title: Investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism : Planning for the Future Benefit of Waikato-Tainui along the Waikato River, Case Studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae

authors: Cooper, Mei Te Werawera Te Reokaha

abstract: “Tērā ōkū hoa kei ngā tōpito e whā o te ao - My friends will come from all parts of the world” – Kīngi Tāwhiao 1822-1894

This doctorate is guided by the visions of the second Māori king, Kīngi Tāwhiao, which reflect the importance of global connections, relationships (Turongo House, 2000:109) and investment to achieve the ultimate goal of authentic or ‘true’ sustainability throughout the world.  The strategic process will require a balance between humans and the natural environment to ensure long-term growth and survival.  This research will investigate whether investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism (ASCT) will provide long-term and sustainable benefits for tribes throughout New Zealand, using a study of Waikato-Tainui.  ASCT, if practiced correctly, must be driven by whānau of marae, hapū and iwi alongside ideal long-term partners to ultimately achieve indigenous autonomy. ASCT prioritises the wellbeing of indigenous and local communities, cultural preservation and environmental sustainability while providing secure economic returns to key stakeholders. 

Today, tourism is New Zealand’s largest and fastest growing industry; total tourism expenditure is forecast to increase from $34.7b in 2016, an increase of 12.2% from the previous year, to $41b by 2025.  The natural landscape is the main reason why international travellers visit New Zealand, followed by an interest in Māori culture (Tourism Industry Association, 2015).  Unfortunately, there is sparse funding for Māori tourism development (New Zealand Māori Tourism, 2015; Goulter, 2015) compared to mainstream tourism and Māori are the most impoverished people in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2011).  Cultural tourism has existed in New Zealand for more than 150 years and has a vital role in New Zealand’s tourism industry.  Te Kīngitanga and the Waikato River are the main aspects that make Waikato unique in New Zealand, however, there is very little cultural tourism in the region.  As a descendant of Waikato-Tainui, I work with my people at the marae level to inform tribal governance about the significant opportunities available to whānau compared to current mainstream investments by the tribe. 

Using Kaupapa Māori and critical realism, the methods used in this research include an investigation of government tourism organisations, interviews with Waikato-Tainui governance groups, case studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae, case studies at fourteen successful Māori tourism providers throughout New Zealand, and an international comparison of best practices in indigenous tourism.

text: Investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism : Planning for the Future Benefit of Waikato-Tainui along the Waikato River, Case Studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae “Tērā ōkū hoa kei ngā tōpito e whā o te ao - My friends will come from all parts of the world” – Kīngi Tāwhiao 1822-1894

This doctorate is guided by the visions of the second Māori king, Kīngi Tāwhiao, which reflect the importance of global connections, relationships (Turongo House, 2000:109) and investment to achieve the ultimate goal of authentic or ‘true’ sustainability throughout the world.  The strategic process will require a balance between humans and the natural environment to ensure long-term growth and survival.  This research will investigate whether investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism (ASCT) will provide long-term and sustainable benefits for tribes throughout New Zealand, using a study of Waikato-Tainui.  ASCT, if practiced correctly, must be driven by whānau of marae, hapū and iwi alongside ideal long-term partners to ultimately achieve indigenous autonomy. ASCT prioritises the wellbeing of indigenous and local communities, cultural preservation and environmental sustainability while providing secure economic returns to key stakeholders. 

Today, tourism is New Zealand’s largest and fastest growing industry; total tourism expenditure is forecast to increase from $34.7b in 2016, an increase of 12.2% from the previous year, to $41b by 2025.  The natural landscape is the main reason why international travellers visit New Zealand, followed by an interest in Māori culture (Tourism Industry Association, 2015).  Unfortunately, there is sparse funding for Māori tourism development (New Zealand Māori Tourism, 2015; Goulter, 2015) compared to mainstream tourism and Māori are the most impoverished people in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2011).  Cultural tourism has existed in New Zealand for more than 150 years and has a vital role in New Zealand’s tourism industry.  Te Kīngitanga and the Waikato River are the main aspects that make Waikato unique in New Zealand, however, there is very little cultural tourism in the region.  As a descendant of Waikato-Tainui, I work with my people at the marae level to inform tribal governance about the significant opportunities available to whānau compared to current mainstream investments by the tribe. 

Using Kaupapa Māori and critical realism, the methods used in this research include an investigation of government tourism organisations, interviews with Waikato-Tainui governance groups, case studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae, case studies at fourteen successful Māori tourism providers throughout New Zealand, and an international comparison of best practices in indigenous tourism.

year: 2018

title: Understanding the potential exposure of coastal marae and urupā in Aotearoa New Zealand to sea level rise

authors: Bailey-Winiata, Akuhata Patrick Stephen

subjects: Marae

abstract: In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori are Indigenous and have inhabited these islands for the past 700 years. They have an intricate physical and spiritual connection to places and the environment. This is reflected in the Māori creation story, where Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (Earth mother) are the ancestral parents of Māori. Between these two gods is the marae, the Māori meeting house. Marae are where the domestic life of Māori traditionally ran its course, with marae being an overarching term to illustrate multiple buildings which each have a specific role to play within the community. Often, marae have an associated urupā (burial ground). Historically, marae and their associated urupā are positioned along the low-lying coast, providing easy access to kaimoana (sea food), transport and trade. However, coastal marae and urupā are at an increasing threat of inundation and erosion from sea level rise, and will also be impacted by other effects of climate change such as drought and other changes to weather patterns such as storms.
Many coastal marae and urupā are already experiencing the impacts of coastal flooding and erosion, however, little is known about the exposure of coastal marae and urupā to sea level rise nationally. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis is to explore the potential exposure of coastal marae nationally, with a particular focus on the Bay of Plenty coastal marae including coastal urupā. This aim was achieved by addressing three objectives. The first of which was to investigate the potential national exposure of coastal marae to a 100 year annual recurrence interval extreme sea level event, with the addition of sea level rise. Second, I conducted a nationally-focused assessment of the local coastal geomorphology surrounding coastal marae to determine the potential response of the coast to sea level rise. I also undertook a case study on the BOP which included a more detailed assessment of the geomorphology around the coastal marae and urupā in this region. Third, findings from these two objectives are brought together to consider the next steps to determine how to move forward with planning to manage coastal marae and urupā with sea level rise.
A spatial mapping approach using Arc GIS and existing datasets was used to address these aims, combining the Coastlines and Islands polygon, marae and urupā locational data and the Aotearoa New Zealand coastal hydrosystem classification system proposed by Hume in 2016. This showed that 191 marae around Aotearoa New Zealand are within 1 km of the coast and in the Bay of Plenty 41 urupā are within 1 km. I then used the bathtub modelling approach to get a national first-pass assessment of the potential exposure of these marae and urupā to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 10 cm increments of sea level rise up to 3 m. Six coastal marae were potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 41 coastal marae are potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event with a 3 m rise in mean sea level. The most common type of coastal geomorphology nationally and in the Bay of Plenty was shallow drowned valleys, with 72 coastal marae in this category. The response of these systems to sea level rise manifests as changes in the tidal regime and sediment transport dynamics which will affect inundation and erosion of low-lying areas, where many coastal marae and urupā are positioned.
Thus, it is clear that marae and urupā are nationally at risk to sea level rise, and their responses will be highly variable with geomorphology. But what are the next steps? There are many legislative documents such as the coastal climate change and hazards report by the Ministry for the Environment which suggests that the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways strategy to address the uncertainty surrounding climate change, recommended as a method for future planning. Another is the pending reform of the Resource Management Act which will introduce a climate change adaptation act where support for managed retreat will be made available. However, any management strategies for marae, hapū and iwi will need to be cognisant of the tapū and māna that these places hold, and there will be no one size fits all approach.

text: Understanding the potential exposure of coastal marae and urupā in Aotearoa New Zealand to sea level rise In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori are Indigenous and have inhabited these islands for the past 700 years. They have an intricate physical and spiritual connection to places and the environment. This is reflected in the Māori creation story, where Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (Earth mother) are the ancestral parents of Māori. Between these two gods is the marae, the Māori meeting house. Marae are where the domestic life of Māori traditionally ran its course, with marae being an overarching term to illustrate multiple buildings which each have a specific role to play within the community. Often, marae have an associated urupā (burial ground). Historically, marae and their associated urupā are positioned along the low-lying coast, providing easy access to kaimoana (sea food), transport and trade. However, coastal marae and urupā are at an increasing threat of inundation and erosion from sea level rise, and will also be impacted by other effects of climate change such as drought and other changes to weather patterns such as storms.
Many coastal marae and urupā are already experiencing the impacts of coastal flooding and erosion, however, little is known about the exposure of coastal marae and urupā to sea level rise nationally. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis is to explore the potential exposure of coastal marae nationally, with a particular focus on the Bay of Plenty coastal marae including coastal urupā. This aim was achieved by addressing three objectives. The first of which was to investigate the potential national exposure of coastal marae to a 100 year annual recurrence interval extreme sea level event, with the addition of sea level rise. Second, I conducted a nationally-focused assessment of the local coastal geomorphology surrounding coastal marae to determine the potential response of the coast to sea level rise. I also undertook a case study on the BOP which included a more detailed assessment of the geomorphology around the coastal marae and urupā in this region. Third, findings from these two objectives are brought together to consider the next steps to determine how to move forward with planning to manage coastal marae and urupā with sea level rise.
A spatial mapping approach using Arc GIS and existing datasets was used to address these aims, combining the Coastlines and Islands polygon, marae and urupā locational data and the Aotearoa New Zealand coastal hydrosystem classification system proposed by Hume in 2016. This showed that 191 marae around Aotearoa New Zealand are within 1 km of the coast and in the Bay of Plenty 41 urupā are within 1 km. I then used the bathtub modelling approach to get a national first-pass assessment of the potential exposure of these marae and urupā to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 10 cm increments of sea level rise up to 3 m. Six coastal marae were potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 41 coastal marae are potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event with a 3 m rise in mean sea level. The most common type of coastal geomorphology nationally and in the Bay of Plenty was shallow drowned valleys, with 72 coastal marae in this category. The response of these systems to sea level rise manifests as changes in the tidal regime and sediment transport dynamics which will affect inundation and erosion of low-lying areas, where many coastal marae and urupā are positioned.
Thus, it is clear that marae and urupā are nationally at risk to sea level rise, and their responses will be highly variable with geomorphology. But what are the next steps? There are many legislative documents such as the coastal climate change and hazards report by the Ministry for the Environment which suggests that the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways strategy to address the uncertainty surrounding climate change, recommended as a method for future planning. Another is the pending reform of the Resource Management Act which will introduce a climate change adaptation act where support for managed retreat will be made available. However, any management strategies for marae, hapū and iwi will need to be cognisant of the tapū and māna that these places hold, and there will be no one size fits all approach.

year: 2021

title: Biology and potential impacts of rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus L.) in New Zealand

authors: Hicks, Brendan J.

subjects: rudd

abstract: Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) is a cyprinid fish native to Europe that was illegally introduced into New Zealand in  1967. Between the 1960s and 1980s rudd were illegally spread to a number of lakes, ponds, and rivers in New Zealand, principally from the Waikato north. They now also occur in the Wanganui, Manawatu, Nelson, and Canterbury regions. Rudd undergo
ontogenetic changes in diet as they grow. Young-of-the-year rudd (58–65 mm mean fork length (FL)) ate a mixture of planktonic cladocerans and chironomid pupae, and potentially competed for these foods with common smelt (Retropinna retropinna). Larger rudd (100–149 mm FL) were primarily benthivorous, and potentially competed with perch (Perca fluviatilis) of the same size, brown bullhead catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus), and probably common bullies (Gobiomorphus cotidianus). Rudd of still larger sizes were
increasingly herbivorous, until at >200 mm FL their diet was >80% plant material. As rudd prefer native species of aquatic macrophytes to the introduced species, they can probably modify native plant communities and aid the invasion of introduced aquatic weeds. They may also have contributed to
the switch of Hamilton Lake from a macrophyte-dominated state to a phytoplankton-dominated state. It is time for the threats posed by rudd to be recognised, and for an education campaign to be mounted. As past rudd introductions have been done outside the law, increasing the severity of penalties for further illegal transfers is unlikely to be effective, and the coarse angling community should instead be included in management decisions concerning rudd.

text: Biology and potential impacts of rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus L.) in New Zealand Rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus) is a cyprinid fish native to Europe that was illegally introduced into New Zealand in  1967. Between the 1960s and 1980s rudd were illegally spread to a number of lakes, ponds, and rivers in New Zealand, principally from the Waikato north. They now also occur in the Wanganui, Manawatu, Nelson, and Canterbury regions. Rudd undergo
ontogenetic changes in diet as they grow. Young-of-the-year rudd (58–65 mm mean fork length (FL)) ate a mixture of planktonic cladocerans and chironomid pupae, and potentially competed for these foods with common smelt (Retropinna retropinna). Larger rudd (100–149 mm FL) were primarily benthivorous, and potentially competed with perch (Perca fluviatilis) of the same size, brown bullhead catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus), and probably common bullies (Gobiomorphus cotidianus). Rudd of still larger sizes were
increasingly herbivorous, until at >200 mm FL their diet was >80% plant material. As rudd prefer native species of aquatic macrophytes to the introduced species, they can probably modify native plant communities and aid the invasion of introduced aquatic weeds. They may also have contributed to
the switch of Hamilton Lake from a macrophyte-dominated state to a phytoplankton-dominated state. It is time for the threats posed by rudd to be recognised, and for an education campaign to be mounted. As past rudd introductions have been done outside the law, increasing the severity of penalties for further illegal transfers is unlikely to be effective, and the coarse angling community should instead be included in management decisions concerning rudd.

year: 2003