title: The effects of inhaled bergamot and geranium essential oils on rat behaviour

authors: Salvesen, Gregory John

subjects: Essential Oils

abstract: The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavioural effects of inhaled bergamot, geranium and a combination of these oils in three novelty evoked tests of anxiety. Sixty adult Hooded Rats (Rattus norvegicus), with 10 rats randomly assigned to one of the 6 test groups; three essential oil treated groups, and three control groups. The essential oil groups consisted of bergamot, geranium and a combined group, i.e. the combination of bergamot and geranium oil. The control groups consisted of the odour and vehicle control, with the anxiolytic drug diazepam as a positive control. The behaviour of rats was assessed on the elevate-plus maze, open-field and social interaction test. Diazepam increased open arm entries and the time spent in the open arms, decreased time spent in closed arms and increased the number of head-dips and unprotected stretch-attends in the EPM. In the open-field diazepam increased immobility time, decreased ambulation, increased grooming activity and reduced the amount of time spent exploring the arena. Similarly, diazepam decreased the frequency of separations, sniffs, follows, crawls, passive and active interactions with test partners in the social interaction test. Bergamot, geranium and the combination of the two oils increased total arm entries in the elevated-plus maze. Bergamot increased locomotion and exploratory behaviour in open-field and decreased contact latency and increased passive and active interaction between the rat pairs in the social interaction test. Geranium decrease immobility and increase the time spent rearing in the open-field and also increased active interaction, i.e. partner sniffing and decreased the amount of time the rat pairs spent apart in the social interaction test. The combination of bergamot and geranium oil increased locomotion and the time spent in Zone2, and also increased exploratory behaviour, i.e. the frequency and duration of rears in the open-field. In the social interaction test, contact latency was shortened and active and passive interactions between rat pairs were increased by the combination of essential oils. The present study established that bergamot, geranium, and the combination of the two oils had a stimulating effect in the elevated-plus maze and an anxiolytic effect in the open-field and social interaction tests when inhaled. Furthermore the study also demonstrated that the combining of the oils had a potentiating effect on the anxiolytic properties of the single oils.

text: The effects of inhaled bergamot and geranium essential oils on rat behaviour The aim of this study was to evaluate the behavioural effects of inhaled bergamot, geranium and a combination of these oils in three novelty evoked tests of anxiety. Sixty adult Hooded Rats (Rattus norvegicus), with 10 rats randomly assigned to one of the 6 test groups; three essential oil treated groups, and three control groups. The essential oil groups consisted of bergamot, geranium and a combined group, i.e. the combination of bergamot and geranium oil. The control groups consisted of the odour and vehicle control, with the anxiolytic drug diazepam as a positive control. The behaviour of rats was assessed on the elevate-plus maze, open-field and social interaction test. Diazepam increased open arm entries and the time spent in the open arms, decreased time spent in closed arms and increased the number of head-dips and unprotected stretch-attends in the EPM. In the open-field diazepam increased immobility time, decreased ambulation, increased grooming activity and reduced the amount of time spent exploring the arena. Similarly, diazepam decreased the frequency of separations, sniffs, follows, crawls, passive and active interactions with test partners in the social interaction test. Bergamot, geranium and the combination of the two oils increased total arm entries in the elevated-plus maze. Bergamot increased locomotion and exploratory behaviour in open-field and decreased contact latency and increased passive and active interaction between the rat pairs in the social interaction test. Geranium decrease immobility and increase the time spent rearing in the open-field and also increased active interaction, i.e. partner sniffing and decreased the amount of time the rat pairs spent apart in the social interaction test. The combination of bergamot and geranium oil increased locomotion and the time spent in Zone2, and also increased exploratory behaviour, i.e. the frequency and duration of rears in the open-field. In the social interaction test, contact latency was shortened and active and passive interactions between rat pairs were increased by the combination of essential oils. The present study established that bergamot, geranium, and the combination of the two oils had a stimulating effect in the elevated-plus maze and an anxiolytic effect in the open-field and social interaction tests when inhaled. Furthermore the study also demonstrated that the combining of the oils had a potentiating effect on the anxiolytic properties of the single oils.

year: 2009

title: The impacts of tourism at a UNESCO heritage site in China – a need for a meta-narrative? The case of the Kaiping Diaolou

authors: Ryan, Chris

subjects: China

abstract: In China, sites categorised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are commonly used as a means of economic regeneration through tourism development. This study is of a recent addition to the list, the diaolou (fortified tower houses) of Kaiping, Guangdong, in South China. This rural zone, characterised by past emigration and farming, is in the early stages of tourism development. The study, based on interviews and a survey, permits findings to be compared with other rural areas in China such as Hungcun and the Tangyue Arches of Bao Village in Anhui, and thus while similarities in attitudes are found, in Kaiping differences exist whereby tourism has been found to permit entrepreneurial activities while retaining an agricultural base as the “new tourism rich” employ others to continue farming. The work is contextualised within a model of evolving literature related to tourism impacts on communities. The paper explores a range of issues in sustainable tourism, including the use of tourism as a tool for social, economic and cultural development, holistic approaches to heritage tourism, and the development of glocalisation as a response to globalisation. It discusses differences in approach to heritage tourism, cultural change and commodification between western and Chinese scholars and society.

text: The impacts of tourism at a UNESCO heritage site in China – a need for a meta-narrative? The case of the Kaiping Diaolou In China, sites categorised as UNESCO World Heritage Sites are commonly used as a means of economic regeneration through tourism development. This study is of a recent addition to the list, the diaolou (fortified tower houses) of Kaiping, Guangdong, in South China. This rural zone, characterised by past emigration and farming, is in the early stages of tourism development. The study, based on interviews and a survey, permits findings to be compared with other rural areas in China such as Hungcun and the Tangyue Arches of Bao Village in Anhui, and thus while similarities in attitudes are found, in Kaiping differences exist whereby tourism has been found to permit entrepreneurial activities while retaining an agricultural base as the “new tourism rich” employ others to continue farming. The work is contextualised within a model of evolving literature related to tourism impacts on communities. The paper explores a range of issues in sustainable tourism, including the use of tourism as a tool for social, economic and cultural development, holistic approaches to heritage tourism, and the development of glocalisation as a response to globalisation. It discusses differences in approach to heritage tourism, cultural change and commodification between western and Chinese scholars and society.

year: 2011

title: Ngā whakaaro o ngā ākonga: perspectives and experiences of Māori students in outdoor education in Aotearoa New Zealand

authors: Washbourn, Phil

subjects: Outdoor education

abstract: This study aims to develop an understanding of the perspectives and experiences of Māori students in a secondary school outdoor education programme in Aotearoa New Zealand. Lynch (2012) indicated that “there is a clear need, and wide scope, for research into: cultural elements of outdoor education programmes; cultural effects on participants; culturally appropriate research approaches and programme effects on, and experiences of, people who identify as Māori” (p.49). Outdoor education in Aotearoa New Zealand has been heavily influenced by ‘Eurocentric’ values and practices that contrast with those of Te Ao Māori. In line with a number of calls to re-envision the field, the perspectives and experiences of Māori and the incorporation of Te Ao Māori pedagogies are vital to the reconstruction of an integrated and inclusive Aotearoa New Zealand expression of Outdoor Education for the 21st century.
This study, guided by culturally responsive research methodology, used focus groups to investigate the opinions, thoughts and expectations of Māori students of outdoor education. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the focus group data, and four major themes were identified: the importance of shared experience and relationships to positive experiences of outdoor education; the distinctive practices of outdoor education make learning enjoyable and engaging; the importance to students of making connections with Te Ao Māori through experience, stories of places and history; and the complexity of engaging Māori in participation in outdoor education, including factors such as affordability, the influence of friends and whānau and prioritising educational pathways. A range of practices and approaches from Te Ao Māori are considered and presented, based on the contribution of the student participants, including pedagogical principles from Te Ao Māori such as wānanga, whanaungatanga and tauira. Suggestions for practice include developing connections within the community and experiencing Te Ao Māori learning contexts such as waka ama, noho marae and mahinga kai.

text: Ngā whakaaro o ngā ākonga: perspectives and experiences of Māori students in outdoor education in Aotearoa New Zealand This study aims to develop an understanding of the perspectives and experiences of Māori students in a secondary school outdoor education programme in Aotearoa New Zealand. Lynch (2012) indicated that “there is a clear need, and wide scope, for research into: cultural elements of outdoor education programmes; cultural effects on participants; culturally appropriate research approaches and programme effects on, and experiences of, people who identify as Māori” (p.49). Outdoor education in Aotearoa New Zealand has been heavily influenced by ‘Eurocentric’ values and practices that contrast with those of Te Ao Māori. In line with a number of calls to re-envision the field, the perspectives and experiences of Māori and the incorporation of Te Ao Māori pedagogies are vital to the reconstruction of an integrated and inclusive Aotearoa New Zealand expression of Outdoor Education for the 21st century.
This study, guided by culturally responsive research methodology, used focus groups to investigate the opinions, thoughts and expectations of Māori students of outdoor education. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the focus group data, and four major themes were identified: the importance of shared experience and relationships to positive experiences of outdoor education; the distinctive practices of outdoor education make learning enjoyable and engaging; the importance to students of making connections with Te Ao Māori through experience, stories of places and history; and the complexity of engaging Māori in participation in outdoor education, including factors such as affordability, the influence of friends and whānau and prioritising educational pathways. A range of practices and approaches from Te Ao Māori are considered and presented, based on the contribution of the student participants, including pedagogical principles from Te Ao Māori such as wānanga, whanaungatanga and tauira. Suggestions for practice include developing connections within the community and experiencing Te Ao Māori learning contexts such as waka ama, noho marae and mahinga kai.

year: 2018