title: Regional Socio-Economic Transformation in Brazil

authors: Matlaba, Valente José

subjects: convergence

abstract: The regional income disparities in Brazil are well-known. Since the 1930s, such income disparities have declined only slightly. This thesis combines traditional economic theory with insights from regional science and economic geography to explain the development pattern in Brazil throughout the 20th century, using a wide range of data sets. It contributes to the consolidation of the field of New Economic Geography because some tools employed in this thesis have not yet had widespread use in the literature. The thesis also brings new insights for the understanding of Brazil’s development process. The key finding of the thesis is that there has been almost time-invariant spatial autocorrelation in Brazil’s growth process that impedes the lagging regions from catching up. The reason for this is that there is a clear cluster of contiguous rich regions (Southeast and South) – i.e. the core - characterised not only by high real income levels and high market potential, but also by the fact that they have the largest markets and are the platform of the global economy in Brazil. In contrast, there is another cluster of contiguous poor regions (North and Northeast) – the periphery - that has low real income levels, low market potential and low market access. The agglomeration of population and economic activity explains the observed concentration pattern. Although there were some efforts made through regional development policy to narrow the gaps amongst the regions, the agglomeration forces are very strong in Brazil. The creation of Brasília did not offset these agglomeration forces, partially because place-based policies matter. The creation of Brasilia obviously had major implications for Brasilia itself, but did not offset the agglomeration forces that led to the dominance of São Paulo. Similarly, investment in other lagging regions may not offset the advantages of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but they may improve economic conditions in the lagging regions themselves if income transfers or subsidies are done for efficient industries.

text: Regional Socio-Economic Transformation in Brazil The regional income disparities in Brazil are well-known. Since the 1930s, such income disparities have declined only slightly. This thesis combines traditional economic theory with insights from regional science and economic geography to explain the development pattern in Brazil throughout the 20th century, using a wide range of data sets. It contributes to the consolidation of the field of New Economic Geography because some tools employed in this thesis have not yet had widespread use in the literature. The thesis also brings new insights for the understanding of Brazil’s development process. The key finding of the thesis is that there has been almost time-invariant spatial autocorrelation in Brazil’s growth process that impedes the lagging regions from catching up. The reason for this is that there is a clear cluster of contiguous rich regions (Southeast and South) – i.e. the core - characterised not only by high real income levels and high market potential, but also by the fact that they have the largest markets and are the platform of the global economy in Brazil. In contrast, there is another cluster of contiguous poor regions (North and Northeast) – the periphery - that has low real income levels, low market potential and low market access. The agglomeration of population and economic activity explains the observed concentration pattern. Although there were some efforts made through regional development policy to narrow the gaps amongst the regions, the agglomeration forces are very strong in Brazil. The creation of Brasília did not offset these agglomeration forces, partially because place-based policies matter. The creation of Brasilia obviously had major implications for Brasilia itself, but did not offset the agglomeration forces that led to the dominance of São Paulo. Similarly, investment in other lagging regions may not offset the advantages of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but they may improve economic conditions in the lagging regions themselves if income transfers or subsidies are done for efficient industries.

year: 2012

title: The sequestration of phosphate by iron phases in the sediments from Lake Rotorua, New Zealand

authors: Mangan, Carmel Mary

subjects: sediments

abstract: A sequential extraction method was used to determine which dominant sedimentary mineral phase was involved in phosphorus retention in the sediments of Lake Rotorua and to verify the importance of iron phases in the role as a phosphorus sink. The observed influence of the experimental conditions upon the extent of phosphate adsorption to various iron phases shows a considerable quantity of phosphorus is present in the reducible phase and in the residual mineral phase. The phosphorus associated with iron(III) oxide phases was released into solution under reducing conditions when ferric iron oxide/oxyhydroxides, including amorphous and poorly crystalline Fe(III) phases, were solubilized. The residual primary and secondary mineral phases remained stable in the sediments until they were exposed to extremely acidic media analogous to strongly reducing conditions. Manganese is not involved in phosphorus retention to the same extent as iron. Aluminium phases present were released from surface complexes with relative ease and also from mineral structures under the prevailing conditions. The results show a strong agreement between aluminium and phosphorus suggesting it is associated with various aluminium phases to some extent. The sediments of Lake Rotorua are rich in organic-bound P which is released when organic material is oxidized under conditions analogous to anaerobic degradation. The degradation of refractory organic material represents a significant source of phosphorus for incorporation into diagenetic minerals forming in oxic and anoxic layers of the sediment.
Heavy liquid separation of the sediments concentrated the small quantities of dense minerals into a separate fraction and the presence of iron sulfides could be verified. Three density fractions obtained by this method separated the diatoms (d less than 2.6 g cm-3), the silicates (d greater than 2.6 less than 3.7 g cm-3) and the heavy minerals (d greater than 3.7 g cm-3) present in the sediment sample. In the heavy mineral phase spherulitic framboidal pyrite and rhombohedrial siderite were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the framboidal pyrite detected significant fluorescence's for sulphur and iron. The elemental analysis of siderite characterised it as an iron-rich, non-sulfidic particle with no phosphorus fluorescence. Particles were also observed that had a variable morphology to the framboidal pyrite minerals but similar ratio of Fe to S in the XRF spectrum. It is likely they are other stable forms of iron sulfides or pyrites in various stages of diagenetic dissolution. Digestion of the three density fractions shows the heavy mineral phase is significantly enriched in sulfur and in iron confirming the presence of sulfides. The sulfide-forming trace metals are concentrating in the heavy mineral phase but a progressive enrichment of trace metals down core is not found in the results. Many of the trace elements show maximum concentrations in the Tarawera tephra.
There is a good agreement between iron and phosphorus in both treatments that implies iron phases are the predominant phosphorus fixers in the sediments of Lake Rotorua. However the identity of the phosphorus sink could not be confirmed by SEM or XRF analysis of the heavy minerals. The most likely explanations for the observed concentrations of iron and phosphorus and enrichment in the heavy mineral fraction are the persistence of the highly insoluble crystalline iron oxyhydroxides (goethite) in reducing sediments or the formation of the reduced iron mineral vivianite. Considering the density of vivianite it would have being taken into the heavy fraction by default which would account for the enrichment demonstrated by the solution analysis.

text: The sequestration of phosphate by iron phases in the sediments from Lake Rotorua, New Zealand A sequential extraction method was used to determine which dominant sedimentary mineral phase was involved in phosphorus retention in the sediments of Lake Rotorua and to verify the importance of iron phases in the role as a phosphorus sink. The observed influence of the experimental conditions upon the extent of phosphate adsorption to various iron phases shows a considerable quantity of phosphorus is present in the reducible phase and in the residual mineral phase. The phosphorus associated with iron(III) oxide phases was released into solution under reducing conditions when ferric iron oxide/oxyhydroxides, including amorphous and poorly crystalline Fe(III) phases, were solubilized. The residual primary and secondary mineral phases remained stable in the sediments until they were exposed to extremely acidic media analogous to strongly reducing conditions. Manganese is not involved in phosphorus retention to the same extent as iron. Aluminium phases present were released from surface complexes with relative ease and also from mineral structures under the prevailing conditions. The results show a strong agreement between aluminium and phosphorus suggesting it is associated with various aluminium phases to some extent. The sediments of Lake Rotorua are rich in organic-bound P which is released when organic material is oxidized under conditions analogous to anaerobic degradation. The degradation of refractory organic material represents a significant source of phosphorus for incorporation into diagenetic minerals forming in oxic and anoxic layers of the sediment.
Heavy liquid separation of the sediments concentrated the small quantities of dense minerals into a separate fraction and the presence of iron sulfides could be verified. Three density fractions obtained by this method separated the diatoms (d less than 2.6 g cm-3), the silicates (d greater than 2.6 less than 3.7 g cm-3) and the heavy minerals (d greater than 3.7 g cm-3) present in the sediment sample. In the heavy mineral phase spherulitic framboidal pyrite and rhombohedrial siderite were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the framboidal pyrite detected significant fluorescence's for sulphur and iron. The elemental analysis of siderite characterised it as an iron-rich, non-sulfidic particle with no phosphorus fluorescence. Particles were also observed that had a variable morphology to the framboidal pyrite minerals but similar ratio of Fe to S in the XRF spectrum. It is likely they are other stable forms of iron sulfides or pyrites in various stages of diagenetic dissolution. Digestion of the three density fractions shows the heavy mineral phase is significantly enriched in sulfur and in iron confirming the presence of sulfides. The sulfide-forming trace metals are concentrating in the heavy mineral phase but a progressive enrichment of trace metals down core is not found in the results. Many of the trace elements show maximum concentrations in the Tarawera tephra.
There is a good agreement between iron and phosphorus in both treatments that implies iron phases are the predominant phosphorus fixers in the sediments of Lake Rotorua. However the identity of the phosphorus sink could not be confirmed by SEM or XRF analysis of the heavy minerals. The most likely explanations for the observed concentrations of iron and phosphorus and enrichment in the heavy mineral fraction are the persistence of the highly insoluble crystalline iron oxyhydroxides (goethite) in reducing sediments or the formation of the reduced iron mineral vivianite. Considering the density of vivianite it would have being taken into the heavy fraction by default which would account for the enrichment demonstrated by the solution analysis.

year: 2007

title: 'Chris Finlayson and James Christmas, He Kupu Taurangi'

authors: Simon, Hemopereki

abstract: Twenty-five years on from the Ngāi Tahu Treaty settlement this book authored by Former Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations Hon. Chris Finlayson QC and Senior Ministerial Advisor James Christmas seems timely to capture the modern history and processes of the Treaty Settlement here in Aotearoa New Zealand. After all, the effects of these settlements is driving change economically, socially, environmentally, and politically, not only within hapū and iwi but nationally.

text: 'Chris Finlayson and James Christmas, He Kupu Taurangi' Twenty-five years on from the Ngāi Tahu Treaty settlement this book authored by Former Minister for Treaty of Waitangi Negotiations Hon. Chris Finlayson QC and Senior Ministerial Advisor James Christmas seems timely to capture the modern history and processes of the Treaty Settlement here in Aotearoa New Zealand. After all, the effects of these settlements is driving change economically, socially, environmentally, and politically, not only within hapū and iwi but nationally.

year: 2022