title: Typographic emphasis of headings: Methods of typographic emphasis to assist with search of unfamiliar and familiar text

authors: Timpany, Claire

subjects: Typography

abstract: Readers use headings to understand the structure and content of a text, and to locate information. Readers understand the structure of a text by building an understanding of the structure of the content through developing relationships between the sections of content. Headings assist readers with both their comprehension of text as well as assisting them with recall of the content. Headings provide signals to readers to aid navigation of a document by indicating the structure of topics. This helps readers to locate information both through signalling the content of text that may be unfamiliar or providing markers to assist with the recall of the location of information in a familiar text. 
The importance of headings is known; however, little research exists to indicate how these important organisational features of text should be presented visually. This research was undertaken to fill this gap in our understanding of how headings can assist readers. Five studies were carried out to investigate which heading emphasis methods are most easily identified within a passage of text and which of these methods best assist readers with searching text. 
An initial survey of current practice for emphasising headings revealed that there are six main methods for emphasising headings and these are often used in combination with each other to create stronger emphasis. It was also revealed that the presentation of headings in the same publication across print and digital formats is often inconsistent. This survey was used to help inform which heading emphasis methods were used in the paired comparison studies to test for ease of identification. 
Three paired comparison studies were then undertaken to establish which methods of typographic emphasis are most easily identified within a passage of text. These studies compared seven individual typographic emphasis methods with each other in print and on screen then compared five combinations of typographic emphasis methods in print and on screen. These studies found that emphasis methods with the greatest visual weight were the most easily identified. 
The most easily identifiable heading emphasis methods were then evaluated in search tasks to evaluate which of the four heading styles provided the most assistance when searching for answers in a screen-based text. This research showed that when headings are emphasised using styles that combine two heading emphasis methods they are easier to distinguish from the body copy surrounding them. These more easily identifiable headings are more useful to readers when they are searching for information in a text, both when the text is unfamiliar and when it is familiar. 
When bold is combined with either an increase in size or a sans serif typeface to create a heading, readers are able to more quickly and accurately find information within a document, whether that text is unfamiliar or familiar.

text: Typographic emphasis of headings: Methods of typographic emphasis to assist with search of unfamiliar and familiar text Readers use headings to understand the structure and content of a text, and to locate information. Readers understand the structure of a text by building an understanding of the structure of the content through developing relationships between the sections of content. Headings assist readers with both their comprehension of text as well as assisting them with recall of the content. Headings provide signals to readers to aid navigation of a document by indicating the structure of topics. This helps readers to locate information both through signalling the content of text that may be unfamiliar or providing markers to assist with the recall of the location of information in a familiar text. 
The importance of headings is known; however, little research exists to indicate how these important organisational features of text should be presented visually. This research was undertaken to fill this gap in our understanding of how headings can assist readers. Five studies were carried out to investigate which heading emphasis methods are most easily identified within a passage of text and which of these methods best assist readers with searching text. 
An initial survey of current practice for emphasising headings revealed that there are six main methods for emphasising headings and these are often used in combination with each other to create stronger emphasis. It was also revealed that the presentation of headings in the same publication across print and digital formats is often inconsistent. This survey was used to help inform which heading emphasis methods were used in the paired comparison studies to test for ease of identification. 
Three paired comparison studies were then undertaken to establish which methods of typographic emphasis are most easily identified within a passage of text. These studies compared seven individual typographic emphasis methods with each other in print and on screen then compared five combinations of typographic emphasis methods in print and on screen. These studies found that emphasis methods with the greatest visual weight were the most easily identified. 
The most easily identifiable heading emphasis methods were then evaluated in search tasks to evaluate which of the four heading styles provided the most assistance when searching for answers in a screen-based text. This research showed that when headings are emphasised using styles that combine two heading emphasis methods they are easier to distinguish from the body copy surrounding them. These more easily identifiable headings are more useful to readers when they are searching for information in a text, both when the text is unfamiliar and when it is familiar. 
When bold is combined with either an increase in size or a sans serif typeface to create a heading, readers are able to more quickly and accurately find information within a document, whether that text is unfamiliar or familiar.

year: 2018

title: Wave-frequency flows within a near-bed vegetation canopy

authors: Henderson, Stephen M.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: We study water flows and wave dissipation within near-bed pneumatophore canopies at the wave-exposed fringe of a mangrove forest on Cù Lao Dung Island, in the Mekong Delta. To evaluate canopy drag, the three-dimensional geometry of pneumatophore stems growing upward from the buried lateral roots of Sonneratia caseolaris mangroves was reconstructed from photogrammetric surveys. In cases where hydrodynamic measurements were obtained, up to 84 stems per square meter were observed, with stem heights <  0.6 m, and basal diameters 0.01–0.02 m. The parameter α =(frontal area of pneumatophores blocking the flow)/(canopy volume) ranged from zero to 1.8m−¹. Within-canopy water velocity displayed a phase lead and slight attenuation relative to above-canopy flows. The phase lead was frequency-dependent, ranging from 0 to 30 degrees at the frequencies of energetic waves ( >0.1 Hz), and up to 90 degrees at lower frequencies. A model is developed for wave-induced flows within the vertically variable canopy. Scaling suggests that acceleration-induced forces and vertical mixing were negligible at wave frequencies. Consistent with theory, drag-induced vertical variability in velocity scaled with ꓥ = Tw/(2πTf) , where Tw=wave period, Tf=2/(CD₍ₐ|ᵤ|₎) is the frictional time scale, CD≈2 is the drag coefficient, and  |ᵤ| is a typical flow speed. For fixed wave conditions ( |ᵤ| and Tw), theory predicts increasing dissipation with increasing vegetation density (i.e. increasing a), until a maximum is reached for order-one Λ. For larger Λ, within-canopy flow is so inhibited by drag that further increases in a reduce within-canopy dissipation. For observed cases, Λ≤0.38 at energetic wave frequencies, so wave dissipation near the forest edge is expected to increase with increasing pneumatophore canopy density. However, under different wave conditions, the most dense canopies may occasionally approach the dissipation maximum (Λ≈1). Predicted dissipation by the pneumatophore canopy was sufficient to attenuate most wave energy over distances slightly less (more) than 100 m into the marsh in 1 m (2 m) water depth.

text: Wave-frequency flows within a near-bed vegetation canopy We study water flows and wave dissipation within near-bed pneumatophore canopies at the wave-exposed fringe of a mangrove forest on Cù Lao Dung Island, in the Mekong Delta. To evaluate canopy drag, the three-dimensional geometry of pneumatophore stems growing upward from the buried lateral roots of Sonneratia caseolaris mangroves was reconstructed from photogrammetric surveys. In cases where hydrodynamic measurements were obtained, up to 84 stems per square meter were observed, with stem heights <  0.6 m, and basal diameters 0.01–0.02 m. The parameter α =(frontal area of pneumatophores blocking the flow)/(canopy volume) ranged from zero to 1.8m−¹. Within-canopy water velocity displayed a phase lead and slight attenuation relative to above-canopy flows. The phase lead was frequency-dependent, ranging from 0 to 30 degrees at the frequencies of energetic waves ( >0.1 Hz), and up to 90 degrees at lower frequencies. A model is developed for wave-induced flows within the vertically variable canopy. Scaling suggests that acceleration-induced forces and vertical mixing were negligible at wave frequencies. Consistent with theory, drag-induced vertical variability in velocity scaled with ꓥ = Tw/(2πTf) , where Tw=wave period, Tf=2/(CD₍ₐ|ᵤ|₎) is the frictional time scale, CD≈2 is the drag coefficient, and  |ᵤ| is a typical flow speed. For fixed wave conditions ( |ᵤ| and Tw), theory predicts increasing dissipation with increasing vegetation density (i.e. increasing a), until a maximum is reached for order-one Λ. For larger Λ, within-canopy flow is so inhibited by drag that further increases in a reduce within-canopy dissipation. For observed cases, Λ≤0.38 at energetic wave frequencies, so wave dissipation near the forest edge is expected to increase with increasing pneumatophore canopy density. However, under different wave conditions, the most dense canopies may occasionally approach the dissipation maximum (Λ≈1). Predicted dissipation by the pneumatophore canopy was sufficient to attenuate most wave energy over distances slightly less (more) than 100 m into the marsh in 1 m (2 m) water depth.

year: 2017

title: 'Kōrero Tuku Iho': Reconfiguring Oral History and Oral Tradition

authors: Mahuika, Nepia

subjects: History

abstract: The studies of oral history and oral tradition each have their own distinctive bodies of literature and preferred methodologies, yet share significant overlaps that make them difficult to differentiate. For many indigenous peoples, oral histories and traditions are key to their their past, present, and future lives, and are rarely considered separate. This thesis examines the differences and similarities between the studies of oral history and oral tradition. It explores how these areas of research converge and diverge in form, politics, practice, and theory, and the extent to which they resonate within a specific ‘indigenous’ context and community.
The thesis draws on the life narrative interviews of four generations of Ngāti Porou descendents, the second largest tribal group in New Zealand, whose home boundaries extend from Potikirua in the north to Te Toka-a-Taiau in the south on the East Coast of the North Island. Drawing on these voices, this study offers a commentary on the form and nature of oral traditions and histories from an indigenous perspective, and explores the ways they converge and depart from ‘international’ understandings. An exploration of these intersections offers insights to the ways oral history and oral traditions might be reconsidered as distinctive fields of study. Reconfigured through an indigenous frame of reference, this thesis challenges scholars of both oral history and oral tradition to expand their conceptions. Likewise, it urges indigenous scholars to consider more deeply the work of oral historians and oral traditionalists to further enhance their scholarship. Moreover, this thesis revisits the intellectual and conceptual territory that names and claims oral history and oral tradition, and invites all those who work in these areas to develop a more extensive comprehension of the interconnections that exist between each area of study.

text: 'Kōrero Tuku Iho': Reconfiguring Oral History and Oral Tradition The studies of oral history and oral tradition each have their own distinctive bodies of literature and preferred methodologies, yet share significant overlaps that make them difficult to differentiate. For many indigenous peoples, oral histories and traditions are key to their their past, present, and future lives, and are rarely considered separate. This thesis examines the differences and similarities between the studies of oral history and oral tradition. It explores how these areas of research converge and diverge in form, politics, practice, and theory, and the extent to which they resonate within a specific ‘indigenous’ context and community.
The thesis draws on the life narrative interviews of four generations of Ngāti Porou descendents, the second largest tribal group in New Zealand, whose home boundaries extend from Potikirua in the north to Te Toka-a-Taiau in the south on the East Coast of the North Island. Drawing on these voices, this study offers a commentary on the form and nature of oral traditions and histories from an indigenous perspective, and explores the ways they converge and depart from ‘international’ understandings. An exploration of these intersections offers insights to the ways oral history and oral traditions might be reconsidered as distinctive fields of study. Reconfigured through an indigenous frame of reference, this thesis challenges scholars of both oral history and oral tradition to expand their conceptions. Likewise, it urges indigenous scholars to consider more deeply the work of oral historians and oral traditionalists to further enhance their scholarship. Moreover, this thesis revisits the intellectual and conceptual territory that names and claims oral history and oral tradition, and invites all those who work in these areas to develop a more extensive comprehension of the interconnections that exist between each area of study.

year: 2012