title: Sojourners and social exchange: Family and friends’ interpersonal ties across China-New Zealand borders

authors: Wang, Xi

subjects: Transnational sojourner

abstract: Sojourners are peripatetic, making multiple, open-ended circular trips to other countries for a range of purposes. Nonetheless, sojourners retain interpersonal ties with their families and friends who remain in the homeland, and may return ‘home’ in times of need. The pace and direction of continual international travel appears linked to the family life cycle, yet the mutual interdependencies of interpersonal ties are not well understood.
A review of the literature suggests that this study is one of the first to explore the roles that family ties and friendships play in shaping the lives of sojourners and their ‘stay-behinds’ within the context of Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel. A key overarching question emerges to guide the research: What is the interplay of transnational interpersonal ties, wellbeing, and VFR travel in shaping the lives of Chinese sojourners abroad and their family and friends in China? Social exchange is the key scholarly perspective used to examine the nature and meanings of transnational relationships.
The researcher’s positionality as a transnational sojourner locates him centrally within the researcher-participant continuum, so he was able to create empathy and inter-subjectivities which uncover social dynamics and cultural nuances. A hermeneutic methodology extends researcher’s positionality into the research design, enabling mutual reflection and synthesis of respective views regarding living transnational lives.
Respective spheres of transnational family and friend interactions are captured in two samples: 44 sojourners (prolonged stay, freedom of movement permits) who had lived in New Zealand for more than three years, and 36 family members and friends resident in China. Paired roles in transnational interactions and nations of residence were obtained, although the initial intention had been to create family tie- and friendship-matched samples in both countries, but proved impossible to achieve. Consistent with Chinese cultural norms of respect and privacy, most participants refused to provide their paired counterparts’ contact details. Also, it would have been too costly in terms of field work time to track paired widely-dispersed participants. Although this is a study limitation, the knowledge that paired family members or friends were not in the same study encouraged open and free disclosure.
The study used both video-recorded focus groups and audio-recorded in-depth interviews, conducted in the same timeframe to capitalise on the complementarities of each method, enlarge the depth and scope of study, and facilitate participation. Constant comparative thematic analysis was used to identify the themes, assisted by NVivo, a data management software package that helps researchers analyse emerging themes.
The findings contribute to new knowledge. Chinese sojourners abroad and families and friends in China tend to preserve the over-stretched ties that are crucial to their wellbeing. Family ties and friendships played common, but also very different roles in shaping their lives, evidenced by the nature, meanings, and dynamics of social exchanges.
This study also contributes to theory development, by indicating that social exchange theory is insufficient to explain all the dynamics behind transnational social interactions, in particular, VFR visiting and hosting. This study identified a range of emerging concepts that also influence the social interactions/exchanges between the two sides, and contribute previously unidentified dimensions that nuance social exchange theory for this context. For example, over time, a widening gap in the cultural backgrounds between the sojourners and those who remain in China develops, demonstrated by articulated conflicts and silences in their interactions, especially during actual travel periods. These potentially threaten the wellbeing of all parties. Also, the family life cycle plays a continual role in shaping family members’ needs and felt obligations, giving rise to the fluid and continual transnational support exchanges.
Further, this study has implications for practice in an era, when COVID becomes the ‘new normal’. From a micro-level, the findings may help populations of Chinese sojourners abroad and their families and friends in China understand how their respective roles and the dynamics behind the social exchanges shape the wellbeing of all participants and transnational ties. From a meso-level, this study may help the Chinese and New Zealand tourism and hospitality industries identify VFR travel motivators, understand travel patterns, support the international traveling populations, and recognise the opportunity for developing domestic travel in a post-COVID, pandemic-aware world. From a macro-level, this study provides implications for future Chinese migration/sojourning patterns, identifies key issues Chinese families face, contributes to immigration policy making in host countries, and offers advice on looking after Chinese migrant families who cannot receive sufficient support from their homeland. Finally, the research limitations are discussed and some suggestions for future research were given.

text: Sojourners and social exchange: Family and friends’ interpersonal ties across China-New Zealand borders Sojourners are peripatetic, making multiple, open-ended circular trips to other countries for a range of purposes. Nonetheless, sojourners retain interpersonal ties with their families and friends who remain in the homeland, and may return ‘home’ in times of need. The pace and direction of continual international travel appears linked to the family life cycle, yet the mutual interdependencies of interpersonal ties are not well understood.
A review of the literature suggests that this study is one of the first to explore the roles that family ties and friendships play in shaping the lives of sojourners and their ‘stay-behinds’ within the context of Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) travel. A key overarching question emerges to guide the research: What is the interplay of transnational interpersonal ties, wellbeing, and VFR travel in shaping the lives of Chinese sojourners abroad and their family and friends in China? Social exchange is the key scholarly perspective used to examine the nature and meanings of transnational relationships.
The researcher’s positionality as a transnational sojourner locates him centrally within the researcher-participant continuum, so he was able to create empathy and inter-subjectivities which uncover social dynamics and cultural nuances. A hermeneutic methodology extends researcher’s positionality into the research design, enabling mutual reflection and synthesis of respective views regarding living transnational lives.
Respective spheres of transnational family and friend interactions are captured in two samples: 44 sojourners (prolonged stay, freedom of movement permits) who had lived in New Zealand for more than three years, and 36 family members and friends resident in China. Paired roles in transnational interactions and nations of residence were obtained, although the initial intention had been to create family tie- and friendship-matched samples in both countries, but proved impossible to achieve. Consistent with Chinese cultural norms of respect and privacy, most participants refused to provide their paired counterparts’ contact details. Also, it would have been too costly in terms of field work time to track paired widely-dispersed participants. Although this is a study limitation, the knowledge that paired family members or friends were not in the same study encouraged open and free disclosure.
The study used both video-recorded focus groups and audio-recorded in-depth interviews, conducted in the same timeframe to capitalise on the complementarities of each method, enlarge the depth and scope of study, and facilitate participation. Constant comparative thematic analysis was used to identify the themes, assisted by NVivo, a data management software package that helps researchers analyse emerging themes.
The findings contribute to new knowledge. Chinese sojourners abroad and families and friends in China tend to preserve the over-stretched ties that are crucial to their wellbeing. Family ties and friendships played common, but also very different roles in shaping their lives, evidenced by the nature, meanings, and dynamics of social exchanges.
This study also contributes to theory development, by indicating that social exchange theory is insufficient to explain all the dynamics behind transnational social interactions, in particular, VFR visiting and hosting. This study identified a range of emerging concepts that also influence the social interactions/exchanges between the two sides, and contribute previously unidentified dimensions that nuance social exchange theory for this context. For example, over time, a widening gap in the cultural backgrounds between the sojourners and those who remain in China develops, demonstrated by articulated conflicts and silences in their interactions, especially during actual travel periods. These potentially threaten the wellbeing of all parties. Also, the family life cycle plays a continual role in shaping family members’ needs and felt obligations, giving rise to the fluid and continual transnational support exchanges.
Further, this study has implications for practice in an era, when COVID becomes the ‘new normal’. From a micro-level, the findings may help populations of Chinese sojourners abroad and their families and friends in China understand how their respective roles and the dynamics behind the social exchanges shape the wellbeing of all participants and transnational ties. From a meso-level, this study may help the Chinese and New Zealand tourism and hospitality industries identify VFR travel motivators, understand travel patterns, support the international traveling populations, and recognise the opportunity for developing domestic travel in a post-COVID, pandemic-aware world. From a macro-level, this study provides implications for future Chinese migration/sojourning patterns, identifies key issues Chinese families face, contributes to immigration policy making in host countries, and offers advice on looking after Chinese migrant families who cannot receive sufficient support from their homeland. Finally, the research limitations are discussed and some suggestions for future research were given.

year: 2022

title: Light requirements of Australian tropical vs. cool-temperate rainforest tree species show different relationships with seedling growth and functional traits

authors: Lusk, Christopher H.

subjects: Conduit diameter

abstract: Background and Aims A trade-off between shade tolerance and growth in high light is thought to underlie the temporal dynamics of humid forests. On the other hand, it has been suggested that tree species sorting on temperature gradients involves a trade-off between growth rate and cold resistance. Little is known about how these two major trade-offs interact.
Methods Seedlings of Australian tropical and cool-temperate rainforest trees were grown in glasshouse environments to compare growth versus shade-tolerance trade-offs in these two assemblages. Biomass distribution, photosynthetic capacity and vessel diameters were measured in order to examine the functional correlates of species differences in light requirements and growth rate. Species light requirements were assessed by ﬁeld estimation of the light compensation point for stem growth.
Results Light-demanding and shade-tolerant tropical species differed markedly in relative growth rates (RGR), but this trend was less evident among temperate species. This pattern was paralleled by biomass distribution data: speciﬁc leaf area (SLA) and leaf area ratio (LAR) of tropical species were signiﬁcantly positively correlated with compensation points, but not those of cool-temperate species. The relatively slow growth and small SLA and LAR of Tasmanian light-demanders were associated with narrow vessels and low potential sapwood conductivity.
Conclusions The conservative xylem traits, small LAR and modest RGR of Tasmanian light-demanders are consistent with selection for resistance to freeze–thaw embolism, at the expense of growth rate. Whereas competition for light favours rapid growth in light-demanding trees native to environments with warm, frost-free growing seasons, frost resistance may be an equally important determinant of the ﬁtness of light-demanders in cool-temperate rainforest, as seedlings establishing in large openings are exposed to sub-zero temperatures that can occur throughout most of the year.

text: Light requirements of Australian tropical vs. cool-temperate rainforest tree species show different relationships with seedling growth and functional traits Background and Aims A trade-off between shade tolerance and growth in high light is thought to underlie the temporal dynamics of humid forests. On the other hand, it has been suggested that tree species sorting on temperature gradients involves a trade-off between growth rate and cold resistance. Little is known about how these two major trade-offs interact.
Methods Seedlings of Australian tropical and cool-temperate rainforest trees were grown in glasshouse environments to compare growth versus shade-tolerance trade-offs in these two assemblages. Biomass distribution, photosynthetic capacity and vessel diameters were measured in order to examine the functional correlates of species differences in light requirements and growth rate. Species light requirements were assessed by ﬁeld estimation of the light compensation point for stem growth.
Results Light-demanding and shade-tolerant tropical species differed markedly in relative growth rates (RGR), but this trend was less evident among temperate species. This pattern was paralleled by biomass distribution data: speciﬁc leaf area (SLA) and leaf area ratio (LAR) of tropical species were signiﬁcantly positively correlated with compensation points, but not those of cool-temperate species. The relatively slow growth and small SLA and LAR of Tasmanian light-demanders were associated with narrow vessels and low potential sapwood conductivity.
Conclusions The conservative xylem traits, small LAR and modest RGR of Tasmanian light-demanders are consistent with selection for resistance to freeze–thaw embolism, at the expense of growth rate. Whereas competition for light favours rapid growth in light-demanding trees native to environments with warm, frost-free growing seasons, frost resistance may be an equally important determinant of the ﬁtness of light-demanders in cool-temperate rainforest, as seedlings establishing in large openings are exposed to sub-zero temperatures that can occur throughout most of the year.

year: 2013

title: Te rima tekau ngahurutanga o Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato

authors: Dixon, Ngahuia

subjects: Tohu mātauranga

abstract: E te Whare Wānanga o Waikato – te tohu o te mātauranga, tēnā koe.  Tēnā koe i roto i tō rima tekau tau ngahurutanga.  Kua pakeke haere koe.  Kua tau atu koe ki tērā kaumātuatanga nō reira me mihi ka tika.  He hōnore nui tēnei mōu ake i te mea nāu te moana o mātauranga i roto o Waikato i tuku kia rere, kia pari, ka rere anō.  He wai marino ēnei i ētehi wā, he rehutai i ētehi atu,  he wā anō ka karekare, ka haruru rānei i te pai o te rere o āu mahi.  Ahakoa ēnei huringa o ngā awa o te wā, kei te rere tonu te moana nei, me ōna pikonga ki uru, ki rāwhiti, ki tonga, ki raki rānei, arā ki ngā pito katoa o te ao.  He mātauranga ēnei i tukuna e koe kia pīoioi i te ao.  Hei aha - hei whakawhānui ki te mātatoru o te tangata, he aha kei ō whare kōrero, hei whakakīkī haere i ā rātou kete mātauranga, ahakoa Māori, tauiwi huri noa.  Koinei ngā korowai mō ngā manu i kai i te mātauranga nāu i rumaki.   Ināianei arā te kōrero:

Nō rātou, nō mātou, nō tātou te ao 

E kore e mimiti ēnei huarahi tautoko āu, - nā mēnā ka tūwhera tonu tō ngākau ki ngā kete kōrero, mātauranga āku ake a ngāi-Māori, kei hea mai tō mana.

text: Te rima tekau ngahurutanga o Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato E te Whare Wānanga o Waikato – te tohu o te mātauranga, tēnā koe.  Tēnā koe i roto i tō rima tekau tau ngahurutanga.  Kua pakeke haere koe.  Kua tau atu koe ki tērā kaumātuatanga nō reira me mihi ka tika.  He hōnore nui tēnei mōu ake i te mea nāu te moana o mātauranga i roto o Waikato i tuku kia rere, kia pari, ka rere anō.  He wai marino ēnei i ētehi wā, he rehutai i ētehi atu,  he wā anō ka karekare, ka haruru rānei i te pai o te rere o āu mahi.  Ahakoa ēnei huringa o ngā awa o te wā, kei te rere tonu te moana nei, me ōna pikonga ki uru, ki rāwhiti, ki tonga, ki raki rānei, arā ki ngā pito katoa o te ao.  He mātauranga ēnei i tukuna e koe kia pīoioi i te ao.  Hei aha - hei whakawhānui ki te mātatoru o te tangata, he aha kei ō whare kōrero, hei whakakīkī haere i ā rātou kete mātauranga, ahakoa Māori, tauiwi huri noa.  Koinei ngā korowai mō ngā manu i kai i te mātauranga nāu i rumaki.   Ināianei arā te kōrero:

Nō rātou, nō mātou, nō tātou te ao 

E kore e mimiti ēnei huarahi tautoko āu, - nā mēnā ka tūwhera tonu tō ngākau ki ngā kete kōrero, mātauranga āku ake a ngāi-Māori, kei hea mai tō mana.

year: 2016