title: MacKinder meets Buzan: A Geopolitical Extension to Security complex Theory with an emphasis on the Polar Regions

authors: Gibbs, Denis Richard

subjects: Shatterbelts

abstract: Throughout the centuries interstate wars have been fought over territory to satisfy the requirement of states’ to secure sufficient land and resources to meet the lifestyle needs and economic aspirations of their citizens. While in the past, the conditions precipitating war were predominantly anthropogenic in their origin, in the twenty-first century, wars are increasingly likely to be the consequence of worldwide environmental degradation. Two environmental conditions that have paralleled humanity’s unceasing drive for wealth and prosperity are becoming significant threats to the security of every state: these threats are global climate change and natural resource scarcity. Although these two threats are global in stature, their impact will initially influence security interdependencies at the state and regional levels. Regional security complex theory is a methodological attempt to explain why traditional – military and political – security interdependencies trigger the aggregation of geographically contiguous states into regional groupings defined by the social condition of amity or enmity. However, strictures embedded within this typology prevent the same methodology from being used to explain regionalisation when threats arise from non-traditional sources or the affected states lack geographic contiguity. To overcome this methodological impediment, this thesis proposes a theoretical enlargement – a “hybrid” theory – which combines methodologies drawn from sector security analysis with essential elements of “externalities” and “Shatterbelts” drawn from Regional Orders and Geopolitics ontologies respectively. To test the authority of the “hybrid” theory, two futuristic scenarios are composed, each representing a possible, even probable, future for the two Polar Regions. Each scenario depicts the world in the year 2035, when the human population and individual wealth will likely be of a magnitude greater than they are today and when the world is also detrimentally affected by an increasingly inclement climate and the declining availability of natural resources. Common to both scenarios are potential changes to the political world order and the growing worldwide influence of emerging great powers in Asia and Latin America. In the contemporary Arctic, the future is already being determined by the inimical politics of oil. In a scenario where the Arctic region has become progressively less sanguine, the “hybrid” theory suggests that antagonisms between Arctic-rim countries will forge the establishment of at least one security complex. There will, therefore, be a security response to the region-wide competition for resources. As the twenty-first century unfolds, the presence in the Arctic of non-Arctic states as resource competitors heightens the probability that established security complexes will transmute into conflict prone shatterbelts. The Antarctic Treaty currently prohibits both the commercialisation and militarisation of the continent. It is an institutional regime that is not due to be reviewed until mid-century. Antarctica is a continent like no other for its legal status remains ill-defined and the existing seven territorial claims attract no universal endorsement. Given this political environment, the “hybrid” theory suggests, that in a world experiencing a severe shortage of resources no security complex will form in Antarctica but, instead the region will become a shatterbelt or the loci for resource wars.

text: MacKinder meets Buzan: A Geopolitical Extension to Security complex Theory with an emphasis on the Polar Regions Throughout the centuries interstate wars have been fought over territory to satisfy the requirement of states’ to secure sufficient land and resources to meet the lifestyle needs and economic aspirations of their citizens. While in the past, the conditions precipitating war were predominantly anthropogenic in their origin, in the twenty-first century, wars are increasingly likely to be the consequence of worldwide environmental degradation. Two environmental conditions that have paralleled humanity’s unceasing drive for wealth and prosperity are becoming significant threats to the security of every state: these threats are global climate change and natural resource scarcity. Although these two threats are global in stature, their impact will initially influence security interdependencies at the state and regional levels. Regional security complex theory is a methodological attempt to explain why traditional – military and political – security interdependencies trigger the aggregation of geographically contiguous states into regional groupings defined by the social condition of amity or enmity. However, strictures embedded within this typology prevent the same methodology from being used to explain regionalisation when threats arise from non-traditional sources or the affected states lack geographic contiguity. To overcome this methodological impediment, this thesis proposes a theoretical enlargement – a “hybrid” theory – which combines methodologies drawn from sector security analysis with essential elements of “externalities” and “Shatterbelts” drawn from Regional Orders and Geopolitics ontologies respectively. To test the authority of the “hybrid” theory, two futuristic scenarios are composed, each representing a possible, even probable, future for the two Polar Regions. Each scenario depicts the world in the year 2035, when the human population and individual wealth will likely be of a magnitude greater than they are today and when the world is also detrimentally affected by an increasingly inclement climate and the declining availability of natural resources. Common to both scenarios are potential changes to the political world order and the growing worldwide influence of emerging great powers in Asia and Latin America. In the contemporary Arctic, the future is already being determined by the inimical politics of oil. In a scenario where the Arctic region has become progressively less sanguine, the “hybrid” theory suggests that antagonisms between Arctic-rim countries will forge the establishment of at least one security complex. There will, therefore, be a security response to the region-wide competition for resources. As the twenty-first century unfolds, the presence in the Arctic of non-Arctic states as resource competitors heightens the probability that established security complexes will transmute into conflict prone shatterbelts. The Antarctic Treaty currently prohibits both the commercialisation and militarisation of the continent. It is an institutional regime that is not due to be reviewed until mid-century. Antarctica is a continent like no other for its legal status remains ill-defined and the existing seven territorial claims attract no universal endorsement. Given this political environment, the “hybrid” theory suggests, that in a world experiencing a severe shortage of resources no security complex will form in Antarctica but, instead the region will become a shatterbelt or the loci for resource wars.

year: 2011

title: Creating public dialogue: bridging the divide between television policymakers and citizens

authors: Macbeth, Rose M. S.

abstract: This thesis identifies a lack of public participation in both the historical and contemporary communication dimensions of New Zealand’s media regulation. It illustrates how this situation is evident even in policies such as the Codes of Practice which dictate programme standards for broadcast television. The thesis then argues this situation can be resolved and shows how Citizens’ Juries can act as dialogue bridges between media organisations and citizen representatives to enable community opinion to inform and benchmark policy decisions. 

The research programme first considers the twin narratives of social power and the restrictions of public participation in policy dialogue. This is addressed through data gathered from a series of literature reviews of the historical development of New Zealand’s press and broadcasting services. An additional review clarified the impact of British and American socioeconomic principals in the regulatory policies of New Zealand media, especially television broadcasting. Interviews with television officials and researchers in Britain and America informed this investigative review which disclosed a triangulation of influences in New Zealand media models. 

The thesis is framed in the context of an “action research” programme designed to specifically address the historic lack of public dialogue evident even in television policies that have a widespread community impact. The study confirms the documented ability of “action research” inquiry to provide large quantities of rich descriptive data and to generate new theoretical insights. A list of fifteen characteristics applicable to an action research study aimed at organisational change is used to validate this study’s methodology. The action research inquiry method closely matches this type of exploratory problem-solving research, as it requires interdisciplinary theoretical scanning. This proved beneficial as it enabled specific interacting theories to be located to precisely explain the social issues and situations that can emerge in a programme designed to resolve a real-world issue in a complex social setting. The action inquiry method also acknowledges the value of practice-based knowledge and other informal experiences that contribute to this research programme.

As the preface relates, reflections about the action steps (part of the action research inquiry structure) were shown to increase understanding and theoretical insights, and propel the research process forward. These “active thinking” phases led to an investigation of the Citizens’ Jury methodology, its international practice and the planning of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury. In this event 12 Waikato residents debated the “good taste and decency” Code of Practice for Free-To-Air television with a number of television experts, including broadcasting executives, Broadcasting Standards Authority staff members, academic researchers and different aged television viewers. The thesis provides a rationale for the design and operation of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury as well as its evaluation procedures. The EPPT (Equal Preparation Participation Time) formula was an outcome of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury held from 2-4 July 1999.The formula components are designed to act as a policy guideline for the management of public dialogue events between policy-makers and citizen representatives. 

This study contends that the Citizens’ Jury model is a more ethical, and valuable public opinion gathering method than the polling theoretical methods in present widespread use, as its practice engages both parties in a process of informed face to face dialogue. The Jury structure works to equalise the normally asymmetrical relationship between policy-makers and citizens. The thesis asserts that the Waikato Citizens’ Jury demonstrates both a solution to the dialogue divide between television policymakers and citizens, and the problem of resolving public participation in New Zealand media regulatory practices. It also demonstrates action research displays the tenets of sound scientific research practice and the success of the EPPT dialogue formula in action. The thesis ends by concluding that New Zealand media organisations due to their persistent refusal to consult directly with citizens, especially about policies with a widespread community impact, exhibit a syndrome the author terms “institutional NIMBYism”.

text: Creating public dialogue: bridging the divide between television policymakers and citizens This thesis identifies a lack of public participation in both the historical and contemporary communication dimensions of New Zealand’s media regulation. It illustrates how this situation is evident even in policies such as the Codes of Practice which dictate programme standards for broadcast television. The thesis then argues this situation can be resolved and shows how Citizens’ Juries can act as dialogue bridges between media organisations and citizen representatives to enable community opinion to inform and benchmark policy decisions. 

The research programme first considers the twin narratives of social power and the restrictions of public participation in policy dialogue. This is addressed through data gathered from a series of literature reviews of the historical development of New Zealand’s press and broadcasting services. An additional review clarified the impact of British and American socioeconomic principals in the regulatory policies of New Zealand media, especially television broadcasting. Interviews with television officials and researchers in Britain and America informed this investigative review which disclosed a triangulation of influences in New Zealand media models. 

The thesis is framed in the context of an “action research” programme designed to specifically address the historic lack of public dialogue evident even in television policies that have a widespread community impact. The study confirms the documented ability of “action research” inquiry to provide large quantities of rich descriptive data and to generate new theoretical insights. A list of fifteen characteristics applicable to an action research study aimed at organisational change is used to validate this study’s methodology. The action research inquiry method closely matches this type of exploratory problem-solving research, as it requires interdisciplinary theoretical scanning. This proved beneficial as it enabled specific interacting theories to be located to precisely explain the social issues and situations that can emerge in a programme designed to resolve a real-world issue in a complex social setting. The action inquiry method also acknowledges the value of practice-based knowledge and other informal experiences that contribute to this research programme.

As the preface relates, reflections about the action steps (part of the action research inquiry structure) were shown to increase understanding and theoretical insights, and propel the research process forward. These “active thinking” phases led to an investigation of the Citizens’ Jury methodology, its international practice and the planning of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury. In this event 12 Waikato residents debated the “good taste and decency” Code of Practice for Free-To-Air television with a number of television experts, including broadcasting executives, Broadcasting Standards Authority staff members, academic researchers and different aged television viewers. The thesis provides a rationale for the design and operation of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury as well as its evaluation procedures. The EPPT (Equal Preparation Participation Time) formula was an outcome of the Waikato Citizens’ Jury held from 2-4 July 1999.The formula components are designed to act as a policy guideline for the management of public dialogue events between policy-makers and citizen representatives. 

This study contends that the Citizens’ Jury model is a more ethical, and valuable public opinion gathering method than the polling theoretical methods in present widespread use, as its practice engages both parties in a process of informed face to face dialogue. The Jury structure works to equalise the normally asymmetrical relationship between policy-makers and citizens. The thesis asserts that the Waikato Citizens’ Jury demonstrates both a solution to the dialogue divide between television policymakers and citizens, and the problem of resolving public participation in New Zealand media regulatory practices. It also demonstrates action research displays the tenets of sound scientific research practice and the success of the EPPT dialogue formula in action. The thesis ends by concluding that New Zealand media organisations due to their persistent refusal to consult directly with citizens, especially about policies with a widespread community impact, exhibit a syndrome the author terms “institutional NIMBYism”.

year: 2002

title: The rhetorical organisation of Maori discourse: An illustration

authors: Crombie, Winifred

subjects: Māori medium education

abstract: Almost 20% all Māori students in New Zealand schools are involved in some form of Māori-medium education. These students need to develop competence in using the language for a wide range of purposes. They need, therefore, to understand a range of written discourse conventions. In seeking to assist them in this task, elders and scholars are turning to the works of major Māori figures of the past, works composed when the language was used widely in a range of discourse contexts. However, scholars need ways of analysing these texts and of communicating their findings to others. The primary aim of this paper is to demonstrate one such approach. A single letter of condolence written in Māori is analysed here in terms of rhetorical discourse structure. On the basis of the analysis, a number of hypotheses concerning epistolary discourse in Māori are put forward. The primary hypothesis is that letters of condolence written in Māori by highly competent users of the language are likely to be characterized by an overall Problem-Solution rhetorical prototype involving spiral multilayering.

text: The rhetorical organisation of Maori discourse: An illustration Almost 20% all Māori students in New Zealand schools are involved in some form of Māori-medium education. These students need to develop competence in using the language for a wide range of purposes. They need, therefore, to understand a range of written discourse conventions. In seeking to assist them in this task, elders and scholars are turning to the works of major Māori figures of the past, works composed when the language was used widely in a range of discourse contexts. However, scholars need ways of analysing these texts and of communicating their findings to others. The primary aim of this paper is to demonstrate one such approach. A single letter of condolence written in Māori is analysed here in terms of rhetorical discourse structure. On the basis of the analysis, a number of hypotheses concerning epistolary discourse in Māori are put forward. The primary hypothesis is that letters of condolence written in Māori by highly competent users of the language are likely to be characterized by an overall Problem-Solution rhetorical prototype involving spiral multilayering.

year: 2001-02