title: Groundwater flow dynamics beneath a wastewater irrigation site, Hautapu, Cambridge

authors: Whatnall, Natasha

subjects: Soil dynamics

abstract: In this study, a qualitative groundwater hydrological model is developed to assist in evaluating the long-term environmental sustainability of a wastewater irrigation system at Hautapu, Cambridge. The model relies on the integration of site information, numerical groundwater modelling, geochemical data, and surface geophysical data.

The characteristics of the site relating to the groundwater system are examined including climate, topography, natural and artificial recharge, hydrogeology, hydraulic characteristics, seasonal variations, and abstraction activities. Integration of this information indicates groundwater movement is predominantly horizontal and northwestward, with highly restricted vertical movement downwards due to the presence of thick sequences of silt-based materials beginning at an average depth of ~10m:

A numerical groundwater model was developed incorporating the site information to estimate groundwater flow patterns within the study area. The model suggests that lateral flow northwestward within the unconfined aquifer predominates in the study area and that there is probably minimal vertical movement from the upper aquifer zones to the deep aquifer.

An analysis of recent geochemical data is undertaken in this study to (i) determine the horizontal and vertical extent of modified groundwater movement; and (ii) provide ground truth for the electrical resistivity technique. The results of the analysis reveal elevated levels of sodium in shallow groundwater in a zone centred on the wastewater irrigation farm, with some localised lateral migration to the South, West and Northwest. Movement of modified groundwater vertically has occurred to a maximum depth of ~16 m on-site.

The surface geophysical technique, electrical resistivity was employed at the site to: (i) provide input about flow dynamics beneath the site, through the delineation of the low resistivity modified groundwater plume; and (ii) evaluate the success of the technique in detecting spatial variations in groundwater quality. A comprehensive survey was undertaken involving vertical soundings and horizontal profiling measurements. In general, a modified groundwater plume consistent with that defined by geochemical data was identified thereby validating the application of the technique and confirming recognised movement patterns. However, the application of the technique is limited to areas where high conductivity modified groundwater controls the resistivity signal. Beyond these areas it is proven that the resistivity data may be an artefact of lithology.

The development of the qualitative groundwater hydrological model was achieved through the integration of the flow information obtained via the outlined investigative methods. The main outputs of the groundwater model are that modified groundwater movement is:
(i) Constrained within the unconfined aquifer; and
(ii) Predominantly horizontal, therefore 2-dimensional.

It is concluded that the current wastewater disposal activity appears to be performing sustainably in terms of nitrogen disposal, however consistent increases in sodium levels over the wastewater disposal site to the boundaries raises the possibility of future increases in sodium in groundwater just beyond the boundaries in some locations.

text: Groundwater flow dynamics beneath a wastewater irrigation site, Hautapu, Cambridge In this study, a qualitative groundwater hydrological model is developed to assist in evaluating the long-term environmental sustainability of a wastewater irrigation system at Hautapu, Cambridge. The model relies on the integration of site information, numerical groundwater modelling, geochemical data, and surface geophysical data.

The characteristics of the site relating to the groundwater system are examined including climate, topography, natural and artificial recharge, hydrogeology, hydraulic characteristics, seasonal variations, and abstraction activities. Integration of this information indicates groundwater movement is predominantly horizontal and northwestward, with highly restricted vertical movement downwards due to the presence of thick sequences of silt-based materials beginning at an average depth of ~10m:

A numerical groundwater model was developed incorporating the site information to estimate groundwater flow patterns within the study area. The model suggests that lateral flow northwestward within the unconfined aquifer predominates in the study area and that there is probably minimal vertical movement from the upper aquifer zones to the deep aquifer.

An analysis of recent geochemical data is undertaken in this study to (i) determine the horizontal and vertical extent of modified groundwater movement; and (ii) provide ground truth for the electrical resistivity technique. The results of the analysis reveal elevated levels of sodium in shallow groundwater in a zone centred on the wastewater irrigation farm, with some localised lateral migration to the South, West and Northwest. Movement of modified groundwater vertically has occurred to a maximum depth of ~16 m on-site.

The surface geophysical technique, electrical resistivity was employed at the site to: (i) provide input about flow dynamics beneath the site, through the delineation of the low resistivity modified groundwater plume; and (ii) evaluate the success of the technique in detecting spatial variations in groundwater quality. A comprehensive survey was undertaken involving vertical soundings and horizontal profiling measurements. In general, a modified groundwater plume consistent with that defined by geochemical data was identified thereby validating the application of the technique and confirming recognised movement patterns. However, the application of the technique is limited to areas where high conductivity modified groundwater controls the resistivity signal. Beyond these areas it is proven that the resistivity data may be an artefact of lithology.

The development of the qualitative groundwater hydrological model was achieved through the integration of the flow information obtained via the outlined investigative methods. The main outputs of the groundwater model are that modified groundwater movement is:
(i) Constrained within the unconfined aquifer; and
(ii) Predominantly horizontal, therefore 2-dimensional.

It is concluded that the current wastewater disposal activity appears to be performing sustainably in terms of nitrogen disposal, however consistent increases in sodium levels over the wastewater disposal site to the boundaries raises the possibility of future increases in sodium in groundwater just beyond the boundaries in some locations.

year: 1999

title: The freshwater aquarium trade as a vector for incidental invertebrate fauna

authors: Duggan, Ian C.

subjects: pet trade

abstract: The aquarium trade has a long history of transporting and introducing fish, plants and snails into regions where they are not native. However, other than snails, research on species carried “incidentally” rather than deliberately by this industry is lacking. I sampled invertebrates in the plankton, and from water among bottom stones, of 55 aquaria from 43 New Zealand households. I recorded 55 incidental invertebrate taxa, including copepods, ostracods, cladocerans, molluscs, mites, flatworms and nematodes. Six were known established non-indigenous species, and eight others were not previously recorded from New Zealand. Of the latter, two harpacticoid copepod species, Nitokra pietschmanni and Elaphoidella sewelli, are not native to or known from New Zealand, demonstrating the aquarium trade continues to pose an invasion risk for incidental fauna. The remaining six species were littoral/benthic rotifers with subtropical/tropical affinities; these may or may not be native, as research on this group is limited. A variety of behaviours associated with the set-up and keeping of home aquaria were recorded (e.g., fish and plants in any home were sourced from stores, wild caught, or both, and cleaning methods varied), which made prediction of “high risk” behaviours difficult. However, non-indigenous species had a greater probability of being recorded in aquaria containing aquatic plants and in those that were heated. Methods for disposal of aquarium wastes ranged from depositing washings on the lawn or garden (a low risk for invasion) to disposing of water into outdoor ponds or storm-water drains (a higher risk). It is recommended that aquarium owners be encouraged to pour aquarium wastes onto gardens or lawns—already a common method of disposal—as invasion risk will be minimised using this method.

text: The freshwater aquarium trade as a vector for incidental invertebrate fauna The aquarium trade has a long history of transporting and introducing fish, plants and snails into regions where they are not native. However, other than snails, research on species carried “incidentally” rather than deliberately by this industry is lacking. I sampled invertebrates in the plankton, and from water among bottom stones, of 55 aquaria from 43 New Zealand households. I recorded 55 incidental invertebrate taxa, including copepods, ostracods, cladocerans, molluscs, mites, flatworms and nematodes. Six were known established non-indigenous species, and eight others were not previously recorded from New Zealand. Of the latter, two harpacticoid copepod species, Nitokra pietschmanni and Elaphoidella sewelli, are not native to or known from New Zealand, demonstrating the aquarium trade continues to pose an invasion risk for incidental fauna. The remaining six species were littoral/benthic rotifers with subtropical/tropical affinities; these may or may not be native, as research on this group is limited. A variety of behaviours associated with the set-up and keeping of home aquaria were recorded (e.g., fish and plants in any home were sourced from stores, wild caught, or both, and cleaning methods varied), which made prediction of “high risk” behaviours difficult. However, non-indigenous species had a greater probability of being recorded in aquaria containing aquatic plants and in those that were heated. Methods for disposal of aquarium wastes ranged from depositing washings on the lawn or garden (a low risk for invasion) to disposing of water into outdoor ponds or storm-water drains (a higher risk). It is recommended that aquarium owners be encouraged to pour aquarium wastes onto gardens or lawns—already a common method of disposal—as invasion risk will be minimised using this method.

year: 2010

title: Mauri oho, mauri tu, mauri ora: Enhancing Maori health and wellbeing through a critical engagement with social marketing

authors: Ellis, Riri Te Whara

abstract: This PhD research originally explored the efficacy of social marketing as potentially beneficial for Maori health providers involved with Maori health promotion activities. However, as I became conscientised to the potentially assimilist and neocolortial impacts .of functional management disciplines, such as social marketing I turned my attention as a Kaupapa Maori researcher to the task of critique and transformative social action. I also became acutely aware that the future of Maori health advancement lies in the flourishing of Te Ao Maori - a flourishing deemed necessary for the wellbeing of the people and the natural environment .in which Maori live is presented in this thesis. Te Ao Maori is therefore repositioned as a way in which to conceptualise Maori health and wellbeing, based upon holistic and cultural principles of living. 
Based on the transformative aspirations of critical theorists and emerging theories of kaupapa Maori, I incorporate the holistic constructs of Te Ao Maori while minimising the impact of the externally imposed mechanistic and functional metaphors dominating the contemporary formulation of human wellbeing. Using a localised participative methodology called Kaupapa Maori, I have worked collaboratively with four Maori groups and various kaiarahi hauora in Tauranga Moana to examine and articulate a series of collective responses to research issues. As a result of this research, my findings indicate that Maori continue to articulate a desire to live by principles and practices espoused through holistic models of Maori health and wellbeing, nestled into Te Ao Maori. That vision however is affected by continual structural change, limited resources, lack of access to skilled people, the imposition of contractual regulations within the health system, the erosion of Maori cultural systems and the ongoing commodification of Maori health and wellbeing in concert with the principles of market driven economies driving much human activity globally. The experience of Maori in Aotearoa New Zealand is the localised manifestation of the experiences of indigenous people across the globe. We share with them a position of resistance to the values of others and the affirmation of our own values. 
The potential of social marketing to contribute to enhancing Maori health and wellbeing was critiqued within these lived experiences, not those defined by social marketers themselves. In the control of uncritical social marketers, social marketing models are one of many conceptual frameworks that are being used to intensify economic rationality associated with the contemporary form of capitalism and the exacerbation of resource scarcity sanctioned by the existing health services system. Many of the co-participants in this research sought to provide health services and programmes that resembled and encouraged strong Maori cultural practices based upon tikanga Maori that emphasises a commitment to Whanau, Hapu and Iwi. However, the current health system does not help these goals to flourish. Instead, proponents of the system endorsed a regime of health services that operated within the specific constraints of contractual agreements - agreements which require responsibility for outcomes and accountability protocols that consume many resources better spent elsewhere. The opportunity then to engage in the enrichment of Maori health and wellbeing, through a holistic means was reported by participants in this research to be often undermined, minimised and sometimes made impossible. 
This research demonstrates that Maori efforts to enhance Maori health development are negatively impacted upon by an ongoing commercialisation and commodification of health services. Ongoing efforts _must be made to reinvigorate with and within Maori, an enduring commitment to a foundation of holistic health and wellbeing in the future, stemming from our own worldview - Te Ao Maori. The critical and Kaupapa Maori theories that inform this thesis have been used to bring into the open the contradictions and paradoxes Maori health providers in the Tauranga region are facing. The transformational aspirations of these theories would invite attention to be paid to values underpinning Maori communities and the ways in which they are useful to them. As reported upon in this research, those Maori health advocates adopting social marketing will find it difficult to achieve these aspirations. Instead, the assimilist modem colonising practices inherent in social marketing would tum Maori adopters into self colonisers.

text: Mauri oho, mauri tu, mauri ora: Enhancing Maori health and wellbeing through a critical engagement with social marketing This PhD research originally explored the efficacy of social marketing as potentially beneficial for Maori health providers involved with Maori health promotion activities. However, as I became conscientised to the potentially assimilist and neocolortial impacts .of functional management disciplines, such as social marketing I turned my attention as a Kaupapa Maori researcher to the task of critique and transformative social action. I also became acutely aware that the future of Maori health advancement lies in the flourishing of Te Ao Maori - a flourishing deemed necessary for the wellbeing of the people and the natural environment .in which Maori live is presented in this thesis. Te Ao Maori is therefore repositioned as a way in which to conceptualise Maori health and wellbeing, based upon holistic and cultural principles of living. 
Based on the transformative aspirations of critical theorists and emerging theories of kaupapa Maori, I incorporate the holistic constructs of Te Ao Maori while minimising the impact of the externally imposed mechanistic and functional metaphors dominating the contemporary formulation of human wellbeing. Using a localised participative methodology called Kaupapa Maori, I have worked collaboratively with four Maori groups and various kaiarahi hauora in Tauranga Moana to examine and articulate a series of collective responses to research issues. As a result of this research, my findings indicate that Maori continue to articulate a desire to live by principles and practices espoused through holistic models of Maori health and wellbeing, nestled into Te Ao Maori. That vision however is affected by continual structural change, limited resources, lack of access to skilled people, the imposition of contractual regulations within the health system, the erosion of Maori cultural systems and the ongoing commodification of Maori health and wellbeing in concert with the principles of market driven economies driving much human activity globally. The experience of Maori in Aotearoa New Zealand is the localised manifestation of the experiences of indigenous people across the globe. We share with them a position of resistance to the values of others and the affirmation of our own values. 
The potential of social marketing to contribute to enhancing Maori health and wellbeing was critiqued within these lived experiences, not those defined by social marketers themselves. In the control of uncritical social marketers, social marketing models are one of many conceptual frameworks that are being used to intensify economic rationality associated with the contemporary form of capitalism and the exacerbation of resource scarcity sanctioned by the existing health services system. Many of the co-participants in this research sought to provide health services and programmes that resembled and encouraged strong Maori cultural practices based upon tikanga Maori that emphasises a commitment to Whanau, Hapu and Iwi. However, the current health system does not help these goals to flourish. Instead, proponents of the system endorsed a regime of health services that operated within the specific constraints of contractual agreements - agreements which require responsibility for outcomes and accountability protocols that consume many resources better spent elsewhere. The opportunity then to engage in the enrichment of Maori health and wellbeing, through a holistic means was reported by participants in this research to be often undermined, minimised and sometimes made impossible. 
This research demonstrates that Maori efforts to enhance Maori health development are negatively impacted upon by an ongoing commercialisation and commodification of health services. Ongoing efforts _must be made to reinvigorate with and within Maori, an enduring commitment to a foundation of holistic health and wellbeing in the future, stemming from our own worldview - Te Ao Maori. The critical and Kaupapa Maori theories that inform this thesis have been used to bring into the open the contradictions and paradoxes Maori health providers in the Tauranga region are facing. The transformational aspirations of these theories would invite attention to be paid to values underpinning Maori communities and the ways in which they are useful to them. As reported upon in this research, those Maori health advocates adopting social marketing will find it difficult to achieve these aspirations. Instead, the assimilist modem colonising practices inherent in social marketing would tum Maori adopters into self colonisers.

year: 2006