title: Aspects of organisational decline and crisis: the multi-dimensional crisis in the United Kibbutz Movement

authors: Sheaffer, Zachary

abstract: The thesis refers to the occurrence, evolution and analysis of a multi-dimensional crisis in the kibbutzim affiliated with Israel’s largest Kibbutz Federation, the United Kibbutz Movement. Concurrent with and preceding the all-encompassing crisis, a latent if persistent organisational decline is known to have affected most of the kibbutzim. The thesis, therefore, simultaneously addresses aspects of organisational decline and organisational crisis. None of the aforementioned phenomenon have as yet been appropriately researched within the framework of the kibbutz.

It is generally argued that the kibbutz developed a large measure of organisational inertia, was shielded by a favouring task-environment, hence numbed its boundary spanning capacity. Adverse environmental jolts triggered a major crisis which exposed a wide variety of structural-organisational dysfunctions. This study encompasses a relatively large number of aspects consanguine with theories of both organisational decline and crisis.

A number of reasons highlight the scholarly requisite in attending to these topics. On the one hand, the literature on organisational decline and crisis from different disciplines, posits often contradictory directions for both the synthesis of a coherent body of knowledge and prescriptions for crisis management. On the other hand, negative organisational trends within the kibbutz system have been very passably addressed. Since both decline and crisis digress from normative organisational conduct that underscores growth, they present somewhat more challenging research topics.

Growing awareness as to the accelerated pace of organisational retrenchments and business failures alike have invoked academic as well as managerial interest. The rarity of either cross-sectional and specifically longitudinal data reflecting the dynamics of crisis and decline have resulted in proliferous theoretical treatises that, almost invariably lacked a comprehensive empirical substantiation.

This thesis encompasses a population of crisis-ridden organisations based upon a longitudinal data-base. The study investigates antecedents, causes and responses to the crisis, employing statistical methodologies (Multiple Correspondence Analysis, Multiple Discriminant Analysis and Pooled Regression Analysis), hitherto not applied in the emerging discipline of organisational decline, crisis and demise. The findings support important theoretical propositions relevant to the roots of organisational response and organisational mobilisation towards a turnaround or organisational change.

Essentially, many of the theoretical presumptions are akin with the normative dichotomy between not-for-profit and business organisations. To a large extent, these theories have been found to adequately mirror the situation in the kibbutz despite the structural co-existence of business and public domains under one organisational framework. The study points to three major types of crises; an economic, demographic and a crisis of meaninglessness. These may not be viewed singularly but should be conceptualised as a multi-dimensional or multi-facetted crisis. Indications abound as to the existence of vicious circles entailing the organisational, economic and demographic facets of the kibbutz. Empirical findings lend support mainly to theories ranging from brain-drain, prediction of organisational crisis, organisational goals and resistance to change. The thesis systematises a modest basis for further research as well as advances robust methodologies to facilitate future analyses of declining and demising organisations.

text: Aspects of organisational decline and crisis: the multi-dimensional crisis in the United Kibbutz Movement The thesis refers to the occurrence, evolution and analysis of a multi-dimensional crisis in the kibbutzim affiliated with Israel’s largest Kibbutz Federation, the United Kibbutz Movement. Concurrent with and preceding the all-encompassing crisis, a latent if persistent organisational decline is known to have affected most of the kibbutzim. The thesis, therefore, simultaneously addresses aspects of organisational decline and organisational crisis. None of the aforementioned phenomenon have as yet been appropriately researched within the framework of the kibbutz.

It is generally argued that the kibbutz developed a large measure of organisational inertia, was shielded by a favouring task-environment, hence numbed its boundary spanning capacity. Adverse environmental jolts triggered a major crisis which exposed a wide variety of structural-organisational dysfunctions. This study encompasses a relatively large number of aspects consanguine with theories of both organisational decline and crisis.

A number of reasons highlight the scholarly requisite in attending to these topics. On the one hand, the literature on organisational decline and crisis from different disciplines, posits often contradictory directions for both the synthesis of a coherent body of knowledge and prescriptions for crisis management. On the other hand, negative organisational trends within the kibbutz system have been very passably addressed. Since both decline and crisis digress from normative organisational conduct that underscores growth, they present somewhat more challenging research topics.

Growing awareness as to the accelerated pace of organisational retrenchments and business failures alike have invoked academic as well as managerial interest. The rarity of either cross-sectional and specifically longitudinal data reflecting the dynamics of crisis and decline have resulted in proliferous theoretical treatises that, almost invariably lacked a comprehensive empirical substantiation.

This thesis encompasses a population of crisis-ridden organisations based upon a longitudinal data-base. The study investigates antecedents, causes and responses to the crisis, employing statistical methodologies (Multiple Correspondence Analysis, Multiple Discriminant Analysis and Pooled Regression Analysis), hitherto not applied in the emerging discipline of organisational decline, crisis and demise. The findings support important theoretical propositions relevant to the roots of organisational response and organisational mobilisation towards a turnaround or organisational change.

Essentially, many of the theoretical presumptions are akin with the normative dichotomy between not-for-profit and business organisations. To a large extent, these theories have been found to adequately mirror the situation in the kibbutz despite the structural co-existence of business and public domains under one organisational framework. The study points to three major types of crises; an economic, demographic and a crisis of meaninglessness. These may not be viewed singularly but should be conceptualised as a multi-dimensional or multi-facetted crisis. Indications abound as to the existence of vicious circles entailing the organisational, economic and demographic facets of the kibbutz. Empirical findings lend support mainly to theories ranging from brain-drain, prediction of organisational crisis, organisational goals and resistance to change. The thesis systematises a modest basis for further research as well as advances robust methodologies to facilitate future analyses of declining and demising organisations.

year: 1992

title: Review: Marine natural products

authors: Blunt, John W.

subjects: green algae

abstract: A review (with 693 references) covering the literature published in 2004 for marine natural products referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, coelenterates, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates and echinoderms.

text: Review: Marine natural products A review (with 693 references) covering the literature published in 2004 for marine natural products referring to compounds isolated from marine microorganisms and phytoplankton, green, brown and red algae, sponges, coelenterates, bryozoans, molluscs, tunicates and echinoderms.

year: 2006

title: 2016 Subtidal Ecological Survey of Tauranga Harbour and development of benthic health models

authors: Clark, Dana

abstract: This report summarises the results of biological and physical data collected from a broad-scale subtidal survey of Tauranga Harbour conducted between March and May 2016. The survey was designed to understand more fully the role of various anthropogenic stressors on ecosystem health and feed into management of the harbour. Community-based models of ecosystem health called Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed to assess ecosystem health in response to mud and metal loading. This is the first comprehensive quantitative survey of Tauranga Harbour’s subtidal environment since 1990/91. 
The research was conducted as part of the Oranga Taiao Oranga Tangata (OTOT) programme. The wider research project aims to provide knowledge and toolsets to support co-management of estuaries. The three phases of this programme include 1) gathering Mātauranga Māori (a body of knowledge of Māori experience in the area) from local iwi/hapū, 2) consolidating the ecological knowledge of the Tauranga Harbour and providing modelling and indicators of estuarine ecosystem health, resilience and functioning, and 3) creating an Integrative Spatial Planning Tool (ISPT) that can help inform decision making in the harbour. The subtidal survey fits into the latter two research objectives, as the information collected will be used to develop indicators of ecosystem health, which will be used as components of the ISPT. 
Water, sediment and benthic macrofauna samples were collected from 45 subtidal sites across the harbour. Subtidal sediments were predominantly sandy with low levels of nutrients and metal loading. Upper reaches of channels tended to have higher mud, organic content and nutrient concentrations than sites closer to the main channels. Maximum subtidal sediment metal concentrations were well below guideline values and all metals, except lead, were less than median national values for intertidal estuarine sites. Highest metal concentrations were in the urbanised southern harbour or in areas of high mud deposition. 
Many of the numerically dominant macrofaunal taxa were present in both the 1990/91 and 2016 subtidal surveys, with pipi the most abundant bivalve in both surveys. Although the 2016 survey was not designed to quantitatively measure large bivalves, compared with the 1990/91 survey, fewer scallops and horse mussels were observed. The apparent decline in these species is concerning as large bivalves stabilise the sediment and provide complex physical structure to soft sediment habitats, providing predation refuges and settlement substrate for epifauna. The invasive Asian date mussel, on the other hand, has also become common in the harbour. 
Mud and metals were identified as key variables affecting the ecology of the harbour. To determine how environmental gradients in these variables affected ecosystem health, two Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed based on variability in community structure, one for each environmental gradient. The BHM approach is a useful management tool that can be used to determine the relative health of benthic communities at a single point in time, or track sites over time to assess whether communities are moving towards a more healthy or unhealthy state. It has been found to be more sensitive to changing ecosystem health than simple univariate community measures because it preserves more information about the community. 
Most sites were ranked in the lower BHM groups, suggesting Tauranga Harbour had fairly healthy subtidal communities with regard to mud and metal impacts. This was supported by values from other biotic indices, which indicated that all subtidal sites in Tauranga would be classified as having ‘good’ ecological status. Sites identified as most impacted by elevated mud and metals were generally located in the upper reaches of estuaries or near the urbanised southern portion of the harbour. In terms of mud, this to some extent reflects the natural progression of an estuary from land to sea; however, the rates of accumulation of sediments have been accelerated because of anthropogenic land-based activities. Although currents and mud were highly coupled in Tauranga’s subtidal environment, the Mud BHM could draw out community responses that were only associated with mud.

text: 2016 Subtidal Ecological Survey of Tauranga Harbour and development of benthic health models This report summarises the results of biological and physical data collected from a broad-scale subtidal survey of Tauranga Harbour conducted between March and May 2016. The survey was designed to understand more fully the role of various anthropogenic stressors on ecosystem health and feed into management of the harbour. Community-based models of ecosystem health called Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed to assess ecosystem health in response to mud and metal loading. This is the first comprehensive quantitative survey of Tauranga Harbour’s subtidal environment since 1990/91. 
The research was conducted as part of the Oranga Taiao Oranga Tangata (OTOT) programme. The wider research project aims to provide knowledge and toolsets to support co-management of estuaries. The three phases of this programme include 1) gathering Mātauranga Māori (a body of knowledge of Māori experience in the area) from local iwi/hapū, 2) consolidating the ecological knowledge of the Tauranga Harbour and providing modelling and indicators of estuarine ecosystem health, resilience and functioning, and 3) creating an Integrative Spatial Planning Tool (ISPT) that can help inform decision making in the harbour. The subtidal survey fits into the latter two research objectives, as the information collected will be used to develop indicators of ecosystem health, which will be used as components of the ISPT. 
Water, sediment and benthic macrofauna samples were collected from 45 subtidal sites across the harbour. Subtidal sediments were predominantly sandy with low levels of nutrients and metal loading. Upper reaches of channels tended to have higher mud, organic content and nutrient concentrations than sites closer to the main channels. Maximum subtidal sediment metal concentrations were well below guideline values and all metals, except lead, were less than median national values for intertidal estuarine sites. Highest metal concentrations were in the urbanised southern harbour or in areas of high mud deposition. 
Many of the numerically dominant macrofaunal taxa were present in both the 1990/91 and 2016 subtidal surveys, with pipi the most abundant bivalve in both surveys. Although the 2016 survey was not designed to quantitatively measure large bivalves, compared with the 1990/91 survey, fewer scallops and horse mussels were observed. The apparent decline in these species is concerning as large bivalves stabilise the sediment and provide complex physical structure to soft sediment habitats, providing predation refuges and settlement substrate for epifauna. The invasive Asian date mussel, on the other hand, has also become common in the harbour. 
Mud and metals were identified as key variables affecting the ecology of the harbour. To determine how environmental gradients in these variables affected ecosystem health, two Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed based on variability in community structure, one for each environmental gradient. The BHM approach is a useful management tool that can be used to determine the relative health of benthic communities at a single point in time, or track sites over time to assess whether communities are moving towards a more healthy or unhealthy state. It has been found to be more sensitive to changing ecosystem health than simple univariate community measures because it preserves more information about the community. 
Most sites were ranked in the lower BHM groups, suggesting Tauranga Harbour had fairly healthy subtidal communities with regard to mud and metal impacts. This was supported by values from other biotic indices, which indicated that all subtidal sites in Tauranga would be classified as having ‘good’ ecological status. Sites identified as most impacted by elevated mud and metals were generally located in the upper reaches of estuaries or near the urbanised southern portion of the harbour. In terms of mud, this to some extent reflects the natural progression of an estuary from land to sea; however, the rates of accumulation of sediments have been accelerated because of anthropogenic land-based activities. Although currents and mud were highly coupled in Tauranga’s subtidal environment, the Mud BHM could draw out community responses that were only associated with mud.

year: 2018