title: The antibacterial properties of honey

authors: Russell, Kathryn Mary

subjects: honey

abstract: Honey has been used medicinally by man for thousands of years. With the apparent misuse of many antibiotics there has recently been renewed interest in such natural antibacterial substances. 
Honey is known to contain several natural antibiotic systems but research so far has been largely confined to the glucose oxidase (inhibine) area. Some past research, however, has indicated the possible existence of anti­bacterial substances other than hydrogen peroxide (inhibine) and the osmotic potential of honey. The aim of this project was to confirm the existence of these substances and to isolate and characterise them if possible. 
The antibacterial assay used to detect activity was an agar diffusion technique incorporating staphylococcus aureus. 
Various honey samples were screened for non-peroxide antibacterial activity and the most active honey (manuka) selected for further investigation. 
The activity was found to be completely heat-stable (1 hr, 95 °C) at acidic pH but less stable at neutral pH, and the honey was less active at neutral pH. 
Solvent extraction of the honey was carried out with ethanol, and ether was added to precipitate most of the sugar. All activity was recovered from the honey into the extract in this way. Further isolation of the active fractions was carried out using preparative thin-layer chromatography.
Information on the fractions with activity that were isolated was obtained by ultraviolet spectroscopy, infra­red spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry.

text: The antibacterial properties of honey Honey has been used medicinally by man for thousands of years. With the apparent misuse of many antibiotics there has recently been renewed interest in such natural antibacterial substances. 
Honey is known to contain several natural antibiotic systems but research so far has been largely confined to the glucose oxidase (inhibine) area. Some past research, however, has indicated the possible existence of anti­bacterial substances other than hydrogen peroxide (inhibine) and the osmotic potential of honey. The aim of this project was to confirm the existence of these substances and to isolate and characterise them if possible. 
The antibacterial assay used to detect activity was an agar diffusion technique incorporating staphylococcus aureus. 
Various honey samples were screened for non-peroxide antibacterial activity and the most active honey (manuka) selected for further investigation. 
The activity was found to be completely heat-stable (1 hr, 95 °C) at acidic pH but less stable at neutral pH, and the honey was less active at neutral pH. 
Solvent extraction of the honey was carried out with ethanol, and ether was added to precipitate most of the sugar. All activity was recovered from the honey into the extract in this way. Further isolation of the active fractions was carried out using preparative thin-layer chromatography.
Information on the fractions with activity that were isolated was obtained by ultraviolet spectroscopy, infra­red spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry.

year: 1983

title: Evaluating fluctuating asymmetry in a stream-dwelling insect as an indicator of low-level thermal stress: a large-scale field experiment

authors: Hogg, Ian D.

subjects: allozymes

abstract: 1.	We examined fluctuating asymmetry (FA) among individuals of the stream-dwelling stonefly Nemoura trispinosa (Plecoptera: Nemouridae) to determine whether individuals exposed to an increase of 2–3•5 °C in water temperature would show greater FA than reference (control) individuals.
2.	Mature nymphs were collected from two adjacent channels (one experimental, one control) in a longitudinally divided stream both before and during a 2-year temperature manipulation. No consistent differences were found between the experimental and control channels for any measure of FA.
3.	Four additional reference sites were studied to estimate ‘natural’ variation in FA, and to assess any relationship between FA and population genetic structure (e.g. heterozygosity). Variation in FA among these sites was greater than that resulting from the manipulation. Allozyme analysis indicated low to moderate levels of genetic differentiation among sites (Wright’s FST mean = 0•06, maximum = 0•13) and there were negative correlations between FA and heterozygosity (Hexp).
4.	We surveyed experimental studies published since 1996 to evaluate the generality of our results. Of 44 comparisons examining an association between an experimental stress and FA, 19 (43•2%) failed to detect any relationship. This pattern did not depend on the taxonomic group or the number or type of traits, although some stressors appeared to be more likely to produce an increase in FA than others.
5.	We conclude that FA may be unreliable for detecting subtle biological changes resulting from small temperature shifts, and concur with others that the technique should be viewed with extreme caution as a monitoring tool.

text: Evaluating fluctuating asymmetry in a stream-dwelling insect as an indicator of low-level thermal stress: a large-scale field experiment 1.	We examined fluctuating asymmetry (FA) among individuals of the stream-dwelling stonefly Nemoura trispinosa (Plecoptera: Nemouridae) to determine whether individuals exposed to an increase of 2–3•5 °C in water temperature would show greater FA than reference (control) individuals.
2.	Mature nymphs were collected from two adjacent channels (one experimental, one control) in a longitudinally divided stream both before and during a 2-year temperature manipulation. No consistent differences were found between the experimental and control channels for any measure of FA.
3.	Four additional reference sites were studied to estimate ‘natural’ variation in FA, and to assess any relationship between FA and population genetic structure (e.g. heterozygosity). Variation in FA among these sites was greater than that resulting from the manipulation. Allozyme analysis indicated low to moderate levels of genetic differentiation among sites (Wright’s FST mean = 0•06, maximum = 0•13) and there were negative correlations between FA and heterozygosity (Hexp).
4.	We surveyed experimental studies published since 1996 to evaluate the generality of our results. Of 44 comparisons examining an association between an experimental stress and FA, 19 (43•2%) failed to detect any relationship. This pattern did not depend on the taxonomic group or the number or type of traits, although some stressors appeared to be more likely to produce an increase in FA than others.
5.	We conclude that FA may be unreliable for detecting subtle biological changes resulting from small temperature shifts, and concur with others that the technique should be viewed with extreme caution as a monitoring tool.

year: 2001

title: Maori and Pakeha at Te Aroha: the context: 2: Maori in Hauraki in the nineteenth century

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: After the arrival of Europeans, the Maori population of Hauraki suffered a rapid decline. Some rangatira opposed Pakeha ways, whereas others adopted these for their personal benefit. Keeping ‘the peace of Hauraki’ required government agents to intervene in various disputes between hapu (Ngati Hako in particular causing concern in the 1870s and early 1880s). Although rangatira had links to both Queen Victoria and King Tawhiao, the government was relieved that most remained ‘loyal’ to the new order, and only an intransigent minority opposed the spread of ‘civilisation’ through its roads, telegraph, and the snagging of the Waihou River. A liking for Pakeha goods encouraged collaboration, with Maori joining the cash economy through their involvement in road making, gum digging, and European agriculture to raise money for, in part, traditional gatherings that for a while were more lavish than earlier possible.
Maori of all ranks were quick to stand up for their rights by using the court system, reminding Pakeha of the Treaty of Waitangi, and, in some cases, violence. Tensions were eased by Maori socializing with Pakeha in sport, horse racing, and even the Volunteers, but drinking together in hotels could result in fights, and the lure of alcohol had to be countered by temperance movements. A few Maori children attended school, with Pakeha, and for a time the government provided a (free) doctor and vaccinated them against smallpox (though some preferred traditional ‘cures’ for other ailments). For most, living conditions remained poor. Criminal behaviour was of a minor nature. Christianity had to compete with old beliefs (notably in maketu), newer ones such as ‘Hauhauism’, and by the later years of the century the popularity of the Mormons.
Examples are included of intermarriage, ‘half-castes’, and Pakeha Maori, all being notable features of the time. In a variety of ways, Maori society was sufficiently resilient to adapt and thereby to survive the impact of Pakeha settlement, which produced massive changes and dominated the region well before the end of the century.

text: Maori and Pakeha at Te Aroha: the context: 2: Maori in Hauraki in the nineteenth century After the arrival of Europeans, the Maori population of Hauraki suffered a rapid decline. Some rangatira opposed Pakeha ways, whereas others adopted these for their personal benefit. Keeping ‘the peace of Hauraki’ required government agents to intervene in various disputes between hapu (Ngati Hako in particular causing concern in the 1870s and early 1880s). Although rangatira had links to both Queen Victoria and King Tawhiao, the government was relieved that most remained ‘loyal’ to the new order, and only an intransigent minority opposed the spread of ‘civilisation’ through its roads, telegraph, and the snagging of the Waihou River. A liking for Pakeha goods encouraged collaboration, with Maori joining the cash economy through their involvement in road making, gum digging, and European agriculture to raise money for, in part, traditional gatherings that for a while were more lavish than earlier possible.
Maori of all ranks were quick to stand up for their rights by using the court system, reminding Pakeha of the Treaty of Waitangi, and, in some cases, violence. Tensions were eased by Maori socializing with Pakeha in sport, horse racing, and even the Volunteers, but drinking together in hotels could result in fights, and the lure of alcohol had to be countered by temperance movements. A few Maori children attended school, with Pakeha, and for a time the government provided a (free) doctor and vaccinated them against smallpox (though some preferred traditional ‘cures’ for other ailments). For most, living conditions remained poor. Criminal behaviour was of a minor nature. Christianity had to compete with old beliefs (notably in maketu), newer ones such as ‘Hauhauism’, and by the later years of the century the popularity of the Mormons.
Examples are included of intermarriage, ‘half-castes’, and Pakeha Maori, all being notable features of the time. In a variety of ways, Maori society was sufficiently resilient to adapt and thereby to survive the impact of Pakeha settlement, which produced massive changes and dominated the region well before the end of the century.

year: 2016