title: Job satisfaction of women teachers in Saudi private schools: Examining perceptions, challenges and teachers turnover

authors: Alsubaie, Hana

subjects: Job Satisfaction

abstract: This research is the first study thus far to investigate factors influencing the job satisfaction/dissatisfaction of women teachers in Saudi private schools, and the factors that prompt them to consider leaving or remaining in their jobs. As part of Saudi ‘Vision 2030’, the government is striving to improve the quality of its educational system. Teacher satisfaction is an integral part of these efforts as satisfied teachers are more committed, stay longer, and are better instructors. 
Using a qualitative approach, this study was underpinned by Herzberg’s two-factor theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in exploring women teachers’ experiences in Saudi private schools. The results from interviewing 16 women teachers illustrated the limited applicability of Herzberg’s two-factor model and Maslow's hierarchy of needs to explicate the job satisfaction/dissatisfaction of the study participants. The applicability of Herzberg's theory was only insofar as the findings indicated that extrinsic and intrinsic factors influenced teachers’ level of job satisfaction. However, contrary to Herzberg's linking extrinsic factors specifically to dissatisfaction and intrinsic factors to satisfaction, the findings showed that factors affecting women teachers’ job satisfaction were a mix of extrinsic and intrinsic factors, with the extrinsic factors playing a more dominant role. Similarly, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was not entirely applicable due to contextual issues which made the women’s experiences vary from Maslow's position that people seek higher-level needs after attaining lower-level needs. 
Furthermore, the study highlighted that teacher job satisfaction is very complex and goes beyond the work environment-based rational explanations. The findings showed that factors that prompted the women teachers to consider leaving or remaining in their jobs had less to do with satisfaction or dissatisfaction but more to do with social norms and the job market, which made staying at home a non-viable option. Remaining on the job, therefore, was a strategy to gain experience that would facilitate access to better public-school jobs or might result from the religious rationalisation of the teaching role. 
This investigation indicated that strategies to improve the job satisfaction of women teachers should focus beyond intrinsic factors such as opportunities for growth and participation in decisions affecting their work. Instead, strategies should include extrinsic factors such as pay and job security. In addition, the study indicated a need for more interventions by the Ministry of Education in private schools sector, such as: improving the governance of private schools, especially in terms of monitoring mechanisms; the need for private schools to revisit their conditions of service in view of the participating women’s experiences; and the need to decentralise decision-making in private schools to give teachers more responsibility and autonomy over their work. Also, employment policies in private schools should be clear and aligned with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour’s requirements to improve general working conditions.

text: Job satisfaction of women teachers in Saudi private schools: Examining perceptions, challenges and teachers turnover This research is the first study thus far to investigate factors influencing the job satisfaction/dissatisfaction of women teachers in Saudi private schools, and the factors that prompt them to consider leaving or remaining in their jobs. As part of Saudi ‘Vision 2030’, the government is striving to improve the quality of its educational system. Teacher satisfaction is an integral part of these efforts as satisfied teachers are more committed, stay longer, and are better instructors. 
Using a qualitative approach, this study was underpinned by Herzberg’s two-factor theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in exploring women teachers’ experiences in Saudi private schools. The results from interviewing 16 women teachers illustrated the limited applicability of Herzberg’s two-factor model and Maslow's hierarchy of needs to explicate the job satisfaction/dissatisfaction of the study participants. The applicability of Herzberg's theory was only insofar as the findings indicated that extrinsic and intrinsic factors influenced teachers’ level of job satisfaction. However, contrary to Herzberg's linking extrinsic factors specifically to dissatisfaction and intrinsic factors to satisfaction, the findings showed that factors affecting women teachers’ job satisfaction were a mix of extrinsic and intrinsic factors, with the extrinsic factors playing a more dominant role. Similarly, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs was not entirely applicable due to contextual issues which made the women’s experiences vary from Maslow's position that people seek higher-level needs after attaining lower-level needs. 
Furthermore, the study highlighted that teacher job satisfaction is very complex and goes beyond the work environment-based rational explanations. The findings showed that factors that prompted the women teachers to consider leaving or remaining in their jobs had less to do with satisfaction or dissatisfaction but more to do with social norms and the job market, which made staying at home a non-viable option. Remaining on the job, therefore, was a strategy to gain experience that would facilitate access to better public-school jobs or might result from the religious rationalisation of the teaching role. 
This investigation indicated that strategies to improve the job satisfaction of women teachers should focus beyond intrinsic factors such as opportunities for growth and participation in decisions affecting their work. Instead, strategies should include extrinsic factors such as pay and job security. In addition, the study indicated a need for more interventions by the Ministry of Education in private schools sector, such as: improving the governance of private schools, especially in terms of monitoring mechanisms; the need for private schools to revisit their conditions of service in view of the participating women’s experiences; and the need to decentralise decision-making in private schools to give teachers more responsibility and autonomy over their work. Also, employment policies in private schools should be clear and aligned with the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour’s requirements to improve general working conditions.

year: 2023

title: Teaching English through English: an analysis of a sample of Japanese and South Korean textbooks

authors: Johnson, Diane

abstract: In many parts of Asia, the national curriculum for English in schools recommends that teachers should use English as a medium of instruction. We analyzed samples of Ministry of Education-approved textbooks and teachers’ guides produced in Japan and South Korea in order to determine how the authors interpret this recommendation. There were clear indications that they had difficulty in complying with it. The selection, ordering and presentation of materials appeared to be predicated on the assumption that the teachers would use translation as a primary means of conveying meaning. However, the appearance of at least partial compliance was provided by the inclusion in teachers’ manuals of formulaic monologue sections in English which could be used to frame lessons and lesson segments.

text: Teaching English through English: an analysis of a sample of Japanese and South Korean textbooks In many parts of Asia, the national curriculum for English in schools recommends that teachers should use English as a medium of instruction. We analyzed samples of Ministry of Education-approved textbooks and teachers’ guides produced in Japan and South Korea in order to determine how the authors interpret this recommendation. There were clear indications that they had difficulty in complying with it. The selection, ordering and presentation of materials appeared to be predicated on the assumption that the teachers would use translation as a primary means of conveying meaning. However, the appearance of at least partial compliance was provided by the inclusion in teachers’ manuals of formulaic monologue sections in English which could be used to frame lessons and lesson segments.

year: 2017

title: Rising demand for health care: The sustainability of community general practice in the Waikato

authors: Amey, Janet Heather

subjects: General practice

abstract: Community general practice is the cornerstone of New Zealand’s health system, providing first contact health care, care coordination and acting as gatekeeper to expensive hospital services. An ageing population now brings increasing demand for the care provided in general practice, with chronic conditions a major contributing factor. This rising demand, alongside limited workforce capacity will seriously test general practice sustainability. 

These evolving and multifaceted challenges are within the context of long-standing health access and outcome inequalities, particularly for Māori (and more recently the Pacific population) compared with Pākehā. The pursuit of equity is inherent in all health sector strategies, but any meaningful improvement will necessitate wide-ranging reform of current planning, funding and service delivery pathways across traditional sector boundaries.

The sustainability of general practice is about the sustainability and efficiency of the entire health system. To better measure the contribution of general practice care to the system, and improve demand projections, an expanded service use measure was developed, combining services of a general practice nature from Emergency Department and Accident & Medical settings with services delivered in community general practice.

Drawing on approaches from demography, epidemiology and health services research, linked demographic and health administrative data were used to undertake a retrospective, observational study of service use for 235,666 people enrolled with the Pinnacle Midlands Health Network in 2013/14. Using the new expanded measure, service use levels at a locality level were established by age, gender, ethnic group, chronic condition status, practice funding model, high needs status, income and geography of residence.

Significant variation was found in annual average consults (1.0 to 13.4 consults in 2013/14). Statistical analysis identified age, chronic conditions and gender as the key demand drivers responsible for such variation, with regional level results masking significant spatial variation. Where the cost of care was lower, people used a higher level of services in the enrolled practice setting and a lower level outside of it, suggesting the importance of affordable care. Māori and Pacific used significantly fewer services than Pākehā although there was substantial sub-regional variation. Using the expanded measure, the vast majority of care was delivered in the enrolled setting, including for those with chronic conditions.

Demand projections, based on the expanded measure of general practice, out to 2038 show the uneven geography of future demand due to disordered cohort flows and sub-regional population contexts. Overall, demand for services is projected to rise by 34 per cent to almost two million consults across the Waikato District Health Board catchment, with this driven predominantly by services for those aged 65+ years (or 45+ years in Hamilton City, Waikato and Waipa Districts).

Models of care are being transformed as general practices and Primary Health Organisations look to the future. Reorganisation of work roles, improved use of health information and use of emerging health technologies will be required to re-configure general practice in preparation for an ageing future, and to eliminate recalcitrant health inequalities. Real and inclusive collaboration across traditional system boundaries is perhaps the greatest challenge to general practice sustainability.

text: Rising demand for health care: The sustainability of community general practice in the Waikato Community general practice is the cornerstone of New Zealand’s health system, providing first contact health care, care coordination and acting as gatekeeper to expensive hospital services. An ageing population now brings increasing demand for the care provided in general practice, with chronic conditions a major contributing factor. This rising demand, alongside limited workforce capacity will seriously test general practice sustainability. 

These evolving and multifaceted challenges are within the context of long-standing health access and outcome inequalities, particularly for Māori (and more recently the Pacific population) compared with Pākehā. The pursuit of equity is inherent in all health sector strategies, but any meaningful improvement will necessitate wide-ranging reform of current planning, funding and service delivery pathways across traditional sector boundaries.

The sustainability of general practice is about the sustainability and efficiency of the entire health system. To better measure the contribution of general practice care to the system, and improve demand projections, an expanded service use measure was developed, combining services of a general practice nature from Emergency Department and Accident & Medical settings with services delivered in community general practice.

Drawing on approaches from demography, epidemiology and health services research, linked demographic and health administrative data were used to undertake a retrospective, observational study of service use for 235,666 people enrolled with the Pinnacle Midlands Health Network in 2013/14. Using the new expanded measure, service use levels at a locality level were established by age, gender, ethnic group, chronic condition status, practice funding model, high needs status, income and geography of residence.

Significant variation was found in annual average consults (1.0 to 13.4 consults in 2013/14). Statistical analysis identified age, chronic conditions and gender as the key demand drivers responsible for such variation, with regional level results masking significant spatial variation. Where the cost of care was lower, people used a higher level of services in the enrolled practice setting and a lower level outside of it, suggesting the importance of affordable care. Māori and Pacific used significantly fewer services than Pākehā although there was substantial sub-regional variation. Using the expanded measure, the vast majority of care was delivered in the enrolled setting, including for those with chronic conditions.

Demand projections, based on the expanded measure of general practice, out to 2038 show the uneven geography of future demand due to disordered cohort flows and sub-regional population contexts. Overall, demand for services is projected to rise by 34 per cent to almost two million consults across the Waikato District Health Board catchment, with this driven predominantly by services for those aged 65+ years (or 45+ years in Hamilton City, Waikato and Waipa Districts).

Models of care are being transformed as general practices and Primary Health Organisations look to the future. Reorganisation of work roles, improved use of health information and use of emerging health technologies will be required to re-configure general practice in preparation for an ageing future, and to eliminate recalcitrant health inequalities. Real and inclusive collaboration across traditional system boundaries is perhaps the greatest challenge to general practice sustainability.

year: 2018