title: Role of Seasonal Melt Streams in Heavy Metal and Nutrient Transport from an Antarctic Penguin Colony

authors: Farrant, Madison Grace

abstract: Despite the perception that Antarctica is pristine, concentrations of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants have been recorded at increasing levels. Heavy metals may be present within the Antarctic terrestrial environment through natural geologic processes, long-range atmospheric transport, anthropogenic point sources, and biological transport. While the biological transport of contaminants remains frequently overlooked, in the Arctic, it has been shown to rival atmospheric fluxes of contaminants. Adélie penguins are known vectors for transporting heavy metals and nutrients from within the marine environment and depositing them on the land through guano, feathers, eggshells, and whole carcasses. The incorporation of this material in deep ornithogenic soils has resulted in Adélie penguin colonies being identified as sites of heavy metal and nutrient accumulation. Despite seasonal glacial melt streams that erode these colony soils, their role in heavy metal and nutrient transport is largely under-researched. Therefore, this study evaluated the redistribution of heavy metals and nutrients via melt streams. Stream discharge and load, in addition to soil heavy metal and nutrient content, were also assessed. 
Five sites along two streams, one flowing through an Adélie penguin colony (P1 to P5) and a control stream with no penguin influence (C1 to C5), were compared throughout this research. Melt water within the Adélie penguin colony had elevated arsenic, cadmium, and lead (p<0.05), with total heavy metal concentrations exceeding New Zealand freshwater guidelines for ecological health up to 37, eight, and two times, respectively. Cadmium and lead were found mostly in particulate form (dissolved cadmium <22 % and dissolved lead <11 %), however, there was a relatively higher portion of arsenic (up to 72 %) that was dissolved (<45 m). This indicates increased bioavailability and concern for toxicity of arsenic. 
  Nutrient anions (ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate) were also elevated in penguin-influenced water compared to the control stream (p<0.05), surpassing water quality guidelines up to 1038, 1017, and 551 times. When accounting for differences in discharge, stream loads of heavy metals and nutrients were significantly higher within the Adélie penguin colony (p<0.05), with nitrate and phosphate exhibiting the most prominent differences (p<0.01). In both streams, discharge exhibited large fluctuations on both diurnal and daily time scales (P3 16.7 L s-1 to 53.3 L s-1; C3 10.8 L s-1 to 14.7 L s-1) and was correlated strongly with air temperature (P3 R=0.88, C3 R=0.81). The pH of all stream sites was circumneutral to basic (6.86 to 8.07). This research suggests that seasonal melt streams play a critical role in redistributing potentially toxic levels of heavy metals and nutrients from penguin colonies into the Southern Ocean.
Ornithogenic soil samples from the penguin colony had up to 27, 71, and six times higher arsenic, cadmium, and lead compared to two sampled control soils (p<0.05). Ammonium, total nitrogen, and total carbon were also significantly more enriched with up to 5727, 2454, and 484 times higher concentrations than the control soils (p<0.05).  These enrichments were particularly significant with the upper 44 cm. Concentrations of arsenic in the topsoil (0 - 2 cm) and cadmium at soil depths 0 – 44 cm were present in concentrations that exceeded the Canadian ecological quality guidelines for soil. The pH of all soils was neutral to basic (7.78 to 9.86) reflecting the basic basalt parent material. These findings support previous research that ornithogenic soils are sites of heavy metal and nutrient accumulation. 
Given the fluctuating nature of melt streams, both daily and seasonally, results are likely to be variable over longer time scales and therefore, more research is suggested to quantify this. Moreover, climate change disproportionately affects polar regions with expected temperature rises. Thus, understanding how melt streams intensify in flow, duration, and transport capacity is an essential area of investigation, to which this research provides important baseline data.

text: Role of Seasonal Melt Streams in Heavy Metal and Nutrient Transport from an Antarctic Penguin Colony Despite the perception that Antarctica is pristine, concentrations of heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants have been recorded at increasing levels. Heavy metals may be present within the Antarctic terrestrial environment through natural geologic processes, long-range atmospheric transport, anthropogenic point sources, and biological transport. While the biological transport of contaminants remains frequently overlooked, in the Arctic, it has been shown to rival atmospheric fluxes of contaminants. Adélie penguins are known vectors for transporting heavy metals and nutrients from within the marine environment and depositing them on the land through guano, feathers, eggshells, and whole carcasses. The incorporation of this material in deep ornithogenic soils has resulted in Adélie penguin colonies being identified as sites of heavy metal and nutrient accumulation. Despite seasonal glacial melt streams that erode these colony soils, their role in heavy metal and nutrient transport is largely under-researched. Therefore, this study evaluated the redistribution of heavy metals and nutrients via melt streams. Stream discharge and load, in addition to soil heavy metal and nutrient content, were also assessed. 
Five sites along two streams, one flowing through an Adélie penguin colony (P1 to P5) and a control stream with no penguin influence (C1 to C5), were compared throughout this research. Melt water within the Adélie penguin colony had elevated arsenic, cadmium, and lead (p<0.05), with total heavy metal concentrations exceeding New Zealand freshwater guidelines for ecological health up to 37, eight, and two times, respectively. Cadmium and lead were found mostly in particulate form (dissolved cadmium <22 % and dissolved lead <11 %), however, there was a relatively higher portion of arsenic (up to 72 %) that was dissolved (<45 m). This indicates increased bioavailability and concern for toxicity of arsenic. 
  Nutrient anions (ammonium, nitrate, and phosphate) were also elevated in penguin-influenced water compared to the control stream (p<0.05), surpassing water quality guidelines up to 1038, 1017, and 551 times. When accounting for differences in discharge, stream loads of heavy metals and nutrients were significantly higher within the Adélie penguin colony (p<0.05), with nitrate and phosphate exhibiting the most prominent differences (p<0.01). In both streams, discharge exhibited large fluctuations on both diurnal and daily time scales (P3 16.7 L s-1 to 53.3 L s-1; C3 10.8 L s-1 to 14.7 L s-1) and was correlated strongly with air temperature (P3 R=0.88, C3 R=0.81). The pH of all stream sites was circumneutral to basic (6.86 to 8.07). This research suggests that seasonal melt streams play a critical role in redistributing potentially toxic levels of heavy metals and nutrients from penguin colonies into the Southern Ocean.
Ornithogenic soil samples from the penguin colony had up to 27, 71, and six times higher arsenic, cadmium, and lead compared to two sampled control soils (p<0.05). Ammonium, total nitrogen, and total carbon were also significantly more enriched with up to 5727, 2454, and 484 times higher concentrations than the control soils (p<0.05).  These enrichments were particularly significant with the upper 44 cm. Concentrations of arsenic in the topsoil (0 - 2 cm) and cadmium at soil depths 0 – 44 cm were present in concentrations that exceeded the Canadian ecological quality guidelines for soil. The pH of all soils was neutral to basic (7.78 to 9.86) reflecting the basic basalt parent material. These findings support previous research that ornithogenic soils are sites of heavy metal and nutrient accumulation. 
Given the fluctuating nature of melt streams, both daily and seasonally, results are likely to be variable over longer time scales and therefore, more research is suggested to quantify this. Moreover, climate change disproportionately affects polar regions with expected temperature rises. Thus, understanding how melt streams intensify in flow, duration, and transport capacity is an essential area of investigation, to which this research provides important baseline data.

year: 2023

title: Environmental influences on Adelie penguin breeding schedules, endocrinology, and chick survival

authors: Ninnes, Calum Edward

subjects: Adelie penguin

abstract: To understand how the social and physical environment influences behaviour, reproduction and survival, studies of underlying hormonal processes are crucial; in particular, interactions between stress and reproductive responses may have critical influences on breeding schedules. Several authors have examined the timing of breeding in relation to environmental stimuli, while others have independently described endocrine profiles. However, few studies have simultaneously measured endocrine profiles, breeding behaviour, and offspring survival across seasons. We measured sex and stress hormone concentrations (oestrogens, testosterone, and corticosterone), timing of breeding, and chick survival, in Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) at two colonies in two different years. Clutch initiation at Cape Bird South (CBS; year 1, 14,000 pairs) occurred later than at Cape Crozier East (CCE; year 2, 25,000 pairs); however, breeding was more synchronous at CBS. This pattern was probably generated by the persistence of extensive sea ice at CBS (year 1). Higher corticosterone metabolite and lower sex hormone concentrations at CBS correlated with later breeding and lower chick survival compared to at CCE – again, a likely consequence of sea ice conditions. Within colonies, sub-colony size (S, 50–100; M, 200–300; L, 500–600; XL, >1000 pairs) did not influence the onset or synchrony of breeding, chick survival, or hormone concentrations. We showed that the endocrine profiles of breeding Adelie penguins can differ markedly between years and/or colonies, and that combining measures of endocrinology, behaviour, and offspring survival can reveal the mechanisms and consequences that different environmental conditions can have on breeding ecology.

text: Environmental influences on Adelie penguin breeding schedules, endocrinology, and chick survival To understand how the social and physical environment influences behaviour, reproduction and survival, studies of underlying hormonal processes are crucial; in particular, interactions between stress and reproductive responses may have critical influences on breeding schedules. Several authors have examined the timing of breeding in relation to environmental stimuli, while others have independently described endocrine profiles. However, few studies have simultaneously measured endocrine profiles, breeding behaviour, and offspring survival across seasons. We measured sex and stress hormone concentrations (oestrogens, testosterone, and corticosterone), timing of breeding, and chick survival, in Adelie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) at two colonies in two different years. Clutch initiation at Cape Bird South (CBS; year 1, 14,000 pairs) occurred later than at Cape Crozier East (CCE; year 2, 25,000 pairs); however, breeding was more synchronous at CBS. This pattern was probably generated by the persistence of extensive sea ice at CBS (year 1). Higher corticosterone metabolite and lower sex hormone concentrations at CBS correlated with later breeding and lower chick survival compared to at CCE – again, a likely consequence of sea ice conditions. Within colonies, sub-colony size (S, 50–100; M, 200–300; L, 500–600; XL, >1000 pairs) did not influence the onset or synchrony of breeding, chick survival, or hormone concentrations. We showed that the endocrine profiles of breeding Adelie penguins can differ markedly between years and/or colonies, and that combining measures of endocrinology, behaviour, and offspring survival can reveal the mechanisms and consequences that different environmental conditions can have on breeding ecology.

year: 2011

title: In their voice: Adult learners' perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing

authors: Furness, Jane Amanda

abstract: In their voice: Adult learners’ perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing (2023) reports on a case study undertaken in collaboration with Literacy Aotearoa. It has been undertaken as part of a larger project, The expression, experience and transcendence of low skill in Aotearoa New Zealand (2019–2024), the aim of which is to provide policy recommendations to improve life-course trajectories and socio-economic outcomes for adults with low literacy and/or numeracy (L+N) skills in Aotearoa New Zealand (Aotearoa). In their voice: Adult learners’ perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing examines adults’ experiences as they navigate their lives and develop their L+N repertoire towards their aspirations for themselves and their families. Our focus is mainly on Māori (the Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa) adults.

The study has taken place at a time when adult L+N policy is at a crossroads in three senses. Policy over the last 23 years has only marginally improved L+N on the measures government uses with adults, yet it is known that wide-ranging, holistic benefits accrue from L+N education that values and embodies Māori interests and ways of being. Second, the most recent iteration of L+N policy expired in 2017 and is yet to be replaced, opening an opportunity for reconceptualisation and transformation of adult L+N policy. Third, Māori educators have articulated and demonstrated over decades the content and approaches for L+N learning that are of interest and value to Māori adults and whānau (immediate and extended family) but these remain by-and-large systemically unsupported. Nevertheless, government expectation is that all policy in Aotearoa account for wellbeing outcomes as set out in the ‘Living Standards Framework ‘and ‘He Ara Waiora’ (The Treasury, 2021, n. d.).

The standpoint for this study is that the Eurocentric perspective of literacy that predominates in adult L+N policy in Aotearoa – reading and writing alphabetic text, usually in English, and primarily for economic purposes – is inadequate in our bicultural nation. This narrow view of literacy and its purposes severely limits the extent to which Māori expectations for adult L+N education and for Māori prosperity are realised, contrary to the word and the spirit of Te Tiriti o Waitangi (The Treaty of Waitangi). Viewing literacy through sociocultural, sociomaterial, critical literacies and Indigenous lenses, the study makes a strong case for a much broader understanding of literacy and its purposes to decolonise adult L+N policy for the future. Supporting this aspiration, the study advances the notion of multiple meanings of literacy in which Māori perspectives are valued, upheld and promoted. Māori perspectives are understood as centring on whakapapa (genealogy) which provides the framework for connectedness of all things and is the basis for Māori identity and for comprehending and interpreting the world. 

The research process was informed by Kaupapa Māori (a Māori agenda) to the extent possible. Māori researchers conducted all but one interview and contributed to the thematic analysis of participants’ narratives. Two Pākehā researchers worked closely with the Māori team members and were guided by them. The specific approach for this case study was co-designed with Literacy Aotearoa to ensure participants’ needs and aspirations in the research were met. Twenty adults (15 Māori, one Samoan and four Pākehā) graciously agreed to share their insights and were interviewed individually, in pairs or in a focus group according to their choice. They were aged from early 20s to late 60s and varied in their qualifications and learning challenges. The same number of men and women took part. The following questions directed the interviews and focus groups:

1. What has motivated people/whānau to make change in their lives?
2. What was the pathway that people/whānau have taken to make change in their lives? 
3. What are people’s experiences of their efforts to make change in their lives? 
4. What have been supports or facilitators, barriers or challenges in their efforts? 

The narrative transcripts were analysed from a critical sociocultural and strengths-based standpoint. Findings were described and discussed in relation to the following broad thematic categories:

 1. What matters to people in their lives – views of wellbeing, values and aspirations
 2. Learning and life pathways – experiences of learning, schooling and post school
 3. What enables people to live the lives they choose
 4. What makes it harder for people to live the lives they choose

The study shows the centrality of te ao Māori (Māori worldview) in the lives of Māori adults and whānau. It is fundamental to Māori identity and wellbeing and remains throughout their lives even when they have experienced periods of disconnection. Enacted valuing of te ao Māori within the programmes enabled participants to feel safe to be who they are, excited about their L+N learning, and looking forward to meaningful outcomes for themselves and their whānau despite the oft-present anxiety about returning to a classroom. Relatedly, prioritising the wellbeing of the learners through caring and respectful learning environments is crucial to coming to and staying in L+N learning opportunities which can then provide an opportunity to transcend hurtful past learning experiences and enable participants to see themselves as capable learners and contributing adults in the world. These characteristics of the participants’ learning experiences in the study programmes reflected values and ways of being fundamental to being Māori which meant the dissonance often experienced in other learning settings was not present and participants could enjoy learning what and how was important to them.

The study notes that L+N in the Eurocentric meaning was addressed in the L+N programmes our participants attended (for example digital skills for work were taught) but the programmes simultaneously embodied broader meanings and purposes of literacy that are not typically foregrounded in L+N policy in Aotearoa. The study contends that the enactment in the programmes of Māori values and ways of being and doing allowed transformative learning to occur, not just for the Māori learners but for everyone. The study demonstrated that L+N learning valued by learners themselves is best defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills that have meaning and are useful in their lives, can contribute to better lives for whānau, hapū and iwi and can be passed on to future generations. Defined from this viewpoint, valued L+N includes matauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) and Māori cultural practices, values and language; foundational skills and knowledge in English missed at school; and specific skills for changing times including work and everyday personal, family and community life that centres whānau (family and extended family) wellbeing.

The study calls for a change in the definition and rationalisation embedded in current (though expired) adult L+N policy from a narrow economy-focused approach to a broad and culturally inclusive definition and rationalisation. This requires detachment from a singular view of what literacy is to a view of literacy as a multiple construct; in other words, seeing literacy as having many meanings. Accompanying this embrace of literacies, Māori perspectives of L+N must move from the margins of adult L+N policy to the centre, led by Māori.

text: In their voice: Adult learners' perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing In their voice: Adult learners’ perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing (2023) reports on a case study undertaken in collaboration with Literacy Aotearoa. It has been undertaken as part of a larger project, The expression, experience and transcendence of low skill in Aotearoa New Zealand (2019–2024), the aim of which is to provide policy recommendations to improve life-course trajectories and socio-economic outcomes for adults with low literacy and/or numeracy (L+N) skills in Aotearoa New Zealand (Aotearoa). In their voice: Adult learners’ perspectives on literacy and numeracy, learning and wellbeing examines adults’ experiences as they navigate their lives and develop their L+N repertoire towards their aspirations for themselves and their families. Our focus is mainly on Māori (the Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa) adults.

The study has taken place at a time when adult L+N policy is at a crossroads in three senses. Policy over the last 23 years has only marginally improved L+N on the measures government uses with adults, yet it is known that wide-ranging, holistic benefits accrue from L+N education that values and embodies Māori interests and ways of being. Second, the most recent iteration of L+N policy expired in 2017 and is yet to be replaced, opening an opportunity for reconceptualisation and transformation of adult L+N policy. Third, Māori educators have articulated and demonstrated over decades the content and approaches for L+N learning that are of interest and value to Māori adults and whānau (immediate and extended family) but these remain by-and-large systemically unsupported. Nevertheless, government expectation is that all policy in Aotearoa account for wellbeing outcomes as set out in the ‘Living Standards Framework ‘and ‘He Ara Waiora’ (The Treasury, 2021, n. d.).

The standpoint for this study is that the Eurocentric perspective of literacy that predominates in adult L+N policy in Aotearoa – reading and writing alphabetic text, usually in English, and primarily for economic purposes – is inadequate in our bicultural nation. This narrow view of literacy and its purposes severely limits the extent to which Māori expectations for adult L+N education and for Māori prosperity are realised, contrary to the word and the spirit of Te Tiriti o Waitangi (The Treaty of Waitangi). Viewing literacy through sociocultural, sociomaterial, critical literacies and Indigenous lenses, the study makes a strong case for a much broader understanding of literacy and its purposes to decolonise adult L+N policy for the future. Supporting this aspiration, the study advances the notion of multiple meanings of literacy in which Māori perspectives are valued, upheld and promoted. Māori perspectives are understood as centring on whakapapa (genealogy) which provides the framework for connectedness of all things and is the basis for Māori identity and for comprehending and interpreting the world. 

The research process was informed by Kaupapa Māori (a Māori agenda) to the extent possible. Māori researchers conducted all but one interview and contributed to the thematic analysis of participants’ narratives. Two Pākehā researchers worked closely with the Māori team members and were guided by them. The specific approach for this case study was co-designed with Literacy Aotearoa to ensure participants’ needs and aspirations in the research were met. Twenty adults (15 Māori, one Samoan and four Pākehā) graciously agreed to share their insights and were interviewed individually, in pairs or in a focus group according to their choice. They were aged from early 20s to late 60s and varied in their qualifications and learning challenges. The same number of men and women took part. The following questions directed the interviews and focus groups:

1. What has motivated people/whānau to make change in their lives?
2. What was the pathway that people/whānau have taken to make change in their lives? 
3. What are people’s experiences of their efforts to make change in their lives? 
4. What have been supports or facilitators, barriers or challenges in their efforts? 

The narrative transcripts were analysed from a critical sociocultural and strengths-based standpoint. Findings were described and discussed in relation to the following broad thematic categories:

 1. What matters to people in their lives – views of wellbeing, values and aspirations
 2. Learning and life pathways – experiences of learning, schooling and post school
 3. What enables people to live the lives they choose
 4. What makes it harder for people to live the lives they choose

The study shows the centrality of te ao Māori (Māori worldview) in the lives of Māori adults and whānau. It is fundamental to Māori identity and wellbeing and remains throughout their lives even when they have experienced periods of disconnection. Enacted valuing of te ao Māori within the programmes enabled participants to feel safe to be who they are, excited about their L+N learning, and looking forward to meaningful outcomes for themselves and their whānau despite the oft-present anxiety about returning to a classroom. Relatedly, prioritising the wellbeing of the learners through caring and respectful learning environments is crucial to coming to and staying in L+N learning opportunities which can then provide an opportunity to transcend hurtful past learning experiences and enable participants to see themselves as capable learners and contributing adults in the world. These characteristics of the participants’ learning experiences in the study programmes reflected values and ways of being fundamental to being Māori which meant the dissonance often experienced in other learning settings was not present and participants could enjoy learning what and how was important to them.

The study notes that L+N in the Eurocentric meaning was addressed in the L+N programmes our participants attended (for example digital skills for work were taught) but the programmes simultaneously embodied broader meanings and purposes of literacy that are not typically foregrounded in L+N policy in Aotearoa. The study contends that the enactment in the programmes of Māori values and ways of being and doing allowed transformative learning to occur, not just for the Māori learners but for everyone. The study demonstrated that L+N learning valued by learners themselves is best defined as the acquisition of knowledge and skills that have meaning and are useful in their lives, can contribute to better lives for whānau, hapū and iwi and can be passed on to future generations. Defined from this viewpoint, valued L+N includes matauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) and Māori cultural practices, values and language; foundational skills and knowledge in English missed at school; and specific skills for changing times including work and everyday personal, family and community life that centres whānau (family and extended family) wellbeing.

The study calls for a change in the definition and rationalisation embedded in current (though expired) adult L+N policy from a narrow economy-focused approach to a broad and culturally inclusive definition and rationalisation. This requires detachment from a singular view of what literacy is to a view of literacy as a multiple construct; in other words, seeing literacy as having many meanings. Accompanying this embrace of literacies, Māori perspectives of L+N must move from the margins of adult L+N policy to the centre, led by Māori.

year: 2023