks and statistics. Second, it proposes five guidelines for Māori which suggest how they can maximise happiness through consumption. Third, this study provides a more up-to-date understanding of the happiness of Māori at the individual level whilst incorporating the impact of collective values. Marketers, researchers and practitioners can utilise this information in an attempt to aid in improving the happiness of Māori society. Finally, it shows that consumption can continue to be positively related to happiness once basic needs have been met. The positive role that consumption can play on happiness is identified, showing that marketers and consumers can work together to achieve happiness.

year: 2012