title: Characterizing the cleaning process of chicken feathers.

authors: Sudalaiyandi, Ganesh

subjects: cleaning

abstract: Recently, there has been a surge in investigating the potential of using natural fibers for reinforcements in composite materials. One such natural fiber having immense potential for use in polymer composites is chicken feather fiber. Every year, over 4.8 million tonnes of chicken feathers are generated globally. Currently, feathers are hydrolyzed into feather-meal which is used as an animal feed and fertilizer. Chicken feathers are cheap, abundant and easily available. These feathers could be used as reinforcements in polymer composites. But, the feathers obtained from meat processing plants are coated with blood, offal fat, preen oil, debris and poultry processing water. This makes the feathers sticky, odoriferous and unfit for use as reinforcement. Extracting lipids from the feathers by leaching results in fibers which are not greasy and improves the fiber-matrix bonding of composites.

The objective of this study was to characterize the cleaning process of chicken feather fibers. Also, the effect of hydrogen peroxide cleaning on the mechanical properties of feather fiber was tested. The raw feathers were decontaminated with sodium hypochlorite and these samples were used for the cleaning experiments. Cleaning was carried out using 0.15 % and 0.25% of H₂O₂. Stages of cleaning and time were varied. The sample to solvent ratio was 10g/500 ml of solvent. It was found that 10 minutes of leaching for 3 stages was efficient in extracting soluble impurities from the feathers. Equilibrium experiments were conducted and a mass balance based on lipid exchange was designed. An equilibrium graph was plotted. Also, single fiber tensile tests were done on the H₂O₂ treated samples. A two parameter Weibull distribution was plotted to predict the failure strength of the fibers. It was found that H₂O₂ treatment on feathers reduces its Tensile strength (by very less magnitude). It was also observed that fibers were not damaged due to H₂O₂ treatment.

text: Characterizing the cleaning process of chicken feathers. Recently, there has been a surge in investigating the potential of using natural fibers for reinforcements in composite materials. One such natural fiber having immense potential for use in polymer composites is chicken feather fiber. Every year, over 4.8 million tonnes of chicken feathers are generated globally. Currently, feathers are hydrolyzed into feather-meal which is used as an animal feed and fertilizer. Chicken feathers are cheap, abundant and easily available. These feathers could be used as reinforcements in polymer composites. But, the feathers obtained from meat processing plants are coated with blood, offal fat, preen oil, debris and poultry processing water. This makes the feathers sticky, odoriferous and unfit for use as reinforcement. Extracting lipids from the feathers by leaching results in fibers which are not greasy and improves the fiber-matrix bonding of composites.

The objective of this study was to characterize the cleaning process of chicken feather fibers. Also, the effect of hydrogen peroxide cleaning on the mechanical properties of feather fiber was tested. The raw feathers were decontaminated with sodium hypochlorite and these samples were used for the cleaning experiments. Cleaning was carried out using 0.15 % and 0.25% of H₂O₂. Stages of cleaning and time were varied. The sample to solvent ratio was 10g/500 ml of solvent. It was found that 10 minutes of leaching for 3 stages was efficient in extracting soluble impurities from the feathers. Equilibrium experiments were conducted and a mass balance based on lipid exchange was designed. An equilibrium graph was plotted. Also, single fiber tensile tests were done on the H₂O₂ treated samples. A two parameter Weibull distribution was plotted to predict the failure strength of the fibers. It was found that H₂O₂ treatment on feathers reduces its Tensile strength (by very less magnitude). It was also observed that fibers were not damaged due to H₂O₂ treatment.

year: 2012

title: A study of novel ferrocenyl-phosphorus compounds

authors: Goodwin, Nicholas J.

abstract: The intent of this investigation was to use the distinctive characteristics of hydroxymethylphosphine chemistry in order to create new ferrocenyl-phosphorus compounds, as well as carry out investigations into both their electrochemistry and their potential for the production of ferrocene-containing polymers. 

The compound FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂ 1 (Fe = ferrocenyl) was prepared by the reaction of P(CH₂OH)₃ with [FcCH₂NMe₃]I, and FcCH₂PPh₂ 2 was prepared by a similar reaction. The compounds FcCH₂P(O)(CH₂OH)₂ 3, FcCH₂P(S)(CH₂OH)₂ 4, FcCH₂P(CH₂CH₂CN)₂ 5, FcCH₂P(CH₂NEt₂)₂ 6, FcCH₂P(O)(CH₂Net₂)₂ 7, [FcCH₂P(Me)(CH₂OH)₂]I 8, FcCH₂P(Me)CH₂OH 9, [(FcCH₂)₂P(CH₂OH)₂]Cl 10, (FcCH₂)₂PCH₂OH 11, FcCH₂P(H)PPh₂ 14 and FcCH₂P(O)PPh₂ 15 were prepared and characterised, and the compounds [FcCH₂P(Bz)(CH₂OH)₂]Br (Bz = benzyl) 12 and FcCH₂P(Bz)CH₂OH 13 were investigated though not fully characterised. The ferrocenylphosphine complexes cis- PtCl₂[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂]₂ 16, PdCl₂[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂]₂ 17, [Au{FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂}₂]Cl 18, RuCl₂(η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂] 19 and RuCl₂ (η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)(FcCH₂PPh₂) 20 were also prepared. X-ray crystal structure determinations were carried out for the compounds 1, 2, 4, 8, 18 and 20, and the solid-state hydrogen-bonding interactions present in the case of 1, 4, 8 and 18 were deduced. 

Hydrogen-bonding in the crystal structures of compounds Ph₂P(O)CH₂OH 21, Ph₂P(S)CH₂OH 22 and Ph₂P(Se)CH₂OH 23 was also investigated. Results were explained in terms of the positioning of hydrogen bonds in line with the direction of lone-pairs on the phosphine chalcogenide heteroatoms. 

The reaction of 1 with sodium metabisulfite in varying amounts was used to produce the compounds FcCH₂PH₂ 24, FcCH₂P(H)CH₂OH 25 and FcCH₂P(O)(OH)CH₂OH 26. The primary phosphine 24 was found to be remarkably air-stable, and was used to prepare the complexes Mo(CO)₅(FcCH₂PH₂) 27, Mo(CO)₄(FcCH₂PH₂)₂ 28, RuCl₂(η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)(FcCH₂PH₂) 29, Ru₃(μ²-H)₂(CO)₉(μ³-PCH₂Fc) 30 and Ru₄(CO)₁₀(μ²-CO)(μ³-PCH₂Fc)₂ 31. Confirmation of the structures of 24, 27, 28 and 30 was obtained using X-ray crystallography. 

Cyclic voltammetric analysis of the electrochemical behaviour of 1, 2, 5, 24, 2S and FcCH(Me)P(CH₂OH)₂ 32 showed that these compounds exhibit a reversible one-electron oxidation followed by a chemical reaction, which leads to formation of a product which undergoes another reversible one-electron oxidation at higher potential. The rate-determining step for the reaction is intermolecular. BE (bulk electrolysis) of 1, 2 and 5 gave similar results in each case, with one-electron oxidation appearing to initially oxidise the ferrocene centre; in the case of 2 and 5 a green colour characteristic of ferrocenium species is seen during BE, but disappears with time. The conclusion was reached that this initial ferrocenium charge is transferred to another part of the molecule. Evidence from NMR and electrospray mass spectrometric analysis of BE products for 1 and 2 suggests the formation of unusual dimeric species is the end result of oxidation. The ferrocenylphosphine 11 shows simpler electrochemical behaviour consistent with previous literature. Compounds 3, 4, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 30 showed very simple electrochemical behaviour consistent with one chemically and electrochemically reversible ferrocene redox couple. Cyclic voltammetry of the complexes 19, 20 and 29 showed both ferrocene and ruthenium redox processes. The electrochemistry of 7 was complex and not intensively investigated.  

Reaction of 1 with multi-functional secondary amines was used to produce a number of polymeric materials which were investigated using cyclic voltammetry of DMF solutions carbon paste electrodes and drop-coated electrodes. Attempts to covalently bind one of these, polymers to a glassy carbon electrode were unsuccessful. The most electrochemically stable form of electrode investigated was the carbon paste electrode, although the materials did not appear to show great promise for use in such applications, due to irreversible chemical changes in the polymers and quick decay of the ferrocene redox signal upon subjection to cyclic voltammetry.

text: A study of novel ferrocenyl-phosphorus compounds The intent of this investigation was to use the distinctive characteristics of hydroxymethylphosphine chemistry in order to create new ferrocenyl-phosphorus compounds, as well as carry out investigations into both their electrochemistry and their potential for the production of ferrocene-containing polymers. 

The compound FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂ 1 (Fe = ferrocenyl) was prepared by the reaction of P(CH₂OH)₃ with [FcCH₂NMe₃]I, and FcCH₂PPh₂ 2 was prepared by a similar reaction. The compounds FcCH₂P(O)(CH₂OH)₂ 3, FcCH₂P(S)(CH₂OH)₂ 4, FcCH₂P(CH₂CH₂CN)₂ 5, FcCH₂P(CH₂NEt₂)₂ 6, FcCH₂P(O)(CH₂Net₂)₂ 7, [FcCH₂P(Me)(CH₂OH)₂]I 8, FcCH₂P(Me)CH₂OH 9, [(FcCH₂)₂P(CH₂OH)₂]Cl 10, (FcCH₂)₂PCH₂OH 11, FcCH₂P(H)PPh₂ 14 and FcCH₂P(O)PPh₂ 15 were prepared and characterised, and the compounds [FcCH₂P(Bz)(CH₂OH)₂]Br (Bz = benzyl) 12 and FcCH₂P(Bz)CH₂OH 13 were investigated though not fully characterised. The ferrocenylphosphine complexes cis- PtCl₂[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂]₂ 16, PdCl₂[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂]₂ 17, [Au{FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂}₂]Cl 18, RuCl₂(η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)[FcCH₂P(CH₂OH)₂] 19 and RuCl₂ (η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)(FcCH₂PPh₂) 20 were also prepared. X-ray crystal structure determinations were carried out for the compounds 1, 2, 4, 8, 18 and 20, and the solid-state hydrogen-bonding interactions present in the case of 1, 4, 8 and 18 were deduced. 

Hydrogen-bonding in the crystal structures of compounds Ph₂P(O)CH₂OH 21, Ph₂P(S)CH₂OH 22 and Ph₂P(Se)CH₂OH 23 was also investigated. Results were explained in terms of the positioning of hydrogen bonds in line with the direction of lone-pairs on the phosphine chalcogenide heteroatoms. 

The reaction of 1 with sodium metabisulfite in varying amounts was used to produce the compounds FcCH₂PH₂ 24, FcCH₂P(H)CH₂OH 25 and FcCH₂P(O)(OH)CH₂OH 26. The primary phosphine 24 was found to be remarkably air-stable, and was used to prepare the complexes Mo(CO)₅(FcCH₂PH₂) 27, Mo(CO)₄(FcCH₂PH₂)₂ 28, RuCl₂(η⁶-C₁₀H₁₄)(FcCH₂PH₂) 29, Ru₃(μ²-H)₂(CO)₉(μ³-PCH₂Fc) 30 and Ru₄(CO)₁₀(μ²-CO)(μ³-PCH₂Fc)₂ 31. Confirmation of the structures of 24, 27, 28 and 30 was obtained using X-ray crystallography. 

Cyclic voltammetric analysis of the electrochemical behaviour of 1, 2, 5, 24, 2S and FcCH(Me)P(CH₂OH)₂ 32 showed that these compounds exhibit a reversible one-electron oxidation followed by a chemical reaction, which leads to formation of a product which undergoes another reversible one-electron oxidation at higher potential. The rate-determining step for the reaction is intermolecular. BE (bulk electrolysis) of 1, 2 and 5 gave similar results in each case, with one-electron oxidation appearing to initially oxidise the ferrocene centre; in the case of 2 and 5 a green colour characteristic of ferrocenium species is seen during BE, but disappears with time. The conclusion was reached that this initial ferrocenium charge is transferred to another part of the molecule. Evidence from NMR and electrospray mass spectrometric analysis of BE products for 1 and 2 suggests the formation of unusual dimeric species is the end result of oxidation. The ferrocenylphosphine 11 shows simpler electrochemical behaviour consistent with previous literature. Compounds 3, 4, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 and 30 showed very simple electrochemical behaviour consistent with one chemically and electrochemically reversible ferrocene redox couple. Cyclic voltammetry of the complexes 19, 20 and 29 showed both ferrocene and ruthenium redox processes. The electrochemistry of 7 was complex and not intensively investigated.  

Reaction of 1 with multi-functional secondary amines was used to produce a number of polymeric materials which were investigated using cyclic voltammetry of DMF solutions carbon paste electrodes and drop-coated electrodes. Attempts to covalently bind one of these, polymers to a glassy carbon electrode were unsuccessful. The most electrochemically stable form of electrode investigated was the carbon paste electrode, although the materials did not appear to show great promise for use in such applications, due to irreversible chemical changes in the polymers and quick decay of the ferrocene redox signal upon subjection to cyclic voltammetry.

year: 1998

title: Health equity and wellbeing among older people's caregivers in New Zealand during COVID-19: Protocol for a qualitative study.

authors: Burholt, Vanessa

subjects: Aged

abstract: BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the challenges unpaid caregivers faced providing care to older people during the COVID-19 pandemic is limited. Challenges may be especially pronounced for those experiencing inequitable access to health and social care. This participatory action research study, located in New Zealand, has four main objectives, (i) to understand the challenges and rewards associated with caregiving to older care recipients during the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions; (ii) to map and collate resources developed (or mobilised) by organisations during the pandemic; (iii) to co-produce policy recommendations, identify useful caregiver resources and practices, prioritise unmet needs (challenges); and, (iv) to use project results in knowledge translation, in order to improve caregivers access to resources, and raise the profile and recognition of caregivers contribution to society. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Māori, Pacific and rural-dwelling caregivers to 30 older care-recipients, and 30 representatives from organisations supporting caregivers in New Zealand will be interviewed. Combining data from the interviews and caregivers letters (from an archive of older people's pandemic experiences), framework analysis will be used to examine the interrelated systems of the human ecological model and the impact on caregiving experiences during the pandemic. Resources that service providers had created or used for caregivers and older people will be collated and categorised. Through co-production with caregivers and community partners we will produce three short films describing caregivers' pandemic experiences; identify a suite of resources for caregivers to use in future events requiring self-isolation, and in everyday life; and generate ideas to address unresolved issues.

text: Health equity and wellbeing among older people's caregivers in New Zealand during COVID-19: Protocol for a qualitative study. BACKGROUND: Knowledge of the challenges unpaid caregivers faced providing care to older people during the COVID-19 pandemic is limited. Challenges may be especially pronounced for those experiencing inequitable access to health and social care. This participatory action research study, located in New Zealand, has four main objectives, (i) to understand the challenges and rewards associated with caregiving to older care recipients during the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions; (ii) to map and collate resources developed (or mobilised) by organisations during the pandemic; (iii) to co-produce policy recommendations, identify useful caregiver resources and practices, prioritise unmet needs (challenges); and, (iv) to use project results in knowledge translation, in order to improve caregivers access to resources, and raise the profile and recognition of caregivers contribution to society. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: Māori, Pacific and rural-dwelling caregivers to 30 older care-recipients, and 30 representatives from organisations supporting caregivers in New Zealand will be interviewed. Combining data from the interviews and caregivers letters (from an archive of older people's pandemic experiences), framework analysis will be used to examine the interrelated systems of the human ecological model and the impact on caregiving experiences during the pandemic. Resources that service providers had created or used for caregivers and older people will be collated and categorised. Through co-production with caregivers and community partners we will produce three short films describing caregivers' pandemic experiences; identify a suite of resources for caregivers to use in future events requiring self-isolation, and in everyday life; and generate ideas to address unresolved issues.

year: 2022