title: The timing of the human discovery and colonization of New Zealand

authors: Sutton, Douglas G.

abstract: In discriminating between the proposed Long, Short and Intermediate Chronologies for New Zealand prehistory, archaeologists have recently voted by a narrow majority that the human commensal, Rattus exulans, was present in New Zealand up to 2000 years BP, although the preferred date of ‘first settlement’ by people was ca 800 years BP. A recalibration of New Zealand chronometric data has resulted in reinterpretations of the date and duration of occupation on critical archaeological sites. A remodelling of the ages of the putatively earliest sites in New Zealand has shown these to indicate only a broadly defined period when settlement occurred rather than the date when New Zealand was discovered (as the Short Chronology advocates have insisted). Finally, comparisons with archaeological research on islands elsewhere in the world have brought with them recognition that the discovery, exploration, initial settlement and colonization of New Zealand by Polynesian voyagers were broadly consecutive processes. This paper reviews a range of current evidence in the context of its current theorization and affirms the Long Chronology, recognizing it as the most plausible hypothesis.

text: The timing of the human discovery and colonization of New Zealand In discriminating between the proposed Long, Short and Intermediate Chronologies for New Zealand prehistory, archaeologists have recently voted by a narrow majority that the human commensal, Rattus exulans, was present in New Zealand up to 2000 years BP, although the preferred date of ‘first settlement’ by people was ca 800 years BP. A recalibration of New Zealand chronometric data has resulted in reinterpretations of the date and duration of occupation on critical archaeological sites. A remodelling of the ages of the putatively earliest sites in New Zealand has shown these to indicate only a broadly defined period when settlement occurred rather than the date when New Zealand was discovered (as the Short Chronology advocates have insisted). Finally, comparisons with archaeological research on islands elsewhere in the world have brought with them recognition that the discovery, exploration, initial settlement and colonization of New Zealand by Polynesian voyagers were broadly consecutive processes. This paper reviews a range of current evidence in the context of its current theorization and affirms the Long Chronology, recognizing it as the most plausible hypothesis.

year: 2008

title: Getting Deep:  Experiences of New Zealand Bodyboarders

authors: Nemani, Mihi Joy

subjects: bodyboarding

abstract: Since the mid 1990s, a growing body of literature on lifestyle sports has produced fresh insights into the nuances, esoteric terminology and social dynamics in an array of lifestyle sport cultures. While surf culture has gained considerable attention from both sociologists and historians, the voices of bodyboarders have been minimal.  Reflecting perceptions held by many in mainstream society, the literature on surf culture tended to marginalize bodyboarding participants, deeming the activity fit for children or teenagers.  Therefore, this project addresses the gap in academic literature on surf culture by adopting a socio-cultural, qualitative approach to give voice to bodyboarders, by revealing some of the complexities within bodyboarding culture, and revealing power relations operating between surfers and bodyboarders in the surf. 

As a three-time world amateur champion female bodyboarder of both Maori and Samoan heritage, I was particularly interested to understand experiences of gender and ethnicity in relation to bodyboarding.  Therefore, I conducted semi-structured interviews with eight bodyboarders living in New Zealand.  To analyse data from the interviews, I employed Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts of habitus, field and capital to explore bodyboarding with the intent of presenting fresh perspectives relating to masculinity and femininity, and experiences of Maori, Pacific Island and New Zealand European bodyboarders.  The participants revealed embodied characteristics of the bodyboarder as well as a variety of strategies used to negotiate space in the surf field.  The experiences of female participants resonated with current literature where opportunities to gain respect were limited based on their marginal position in the male-dominated lifestyle sport culture.  While some female participants successfully negotiated space within the surf field, male bodyboarders revealed other difficulties due to the hyper-masculinity of stand-up surfing culture, and the marginal position of bodyboarders.

In specifically examining the experiences of Maori and Pacific Island participants, I argue that a unique form of cultural capital exists in which respect, courtesy and fairness were given more value than demonstrations of physical capital.  Adopting a socio-cultural approach to analyse the operations of power in the surf field, and particularly how gender and ethnicity affect the experiences of New Zealand bodyboarders, this research project brings “new value to identities and experiences that are marginalized and stigmatized by the larger culture” (Denzin, 2002, p. 486).

text: Getting Deep:  Experiences of New Zealand Bodyboarders Since the mid 1990s, a growing body of literature on lifestyle sports has produced fresh insights into the nuances, esoteric terminology and social dynamics in an array of lifestyle sport cultures. While surf culture has gained considerable attention from both sociologists and historians, the voices of bodyboarders have been minimal.  Reflecting perceptions held by many in mainstream society, the literature on surf culture tended to marginalize bodyboarding participants, deeming the activity fit for children or teenagers.  Therefore, this project addresses the gap in academic literature on surf culture by adopting a socio-cultural, qualitative approach to give voice to bodyboarders, by revealing some of the complexities within bodyboarding culture, and revealing power relations operating between surfers and bodyboarders in the surf. 

As a three-time world amateur champion female bodyboarder of both Maori and Samoan heritage, I was particularly interested to understand experiences of gender and ethnicity in relation to bodyboarding.  Therefore, I conducted semi-structured interviews with eight bodyboarders living in New Zealand.  To analyse data from the interviews, I employed Bourdieu’s theoretical concepts of habitus, field and capital to explore bodyboarding with the intent of presenting fresh perspectives relating to masculinity and femininity, and experiences of Maori, Pacific Island and New Zealand European bodyboarders.  The participants revealed embodied characteristics of the bodyboarder as well as a variety of strategies used to negotiate space in the surf field.  The experiences of female participants resonated with current literature where opportunities to gain respect were limited based on their marginal position in the male-dominated lifestyle sport culture.  While some female participants successfully negotiated space within the surf field, male bodyboarders revealed other difficulties due to the hyper-masculinity of stand-up surfing culture, and the marginal position of bodyboarders.

In specifically examining the experiences of Maori and Pacific Island participants, I argue that a unique form of cultural capital exists in which respect, courtesy and fairness were given more value than demonstrations of physical capital.  Adopting a socio-cultural approach to analyse the operations of power in the surf field, and particularly how gender and ethnicity affect the experiences of New Zealand bodyboarders, this research project brings “new value to identities and experiences that are marginalized and stigmatized by the larger culture” (Denzin, 2002, p. 486).

year: 2013

title: An investigation into the persistence-strengthening effects of differential reinforcement of alternative (DRA) behaviour

authors: Layton, Karen Lorraine

subjects: differential reinforcement of alternative (DRA) behaviour

abstract: Ten experiments used hens to investigate the effects of different disruptive events and ways of introducing differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour (DRA), on the persistence of responding. Of interest was the persistencestrengthening effects of DRA on the target, or problem, behaviour, and whether this could be reduced by training an alternative behaviour in a separate context to that of the target behaviour. A DRA was compared to the effects of a procedure where the alternative and target behaviours were trained in the same context (traditional DRA). The different behaviours were pecking at different coloured keys, and responding was maintained by food reinforcement.
Baseline training involved a three-component multiple schedule; one component with two yellow keys available (DRA analogue using VI 37.5 s and 150 s) and the other two with one key available in each (analogous to target (blue and VI 150 s) and alternative (green and VI 37.5 s) behaviours trained separately). A disruptor test followed, also using three-component multiple schedules. This disruptor test included a component with the two yellow keys (Concurrent/DRA Component) and one which combined the, previously single, green and blue keys (Combined Component). In each experiment, the sequence of baseline followed by a disruptor test was repeated with different components in each test. Persistence was measured as the responses in the test as a proportion of baseline responses for that behaviour.
In Experiment 1 the disruptor was extinction and this showed that separate training reduced persistence of the target behaviour and extinction burst, as in previous research. Experiments 2 and 3 used the same procedures but the hens were exposed to a centre key alone (associated with one of VI 150 s (red centre key), 75 s (white centre key) or 37.5 s (pink centre key) schedule) prior to each baseline and this centre key then acted as the disruptor. Reinforcement was available on all keys in the tests. These found that the red key worked as a disruptor, and there were similar effects on persistence as in Experiment 1, regardless of the red key schedule. Experiment 4, using the same procedures but with no formal disruptor, also found the separate training gave reduced persistence of the target but not the alternative behaviour in the tests. Experiment 5 to 7 examined different disruptors (flashing light, sound, and a separate chamber), all with reinforcement continuing in tests. Target response persistence was reduced as a result of the separate training. Experiment 8 compared the effects on target persistence of separate training with the training schedule thinned prior combining and after combining. This found there was reduced target behaviour persistence when the schedules were thinned prior to being combined. Experiment 9 added a baseline with the target behaviour alone, prior to the previous procedure, and showed the same reduced target persistence even when both the target keys were initially presented alone. Experiment 10 showed the results were robust when each component was associated with a physically separate context. All experiments showed that training a target behaviour in a separate context to the alternative behaviour was successful at reducing the persistence-strengthening effects of DRA.

text: An investigation into the persistence-strengthening effects of differential reinforcement of alternative (DRA) behaviour Ten experiments used hens to investigate the effects of different disruptive events and ways of introducing differential reinforcement of alternative behaviour (DRA), on the persistence of responding. Of interest was the persistencestrengthening effects of DRA on the target, or problem, behaviour, and whether this could be reduced by training an alternative behaviour in a separate context to that of the target behaviour. A DRA was compared to the effects of a procedure where the alternative and target behaviours were trained in the same context (traditional DRA). The different behaviours were pecking at different coloured keys, and responding was maintained by food reinforcement.
Baseline training involved a three-component multiple schedule; one component with two yellow keys available (DRA analogue using VI 37.5 s and 150 s) and the other two with one key available in each (analogous to target (blue and VI 150 s) and alternative (green and VI 37.5 s) behaviours trained separately). A disruptor test followed, also using three-component multiple schedules. This disruptor test included a component with the two yellow keys (Concurrent/DRA Component) and one which combined the, previously single, green and blue keys (Combined Component). In each experiment, the sequence of baseline followed by a disruptor test was repeated with different components in each test. Persistence was measured as the responses in the test as a proportion of baseline responses for that behaviour.
In Experiment 1 the disruptor was extinction and this showed that separate training reduced persistence of the target behaviour and extinction burst, as in previous research. Experiments 2 and 3 used the same procedures but the hens were exposed to a centre key alone (associated with one of VI 150 s (red centre key), 75 s (white centre key) or 37.5 s (pink centre key) schedule) prior to each baseline and this centre key then acted as the disruptor. Reinforcement was available on all keys in the tests. These found that the red key worked as a disruptor, and there were similar effects on persistence as in Experiment 1, regardless of the red key schedule. Experiment 4, using the same procedures but with no formal disruptor, also found the separate training gave reduced persistence of the target but not the alternative behaviour in the tests. Experiment 5 to 7 examined different disruptors (flashing light, sound, and a separate chamber), all with reinforcement continuing in tests. Target response persistence was reduced as a result of the separate training. Experiment 8 compared the effects on target persistence of separate training with the training schedule thinned prior combining and after combining. This found there was reduced target behaviour persistence when the schedules were thinned prior to being combined. Experiment 9 added a baseline with the target behaviour alone, prior to the previous procedure, and showed the same reduced target persistence even when both the target keys were initially presented alone. Experiment 10 showed the results were robust when each component was associated with a physically separate context. All experiments showed that training a target behaviour in a separate context to the alternative behaviour was successful at reducing the persistence-strengthening effects of DRA.

year: 2018