title: Induction of lgA secretion in the bovine mammary gland

authors: Hodgkinson, A.J.

abstract: This thesis investigates molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in lgA secretion in the bovine mammary gland. Our previous research showed that multi-site immunisation during late-pregnancy, involving priming by intra-peritoneal and intramuscular routes followed by intra-mammary immunisation, enhanced lgA secretion in milk and this effect was localised to immunised glands. This thesis addresses the hypothesis that increased lgA is produced by localised lgA plasma cells of mucosal origin that are recruited to the mammary gland by changes induced by intra-mammary immunisation. 
Recruitment mechanisms for lymphocytes were studied by examining expression of adhesion molecules MAdCAM-1, VCAM-1 and PNAd in mammary tissues of untreated animals, using immunohistochemical and molecular techniques. No immunoreactive MAdCAM-1 protein was found in venules and very low levels of MAdCAM-1 mRNA were found in tissues. By contrast, VCAM-1 protein was observed on larger venules. PNAd protein was only detected in supramammary lymph nodes, suggestive of a role for recruiting naïve lymphocytes. 
Cows were immunised with only one udder-half receiving intra-mammary immunisation to investigate effects on immunised glands. Animals with increased levels of lgA in milk had significantly more lgA plasma cells and T cells in immunised glands compared with non-immunised glands. Again no detectable MAdCAM-1 protein and only very low levels of MAdCAM-1 mRNA were found. No differences were observed in VCAM-1 protein expression between immunised and non-immunised mammary tissues. Together these studies suggest that MAdCAM-1 and VCAM-1 are not involved in lymphocyte recruitment to the bovine mammary gland, which contrasts to mice. 
In another study, cows categorised as either high- or low-responders to the multi-site immunisation were re-immunised to compare responses. Changes to lymphocytes in mammary secretions collected at intervals following two intra-mammary immunisations were monitored by flow cytometry. The percentage of T cells was found to decrease in both groups, although CD4 cells increased relative to CD8. The percentage of lgA-positive cells increased in a biphasic manner with high-responding animals showing an earlier and more sustained increase in lgA-positive cells compared with low-responders. The strong correlation observed between percentages of lgA-positive cells and lgA antibody in secretions suggests high levels of lgA require greater numbers of lgA-producing cells. 
Molecular analysis of known key cytokines found higher levels of IL-8 and IFN-𝛾 mRNA in immunised mammary tissues compared with non-immunised glands. In cells from mammary secretions, IL-8 mRNA increased shortly after immunisation while IFN- 𝛾 and TGF-β mRNA increased at a later stage. However, no discernible differences were observed between high- and low-responding animals. TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10 mRNA were found to be low in both mammary tissues and secretion cells. lgA mRNA was increased in immunised tissues although no correlation was observed between lgA mRNA and mRNA levels of the polyimmunoglobulin receptor. These analyses indicate that innate and cell-mediated responses were induced along with an antibody response to immunisation. 
Together these results support the hypothesis and indicate that intra-mammary immunisation increases lgA-producing cells in the mammary gland accompanied by changes in expression profiles of a range of cytokine genes. However, in contrast to mice, the data suggest little involvement of known adhesion molecules in recruiting lymphocytes to the gland.

text: Induction of lgA secretion in the bovine mammary gland This thesis investigates molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in lgA secretion in the bovine mammary gland. Our previous research showed that multi-site immunisation during late-pregnancy, involving priming by intra-peritoneal and intramuscular routes followed by intra-mammary immunisation, enhanced lgA secretion in milk and this effect was localised to immunised glands. This thesis addresses the hypothesis that increased lgA is produced by localised lgA plasma cells of mucosal origin that are recruited to the mammary gland by changes induced by intra-mammary immunisation. 
Recruitment mechanisms for lymphocytes were studied by examining expression of adhesion molecules MAdCAM-1, VCAM-1 and PNAd in mammary tissues of untreated animals, using immunohistochemical and molecular techniques. No immunoreactive MAdCAM-1 protein was found in venules and very low levels of MAdCAM-1 mRNA were found in tissues. By contrast, VCAM-1 protein was observed on larger venules. PNAd protein was only detected in supramammary lymph nodes, suggestive of a role for recruiting naïve lymphocytes. 
Cows were immunised with only one udder-half receiving intra-mammary immunisation to investigate effects on immunised glands. Animals with increased levels of lgA in milk had significantly more lgA plasma cells and T cells in immunised glands compared with non-immunised glands. Again no detectable MAdCAM-1 protein and only very low levels of MAdCAM-1 mRNA were found. No differences were observed in VCAM-1 protein expression between immunised and non-immunised mammary tissues. Together these studies suggest that MAdCAM-1 and VCAM-1 are not involved in lymphocyte recruitment to the bovine mammary gland, which contrasts to mice. 
In another study, cows categorised as either high- or low-responders to the multi-site immunisation were re-immunised to compare responses. Changes to lymphocytes in mammary secretions collected at intervals following two intra-mammary immunisations were monitored by flow cytometry. The percentage of T cells was found to decrease in both groups, although CD4 cells increased relative to CD8. The percentage of lgA-positive cells increased in a biphasic manner with high-responding animals showing an earlier and more sustained increase in lgA-positive cells compared with low-responders. The strong correlation observed between percentages of lgA-positive cells and lgA antibody in secretions suggests high levels of lgA require greater numbers of lgA-producing cells. 
Molecular analysis of known key cytokines found higher levels of IL-8 and IFN-𝛾 mRNA in immunised mammary tissues compared with non-immunised glands. In cells from mammary secretions, IL-8 mRNA increased shortly after immunisation while IFN- 𝛾 and TGF-β mRNA increased at a later stage. However, no discernible differences were observed between high- and low-responding animals. TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10 mRNA were found to be low in both mammary tissues and secretion cells. lgA mRNA was increased in immunised tissues although no correlation was observed between lgA mRNA and mRNA levels of the polyimmunoglobulin receptor. These analyses indicate that innate and cell-mediated responses were induced along with an antibody response to immunisation. 
Together these results support the hypothesis and indicate that intra-mammary immunisation increases lgA-producing cells in the mammary gland accompanied by changes in expression profiles of a range of cytokine genes. However, in contrast to mice, the data suggest little involvement of known adhesion molecules in recruiting lymphocytes to the gland.

year: 2005

title: Holistic Education: A Vision for 21st Century New Zealand Primary School Classrooms

authors: Hall, Sherilyn

subjects: holism

abstract: In today’s world, teachers in New Zealand primary schools struggle to meet the requirements of an over-full curriculum and pressure from politicians to raise student achievement. Despite a curriculum document that speaks of developing “lifelong learners who are confident, creative, connected, and actively involved” (MoE, 2007, p. 4), teachers are being compelled to return to traditional forms of teaching in an attempt to ensure that students are meeting required ‘standards’ in reading, writing and mathematics (MoE, 2013a).  
A common theme in current educational discussions is concerns around the ‘tail of underachievement’ (Hattie, 2011; Te One, 2011) that continues to plague classrooms despite on-going professional development and the introduction of National Standards (MoE, 2009a, 2009b).  This research, therefore, attempts to define a viable alternative to the status quo, holistic education, a teaching paradigm that has produced pockets of success, mainly outside mainstream education, over the last few centuries and which may hold promise for the 21st Century.
	Holism is not new.  It spans much of human history from early Greek philosophers in the West and traditional ways of thinking in many non-Western indigenous cultures through to the current day, although the term itself was not ‘coined’ until 1926 (Esfeld, 1998).  In recent years, holism has found some legitimacy in healthcare (McEvoy & Duffy, 2008), Western judicial systems (Takagi & Shank, 2004) and even education (R. Miller, 2006).  
Although holistic education has taken various forms throughout history, one overarching theme is that it is focused on the whole child – body, mind and spirit – and their relationships with others and the world around them (J. P. Miller, 2007).  The literature even suggests that holistic education is a matter of the heart – a paradigm or worldview that underpins everything the teacher does in light of this understanding (Mahmoudi, Jafari, Nasrabadi, & Liaghatdar, 2012) rather than a pedagogical style.  Thus, holistic teachers select from a toolbox of practices in order to find what is most appropriate for each learning situation and student.
Beginning with an analysis of research into holistic education, this thesis then considers the practises of some local teachers that appear to have holistic underpinnings, to discover how viable they are in practice, and what difference they make to the students and their learning.  Interviews with teachers and their students produced data was grouped into themes.  One overarching theme showed that connecting learning to the students’ lives, increased their motivation and engagement.  The development of strong relationships with students was another clear theme, and the knowledge teachers gained as a result, informed their teaching decisions.
Though holistic teaching is time consuming it is rewarding, and these teachers felt the rewards far outweighed the cost, a sense that was echoed in literature on the subject (Apple & Beane, 2007).  Furthermore, these teachers did not think of their practice as holistic, but clearly taught from the heart.  It is this sense of a change of ‘heart’ by teachers, rather than specific practices, which suggests that holistic education could be a viable vision for today’s primary school classrooms.

text: Holistic Education: A Vision for 21st Century New Zealand Primary School Classrooms In today’s world, teachers in New Zealand primary schools struggle to meet the requirements of an over-full curriculum and pressure from politicians to raise student achievement. Despite a curriculum document that speaks of developing “lifelong learners who are confident, creative, connected, and actively involved” (MoE, 2007, p. 4), teachers are being compelled to return to traditional forms of teaching in an attempt to ensure that students are meeting required ‘standards’ in reading, writing and mathematics (MoE, 2013a).  
A common theme in current educational discussions is concerns around the ‘tail of underachievement’ (Hattie, 2011; Te One, 2011) that continues to plague classrooms despite on-going professional development and the introduction of National Standards (MoE, 2009a, 2009b).  This research, therefore, attempts to define a viable alternative to the status quo, holistic education, a teaching paradigm that has produced pockets of success, mainly outside mainstream education, over the last few centuries and which may hold promise for the 21st Century.
	Holism is not new.  It spans much of human history from early Greek philosophers in the West and traditional ways of thinking in many non-Western indigenous cultures through to the current day, although the term itself was not ‘coined’ until 1926 (Esfeld, 1998).  In recent years, holism has found some legitimacy in healthcare (McEvoy & Duffy, 2008), Western judicial systems (Takagi & Shank, 2004) and even education (R. Miller, 2006).  
Although holistic education has taken various forms throughout history, one overarching theme is that it is focused on the whole child – body, mind and spirit – and their relationships with others and the world around them (J. P. Miller, 2007).  The literature even suggests that holistic education is a matter of the heart – a paradigm or worldview that underpins everything the teacher does in light of this understanding (Mahmoudi, Jafari, Nasrabadi, & Liaghatdar, 2012) rather than a pedagogical style.  Thus, holistic teachers select from a toolbox of practices in order to find what is most appropriate for each learning situation and student.
Beginning with an analysis of research into holistic education, this thesis then considers the practises of some local teachers that appear to have holistic underpinnings, to discover how viable they are in practice, and what difference they make to the students and their learning.  Interviews with teachers and their students produced data was grouped into themes.  One overarching theme showed that connecting learning to the students’ lives, increased their motivation and engagement.  The development of strong relationships with students was another clear theme, and the knowledge teachers gained as a result, informed their teaching decisions.
Though holistic teaching is time consuming it is rewarding, and these teachers felt the rewards far outweighed the cost, a sense that was echoed in literature on the subject (Apple & Beane, 2007).  Furthermore, these teachers did not think of their practice as holistic, but clearly taught from the heart.  It is this sense of a change of ‘heart’ by teachers, rather than specific practices, which suggests that holistic education could be a viable vision for today’s primary school classrooms.

year: 2014

title: Tūhoe on the move: Regional mobility

authors: Guerin, Pauline

abstract: Academic interest in geographic mobility of indigenous peoples has increased in recent years with a corresponding growth in the literature relating to Māori mobility more specifically. With this greater acknowledgement of Māori issues has also come an awareness of the need for iwi-specific research because of the diversity within and between Māori and iwi. The present research contributes to a larger project exploring Tūhoe regional mobility. In this paper, we analyse published data and unpublished census data from 2001 that relate specifically to Tūhoe regional mobility and the relationship between mobility and language. Region of residence in 1996 and 2001 were analysed in relation to age, sex, and broad language groups. Overall, this analysis found important and diverse relationships between age, sex, language, and region of residence in New Zealand among Māori who identify as Tūhoe. For example, patterns of mobility for different age groups and sex had some similarities with other research, such as a higher proportion of “stayers” in older age groups, but differences were also found, such as higher proportions of “movers” among females in some age groups. Interestingly, we found that language between “movers” and “stayers” differed depending on the region of residence. A greater proportion of “movers” were able to converse in Māori in Auckland and the Waikato, but a slightly greater proportion of “stayers” could converse in Māori in the Hawke’s Bay and Bay of Plenty. These results suggest that geographic mobility among Māori, and Tūhoe more specifically, are complex and should not be overly-simplified in more aggregate analyses.

text: Tūhoe on the move: Regional mobility Academic interest in geographic mobility of indigenous peoples has increased in recent years with a corresponding growth in the literature relating to Māori mobility more specifically. With this greater acknowledgement of Māori issues has also come an awareness of the need for iwi-specific research because of the diversity within and between Māori and iwi. The present research contributes to a larger project exploring Tūhoe regional mobility. In this paper, we analyse published data and unpublished census data from 2001 that relate specifically to Tūhoe regional mobility and the relationship between mobility and language. Region of residence in 1996 and 2001 were analysed in relation to age, sex, and broad language groups. Overall, this analysis found important and diverse relationships between age, sex, language, and region of residence in New Zealand among Māori who identify as Tūhoe. For example, patterns of mobility for different age groups and sex had some similarities with other research, such as a higher proportion of “stayers” in older age groups, but differences were also found, such as higher proportions of “movers” among females in some age groups. Interestingly, we found that language between “movers” and “stayers” differed depending on the region of residence. A greater proportion of “movers” were able to converse in Māori in Auckland and the Waikato, but a slightly greater proportion of “stayers” could converse in Māori in the Hawke’s Bay and Bay of Plenty. These results suggest that geographic mobility among Māori, and Tūhoe more specifically, are complex and should not be overly-simplified in more aggregate analyses.

year: 2006