title: Towards Robust Exchanges: Evaluating Ecological Compensation in New Zealand

authors: Brown, Marie Amanda

subjects: Resource Management Act

abstract: Ecological compensation is commonly employed but rarely evaluated around the world. In order to assess application of the tool in New Zealand, a systematic nationwide review was undertaken. The research used a combination of qualitative and quantitative tools (i.e. a mixed methods approach) to investigate outcomes associated with ecological compensation under the Resource Management Act 1991 and how variation among outcomes might be explained. Three key research components were addressed: compliance, practice and stakeholder perspectives.
Compliance
The levels of regulatory compliance were assessed in 81 consents and 245 conditions with an overall compliance level of 64.8%. Public organisations (75.5%) were more likely to comply than private companies (65.5%), followed by private individuals (54.7%). Administrative conditions (paper-based) were much more likely to be complied with (82.6%) than non-administrative (action based) conditions (49.6%). There were significant differences in compliance rates across different activities from Agriculture (4.8%) through to Energy Generation (100%), demonstrating the importance of understanding the nature of non-compliance in improving regulatory compliance and enforcement. 
Practice
The recognition of key implementation issues of ecological compensation were investigated based on the ecological exchanges approved in 110 consents. The key implementation issues were (1) equivalency, (2) spatial proximity, (3) additionality, (4) timing, (5) duration and compliance, and (6) currencies and ratios. Most exchanges approved under the RMA were ‘in-kind’ (i.e. broadly similar in type) but that their ecological equivalence was difficult to determine due to poor information. Most exchanges were close to the site of impact (65.5%), and those at a distance were typically the result of aggregated schemes such as mitigation trusts. Most requirements for ecological compensation can be considered to be additional, as there are few other means of compelling ecological restoration or other positive conservation activities in New Zealand. Most ecological compensation (94.5%) was required to be delivered concurrent with or after the activity that was approved with a range of mechanisms used to secure those outcomes. This research also showed that currencies and ratios are rarely used in the determination of ecological compensation.
Stakeholder perspectives
 Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 116 stakeholders from a wide range of disciplines, and demonstrated that while the potential of ecological compensation is well understood and its use is well-supported (96.5%), most stakeholders have significant concerns about implementation. Strong support (87.9%) exists for a more robust and formalized approach to ecological compensation.
For ecological compensation to contribute positively to the management of effects on the environment, the exchanges of biodiversity lost and gained must be robust. The present research has demonstrated that the implementation of ecological compensation in New Zealand is falling short of this expectation, and has identified a range of areas for improvement. The significant potential for failure inherent within ecological compensation requires mitigation with policy and practice improvements, and comprehensive follow-up and review of outcomes. Changes in the use of ecological compensation in New Zealand, toward a context that supports more robust exchanges and limits the potential for negative impact of the tool upon ecosystems and species are essential.

text: Towards Robust Exchanges: Evaluating Ecological Compensation in New Zealand Ecological compensation is commonly employed but rarely evaluated around the world. In order to assess application of the tool in New Zealand, a systematic nationwide review was undertaken. The research used a combination of qualitative and quantitative tools (i.e. a mixed methods approach) to investigate outcomes associated with ecological compensation under the Resource Management Act 1991 and how variation among outcomes might be explained. Three key research components were addressed: compliance, practice and stakeholder perspectives.
Compliance
The levels of regulatory compliance were assessed in 81 consents and 245 conditions with an overall compliance level of 64.8%. Public organisations (75.5%) were more likely to comply than private companies (65.5%), followed by private individuals (54.7%). Administrative conditions (paper-based) were much more likely to be complied with (82.6%) than non-administrative (action based) conditions (49.6%). There were significant differences in compliance rates across different activities from Agriculture (4.8%) through to Energy Generation (100%), demonstrating the importance of understanding the nature of non-compliance in improving regulatory compliance and enforcement. 
Practice
The recognition of key implementation issues of ecological compensation were investigated based on the ecological exchanges approved in 110 consents. The key implementation issues were (1) equivalency, (2) spatial proximity, (3) additionality, (4) timing, (5) duration and compliance, and (6) currencies and ratios. Most exchanges approved under the RMA were ‘in-kind’ (i.e. broadly similar in type) but that their ecological equivalence was difficult to determine due to poor information. Most exchanges were close to the site of impact (65.5%), and those at a distance were typically the result of aggregated schemes such as mitigation trusts. Most requirements for ecological compensation can be considered to be additional, as there are few other means of compelling ecological restoration or other positive conservation activities in New Zealand. Most ecological compensation (94.5%) was required to be delivered concurrent with or after the activity that was approved with a range of mechanisms used to secure those outcomes. This research also showed that currencies and ratios are rarely used in the determination of ecological compensation.
Stakeholder perspectives
 Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 116 stakeholders from a wide range of disciplines, and demonstrated that while the potential of ecological compensation is well understood and its use is well-supported (96.5%), most stakeholders have significant concerns about implementation. Strong support (87.9%) exists for a more robust and formalized approach to ecological compensation.
For ecological compensation to contribute positively to the management of effects on the environment, the exchanges of biodiversity lost and gained must be robust. The present research has demonstrated that the implementation of ecological compensation in New Zealand is falling short of this expectation, and has identified a range of areas for improvement. The significant potential for failure inherent within ecological compensation requires mitigation with policy and practice improvements, and comprehensive follow-up and review of outcomes. Changes in the use of ecological compensation in New Zealand, toward a context that supports more robust exchanges and limits the potential for negative impact of the tool upon ecosystems and species are essential.

year: 2014

title: Quaternary tephra marker beds and their potential for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction on Chatham Island, east of New Zealand, southwest Pacific Ocean

authors: Holt, Katherine A.

subjects: Kawakawa tephra

abstract: Tephras provide one of the most reliable methods of time control and synchronisation within Quaternary sequences. We report on the identification of two widespread rhyolitic tephras - the Kawakawa and Rangitawa tephras - preserved in extensive peat deposits on Chatham Island  900 km east of New Zealand. The tephras, both products of supereruptions from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, occur as pale, fine-ash dominated layers typically 10-150 mm thick. Mineralogically they are dominated by rhyolitic glass, together with subordinate amounts of quartz, feldspar, hypersthene, hornblende, Fe-Ti oxides and zircon. Phlogopite/biotite was identified additionally in Rangitawa Tephra. Ages for each tephra were obtained via mineralogical and major element glass composition-based correlation with well-dated equivalent deposits on mainland New Zealand, and we also obtained a new zircon fission-track age for Rangitawa Tephra (350 ± 50 ka) on Chatham Island. Both tephras were erupted at critical times for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions in the New Zealand region: the Kawakawa at ca. 27 cal. ka, near the beginning of the  extended  LGM early in marine isotope stage (MIS) 2; and the Rangitawa at ca. 350 ka near the end of MIS 10. The time constraints provided by the tephras demonstrate that Chatham Island peats contain long-distance pollen derived from mainland New Zealand, which provides a reliable proxy for identifying glacial-interglacial climate conditions, in this case during the MIS 11-10 and MIS 2-1 cycles. The two tephras thus provide important chronostratigraphic tie-points that facilitate correlation and synchronisation not only across the Quaternary deposits of the Chatham Islands group but also with climatically significant terrestrial and marine records in the wider New Zealand region.

text: Quaternary tephra marker beds and their potential for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction on Chatham Island, east of New Zealand, southwest Pacific Ocean Tephras provide one of the most reliable methods of time control and synchronisation within Quaternary sequences. We report on the identification of two widespread rhyolitic tephras - the Kawakawa and Rangitawa tephras - preserved in extensive peat deposits on Chatham Island  900 km east of New Zealand. The tephras, both products of supereruptions from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, occur as pale, fine-ash dominated layers typically 10-150 mm thick. Mineralogically they are dominated by rhyolitic glass, together with subordinate amounts of quartz, feldspar, hypersthene, hornblende, Fe-Ti oxides and zircon. Phlogopite/biotite was identified additionally in Rangitawa Tephra. Ages for each tephra were obtained via mineralogical and major element glass composition-based correlation with well-dated equivalent deposits on mainland New Zealand, and we also obtained a new zircon fission-track age for Rangitawa Tephra (350 ± 50 ka) on Chatham Island. Both tephras were erupted at critical times for palaeoenvironmental reconstructions in the New Zealand region: the Kawakawa at ca. 27 cal. ka, near the beginning of the  extended  LGM early in marine isotope stage (MIS) 2; and the Rangitawa at ca. 350 ka near the end of MIS 10. The time constraints provided by the tephras demonstrate that Chatham Island peats contain long-distance pollen derived from mainland New Zealand, which provides a reliable proxy for identifying glacial-interglacial climate conditions, in this case during the MIS 11-10 and MIS 2-1 cycles. The two tephras thus provide important chronostratigraphic tie-points that facilitate correlation and synchronisation not only across the Quaternary deposits of the Chatham Islands group but also with climatically significant terrestrial and marine records in the wider New Zealand region.

year: 2010

title: Are You Listening? The Voice of Waitaha, A Forgotten People.

authors: Reese, Alistair William

subjects: maori

abstract: This thesis is a study of Waitaha, a Bay of Plenty iwi that has been marginalized through
the loss of most of its land, much of its language, tikanga, and mana. The purpose of the
work is to communicate, through the 'voice' and the history of the people, a chronicle, of
their alienation to a Pākehā audience that remains in large part ignorant and distant from
their plight.
The thesis is motivated by an academic responsibility to the Treaty of Waitangi and the
lack of understanding to the present needs of Māori as evidenced for example, by the
support for the January 2004 Orewa speech, by the leader of the National Party, Don
Brash. It is predicated upon the understanding that this response, which minimalises the
impact of colonization upon Māori, is constructed by many, through a convenience of
distance. It is motivated also on the understanding that most Pākehā who now inhabit the rohe of Waitaha, are completely ignorant of the identity of tangata whenua. It is hoped
that the presentation of the Waitaha story, will provoke a greater empathy from Pākehā,
and thereby facilitate an environment, whereby grievances can be addressed in an
environment of greater understanding.
The thesis is a qualitative based research exercise, carried out in consultation with
kaumātua and other Waitaha members, and attempts to acknowledge and integrate current kaupapa Māori epistemologies with traditional Western academic methodology.
The study uses interviews, Waitangi Tribunal evidence, and other historical references to
construct a narrative that conveys something of the 'voice' of Waitaha. Specifically, it
outlines a chronology of Waitaha settlement, followed by a description of their encounter
with Pākehā, the consequent alienation of the majority of their lands by the Crown, and
concludes, with a glimpse into the current circumstance of Manoeka, the papakainga of
Waitaha.

text: Are You Listening? The Voice of Waitaha, A Forgotten People. This thesis is a study of Waitaha, a Bay of Plenty iwi that has been marginalized through
the loss of most of its land, much of its language, tikanga, and mana. The purpose of the
work is to communicate, through the 'voice' and the history of the people, a chronicle, of
their alienation to a Pākehā audience that remains in large part ignorant and distant from
their plight.
The thesis is motivated by an academic responsibility to the Treaty of Waitangi and the
lack of understanding to the present needs of Māori as evidenced for example, by the
support for the January 2004 Orewa speech, by the leader of the National Party, Don
Brash. It is predicated upon the understanding that this response, which minimalises the
impact of colonization upon Māori, is constructed by many, through a convenience of
distance. It is motivated also on the understanding that most Pākehā who now inhabit the rohe of Waitaha, are completely ignorant of the identity of tangata whenua. It is hoped
that the presentation of the Waitaha story, will provoke a greater empathy from Pākehā,
and thereby facilitate an environment, whereby grievances can be addressed in an
environment of greater understanding.
The thesis is a qualitative based research exercise, carried out in consultation with
kaumātua and other Waitaha members, and attempts to acknowledge and integrate current kaupapa Māori epistemologies with traditional Western academic methodology.
The study uses interviews, Waitangi Tribunal evidence, and other historical references to
construct a narrative that conveys something of the 'voice' of Waitaha. Specifically, it
outlines a chronology of Waitaha settlement, followed by a description of their encounter
with Pākehā, the consequent alienation of the majority of their lands by the Crown, and
concludes, with a glimpse into the current circumstance of Manoeka, the papakainga of
Waitaha.

year: 2006