title: How do Pacific island households and communities cope with seasonally absent members?

authors: Rohorua, Halahingano Tu'akolo Siufanga

subjects: households

abstract: Households and communities in the Pacific islands are increasingly likely to have some of their most productive members regularly absent due to growing opportunities for seasonal work abroad. If these absences are costly for the family left behind, the net development benefits of seasonal migration will be less than what they appear from remittances and repatriated foreign earnings, and there might be a role for government policies in host and source countries to mitigate some of the effects of absence. This article provides the first evidence of how Pacific island households and communities are affected by and cope with seasonal absences. We find that Tongan households have succeeded in mitigating many of the potential adverse effects associated with seasonal separation of members, whereas households from Vanuatu with members participating in the RSE appear to have suffered some shortterm costs in terms of diet and health.

text: How do Pacific island households and communities cope with seasonally absent members? Households and communities in the Pacific islands are increasingly likely to have some of their most productive members regularly absent due to growing opportunities for seasonal work abroad. If these absences are costly for the family left behind, the net development benefits of seasonal migration will be less than what they appear from remittances and repatriated foreign earnings, and there might be a role for government policies in host and source countries to mitigate some of the effects of absence. This article provides the first evidence of how Pacific island households and communities are affected by and cope with seasonal absences. We find that Tongan households have succeeded in mitigating many of the potential adverse effects associated with seasonal separation of members, whereas households from Vanuatu with members participating in the RSE appear to have suffered some shortterm costs in terms of diet and health.

year: 2009

title: Earnings management and agency costs: Evidence from China

authors: Man, Yimei

subjects: earnings management

abstract: Based on agency theory, this thesis investigates the link between agency costs and earnings management (EM) using data from listed public companies in China from 1999 to 2014. In this thesis, I examine whether EM reduces agency costs in China, where companies suffer from agency problems. Using static and dynamic models to test the agency costs/EM nexus, I find a significant and positive relationship between agency costs and EM based on a static model that suggests opportunistic EM in China. These results are consistent with suggestions in the literature that EM can be used opportunistically by managers with regard to agency costs (e.g., Dechow & Sloan, 1991; Guidry, Leone, & Rock, 1999; Healy, 1985; Holthausen, Larcker, & Sloan, 1995). However, I find an insignificant relationship between agency costs and EM using a dynamic model that takes into account the endogeneity issue. Therefore, my results suggest that engagement in EM has no significant influence on agency costs in China. Furthermore, board size, board independence, firm size, leverage and CEO duality, which are conventionally thought to be important in explaining agency costs, do not have a significant impact. The results add support to the growing literature on the relevance of endogeneity issues in corporate governance studies, since failing to take these into account can lead to spurious results.
This thesis examines both principal-agent and principal-principal agency costs. The concept of traditional principal-agent agency conflict caused by the separation of ownership and management was conceived in a developed market context. However, in emerging economies, principal-principal agency conflicts are the major concerns in corporate governance. Emerging economies are characterized by weak legal protection, high information asymmetry, and concentrated ownership structures, which provide the economic and institutional roots for principal-principal agency conflicts. 
Based on agency theory, Jiraporn, Miller, Yoon, and Kim (2008) relate agency costs to the extent of EM, and find the practice of EM, on average, reduces agency conflicts in the U.S. In emerging economies, with weak institutional environments and highly concentrated ownership structures, managers become affiliated to the dominant shareholders, and principal-principal agency costs become prevalent. As in other emerging economies, the Chinese market is also subject to characteristics such as highly concentrated ownership structures, weak protection for minority shareholders and uneven legal enforcement.  Therefore, this thesis accommodates principal-agent and principal-principal agency costs in relation to EM in China. 
The endogeneity issue was the major concern when conducting this study. We add new empirical evidence to support the growing literature on concerns relating to endogeneity issues in corporate governance studies. Consistent with the prior studies of Wintoki, Linck, and Netter (2012) and Schultz, Tan, and Walsh (2010), I show that failing to take endogeneity issues into account can lead to spurious results; therefore, caution must be exerted in making policy implications based on empirical results that fail to address endogeneity issues. I expect my results to be of great interest to academics involved in researching corporate governance topics that have inherited dynamic natures and endogeneity issues. 
As agency cost is a fundamental problem in corporate governance worldwide, this study is expected to be of interest to regulatory and supervisory authorities, investors, and financial analysts. The findings are inconsistent with what is implied by Agency theory, suggesting that corporate governance in China is different; therefore conventional western market theory may not fully incorporate the corporate governance dilemmas prevailing in emerging economies. In agreement with researchers such as Young, Ahlstrom, and Bruton (2004), I suggest that creative solutions need to be explored by emerging economies to resolve their particular agency conflicts in their specific institutional contexts, which indicates fruitful avenues for future research.

text: Earnings management and agency costs: Evidence from China Based on agency theory, this thesis investigates the link between agency costs and earnings management (EM) using data from listed public companies in China from 1999 to 2014. In this thesis, I examine whether EM reduces agency costs in China, where companies suffer from agency problems. Using static and dynamic models to test the agency costs/EM nexus, I find a significant and positive relationship between agency costs and EM based on a static model that suggests opportunistic EM in China. These results are consistent with suggestions in the literature that EM can be used opportunistically by managers with regard to agency costs (e.g., Dechow & Sloan, 1991; Guidry, Leone, & Rock, 1999; Healy, 1985; Holthausen, Larcker, & Sloan, 1995). However, I find an insignificant relationship between agency costs and EM using a dynamic model that takes into account the endogeneity issue. Therefore, my results suggest that engagement in EM has no significant influence on agency costs in China. Furthermore, board size, board independence, firm size, leverage and CEO duality, which are conventionally thought to be important in explaining agency costs, do not have a significant impact. The results add support to the growing literature on the relevance of endogeneity issues in corporate governance studies, since failing to take these into account can lead to spurious results.
This thesis examines both principal-agent and principal-principal agency costs. The concept of traditional principal-agent agency conflict caused by the separation of ownership and management was conceived in a developed market context. However, in emerging economies, principal-principal agency conflicts are the major concerns in corporate governance. Emerging economies are characterized by weak legal protection, high information asymmetry, and concentrated ownership structures, which provide the economic and institutional roots for principal-principal agency conflicts. 
Based on agency theory, Jiraporn, Miller, Yoon, and Kim (2008) relate agency costs to the extent of EM, and find the practice of EM, on average, reduces agency conflicts in the U.S. In emerging economies, with weak institutional environments and highly concentrated ownership structures, managers become affiliated to the dominant shareholders, and principal-principal agency costs become prevalent. As in other emerging economies, the Chinese market is also subject to characteristics such as highly concentrated ownership structures, weak protection for minority shareholders and uneven legal enforcement.  Therefore, this thesis accommodates principal-agent and principal-principal agency costs in relation to EM in China. 
The endogeneity issue was the major concern when conducting this study. We add new empirical evidence to support the growing literature on concerns relating to endogeneity issues in corporate governance studies. Consistent with the prior studies of Wintoki, Linck, and Netter (2012) and Schultz, Tan, and Walsh (2010), I show that failing to take endogeneity issues into account can lead to spurious results; therefore, caution must be exerted in making policy implications based on empirical results that fail to address endogeneity issues. I expect my results to be of great interest to academics involved in researching corporate governance topics that have inherited dynamic natures and endogeneity issues. 
As agency cost is a fundamental problem in corporate governance worldwide, this study is expected to be of interest to regulatory and supervisory authorities, investors, and financial analysts. The findings are inconsistent with what is implied by Agency theory, suggesting that corporate governance in China is different; therefore conventional western market theory may not fully incorporate the corporate governance dilemmas prevailing in emerging economies. In agreement with researchers such as Young, Ahlstrom, and Bruton (2004), I suggest that creative solutions need to be explored by emerging economies to resolve their particular agency conflicts in their specific institutional contexts, which indicates fruitful avenues for future research.

year: 2019

title: The importance of Māori identity for athletes and sportspeople within sporting contexts

authors: Westrupp, Maia Takamoana

subjects: Māori

abstract: Identity is an important concept within psychology given its influence upon how we perceive ourselves, who we are as people, and how it can impact behaviour. For Māori, colonisation has had a detrimental impact on the maintenance and flourishing of a strong cultural identity. Sport is an area where Māori have not only contributed successfully nationally and internationally alongside Pakeha, but have been able to either affirm or rebuild their sense of cultural identity and connectedness. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the importance of Māori identity for athletes and sports people within a sporting context. This research project encompassed a qualitative approach, drawing upon a kaupapa Māori research paradigm. Semi-structured interviews were employed to ascertain in depth knowledge of participant’s experiences. A total of six participants took part in this study, all of whom were made up of athletes, coaches, and sports psychologists. When interpreting participants understanding of Māori identity within a sporting context, participants indicated a desire to configure their Māori identity based on Māori cultural concepts such as whakapapa, manaakitanga, and pēpeha. The key findings also identified a link between Māori identity and sport as participants illustrated how important Māori identity was within their sports team and organisation. Participants also indicated an unconscious link to enhanced sporting behaviours given the essence of Māori identity and the significance it places on serving the collective. Ultimately, for Māori athletes and sports people, the sporting realm offers an opportunity to engage and reaffirm Māori identity. Additionally, the value sporting teams and organisations place on Māori identity, can lead to flourishing in sport given the behaviours that may transpire by connecting the individual beyond purely, the physical domain.

text: The importance of Māori identity for athletes and sportspeople within sporting contexts Identity is an important concept within psychology given its influence upon how we perceive ourselves, who we are as people, and how it can impact behaviour. For Māori, colonisation has had a detrimental impact on the maintenance and flourishing of a strong cultural identity. Sport is an area where Māori have not only contributed successfully nationally and internationally alongside Pakeha, but have been able to either affirm or rebuild their sense of cultural identity and connectedness. The purpose of this thesis is to examine the importance of Māori identity for athletes and sports people within a sporting context. This research project encompassed a qualitative approach, drawing upon a kaupapa Māori research paradigm. Semi-structured interviews were employed to ascertain in depth knowledge of participant’s experiences. A total of six participants took part in this study, all of whom were made up of athletes, coaches, and sports psychologists. When interpreting participants understanding of Māori identity within a sporting context, participants indicated a desire to configure their Māori identity based on Māori cultural concepts such as whakapapa, manaakitanga, and pēpeha. The key findings also identified a link between Māori identity and sport as participants illustrated how important Māori identity was within their sports team and organisation. Participants also indicated an unconscious link to enhanced sporting behaviours given the essence of Māori identity and the significance it places on serving the collective. Ultimately, for Māori athletes and sports people, the sporting realm offers an opportunity to engage and reaffirm Māori identity. Additionally, the value sporting teams and organisations place on Māori identity, can lead to flourishing in sport given the behaviours that may transpire by connecting the individual beyond purely, the physical domain.

year: 2022