title: The Psychological Contract: The Development and Validation of a Managerial Measure

authors: Cable, Donald Alfred James

subjects: psychological contract

abstract: The research objective was to develop, through two phases involving development and validation, a measure of the psychological work contract for managerial level employees.  The psychological contract is the unwritten implicit contract that forms in the minds of employees and contains the obligations and expectations that they believe exists between themselves and the organization.  In the first and qualitative phase of the study, a structured interview procedure resulted in the collection of 651 responses from a convenience sample of 35 managers from seven New Zealand organizations.  Responses related to what these managers believed they were obligated to provide the organization (perceived organizational expectations), and what they believed the organization was obligated to provide them (their expectations).  Content analysis of these 651 statements resulted in the development of two initial measures of the psychological contract (employee obligations, organization obligations).  The employee obligations measure (perceived organizational expectations of the employee) contained 16 items, and the organization obligations measure (employee expectations of the organization) contained 23 items.  
In the second and quantitative phase of the study, and using the same criteria for participation as for phase one, a convenience sample of 124 managers from 13 New Zealand organizations completed questionnaires.  The questionnaires included the measures of psychological contract content developed in phase one of the study, and 8 organizational psychology variables to be included in a nomological network.  The nomological network included intention to quit, perceived organizational support, work and job involvement, job satisfaction, career plateau, organizational commitment, person-organization fit, and 2 performance measures.  A separate questionnaire covering job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour was completed by 94 of the participants' managers.  Of the 54 relationships predicted in the nomological network, 41 were significant.  Of the 13 non-significant relationships, 10 involved relationships with the two performance measures.   
The measures of the psychological contract were subjected to a construct validation process involving two steps.  The first step involved item and factor analysis.  Factor analysis of the two measures of the psychological contract revealed two factors in each.  One factor, termed relational obligations and reflecting a collective interest between the employee and the organization, included the items that were believed to influence more directly the relationship between managers and the organization.  This factor included items such as  be committed to the job  (an employee obligation) and  provide a physically and socially safe environment  (an organizational obligation).  The other factor, termed transactional obligations and reflecting a self/other interest on the part of the employee, included the items that were believed to be of a more direct employment transactions nature.  This factor included items such as  stay true to your own values and beliefs  (an employee obligation) and  provide professional and personal support  (an organizational obligation).
In the second step of the validation process, the measures of the psychological contract were embedded into the nomological network and their relationships with the ten variables in that network were tested.  Of the ten hypothesised relationships, only one emerged as significant, that being the relationship between the organization obligations component of the psychological contract and person-organization fit.  Minimal support for construct validity of the measures of the psychological contract was provided confirming that further effort will be required before complete construct validity may be claimed for the measured.  Although the contribution the research makes to the field of knowledge may be limited, it does provide some validation of existing measures of the psychological contract, developed in other studies using different samples.  The present findings increase our knowledge of the content of the psychological contract for managers.  Additionally, a methodological framework has been established for continuing research into the content of psychological contracts, including an exploration of the relationship between content and fulfilment, along with a structure for comparing the psychological contract of disparate occupational groups.  
The most likely explanation for the hypotheses not being fully supported is that it is fulfilment (or conversely breach or violation) of the psychological contract, rather than the content of the contract per se, that is related to the variables in the nomological network.  Whilst the hypotheses were based on research that considered fulfilment of the contract, this study focussed on the content of psychological contracts.  The reasons for basing the hypotheses on research that considered fulfilment, the influence of this decision on hypothesis testing, and other possible explanations for the hypotheses not finding greater support, are explored.  The limitations of the study, and possible directions for future research, are discussed.

text: The Psychological Contract: The Development and Validation of a Managerial Measure The research objective was to develop, through two phases involving development and validation, a measure of the psychological work contract for managerial level employees.  The psychological contract is the unwritten implicit contract that forms in the minds of employees and contains the obligations and expectations that they believe exists between themselves and the organization.  In the first and qualitative phase of the study, a structured interview procedure resulted in the collection of 651 responses from a convenience sample of 35 managers from seven New Zealand organizations.  Responses related to what these managers believed they were obligated to provide the organization (perceived organizational expectations), and what they believed the organization was obligated to provide them (their expectations).  Content analysis of these 651 statements resulted in the development of two initial measures of the psychological contract (employee obligations, organization obligations).  The employee obligations measure (perceived organizational expectations of the employee) contained 16 items, and the organization obligations measure (employee expectations of the organization) contained 23 items.  
In the second and quantitative phase of the study, and using the same criteria for participation as for phase one, a convenience sample of 124 managers from 13 New Zealand organizations completed questionnaires.  The questionnaires included the measures of psychological contract content developed in phase one of the study, and 8 organizational psychology variables to be included in a nomological network.  The nomological network included intention to quit, perceived organizational support, work and job involvement, job satisfaction, career plateau, organizational commitment, person-organization fit, and 2 performance measures.  A separate questionnaire covering job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour was completed by 94 of the participants' managers.  Of the 54 relationships predicted in the nomological network, 41 were significant.  Of the 13 non-significant relationships, 10 involved relationships with the two performance measures.   
The measures of the psychological contract were subjected to a construct validation process involving two steps.  The first step involved item and factor analysis.  Factor analysis of the two measures of the psychological contract revealed two factors in each.  One factor, termed relational obligations and reflecting a collective interest between the employee and the organization, included the items that were believed to influence more directly the relationship between managers and the organization.  This factor included items such as  be committed to the job  (an employee obligation) and  provide a physically and socially safe environment  (an organizational obligation).  The other factor, termed transactional obligations and reflecting a self/other interest on the part of the employee, included the items that were believed to be of a more direct employment transactions nature.  This factor included items such as  stay true to your own values and beliefs  (an employee obligation) and  provide professional and personal support  (an organizational obligation).
In the second step of the validation process, the measures of the psychological contract were embedded into the nomological network and their relationships with the ten variables in that network were tested.  Of the ten hypothesised relationships, only one emerged as significant, that being the relationship between the organization obligations component of the psychological contract and person-organization fit.  Minimal support for construct validity of the measures of the psychological contract was provided confirming that further effort will be required before complete construct validity may be claimed for the measured.  Although the contribution the research makes to the field of knowledge may be limited, it does provide some validation of existing measures of the psychological contract, developed in other studies using different samples.  The present findings increase our knowledge of the content of the psychological contract for managers.  Additionally, a methodological framework has been established for continuing research into the content of psychological contracts, including an exploration of the relationship between content and fulfilment, along with a structure for comparing the psychological contract of disparate occupational groups.  
The most likely explanation for the hypotheses not being fully supported is that it is fulfilment (or conversely breach or violation) of the psychological contract, rather than the content of the contract per se, that is related to the variables in the nomological network.  Whilst the hypotheses were based on research that considered fulfilment of the contract, this study focussed on the content of psychological contracts.  The reasons for basing the hypotheses on research that considered fulfilment, the influence of this decision on hypothesis testing, and other possible explanations for the hypotheses not finding greater support, are explored.  The limitations of the study, and possible directions for future research, are discussed.

year: 2008

title: Comparative importance of training stimuli in avian aversion training for the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)

authors: Hobbs, Alisha Aroha

abstract: Dogs are the most significant threat to adult kiwi (Apteryx spp.), and kiwi aversion training (KAT) has been developed to reduce the likelihood of dogs harming and killing kiwi. In KAT, dogs are presented with a range of kiwi-related stimuli, which attempt to emulate live kiwi. The kiwi stimuli used can vary between trainers and may affect the overall efficacy of KAT. Thus, there is a need to assess the innate ‘interest’ of dogs in relation to kiwi stimuli to evaluate the potential relevance of different kiwi stimuli for KAT.
In this study, I assessed three groups of dogs with differing experience with kiwi: kiwi conservation dogs, KAT dogs, and kiwi naïve pet dogs. I presented dogs with four kiwi-related stimuli: a kiwi carcass, a taxidermy kiwi, kiwi feathers, kiwi scats, and a blank stimulus using a single-choice preference assessment. Within each trial, dogs were presented with a single kiwi or blank stimulus and were allowed two minutes with the stimulus. The amount of time the dogs spent within the experimental area as well as the behaviour of dogs were videoed throughout the experiment. I used the amount of time the dogs spent investigating a stimulus, as well as their latency to approach the stimulus, as measures of ‘interest’ from the dogs to each stimulus.
I found that, on average, dogs in all three groups spent more time investigating the kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi stimuli. However, the KAT dogs showed the lowest mean duration of investigating each stimulus, while the kiwi conservation dog group had the highest duration. For dogs in the naïve and kiwi conservation dog groups, there was a significant difference in the amount of time they spent investigating each stimulus, with the dogs spending significantly longer investigating the kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi in comparison to the scats, feathers and blank stimulus. There was no significant difference in the time the dogs spent investigating the different stimuli in the KAT dog group. Despite the decreased duration of investigation behaviour, dogs within the KAT dog group did not show fear-related behaviour in response to the kiwi stimuli presented. When the duration of time that the dogs spent investigating the different kiwi stimuli was compared across all three groups, no significant difference was found. This indicates that dogs across groups spent similar amounts of time investigating each stimulus.
The lack of obvious learned avoidance behaviours towards kiwi stimuli by KAT dogs in this study suggest that dogs did not show a generalised avoidance toward kiwi stimuli that were not used in their initial KAT. Dogs may still show avoidance toward the stimuli used in their initial training but learned avoidance may not generalise to other kiwi stimuli even if these stimuli are the same type. This poses an issue as each trainer uses different stimuli during KAT, and if dogs are not learning to avoid all kiwi stimuli, dogs may not adequately learn to avoid live kiwi. The kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi were of the greatest ‘interest’ to dogs across groups and so these may be useful stimuli for use in KAT, more so that kiwi scats and feathers. From this study, it seems that visual cues provoke an initial ‘interest’ in the dogs to investigate a stimulus. I suggested to use several conspicuous items such as taxidermy kiwi models during KAT to ensure generalisation across different stimuli and increase the efficacy of KAT.

text: Comparative importance of training stimuli in avian aversion training for the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) Dogs are the most significant threat to adult kiwi (Apteryx spp.), and kiwi aversion training (KAT) has been developed to reduce the likelihood of dogs harming and killing kiwi. In KAT, dogs are presented with a range of kiwi-related stimuli, which attempt to emulate live kiwi. The kiwi stimuli used can vary between trainers and may affect the overall efficacy of KAT. Thus, there is a need to assess the innate ‘interest’ of dogs in relation to kiwi stimuli to evaluate the potential relevance of different kiwi stimuli for KAT.
In this study, I assessed three groups of dogs with differing experience with kiwi: kiwi conservation dogs, KAT dogs, and kiwi naïve pet dogs. I presented dogs with four kiwi-related stimuli: a kiwi carcass, a taxidermy kiwi, kiwi feathers, kiwi scats, and a blank stimulus using a single-choice preference assessment. Within each trial, dogs were presented with a single kiwi or blank stimulus and were allowed two minutes with the stimulus. The amount of time the dogs spent within the experimental area as well as the behaviour of dogs were videoed throughout the experiment. I used the amount of time the dogs spent investigating a stimulus, as well as their latency to approach the stimulus, as measures of ‘interest’ from the dogs to each stimulus.
I found that, on average, dogs in all three groups spent more time investigating the kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi stimuli. However, the KAT dogs showed the lowest mean duration of investigating each stimulus, while the kiwi conservation dog group had the highest duration. For dogs in the naïve and kiwi conservation dog groups, there was a significant difference in the amount of time they spent investigating each stimulus, with the dogs spending significantly longer investigating the kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi in comparison to the scats, feathers and blank stimulus. There was no significant difference in the time the dogs spent investigating the different stimuli in the KAT dog group. Despite the decreased duration of investigation behaviour, dogs within the KAT dog group did not show fear-related behaviour in response to the kiwi stimuli presented. When the duration of time that the dogs spent investigating the different kiwi stimuli was compared across all three groups, no significant difference was found. This indicates that dogs across groups spent similar amounts of time investigating each stimulus.
The lack of obvious learned avoidance behaviours towards kiwi stimuli by KAT dogs in this study suggest that dogs did not show a generalised avoidance toward kiwi stimuli that were not used in their initial KAT. Dogs may still show avoidance toward the stimuli used in their initial training but learned avoidance may not generalise to other kiwi stimuli even if these stimuli are the same type. This poses an issue as each trainer uses different stimuli during KAT, and if dogs are not learning to avoid all kiwi stimuli, dogs may not adequately learn to avoid live kiwi. The kiwi carcass and taxidermy kiwi were of the greatest ‘interest’ to dogs across groups and so these may be useful stimuli for use in KAT, more so that kiwi scats and feathers. From this study, it seems that visual cues provoke an initial ‘interest’ in the dogs to investigate a stimulus. I suggested to use several conspicuous items such as taxidermy kiwi models during KAT to ensure generalisation across different stimuli and increase the efficacy of KAT.

year: 2018

title: Tephras and New Zealand archaeology

authors: Lowe, David J.

subjects: tephrochronology

abstract: Establishing an accurate date for earliest Polynesian settlement in New Zealand is essential for understanding patterns of settlement and associated environmental impacts, and the processes and rates of cultural change in Eastern Polynesia. Tephra deposits from five volcanic centres, together with exotic sea-rafted pumice, provide isochronous constraints on the timing of earliest settlement and human impacts in northern New Zealand. A local basaltic tephra from Rangitoto Island (Auckland) and locally distributed andesitic tephras from Egmont volcano directly date human occupation to c. AD 1400–1450. Distal andesitic tephras (Tufa Trig Formation) from Mt Ruapehu, Tongariro volcanic centre, help constrain the timing of earliest anthropogenic deforestation signals in Hawke's Bay. Sea-rafted Loisels Pumice(s), although of uncertain stratigraphic reliability in places, overlies cultural remains that can be no younger than c. AD 1350 along the east coast, North Island. The regionally extensive rhyolitic Kaharoa Tephra, which erupted from Okataina volcano between c. AD  1300–1390, is the critical “settlement layer” datum for dating prehistory in the North Island: no human artefacts are recorded beneath it and the earliest inferred environmental impacts by humans are dated to c. AD  1280, just prior to its deposition. This maximum date matches the earliest radiocarbon dates derived for both settlement and human impacts from archaeological and natural sites (c. AD 1250), and implies that the onset of deforestation was essentially contemporaneous with initial settlement.
The widespread rhyolitic Taupo Tephra, which erupted from Taupo volcano c. AD 200, provides an isochronous benchmark well before earliest settlement. The tephra may coincide approximately with a putative earlier transient contact in New Zealand based on Pacific rat-bone (Rattus exulans) dates. More precise calendrical dates on the tephras—via dendrochronology or ice-core records or other dating methods—would help refine assessment of the timing of earliest settlement, while extending the distributional range of critical tephra layers, through application of crypto-tephra analysis, could lead to a greater understanding of settlement patterns.

text: Tephras and New Zealand archaeology Establishing an accurate date for earliest Polynesian settlement in New Zealand is essential for understanding patterns of settlement and associated environmental impacts, and the processes and rates of cultural change in Eastern Polynesia. Tephra deposits from five volcanic centres, together with exotic sea-rafted pumice, provide isochronous constraints on the timing of earliest settlement and human impacts in northern New Zealand. A local basaltic tephra from Rangitoto Island (Auckland) and locally distributed andesitic tephras from Egmont volcano directly date human occupation to c. AD 1400–1450. Distal andesitic tephras (Tufa Trig Formation) from Mt Ruapehu, Tongariro volcanic centre, help constrain the timing of earliest anthropogenic deforestation signals in Hawke's Bay. Sea-rafted Loisels Pumice(s), although of uncertain stratigraphic reliability in places, overlies cultural remains that can be no younger than c. AD 1350 along the east coast, North Island. The regionally extensive rhyolitic Kaharoa Tephra, which erupted from Okataina volcano between c. AD  1300–1390, is the critical “settlement layer” datum for dating prehistory in the North Island: no human artefacts are recorded beneath it and the earliest inferred environmental impacts by humans are dated to c. AD  1280, just prior to its deposition. This maximum date matches the earliest radiocarbon dates derived for both settlement and human impacts from archaeological and natural sites (c. AD 1250), and implies that the onset of deforestation was essentially contemporaneous with initial settlement.
The widespread rhyolitic Taupo Tephra, which erupted from Taupo volcano c. AD 200, provides an isochronous benchmark well before earliest settlement. The tephra may coincide approximately with a putative earlier transient contact in New Zealand based on Pacific rat-bone (Rattus exulans) dates. More precise calendrical dates on the tephras—via dendrochronology or ice-core records or other dating methods—would help refine assessment of the timing of earliest settlement, while extending the distributional range of critical tephra layers, through application of crypto-tephra analysis, could lead to a greater understanding of settlement patterns.

year: 2000