title: Construction and demolition Material Flow Analysis Data Base

authors: Nelson, Jacob Martin Bruton

abstract: The following document provides all of the data and estimates provided in the Material Flow Analysis Report. The focus of the report and database were to assess and estimate material flow at four key stages of construction and demolition in NZ. The data displayed in this database is focused on the material flow in residential construction and demolition.

text: Construction and demolition Material Flow Analysis Data Base The following document provides all of the data and estimates provided in the Material Flow Analysis Report. The focus of the report and database were to assess and estimate material flow at four key stages of construction and demolition in NZ. The data displayed in this database is focused on the material flow in residential construction and demolition.

year: 2020

title: Structural changes to Pinus radiata wood lignin during kraft pulping and bleaching

authors: More, Nicole

abstract: The aim of this thesis was to improve the quality of the information available concerning the structure of native (within wood) and residual (within pulps) lignins. A better understanding of the structure of lignin will assist the development of improved pulping and bleaching sequences. However, before this can be done, it is necessary to develop approaches to lignin isolation which provide more representative lignin samples without resorting to what are often very tedious extraction procedures. A key requirement for such isolation methods would be to isolate lignins in high yield with a structure as unmodified as possible. This would allow meaningful comparisons to be drawn with respect to structural changes occurring during the pulping and bleaching processes.

An improved method for the isolation of lignin from Pinus radiata wood was developed. The method involves a three day enzymatic hydrolysis of ball milled wood, followed by a second ball milling stage. A combination of extraction and purification steps enables isolated yields of approximately 75% of the lignin present in the wood to be obtained. The key step is the second ball milling treatment, which allows essentially all the lignin in the enzyme digest residue to be extracted. The resulting cellulolytic enzyme lignins (CEL) contain  approximately 5-8% carbohydrates and less than 2% protein.

The CEL lignins, which were soluble in common lignin solvents, were characterised chemically and spectroscopically. They were shown to be remarkably similar to milled wood lignin (MWL) in terms of the total phenolic hydroxyl content, uncondensed β-O-4 ether content, and the distribution of interunit linkages, although there was some indication that the CEL lignins had a higher molecular weight than MWL. This shows that MWL, as far as a soluble lignin is concerned, is a reasonable representation of native lignin. However, the CEL method developed in this study is superior to the MWL method in that much higher yields of lignin can be obtained, thus less effort is required to obtain the same quantities of lignin from wood by the CEL method as compared to the standard MWL method.

Unfortunately, when this CEL method (and modifications of) were applied to Pinus radiata kraft pulps no significant improvement, in terms of yield or protein contamination, were achieved compared to other reported CEL methods. However, as part of this work it was shown that an enzyme hydrolysis treatment to enrich the residual lignin content in kraft and kraft-oxygen pulps had the potential to make the analysis of in situ residual lignin by degradation studies easier. 

In order to study the structure of the residual lignin in pulps bleached with elemental chlorine free sequences residual lignins were isolated by dioxane acidolysis instead. The approach taken in this thesis was to compare residual lignin from pulps bleached to the same kappa number. Such a comparison should remove the variables associated with the different oxidising powers of each reagent and yield a more comparable residual lignin, thus a kraft-oxygen pulp was bleached to approximately kappa number 10 with cyanamide activated hydrogen peroxide (KOQPn), ozone (KOQZE), and chlorine dioxide (KODE). For comparison a hydrogen peroxide bleached pulp (KOQP) was generated using the same peroxide charge as KOQPn; and unextracted ozone and chlorine dioxide bleached pulps (KOQZ and KOD, respectively) were also studied.

The residual lignins from the bleached pulps were very similar in structure and resembled the kraft pulp residual lignin in many aspects except in having slightly elevated levels of oxidised groups. Additionally, many of the structural elements expected to be highly reactive during bleaching (for example phenolic and catechol type structures) were detected in the residual lignins. These results support the view that the removal of lignin during bleaching is controlled to a significant extent by the accessibility of the lignin and penetration of the bleaching reagents rather than just by the nature of the functional groups present in the lignin.

text: Structural changes to Pinus radiata wood lignin during kraft pulping and bleaching The aim of this thesis was to improve the quality of the information available concerning the structure of native (within wood) and residual (within pulps) lignins. A better understanding of the structure of lignin will assist the development of improved pulping and bleaching sequences. However, before this can be done, it is necessary to develop approaches to lignin isolation which provide more representative lignin samples without resorting to what are often very tedious extraction procedures. A key requirement for such isolation methods would be to isolate lignins in high yield with a structure as unmodified as possible. This would allow meaningful comparisons to be drawn with respect to structural changes occurring during the pulping and bleaching processes.

An improved method for the isolation of lignin from Pinus radiata wood was developed. The method involves a three day enzymatic hydrolysis of ball milled wood, followed by a second ball milling stage. A combination of extraction and purification steps enables isolated yields of approximately 75% of the lignin present in the wood to be obtained. The key step is the second ball milling treatment, which allows essentially all the lignin in the enzyme digest residue to be extracted. The resulting cellulolytic enzyme lignins (CEL) contain  approximately 5-8% carbohydrates and less than 2% protein.

The CEL lignins, which were soluble in common lignin solvents, were characterised chemically and spectroscopically. They were shown to be remarkably similar to milled wood lignin (MWL) in terms of the total phenolic hydroxyl content, uncondensed β-O-4 ether content, and the distribution of interunit linkages, although there was some indication that the CEL lignins had a higher molecular weight than MWL. This shows that MWL, as far as a soluble lignin is concerned, is a reasonable representation of native lignin. However, the CEL method developed in this study is superior to the MWL method in that much higher yields of lignin can be obtained, thus less effort is required to obtain the same quantities of lignin from wood by the CEL method as compared to the standard MWL method.

Unfortunately, when this CEL method (and modifications of) were applied to Pinus radiata kraft pulps no significant improvement, in terms of yield or protein contamination, were achieved compared to other reported CEL methods. However, as part of this work it was shown that an enzyme hydrolysis treatment to enrich the residual lignin content in kraft and kraft-oxygen pulps had the potential to make the analysis of in situ residual lignin by degradation studies easier. 

In order to study the structure of the residual lignin in pulps bleached with elemental chlorine free sequences residual lignins were isolated by dioxane acidolysis instead. The approach taken in this thesis was to compare residual lignin from pulps bleached to the same kappa number. Such a comparison should remove the variables associated with the different oxidising powers of each reagent and yield a more comparable residual lignin, thus a kraft-oxygen pulp was bleached to approximately kappa number 10 with cyanamide activated hydrogen peroxide (KOQPn), ozone (KOQZE), and chlorine dioxide (KODE). For comparison a hydrogen peroxide bleached pulp (KOQP) was generated using the same peroxide charge as KOQPn; and unextracted ozone and chlorine dioxide bleached pulps (KOQZ and KOD, respectively) were also studied.

The residual lignins from the bleached pulps were very similar in structure and resembled the kraft pulp residual lignin in many aspects except in having slightly elevated levels of oxidised groups. Additionally, many of the structural elements expected to be highly reactive during bleaching (for example phenolic and catechol type structures) were detected in the residual lignins. These results support the view that the removal of lignin during bleaching is controlled to a significant extent by the accessibility of the lignin and penetration of the bleaching reagents rather than just by the nature of the functional groups present in the lignin.

year: 1999

title: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945

authors: Glen, Frank

abstract: This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

text: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945 This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

year: 1996