title: Integrated stratigraphy of the Waitakian-Otaian Stage boundary stratotype, Early Miocene, New Zealand

authors: Morgans, Hugh E.G.

subjects: Oligocene

abstract: The base of the type section of the Otaian Stage at Bluecliffs, South Canterbury, is recognised as the stratotype for the boundary between the Waitakian and Otaian Stages. Principal problems with the boundary are the restriction of existing bioevent proxies to shelf and upper slope environments and its uncertain age. These topics are addressed by a multidisplinary study of a 125 m section about the boundary, which examines its lithostratigraphy, depositional setting, biostratigraphy, correlation, and geochronology. 
The lower siltstone lithofacies (0-38.5 m) was deposited at upper bathyal depths (200-600 m) in a marginal basin which was partially sheltered from fully oceanic circulation by a submarine high and islands. The site was covered by cool-temperate water and was probably adjacent to the Subtropical Convergence. This unit is succeeded by the banded lithofacies (38.5-106 m) and the upper siltstone lithofacies (basal 19 m studied). Paleodepth probably declined up-sequence, but deposition at shelf depths is not definitely indicated. A cyclic pattern of abundance spikes in benthic and planktonic foraminifera commences 9 m above base and extends to 73 m in the banded lithofacies. Oxygen isotope excursions (up to 2.08%) in Euuvigerina miozea and Cibicides novozelandicus are greatest within the interval containing the abundance spikes. The stage boundary occurs in the banded lithofacies at the highest abundance spike (73 m). Although condensed intervals might affect the completeness of the section, they are not associated with sedimentary discontinuities, and we consider that the section is suitable as a biostratigraphic reference. 
Spores, pollens, dinoflagellates, calcareous nannofossils, foraminifera, bryozoans, and ostracods are preserved near the boundary, but molluscs principally occur higher, in the shallower upper siltstone lithofacies. Siliceous microfossils are rare. There is considerable scope for further biostratigraphic research. 
The primary event marking the boundary at 73 m is the appearance of the benthic foraminifer Ehrenbergina marwicki. This is a distinctive and widely distributed event but is restricted to shelf and upper bathyal environments. Supplementary events in planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils were researched. Highest occurrences of Globigerina brazieri and G. euapertura are recorded at 47 and 58 m. There is a marked decline in relative abundance of Paragloborotalia spp. at 62 m. Helicosphaera carteri becomes more abundant than H. euphratis between 56 and 87 m. These events are not exact proxies for the boundary but they may usefully indicate proximity to it. They occur in the interval of prominent spikes in foraminiferal abundance. 
The Waitakian-Otaian boundary is dated at 21.7 Ma by strontium isotopes. Stable primary remanence could not be determined in a pilot paleomagnetic study of Bluecliffs specimens. However, specimens trended towards reversed polarity, and remagnetisation great circle analysis will allow directions to be calculated in future collections.

text: Integrated stratigraphy of the Waitakian-Otaian Stage boundary stratotype, Early Miocene, New Zealand The base of the type section of the Otaian Stage at Bluecliffs, South Canterbury, is recognised as the stratotype for the boundary between the Waitakian and Otaian Stages. Principal problems with the boundary are the restriction of existing bioevent proxies to shelf and upper slope environments and its uncertain age. These topics are addressed by a multidisplinary study of a 125 m section about the boundary, which examines its lithostratigraphy, depositional setting, biostratigraphy, correlation, and geochronology. 
The lower siltstone lithofacies (0-38.5 m) was deposited at upper bathyal depths (200-600 m) in a marginal basin which was partially sheltered from fully oceanic circulation by a submarine high and islands. The site was covered by cool-temperate water and was probably adjacent to the Subtropical Convergence. This unit is succeeded by the banded lithofacies (38.5-106 m) and the upper siltstone lithofacies (basal 19 m studied). Paleodepth probably declined up-sequence, but deposition at shelf depths is not definitely indicated. A cyclic pattern of abundance spikes in benthic and planktonic foraminifera commences 9 m above base and extends to 73 m in the banded lithofacies. Oxygen isotope excursions (up to 2.08%) in Euuvigerina miozea and Cibicides novozelandicus are greatest within the interval containing the abundance spikes. The stage boundary occurs in the banded lithofacies at the highest abundance spike (73 m). Although condensed intervals might affect the completeness of the section, they are not associated with sedimentary discontinuities, and we consider that the section is suitable as a biostratigraphic reference. 
Spores, pollens, dinoflagellates, calcareous nannofossils, foraminifera, bryozoans, and ostracods are preserved near the boundary, but molluscs principally occur higher, in the shallower upper siltstone lithofacies. Siliceous microfossils are rare. There is considerable scope for further biostratigraphic research. 
The primary event marking the boundary at 73 m is the appearance of the benthic foraminifer Ehrenbergina marwicki. This is a distinctive and widely distributed event but is restricted to shelf and upper bathyal environments. Supplementary events in planktonic foraminifera and calcareous nannofossils were researched. Highest occurrences of Globigerina brazieri and G. euapertura are recorded at 47 and 58 m. There is a marked decline in relative abundance of Paragloborotalia spp. at 62 m. Helicosphaera carteri becomes more abundant than H. euphratis between 56 and 87 m. These events are not exact proxies for the boundary but they may usefully indicate proximity to it. They occur in the interval of prominent spikes in foraminiferal abundance. 
The Waitakian-Otaian boundary is dated at 21.7 Ma by strontium isotopes. Stable primary remanence could not be determined in a pilot paleomagnetic study of Bluecliffs specimens. However, specimens trended towards reversed polarity, and remagnetisation great circle analysis will allow directions to be calculated in future collections.

year: 1999

title: Investigating the Professional Knowledge of New Zealand Primary School Teachers when Teaching Mathematics for Numeracy

authors: Mills, Judith Patricia

abstract: This research investigated the relationship between teachers’ espoused professional knowledge, professional knowledge in practice, and student learning, when teaching ‘mathematics for numeracy’ in the New Zealand primary school classroom. The focus was on teaching within the multiplicative and proportional domains, as research at the time the study commenced indicated that these areas of mathematics were problematic for many teachers. The purpose of the research was to identify strengths, weaknesses, and inconsistencies in teachers’ practice; links between espoused views and actions; and to consider the usefulness of a framework for investigating teacher knowledge in practice. This study is intended to inform teacher reflection and professional development, and contribute to improvements in teaching practice and student achievement.
A multiple-case study design, underpinned by an interpretivist paradigm, was used, which included four case-study teachers from two primary schools: School A, was a central city full primary school (Years 1 to 8) and School B, a rural town primary school (Years 1 to 6). The study aligned with a social constructivist perspective on teaching and learning. The data were obtained through four main sources: (1) pre-unit and post-unit student assessment tasks; (2) recorded observations; (3) semi-structured interviews); and (4) teacher questionnaires. 
Comparison between students’ initial and final assessment data showed little progress in understanding of multiplication and division, with a more noticeable improvement in fractional understanding. Classroom observations were analysed under three broad categories: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge, and highlighted important issues relating to the professional knowledge of teachers and the contribution this made to student learning. Results indicated that the mathematical content knowledge of the teachers was stronger than their content knowledge in a pedagogical context. While teaching for conceptual understanding frequently challenged the teachers, they recognised the importance of conceptual understanding prior to procedural learning for their students. They struggled with on-the-spot identification of the next steps of learning for individual students and there was little evidence of focus on questioning that extended students’ thinking that might have assisted in overcoming misconceptions and confusions with concepts. There were times when the teachers’ espoused theories differed from their theory-in-practice, while at times they were similar to each other.
The research concluded that in teaching practice the many facets of PCK, within the broader construct of professional knowledge, were more than topic-specific. Instead, they were person-specific and lesson-specific, with different categories coming to the fore in different proportions, for different reasons, including: lesson structure, context, problem types, the opportunities afforded students for conversation, and use of manipulatives. While not all categories of professional knowledge were evident in every lesson, they combined over a period to underscore the complexities of teaching and ultimately have an effect on student learning. 
An outcome of the study was a Wheel of Knowledge designed for teachers, identifying key areas of knowledge to be addressed in mathematics teaching. Alongside this, a more detailed Professional Knowledge Framework was created for researchers, based on categories identified from this research as important in identifying teacher professional knowledge in classroom practice. Both models have the potential to identify areas of teacher professional knowledge required to improve students’ mathematical understanding.

text: Investigating the Professional Knowledge of New Zealand Primary School Teachers when Teaching Mathematics for Numeracy This research investigated the relationship between teachers’ espoused professional knowledge, professional knowledge in practice, and student learning, when teaching ‘mathematics for numeracy’ in the New Zealand primary school classroom. The focus was on teaching within the multiplicative and proportional domains, as research at the time the study commenced indicated that these areas of mathematics were problematic for many teachers. The purpose of the research was to identify strengths, weaknesses, and inconsistencies in teachers’ practice; links between espoused views and actions; and to consider the usefulness of a framework for investigating teacher knowledge in practice. This study is intended to inform teacher reflection and professional development, and contribute to improvements in teaching practice and student achievement.
A multiple-case study design, underpinned by an interpretivist paradigm, was used, which included four case-study teachers from two primary schools: School A, was a central city full primary school (Years 1 to 8) and School B, a rural town primary school (Years 1 to 6). The study aligned with a social constructivist perspective on teaching and learning. The data were obtained through four main sources: (1) pre-unit and post-unit student assessment tasks; (2) recorded observations; (3) semi-structured interviews); and (4) teacher questionnaires. 
Comparison between students’ initial and final assessment data showed little progress in understanding of multiplication and division, with a more noticeable improvement in fractional understanding. Classroom observations were analysed under three broad categories: content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge, and highlighted important issues relating to the professional knowledge of teachers and the contribution this made to student learning. Results indicated that the mathematical content knowledge of the teachers was stronger than their content knowledge in a pedagogical context. While teaching for conceptual understanding frequently challenged the teachers, they recognised the importance of conceptual understanding prior to procedural learning for their students. They struggled with on-the-spot identification of the next steps of learning for individual students and there was little evidence of focus on questioning that extended students’ thinking that might have assisted in overcoming misconceptions and confusions with concepts. There were times when the teachers’ espoused theories differed from their theory-in-practice, while at times they were similar to each other.
The research concluded that in teaching practice the many facets of PCK, within the broader construct of professional knowledge, were more than topic-specific. Instead, they were person-specific and lesson-specific, with different categories coming to the fore in different proportions, for different reasons, including: lesson structure, context, problem types, the opportunities afforded students for conversation, and use of manipulatives. While not all categories of professional knowledge were evident in every lesson, they combined over a period to underscore the complexities of teaching and ultimately have an effect on student learning. 
An outcome of the study was a Wheel of Knowledge designed for teachers, identifying key areas of knowledge to be addressed in mathematics teaching. Alongside this, a more detailed Professional Knowledge Framework was created for researchers, based on categories identified from this research as important in identifying teacher professional knowledge in classroom practice. Both models have the potential to identify areas of teacher professional knowledge required to improve students’ mathematical understanding.

year: 2018

title: Upoko Tapu, Upoko Whakakapowai, Upoko Hokona

authors: Gabel, Robert Rutene Whakaangi

subjects: Ngāpuhi

abstract: Ngāpuhi, a confederation of Māori iwi (tribes) from Te Tai Tokerau, the northern region of Aotearoa, is the largest iwi of New Zealand. They were one of the first iwi to come into contact with Europeans in the early 19th century. During this period of contact, particularly between the years 1820 – 1831, Ngāpuhi had a devastating impact on the history of Māori, as they amassed a fighting force of some two thousand warriors and acquired the use of European firearms. Ngāpuhi then circumnavigated the North Island, waging war on coastal and inland tribes with the purpose of avenging past defeats and losses suffered at the hands of their traditional enemies. This objective was ultimately achieved, but this period of war also saw the emergence of another key event in Māori history, the beginning of the trade in what we now call toi moko, which were used to trade with Europeans for muskets. 

Given that Māori have always regarded the head as the most tapu part of the human anatomy, this thesis investigates and explores what effect or influence tikanga and tapu had on this trade. It further studies some of the rationales which allowed Ngāpuhi to override that sacred tradition and move into the trade of toi moko. This thesis argues that Ngāpuhi did not desecrate tapu in the selling and trading of toi moko but took advantage of another long-standing tradition that the tapu of the vanquished ceased to exist upon his death. Lastly, it argues that the trade in toi moko was necessary to ensure the safety and continuity of the Ngāpuhi iwi.

text: Upoko Tapu, Upoko Whakakapowai, Upoko Hokona Ngāpuhi, a confederation of Māori iwi (tribes) from Te Tai Tokerau, the northern region of Aotearoa, is the largest iwi of New Zealand. They were one of the first iwi to come into contact with Europeans in the early 19th century. During this period of contact, particularly between the years 1820 – 1831, Ngāpuhi had a devastating impact on the history of Māori, as they amassed a fighting force of some two thousand warriors and acquired the use of European firearms. Ngāpuhi then circumnavigated the North Island, waging war on coastal and inland tribes with the purpose of avenging past defeats and losses suffered at the hands of their traditional enemies. This objective was ultimately achieved, but this period of war also saw the emergence of another key event in Māori history, the beginning of the trade in what we now call toi moko, which were used to trade with Europeans for muskets. 

Given that Māori have always regarded the head as the most tapu part of the human anatomy, this thesis investigates and explores what effect or influence tikanga and tapu had on this trade. It further studies some of the rationales which allowed Ngāpuhi to override that sacred tradition and move into the trade of toi moko. This thesis argues that Ngāpuhi did not desecrate tapu in the selling and trading of toi moko but took advantage of another long-standing tradition that the tapu of the vanquished ceased to exist upon his death. Lastly, it argues that the trade in toi moko was necessary to ensure the safety and continuity of the Ngāpuhi iwi.

year: 2012