title: Investigating state-trait distinction in scales of resilience: Application of generalisability theory

authors: Child, Lucy E.

subjects: Resilience

abstract: Psychological resilience has been linked to a range of positive psychological outcomes, notably as a protective factor against the harmful effects of stress and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Resilience is also a proven asset for students, workers, and organisations. Despite a general academic consensus of resilience as both dynamic and developable, interventions to develop it have proven largely ineffective. Interventions designed to enhance resilience should be focused on aspects of resilience that are dynamic and thus amenable to change. Accordingly, accurate assessment of resilience, and formation of effective resilience training interventions necessitates clear delineation between stable and dynamic aspects of resilience. Without this distinction, changes in state and trait resilience are likely to be conflated, resulting in imprecise measurement of resilience and inadequate design of interventions. Generalisability Theory (G-theory) has been recommended as the most robust and appropriate statistical model to evaluate state-trait distinction, reliability, and sources of measurement errors. 

This study investigated five major psychometric scales of resilience and the individual items within these scales to ascertain whether they were reliable measures of either stable or dynamic features of resilience. G-theory methodology was implemented to discriminate between state and trait features of resilience, and to assess the reliability of five scales of resilience measurement over a period of several weeks. Longitudinal measurement design was applied to an adequate sample of 94 participants, assessed at 3 time points with one-week intervals on five resilience scales. 

All analysed scales demonstrated a high generalisability of scores across occasions and the sample population (G > 0.90), consistent with expectations for a trait measure. Eleven state-items were identified in four resilience scales and consolidated into eight dynamic aspects of resilience. These dynamic aspects of resilience include adaptation to change, perseverance, self-confidence in the face of adversity, self-efficacy, trust in instincts, ability to follow plans, ability to plan, and non-reactivity. These resilience facets are the most modifiable and therefore should be the primary target of interventions to enhance resilience in people. This research established the overall reliability of all five psychometric scales for the assessment of trait resilience. Therefore, these validated scales are useful to assess long-lasting changes in resilience but lack the sensitivity required to detect temporal changes, warranting the development of a state-resilience scale.

text: Investigating state-trait distinction in scales of resilience: Application of generalisability theory Psychological resilience has been linked to a range of positive psychological outcomes, notably as a protective factor against the harmful effects of stress and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Resilience is also a proven asset for students, workers, and organisations. Despite a general academic consensus of resilience as both dynamic and developable, interventions to develop it have proven largely ineffective. Interventions designed to enhance resilience should be focused on aspects of resilience that are dynamic and thus amenable to change. Accordingly, accurate assessment of resilience, and formation of effective resilience training interventions necessitates clear delineation between stable and dynamic aspects of resilience. Without this distinction, changes in state and trait resilience are likely to be conflated, resulting in imprecise measurement of resilience and inadequate design of interventions. Generalisability Theory (G-theory) has been recommended as the most robust and appropriate statistical model to evaluate state-trait distinction, reliability, and sources of measurement errors. 

This study investigated five major psychometric scales of resilience and the individual items within these scales to ascertain whether they were reliable measures of either stable or dynamic features of resilience. G-theory methodology was implemented to discriminate between state and trait features of resilience, and to assess the reliability of five scales of resilience measurement over a period of several weeks. Longitudinal measurement design was applied to an adequate sample of 94 participants, assessed at 3 time points with one-week intervals on five resilience scales. 

All analysed scales demonstrated a high generalisability of scores across occasions and the sample population (G > 0.90), consistent with expectations for a trait measure. Eleven state-items were identified in four resilience scales and consolidated into eight dynamic aspects of resilience. These dynamic aspects of resilience include adaptation to change, perseverance, self-confidence in the face of adversity, self-efficacy, trust in instincts, ability to follow plans, ability to plan, and non-reactivity. These resilience facets are the most modifiable and therefore should be the primary target of interventions to enhance resilience in people. This research established the overall reliability of all five psychometric scales for the assessment of trait resilience. Therefore, these validated scales are useful to assess long-lasting changes in resilience but lack the sensitivity required to detect temporal changes, warranting the development of a state-resilience scale.

year: 2020

title: The application of equilibrium beach profile theory to coastal hazard identification in the Bay of Plenty

authors: Pickett, Vernon

abstract: The Bay of Plenty (BoP) is situated on the north-eastern coast of New Zealand. It is low wave energy sand rich environment that is susceptible to the effects of intense mid latitude depressions and ex tropical cyclones. These can produce strong winds and onshore directed swells that are frequently associated with episodes of significant beach erosion. Such conditions are often exacerbated during the La Nina phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). 

The beaches in the BoP monitoring data set (48 sites) have been classified in this research using Dean's parameter to determine beach states according to the classification system of Wright and Short. Principally the beaches can be described from this analysis as Intermediate beaches with occasional Dissipative beach types, for example those located in the lee of headlands as at West End Ohope, and Reflective beach types, as for example those on the steeper opencoast beaches at Otamarakau. 

Intermediate beaches consist modally of Longshore Bar and Trough morphologies (LBT) with strong representations from the other more dynamic and responsive intermediate beach types including the Low Tide Terrace (LTT), Transverse Bar and Rip (TBR) and Rhythmic Bar and Beach (RBB). The analysis confirmed that considerable beach state variability (involving up to +56 to - 60 m³m⁻¹) can be expected from these beach types over relatively short time frames of days to months. The indications are that the Dean beach equilibrium model (1977) fitted the more dynamic intermediate beaches better than beaches located at the extremes of the Wright and Short (1983) spectrum.

The equilibrium beach profile (EBP) models and their derivations have been described prior to applying the Dean (1977) and Dean et al. (1993) two dimensional parametric models to the 48 profiles in the BoP dataset. The purpose of this assessment was to determine the equilibrium beach status of profiles for potential use in defining coastal hazard zones in the BoP. Both models require the definition of boundary conditions, the onshore limit being defined by mean sea level, while the offshore limit was defined by closure depth. This was determined from review of the geomorphic evidence, repeat profile analysis and calculation using wave data and the Hallermeier formulae (19878, 1981a).

The two EBP models were fitted by least squares regression (LSR) analysis to all beach profiles in the BoP dataset. In carrying this out both scale and shape factors were allowed freedom to vary so as to minimise the residual errors in the assessments. The results from this allowed statistical analyses to be carried out on both parameters to determine their most probable values. This confirmed the appropriateness of Dean's (1977) value of ⅔ for the shape factor (or exponent) based on linear wave theory and uniform wave energy dissipation per unit volume. 

The LSR analysis was repeated holding the shape factor at ⅔ while allowing the scale factor (A) to change. The results from this analysis were then compared to the mean sediment data obtained from the profile monitoring database. This confirmed Dean's relationship between sediment fall velocity (grain diameter) and the regression derived scale factor values based on a log-log transformation.

Dean's 1977 and 1991 equilibrium profile models were then applied to the BoP profile dataset to determine each profile's equilibrium status representing the beach's potential to either erode or accrete. This potentially forms the first element of inputs to any coastal hazard zone determination because it affects spatially the location of mean sea level as a baseline from which to measure erosion limits. This analysis was carried out using three different closure depths and the two models with or without piecewise variation of the scale factor. The best overall fit using LSR analysis confirmed the appropriateness of the Dean (1977) model with profile averaged scale factor derived from the related sediment sampling. 

As part of this work the Wang and Davis three sector profile model was also examined and applied to the BoP dataset. This model potentially better describes the nearshore 2-dimensional beach morphology because it incorporates the offshore bar so typical of Intermediate beaches in the BoP. However when scale and shape factors were held according to the data obtained from the earlier LSR analysis, the model fails to replicate the success achieved by its authors using Florida data. 

Sea Level Rise (SLR) forms a second component of any coastal hazard analysis. The derivation of the Bruun Rule was examined from a variety of theoretical perspectives and was confirmed using equilibrium beach profile theory. As a consequence the Bruun Rule was applied within an equilibrium model using a MATLAB routine to predict likely profile shifts for the 'business as usual' climate change scenario of the IPPCC. Large Scale Coastal Behaviour (LSCB) theory (Cowell et al., 2003; Stive, 2004) was then applied to four different locations to ascertain the potential counter effects of sedimentation utilising coastal sediment budgets and progradation rates.

Storm erosion presents a third coastal hazard component predictable using EBP theory. The model chosen for this was EDUNE (Kriebel, 1989), a two dimensional parametric model based around the concepts described in Kriebel and Dean (1985) and Kriebel (1989). A design storm was developed from regional climate and weather information and applied to all profiles in the dataset to determine erosion limits. This was then applied cumulatively with the other two erosion drivers (profile disequilibrium and SLR) as shown to predict a suitable coastal setback line (or coastal hazard zone) from mean sea level as a protection measure for development occurring along this sandy coastline.

text: The application of equilibrium beach profile theory to coastal hazard identification in the Bay of Plenty The Bay of Plenty (BoP) is situated on the north-eastern coast of New Zealand. It is low wave energy sand rich environment that is susceptible to the effects of intense mid latitude depressions and ex tropical cyclones. These can produce strong winds and onshore directed swells that are frequently associated with episodes of significant beach erosion. Such conditions are often exacerbated during the La Nina phase of the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO). 

The beaches in the BoP monitoring data set (48 sites) have been classified in this research using Dean's parameter to determine beach states according to the classification system of Wright and Short. Principally the beaches can be described from this analysis as Intermediate beaches with occasional Dissipative beach types, for example those located in the lee of headlands as at West End Ohope, and Reflective beach types, as for example those on the steeper opencoast beaches at Otamarakau. 

Intermediate beaches consist modally of Longshore Bar and Trough morphologies (LBT) with strong representations from the other more dynamic and responsive intermediate beach types including the Low Tide Terrace (LTT), Transverse Bar and Rip (TBR) and Rhythmic Bar and Beach (RBB). The analysis confirmed that considerable beach state variability (involving up to +56 to - 60 m³m⁻¹) can be expected from these beach types over relatively short time frames of days to months. The indications are that the Dean beach equilibrium model (1977) fitted the more dynamic intermediate beaches better than beaches located at the extremes of the Wright and Short (1983) spectrum.

The equilibrium beach profile (EBP) models and their derivations have been described prior to applying the Dean (1977) and Dean et al. (1993) two dimensional parametric models to the 48 profiles in the BoP dataset. The purpose of this assessment was to determine the equilibrium beach status of profiles for potential use in defining coastal hazard zones in the BoP. Both models require the definition of boundary conditions, the onshore limit being defined by mean sea level, while the offshore limit was defined by closure depth. This was determined from review of the geomorphic evidence, repeat profile analysis and calculation using wave data and the Hallermeier formulae (19878, 1981a).

The two EBP models were fitted by least squares regression (LSR) analysis to all beach profiles in the BoP dataset. In carrying this out both scale and shape factors were allowed freedom to vary so as to minimise the residual errors in the assessments. The results from this allowed statistical analyses to be carried out on both parameters to determine their most probable values. This confirmed the appropriateness of Dean's (1977) value of ⅔ for the shape factor (or exponent) based on linear wave theory and uniform wave energy dissipation per unit volume. 

The LSR analysis was repeated holding the shape factor at ⅔ while allowing the scale factor (A) to change. The results from this analysis were then compared to the mean sediment data obtained from the profile monitoring database. This confirmed Dean's relationship between sediment fall velocity (grain diameter) and the regression derived scale factor values based on a log-log transformation.

Dean's 1977 and 1991 equilibrium profile models were then applied to the BoP profile dataset to determine each profile's equilibrium status representing the beach's potential to either erode or accrete. This potentially forms the first element of inputs to any coastal hazard zone determination because it affects spatially the location of mean sea level as a baseline from which to measure erosion limits. This analysis was carried out using three different closure depths and the two models with or without piecewise variation of the scale factor. The best overall fit using LSR analysis confirmed the appropriateness of the Dean (1977) model with profile averaged scale factor derived from the related sediment sampling. 

As part of this work the Wang and Davis three sector profile model was also examined and applied to the BoP dataset. This model potentially better describes the nearshore 2-dimensional beach morphology because it incorporates the offshore bar so typical of Intermediate beaches in the BoP. However when scale and shape factors were held according to the data obtained from the earlier LSR analysis, the model fails to replicate the success achieved by its authors using Florida data. 

Sea Level Rise (SLR) forms a second component of any coastal hazard analysis. The derivation of the Bruun Rule was examined from a variety of theoretical perspectives and was confirmed using equilibrium beach profile theory. As a consequence the Bruun Rule was applied within an equilibrium model using a MATLAB routine to predict likely profile shifts for the 'business as usual' climate change scenario of the IPPCC. Large Scale Coastal Behaviour (LSCB) theory (Cowell et al., 2003; Stive, 2004) was then applied to four different locations to ascertain the potential counter effects of sedimentation utilising coastal sediment budgets and progradation rates.

Storm erosion presents a third coastal hazard component predictable using EBP theory. The model chosen for this was EDUNE (Kriebel, 1989), a two dimensional parametric model based around the concepts described in Kriebel and Dean (1985) and Kriebel (1989). A design storm was developed from regional climate and weather information and applied to all profiles in the dataset to determine erosion limits. This was then applied cumulatively with the other two erosion drivers (profile disequilibrium and SLR) as shown to predict a suitable coastal setback line (or coastal hazard zone) from mean sea level as a protection measure for development occurring along this sandy coastline.

year: 2004

title: Ko te Pakiwaituhi Ko Au, Ko Au Ko te Pakiwaituhi: He Wewetenga o te Pakiwaituhi Tōra Mātātoa, He Whakapuakanga Pakiwaituhi Māori

authors: Ross, Kristin Cherie

subjects: Pakiwaituhi Māori

abstract: ARIĀ

Mai i ngā tau o te whitu tekau te pakanga a ētahi rōpū Māori kia rangona te Māori, kia kitea te Māori ki runga pouaka whakaata.  I kura takahi puni te whiua o rātou mā ki te Karauna kia whakamanahia tāna i oati ai i te Tiriti o Waitangi.  Otirā, ka tohua te Karauna ki te tiaki i ngā kura kāmehameha a te Māori, arā, ko te reo me ōna tikanga.  I kitea e rātou mā tētahi patanga oranga o tō tātou reo, o ā tātou tikanga mā te ao pāpāho.  E mara e, kua tuangahuru ngā tau e whakapāoho atu ana a Whakaata Māori mai i tōna whakarewanga i te tau 2004.  Nā aua kikopuku reo, nā aua mumu tikanga, nā aua matā mana motuhake i whai wāhi mai ai te Māori i te ao pāpāho, otirā, i te ao o te pouaka whakaata. 

Ka mutu, ko te ngako ia o tēnei tuhinga, he whakamahuki, he tirotiro, he ketuketu i te pakiwaituhi kōhungahunga, i a Dora the Explorer.  I whakamāorihia e Whakaata Māori ki a Tōra Mātātoa.  Mō te pakiwaituhi rongonui, kāhore he painga i a Tōra Mātātoa.  Kei te mātakitakihia e ngā iwi huhua ki ngā tōpito katoa o te ao.  Ko te pātai ia nā, he aha oti ngā ehunga Māori ka kitea, ka rangona rā roto mai i te pakiwaituhi kōhungahunga, i a Tōra Mātātoa?  Mā tēnei rangahau tonu e whakautu.  

Ko ngā pakiwaituhi katoa o Whakaata Māori mā te kōhungahunga he mea hanga e iwi kē atu i te Māori.  Ka mutu ka whakaarohia e tēnei rangahau ētahi huarahi e taea ai e tātou te whakaputa pakiwaituhi Māori mā te kōhungahunga.  Otirā, ka whakapua mai ai i tētahi pakiwaituhi Māori nāku tonu.  Ko tāku e whakapae nei, me kite ā tātou tamariki i a rātou anō rā roto mai i ngā pakiwaituhi.  Ko tāku e manako nei, kia kaha te iwi Māori ki te kimi huarahi e whakaputa ai i ā tātou ake pakiwaituhi nā te Māori, mā te Māori, mō te Māori. 

ABSTRACT

Since the 1970s select Māori groups have fought to be seen and heard in the broadcasting industry and particular television.  United and banded they challenged the Crown to honour what was promised to them in the Treaty of Waitangi.  They demanded that the Government maintain the Māori language and its customs.  They saw television as a means to retain and transmit our language and culture.  2014 marked the tenth year of broadcasting for Māori Television.  This prestigious achievement in Māori broadcasting was due to the efforts of our leaders who fought tirelessly to ensure our language and customs were and are maintained throughout broadcasting. 

The basis of this thesis is the analysis of the preschool animation, Dora the Explorer, which was broadcast and translated by Māori Television as Tōra Mātātoa.  Dora the Explorer is arguably the most famous preschool animation.  The show is watched by the masses all over the world. This thesis investigates the question; what representations of Māori are seen and heard in the preschool animation Tōra Mātātoa? 

All of the preschool animations shown on Māori Television have been created by non-Māori.  Therefore, the purpose of this research is to create new ways of thinking that will initiate the production of locally made preschool animation.  This thesis looks at a Māori animation example that I have created based on the findings of this research.  It is imperative that our children see themselves on the television screen.  I hope Māori actively seek avenues to ensure the production of preschool animation by Māori, for Māori and about Māori.

text: Ko te Pakiwaituhi Ko Au, Ko Au Ko te Pakiwaituhi: He Wewetenga o te Pakiwaituhi Tōra Mātātoa, He Whakapuakanga Pakiwaituhi Māori ARIĀ

Mai i ngā tau o te whitu tekau te pakanga a ētahi rōpū Māori kia rangona te Māori, kia kitea te Māori ki runga pouaka whakaata.  I kura takahi puni te whiua o rātou mā ki te Karauna kia whakamanahia tāna i oati ai i te Tiriti o Waitangi.  Otirā, ka tohua te Karauna ki te tiaki i ngā kura kāmehameha a te Māori, arā, ko te reo me ōna tikanga.  I kitea e rātou mā tētahi patanga oranga o tō tātou reo, o ā tātou tikanga mā te ao pāpāho.  E mara e, kua tuangahuru ngā tau e whakapāoho atu ana a Whakaata Māori mai i tōna whakarewanga i te tau 2004.  Nā aua kikopuku reo, nā aua mumu tikanga, nā aua matā mana motuhake i whai wāhi mai ai te Māori i te ao pāpāho, otirā, i te ao o te pouaka whakaata. 

Ka mutu, ko te ngako ia o tēnei tuhinga, he whakamahuki, he tirotiro, he ketuketu i te pakiwaituhi kōhungahunga, i a Dora the Explorer.  I whakamāorihia e Whakaata Māori ki a Tōra Mātātoa.  Mō te pakiwaituhi rongonui, kāhore he painga i a Tōra Mātātoa.  Kei te mātakitakihia e ngā iwi huhua ki ngā tōpito katoa o te ao.  Ko te pātai ia nā, he aha oti ngā ehunga Māori ka kitea, ka rangona rā roto mai i te pakiwaituhi kōhungahunga, i a Tōra Mātātoa?  Mā tēnei rangahau tonu e whakautu.  

Ko ngā pakiwaituhi katoa o Whakaata Māori mā te kōhungahunga he mea hanga e iwi kē atu i te Māori.  Ka mutu ka whakaarohia e tēnei rangahau ētahi huarahi e taea ai e tātou te whakaputa pakiwaituhi Māori mā te kōhungahunga.  Otirā, ka whakapua mai ai i tētahi pakiwaituhi Māori nāku tonu.  Ko tāku e whakapae nei, me kite ā tātou tamariki i a rātou anō rā roto mai i ngā pakiwaituhi.  Ko tāku e manako nei, kia kaha te iwi Māori ki te kimi huarahi e whakaputa ai i ā tātou ake pakiwaituhi nā te Māori, mā te Māori, mō te Māori. 

ABSTRACT

Since the 1970s select Māori groups have fought to be seen and heard in the broadcasting industry and particular television.  United and banded they challenged the Crown to honour what was promised to them in the Treaty of Waitangi.  They demanded that the Government maintain the Māori language and its customs.  They saw television as a means to retain and transmit our language and culture.  2014 marked the tenth year of broadcasting for Māori Television.  This prestigious achievement in Māori broadcasting was due to the efforts of our leaders who fought tirelessly to ensure our language and customs were and are maintained throughout broadcasting. 

The basis of this thesis is the analysis of the preschool animation, Dora the Explorer, which was broadcast and translated by Māori Television as Tōra Mātātoa.  Dora the Explorer is arguably the most famous preschool animation.  The show is watched by the masses all over the world. This thesis investigates the question; what representations of Māori are seen and heard in the preschool animation Tōra Mātātoa? 

All of the preschool animations shown on Māori Television have been created by non-Māori.  Therefore, the purpose of this research is to create new ways of thinking that will initiate the production of locally made preschool animation.  This thesis looks at a Māori animation example that I have created based on the findings of this research.  It is imperative that our children see themselves on the television screen.  I hope Māori actively seek avenues to ensure the production of preschool animation by Māori, for Māori and about Māori.

year: 2015