title: A forward-looking measure of the stock of human capital in New Zealand

authors: Le, Trinh

subjects: human capital

abstract: Human capital is increasingly believed to play an important role in the growth process; however, adequately measuring its stock remains controversial. Because the estimated impact that human capital has on economic growth is sensitive to the measures or proxies of human capital, accurate and consistent measures are needed. While many measures of human capital have been developed, most rely on some proxy of educational experience and are thus plagued with limitations. In this study, we modify the lifetime labour income approach outlined by Jorgenson and Fraumeni (The Measurement of Savings, Investment and Wealth, Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1989, pp. 227–282; Output Measurement in the Services Sector, Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 303–338) to estimate the monetary value of the human capital stock for New Zealand. Based on data from the New Zealand Census of Population, we find that the country's working human capital grew by half between 1981 and 2001, mostly due to the rise in employment level. This stock of human capital was also well over double that of physical capital in all the census years studied.

text: A forward-looking measure of the stock of human capital in New Zealand Human capital is increasingly believed to play an important role in the growth process; however, adequately measuring its stock remains controversial. Because the estimated impact that human capital has on economic growth is sensitive to the measures or proxies of human capital, accurate and consistent measures are needed. While many measures of human capital have been developed, most rely on some proxy of educational experience and are thus plagued with limitations. In this study, we modify the lifetime labour income approach outlined by Jorgenson and Fraumeni (The Measurement of Savings, Investment and Wealth, Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1989, pp. 227–282; Output Measurement in the Services Sector, Chicago, IL, University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp. 303–338) to estimate the monetary value of the human capital stock for New Zealand. Based on data from the New Zealand Census of Population, we find that the country's working human capital grew by half between 1981 and 2001, mostly due to the rise in employment level. This stock of human capital was also well over double that of physical capital in all the census years studied.

year: 2006

title: Landing error scoring system: The effect of head turned position and dual tasking

authors: Anderson, Blake

subjects: sport

abstract: Sport has many mental and physical health benefits. However, with overall participation in sport 
increasing, sport-related issues and injuries are also increasing. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) 
injuries are common knee injuries in athletes and the general population, often occurring through non
contact mechanisms. The Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) is a screening task used to identify 
athletes at higher risk of non-contact ACL and musculoskeletal injuries, where higher scores indicate 
poorer landing mechanics and greater risk of injury. Although the LESS is reliable, its predictive value 
is debated and it has been criticised for lacking validity in a sporting context. Previous studies have 
adapted LESS protocols in attempts to increase sport specificity, with changing head position or 
completing a dual task potentially suitable for this purpose as linked with ACL injury situations in 
sports. This thesis contains two experimental chapters. 
In the first experiment, 35 participants (22 males, 13 females) performed the LESS in two conditions 
allocated in a random order. In the control condition, participants jumped horizontally with both legs 
from a 30-cm high box to half their body height, landed with both feet, and jumped vertically as high 
as possible in one motion. In the head turned condition, participants performed the same double-leg 
jump landing movement while maintaining eye contact with an ‘X’ marked on a wall to their right, in 
line with the landing area. Participants performed three trials in each condition. Group mean LESS 
scores were significantly greater (P = 0.027) in the head turned (mean errors = 6.8 ± 1.5) than the 
control (mean errors = 6.4 ± 1.4) condition, with the mean difference of 0.4 errors being of small 
magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.27 [0.51, 0.03]). No significant difference was found in the odds of being 
categorised at risk between conditions (P = 0.625, odds ratio = 3.00 [0.312, 28.8] based on a 5-error 
threshold. On an individual level, 28 participants were at risk in both conditions, although 13 had a 
meaningful increase in LESS score of one or more in the head turned condition. Average jump heights 
were significantly lower in the head turned condition, with the mean difference of 2.1 cm being of small 
magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.20 [0.07,0.34]). Overall, performing the LESS with a head turned position 
appeared to increase the complexity and sport specificity of the task. Future research is required to 
determine the ability of the LESS to predict ACL injuries with a head turned condition as this aspect 
was not assessed. 
In the second experiment, an element of cognitive challenge was incorporated to the LESS in attempt 
to recreate the complex athlete-environment relationship of sports. In experiment two, 41 participants 
(20 males, 19 females, 2 others) performed the LESS in two conditions allocated in a random order. 
The control condition was the same as in the first experiment. In the tone counting condition, 
participants completed the same double-leg jump landing movement while mentally counting a random 
series of high-pitched and low-pitched tones, known as a tone counting task. Group mean LESS scores 
were not significantly different between tone counting (mean errors = 6.0 ± 1.3) and control (mean 
errors = 6.2 ± 1.5) conditions. Average jump heights were significantly lower in the tone counting than 
the control condition, with the mean difference of -4.2 cm being of small magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.48 
[0.30, 0.66]). No significant difference was found in the odds of being categorised at risk between 
conditions (P = 1.000, odds ratio = 1.00 [0.20, 4.95]) based on a 5-error threshold. Overall, performing 
the LESS with a secondary tone counting task significantly decreased jump heights with a small effect 
size, corroborating an increased cognitive load during testing that impaired jump performance. 
However, LESS scores were not meaningfully influenced. 
Overall, introducing a head turned position to the LESS task increased LESS errors significantly, and 
introducing a tone counting task or head turned position decreased jump heights. Although future 
research is required to determine the ability of the LESS to predict ACL injuries with these dual tasking 
conditions, this Thesis demonstrates that the complexity and sport specificity of the LESS task can be 
increased by introducing dual tasking requirements.

text: Landing error scoring system: The effect of head turned position and dual tasking Sport has many mental and physical health benefits. However, with overall participation in sport 
increasing, sport-related issues and injuries are also increasing. Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) 
injuries are common knee injuries in athletes and the general population, often occurring through non
contact mechanisms. The Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) is a screening task used to identify 
athletes at higher risk of non-contact ACL and musculoskeletal injuries, where higher scores indicate 
poorer landing mechanics and greater risk of injury. Although the LESS is reliable, its predictive value 
is debated and it has been criticised for lacking validity in a sporting context. Previous studies have 
adapted LESS protocols in attempts to increase sport specificity, with changing head position or 
completing a dual task potentially suitable for this purpose as linked with ACL injury situations in 
sports. This thesis contains two experimental chapters. 
In the first experiment, 35 participants (22 males, 13 females) performed the LESS in two conditions 
allocated in a random order. In the control condition, participants jumped horizontally with both legs 
from a 30-cm high box to half their body height, landed with both feet, and jumped vertically as high 
as possible in one motion. In the head turned condition, participants performed the same double-leg 
jump landing movement while maintaining eye contact with an ‘X’ marked on a wall to their right, in 
line with the landing area. Participants performed three trials in each condition. Group mean LESS 
scores were significantly greater (P = 0.027) in the head turned (mean errors = 6.8 ± 1.5) than the 
control (mean errors = 6.4 ± 1.4) condition, with the mean difference of 0.4 errors being of small 
magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.27 [0.51, 0.03]). No significant difference was found in the odds of being 
categorised at risk between conditions (P = 0.625, odds ratio = 3.00 [0.312, 28.8] based on a 5-error 
threshold. On an individual level, 28 participants were at risk in both conditions, although 13 had a 
meaningful increase in LESS score of one or more in the head turned condition. Average jump heights 
were significantly lower in the head turned condition, with the mean difference of 2.1 cm being of small 
magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.20 [0.07,0.34]). Overall, performing the LESS with a head turned position 
appeared to increase the complexity and sport specificity of the task. Future research is required to 
determine the ability of the LESS to predict ACL injuries with a head turned condition as this aspect 
was not assessed. 
In the second experiment, an element of cognitive challenge was incorporated to the LESS in attempt 
to recreate the complex athlete-environment relationship of sports. In experiment two, 41 participants 
(20 males, 19 females, 2 others) performed the LESS in two conditions allocated in a random order. 
The control condition was the same as in the first experiment. In the tone counting condition, 
participants completed the same double-leg jump landing movement while mentally counting a random 
series of high-pitched and low-pitched tones, known as a tone counting task. Group mean LESS scores 
were not significantly different between tone counting (mean errors = 6.0 ± 1.3) and control (mean 
errors = 6.2 ± 1.5) conditions. Average jump heights were significantly lower in the tone counting than 
the control condition, with the mean difference of -4.2 cm being of small magnitude (Cohen’s d = 0.48 
[0.30, 0.66]). No significant difference was found in the odds of being categorised at risk between 
conditions (P = 1.000, odds ratio = 1.00 [0.20, 4.95]) based on a 5-error threshold. Overall, performing 
the LESS with a secondary tone counting task significantly decreased jump heights with a small effect 
size, corroborating an increased cognitive load during testing that impaired jump performance. 
However, LESS scores were not meaningfully influenced. 
Overall, introducing a head turned position to the LESS task increased LESS errors significantly, and 
introducing a tone counting task or head turned position decreased jump heights. Although future 
research is required to determine the ability of the LESS to predict ACL injuries with these dual tasking 
conditions, this Thesis demonstrates that the complexity and sport specificity of the LESS task can be 
increased by introducing dual tasking requirements.

year: 2025

title: Book review:  Ikawai: freshwater fishes in Māori culture and economy

authors: Hicks, Brendan J.

abstract: This article reviews the book : “Ikawai: freshwater fishes in Māori culture and economy”, by RM McDowall.

text: Book review:  Ikawai: freshwater fishes in Māori culture and economy This article reviews the book : “Ikawai: freshwater fishes in Māori culture and economy”, by RM McDowall.

year: 2012