title: Use of three New Zealand chironomids, Chironomus zealandicus, Chironomus sp. a and Polypedilum pavidus (lnsecta: Diptera) as biotoxicity test organisms

authors: Kanapathippillai, Jeyasingham

abstract: Three species of New Zealand chironomid, Chironomus sp. a, Chironomus zealandicus and Polypedilum pavidus were studied for their potential as biological indicators of freshwater environmental pollution and for use as laboratory bioassay species. 

A standard methodology was developed to successfully culture these three chironomids in the laboratory in order to obtain all larval stages of each species for laboratory bioassays.
 
Head capsule deformities and physical wear were examined for C. zealandicus collected from four study sites in summer and winter from 1994 to 1996, and from larvae reared for two successive generations in a control substrate. Results showed that the incidence of head capsule deformity was influenced by both substrate type and season. The cause of this deformation was not identified although sediment chemistry, genetics and other physico-chemical factors are collectively implicated. Significantly greater frequency of physical wear of head capsule structures in larvae collected from Hamurana Stream and a progressive decline of wear in larvae reared on a paper towel control substrate indicated that feeding activity on a relatively coarse substrate may have caused the wear. 

A field survey indicated that, although all these species were present at every site, they show particular site preference. A life cycle test was performed to investigate the substrate preference of C. sp. a and C. zealandicus on sediments collected from the four study sites, Hamilton Lake, Lake Ngaroto and Hamurana Stream and Sulphur Point of Lake Rotorua. Results showed that Lake Ngaroto sediment and Sulphur Point sediment favour C. sp. a and C. zealandicus respectively.

The acute toxicity of arsenite (Aѕ³⁺), arsenate (Aѕ⁵⁺) and copper (Cu²⁺) under different conditions was investigated. Although C. zealandicus and C. sp. a are closely related, they showed considerable difference in sensitivity to arsenic and copper. A number of biological (age), chemical (valency state), and physical (season, temperature) factors were observed to affect the toxicity of arsenic and copper to the test chironomid species. Chronic sublethal effects of arsenic-spiked sediments from Hamilton Lake and Lake Ngaroto and a paper towel substrate on C. zealandicus and C. sp. a were also studied under laboratory conditions. This study showed that the sensitivity of the chironomid species varied depending on the length of exposure to the spiked sediment, the number of endpoints examined, and other laboratory testing conditions such as renewal of dilution water. This experiment also indicated that C. zealandicus was more resistant to arsenic spiked sediment than C. sp. a. A protocol was developed for conducting standard sediment toxicity tests. 

The results of this work imply that although one or more of the chironomid species used in this study may be used as a bioindicator in monitoring freshwater lakes, use of these species as indicator organisms should be carefully assessed based on their occurrence in the location concerned. Although these three species may be used in laboratory bioassays, C. zealandicus appeared to be more convenient because of its continuous abundance at study sites and tolerance to physical handling.

text: Use of three New Zealand chironomids, Chironomus zealandicus, Chironomus sp. a and Polypedilum pavidus (lnsecta: Diptera) as biotoxicity test organisms Three species of New Zealand chironomid, Chironomus sp. a, Chironomus zealandicus and Polypedilum pavidus were studied for their potential as biological indicators of freshwater environmental pollution and for use as laboratory bioassay species. 

A standard methodology was developed to successfully culture these three chironomids in the laboratory in order to obtain all larval stages of each species for laboratory bioassays.
 
Head capsule deformities and physical wear were examined for C. zealandicus collected from four study sites in summer and winter from 1994 to 1996, and from larvae reared for two successive generations in a control substrate. Results showed that the incidence of head capsule deformity was influenced by both substrate type and season. The cause of this deformation was not identified although sediment chemistry, genetics and other physico-chemical factors are collectively implicated. Significantly greater frequency of physical wear of head capsule structures in larvae collected from Hamurana Stream and a progressive decline of wear in larvae reared on a paper towel control substrate indicated that feeding activity on a relatively coarse substrate may have caused the wear. 

A field survey indicated that, although all these species were present at every site, they show particular site preference. A life cycle test was performed to investigate the substrate preference of C. sp. a and C. zealandicus on sediments collected from the four study sites, Hamilton Lake, Lake Ngaroto and Hamurana Stream and Sulphur Point of Lake Rotorua. Results showed that Lake Ngaroto sediment and Sulphur Point sediment favour C. sp. a and C. zealandicus respectively.

The acute toxicity of arsenite (Aѕ³⁺), arsenate (Aѕ⁵⁺) and copper (Cu²⁺) under different conditions was investigated. Although C. zealandicus and C. sp. a are closely related, they showed considerable difference in sensitivity to arsenic and copper. A number of biological (age), chemical (valency state), and physical (season, temperature) factors were observed to affect the toxicity of arsenic and copper to the test chironomid species. Chronic sublethal effects of arsenic-spiked sediments from Hamilton Lake and Lake Ngaroto and a paper towel substrate on C. zealandicus and C. sp. a were also studied under laboratory conditions. This study showed that the sensitivity of the chironomid species varied depending on the length of exposure to the spiked sediment, the number of endpoints examined, and other laboratory testing conditions such as renewal of dilution water. This experiment also indicated that C. zealandicus was more resistant to arsenic spiked sediment than C. sp. a. A protocol was developed for conducting standard sediment toxicity tests. 

The results of this work imply that although one or more of the chironomid species used in this study may be used as a bioindicator in monitoring freshwater lakes, use of these species as indicator organisms should be carefully assessed based on their occurrence in the location concerned. Although these three species may be used in laboratory bioassays, C. zealandicus appeared to be more convenient because of its continuous abundance at study sites and tolerance to physical handling.

year: 1999

title: Mentoring relationships for collaborative professional development practices in maldivian primary schools

authors: Shareef, Kulsam

subjects: mentoring

abstract: This thesis explores how mentoring was perceived and experienced as a professional development strategy for two teachers in a Maldivian primary school. It reports on how the mentoring relationship between the two teachers and the researcher evolved over the period of the data collection process. The research also explores the two teachers perceptions of the existing professional development activities. Further, report on the existing barriers which restricted establishing continuous professional developmental opportunities in the primary schools of Maldives.
Data collection was through action research using concept maps for formative assessment purposes. The concept map was planned as an intervention at mentoring sessions to incorporate new pedagogy to create student-centred learning opportunities. The intervention was evaluated intensively through observation and feedback in the mentoring process.
The researcher had dual roles in this action research. One role was that of researcher: collecting data on the progression of the mentoring relationship and the pedagogical changes by the participants. The second was that of mentor: coaching and assisting the two teachers to reflect on the planning and executing of the intervention in their respective classrooms.
Through the action research process, data was collected on changes that the two teachers brought to their teaching. Data was also gathered on the mentoring relationship that evolved in the data collection process. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate the two teachers‟ willingness to engage in their own learning. The semi-structured interviews also explored the two teachers‟ perception on mentoring to establish a culture of learning in the school. The study indicated that one-off professional development sessions and a system of in-school clinical supervision to be the main professional development activities for the schools. Further the findings indicated that these activities did not meet the teachers‟ learning needs.
ii
Findings also indicated that the participants favoured the learning opportunities mentoring process created. The study further established both participants as keen learners, and willing participants in planning and re-planning the intervention in the mentoring process for the action research. The findings also report that the collaborative work atmosphere in the mentoring relationship assisted the two teachers to eliminate the fears associated with introducing new pedagogy.
In conclusion, the study reports on barriers that may restrict creating effective mentoring relationships in primary schools of Maldives. The barriers identified were associated time for mentoring, mismatch of mentoring partners, poor collaborative relationships and mentor knowledge and experience. In addition recommends exploring how the supervisors‟ current role of evaluator can be changed to mentor role and the possibilities of group mentoring. Further study is recommended to explore how long term mentoring relationships can be developed considering the time constraints in Maldivian two session primary schools.

text: Mentoring relationships for collaborative professional development practices in maldivian primary schools This thesis explores how mentoring was perceived and experienced as a professional development strategy for two teachers in a Maldivian primary school. It reports on how the mentoring relationship between the two teachers and the researcher evolved over the period of the data collection process. The research also explores the two teachers perceptions of the existing professional development activities. Further, report on the existing barriers which restricted establishing continuous professional developmental opportunities in the primary schools of Maldives.
Data collection was through action research using concept maps for formative assessment purposes. The concept map was planned as an intervention at mentoring sessions to incorporate new pedagogy to create student-centred learning opportunities. The intervention was evaluated intensively through observation and feedback in the mentoring process.
The researcher had dual roles in this action research. One role was that of researcher: collecting data on the progression of the mentoring relationship and the pedagogical changes by the participants. The second was that of mentor: coaching and assisting the two teachers to reflect on the planning and executing of the intervention in their respective classrooms.
Through the action research process, data was collected on changes that the two teachers brought to their teaching. Data was also gathered on the mentoring relationship that evolved in the data collection process. In addition, semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate the two teachers‟ willingness to engage in their own learning. The semi-structured interviews also explored the two teachers‟ perception on mentoring to establish a culture of learning in the school. The study indicated that one-off professional development sessions and a system of in-school clinical supervision to be the main professional development activities for the schools. Further the findings indicated that these activities did not meet the teachers‟ learning needs.
ii
Findings also indicated that the participants favoured the learning opportunities mentoring process created. The study further established both participants as keen learners, and willing participants in planning and re-planning the intervention in the mentoring process for the action research. The findings also report that the collaborative work atmosphere in the mentoring relationship assisted the two teachers to eliminate the fears associated with introducing new pedagogy.
In conclusion, the study reports on barriers that may restrict creating effective mentoring relationships in primary schools of Maldives. The barriers identified were associated time for mentoring, mismatch of mentoring partners, poor collaborative relationships and mentor knowledge and experience. In addition recommends exploring how the supervisors‟ current role of evaluator can be changed to mentor role and the possibilities of group mentoring. Further study is recommended to explore how long term mentoring relationships can be developed considering the time constraints in Maldivian two session primary schools.

year: 2008

title: Making the invisible visible: Exploring the complex pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm

authors: Dempster-Rivett, Kirsty

subjects: Childhood maltreatment

abstract: Preventing family harm and providing care for those affected is a high priority for governments and social services worldwide. Adverse consequences of family harm continue to place demands on justice, mental health and care and protection services. The costs to individuals, families and communities are beyond measure, given that rates of family harm are under-reported. Quantitative researchers have demonstrated a link between childhood maltreatment and family harm perpetration with existing psychological theories used to explain this link. However, mainstream theories were first developed many decades ago, at a time when the notion of gender was not inclusively factored into theory development. Neither were they developed with or by Indigenous peoples, calling into question the translatability of mainstream theories for stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. 
The main aim of this thesis was to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm by investigating two research questions. How could psychological theories better explain the pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and family harm perpetration? And, to what extent do psychological theories about the cycle of family harm reflect the experiences of Māori and non-Māori men and women in Aotearoa New Zealand? To answer these questions, interviews were conducted with 16 individuals who self-identified as perpetrating family harm and had childhood histories of maltreatment. (n=8 men, n=8 women). Purposive sampling ensured an equal number of Māori (Indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand) and non-Māori participated in the research. Thematic analysis was utilised to examine the personal conceptualisations regarding the association between experiences of childhood maltreatment and subsequent perpetration of family harm. The core corpus of data explored the maltreatment-family harm relationship within and between Māori and non-Māori men and women. This thesis is comprised of three studies that investigate the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence.

The first study analysed the interviews of the seven participants removed from their families of origin as children. All described ongoing experiences of poly-victimisation in subsequent placements, whether through adoption, foster or residential settings. When examined alongside all women interviewed in this thesis, men more often reported that their childhood maltreatment was overlooked by professionals. The findings of this study highlighted a relationship between the perpetration of family harm and limited relational and emotional experiences during childhood. Intervention points across the life span were identified to stop the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence for people removed from their family of origin as children.

The second study focused on the experiences of the eight Māori men and women interviewed. A culture of silence surrounding childhood maltreatment pervaded all interviewees’ childhood experiences. However, additional issues, including cultural isolation, were evident for Māori from the adults and professionals charged with their care. Māori interviewees identified three core Indigenous concepts that facilitated healing and intergenerational wellbeing: Wairua (spiritual connection), Pou (becoming a symbol of strength and support for self and others), and Tūrangawaewae (finding a sense of belonging). A return to Indigenous knowledge and practices was integral to stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. This highlights the importance of privileging Indigenous knowledge in existing theoretical understanding of the cycle of family harm and incorporation in prevention initiatives.

The final study explored the impact of psychological distress within the cycle of family harm. Everyone interviewed experienced severe adverse trauma reactions linked to mental health and addiction issues, self-harm and suicidality, and instances of family harm. A significant barrier to psychological and familial wellbeing was the lack of access to integrated models of care capable of responding to complex and intertwined issues in trauma informed and Indigenous informed ways. Thus, family harm, trauma and mental health and addiction services need to work together to tailor and deliver treatment according to the individual and family needs to break the cycle of family harm and ongoing adverse life course trajectories. 

This research identifies significant limitations in the psychological theories that usually contribute to thinking about family harm. There has been a particular failure to develop a theory that accounts for the heterogeneous cultural and gendered experiences of the cycle of family harm. Going forward, expanding the? view of traditional psychological theories of intergenerational trauma and violence is required to account for the historical trauma of colonisation and the ongoing adverse consequences for Indigenous communities. Family harm prevention initiatives must be led by and/or developed in partnership with and by Indigenous peoples to ensure responsivity through active incorporation of traditional practices for intergenerational healing and wellbeing.

The impact of poly-victimisation in childhood had severe and ongoing adverse consequences for both men and women that outweighed any obvious gender difference. For people who have experienced childhood maltreatment, it is essential to imbue initiatives with opportunities to understand emotions in relational contexts. Children who are placed in the care of the state must be cared for and, unlike the interviewees in this thesis, free from further childhood maltreatment. A therapeutic web should be established to stop the systemic issues identified in this thesis by providing cohesive and coherent services in a timely fashion for children and adults affected by the cycle of family harm. In conclusion, adopting practices that are informed by understandings of trauma, gender, and Indigenous knowledge are needed to replace the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence with hope and wellbeing.

text: Making the invisible visible: Exploring the complex pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm Preventing family harm and providing care for those affected is a high priority for governments and social services worldwide. Adverse consequences of family harm continue to place demands on justice, mental health and care and protection services. The costs to individuals, families and communities are beyond measure, given that rates of family harm are under-reported. Quantitative researchers have demonstrated a link between childhood maltreatment and family harm perpetration with existing psychological theories used to explain this link. However, mainstream theories were first developed many decades ago, at a time when the notion of gender was not inclusively factored into theory development. Neither were they developed with or by Indigenous peoples, calling into question the translatability of mainstream theories for stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. 
The main aim of this thesis was to explore the relationship between childhood maltreatment and the perpetration of family harm by investigating two research questions. How could psychological theories better explain the pathways between childhood experiences of maltreatment and family harm perpetration? And, to what extent do psychological theories about the cycle of family harm reflect the experiences of Māori and non-Māori men and women in Aotearoa New Zealand? To answer these questions, interviews were conducted with 16 individuals who self-identified as perpetrating family harm and had childhood histories of maltreatment. (n=8 men, n=8 women). Purposive sampling ensured an equal number of Māori (Indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand) and non-Māori participated in the research. Thematic analysis was utilised to examine the personal conceptualisations regarding the association between experiences of childhood maltreatment and subsequent perpetration of family harm. The core corpus of data explored the maltreatment-family harm relationship within and between Māori and non-Māori men and women. This thesis is comprised of three studies that investigate the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence.

The first study analysed the interviews of the seven participants removed from their families of origin as children. All described ongoing experiences of poly-victimisation in subsequent placements, whether through adoption, foster or residential settings. When examined alongside all women interviewed in this thesis, men more often reported that their childhood maltreatment was overlooked by professionals. The findings of this study highlighted a relationship between the perpetration of family harm and limited relational and emotional experiences during childhood. Intervention points across the life span were identified to stop the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence for people removed from their family of origin as children.

The second study focused on the experiences of the eight Māori men and women interviewed. A culture of silence surrounding childhood maltreatment pervaded all interviewees’ childhood experiences. However, additional issues, including cultural isolation, were evident for Māori from the adults and professionals charged with their care. Māori interviewees identified three core Indigenous concepts that facilitated healing and intergenerational wellbeing: Wairua (spiritual connection), Pou (becoming a symbol of strength and support for self and others), and Tūrangawaewae (finding a sense of belonging). A return to Indigenous knowledge and practices was integral to stopping the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence. This highlights the importance of privileging Indigenous knowledge in existing theoretical understanding of the cycle of family harm and incorporation in prevention initiatives.

The final study explored the impact of psychological distress within the cycle of family harm. Everyone interviewed experienced severe adverse trauma reactions linked to mental health and addiction issues, self-harm and suicidality, and instances of family harm. A significant barrier to psychological and familial wellbeing was the lack of access to integrated models of care capable of responding to complex and intertwined issues in trauma informed and Indigenous informed ways. Thus, family harm, trauma and mental health and addiction services need to work together to tailor and deliver treatment according to the individual and family needs to break the cycle of family harm and ongoing adverse life course trajectories. 

This research identifies significant limitations in the psychological theories that usually contribute to thinking about family harm. There has been a particular failure to develop a theory that accounts for the heterogeneous cultural and gendered experiences of the cycle of family harm. Going forward, expanding the? view of traditional psychological theories of intergenerational trauma and violence is required to account for the historical trauma of colonisation and the ongoing adverse consequences for Indigenous communities. Family harm prevention initiatives must be led by and/or developed in partnership with and by Indigenous peoples to ensure responsivity through active incorporation of traditional practices for intergenerational healing and wellbeing.

The impact of poly-victimisation in childhood had severe and ongoing adverse consequences for both men and women that outweighed any obvious gender difference. For people who have experienced childhood maltreatment, it is essential to imbue initiatives with opportunities to understand emotions in relational contexts. Children who are placed in the care of the state must be cared for and, unlike the interviewees in this thesis, free from further childhood maltreatment. A therapeutic web should be established to stop the systemic issues identified in this thesis by providing cohesive and coherent services in a timely fashion for children and adults affected by the cycle of family harm. In conclusion, adopting practices that are informed by understandings of trauma, gender, and Indigenous knowledge are needed to replace the intergenerational transmission of trauma and violence with hope and wellbeing.

year: 2022