title: Social Change and Reproductive Behaviour in Rural Bangladesh, 1983-1996

authors: Nahar, Luftan

abstract: Recent changes in the reproductive behaviour of women m the rural areas of Bangladesh have occurred at a time when the country has been and still 1s predominantly agricultural and socio-economic conditions poor. Attempts to explain the causes of these changes, especially consideration of the role of family planning programmes, in such an unfavourable context, have generated enormous controversy among academics. 
This study examines the determinants of these recent reproductive changes in rural Bangladesh over a 13-year period. It uses quasi-experimental design based on comparison between three areas: national rural, Matlab intervention and Matlab control, using time series analysis of the repeated surveys. The changes were measured by two major proximate determinants: demand for additional children and trends in current contraceptive use. The outcome of these two factors, the fertility decline, was also analysed. The specific objective was to examine whether the family planning programme is a determinant of, or a mechanism towards, the changes m reproductive behaviour, and what role other micro and macro factors play in this. 
The major findings of the study show that the demand for no additional children was generated prior to the fertility decline among rural women of Bangladesh indicating a demand for fertility control. The family planning programme has helped to mitigate the demand for fertility control modifying supply logistics since the late 1970s. 
In terms of the determinants of reproductive change at the macro, macro and community level, this study documented that reproductive behaviour is strongly affected by biosocial and cultural factors related to macro level social structures existing at the community level. It is less strongly affected by social factors, and weakly affected by economic factors. However, the strong relationship between biosocial and cultural factors and reproductive behaviour changed over the period studied. In all three areas studied, young women who have fewer living children or sons have started using contraceptives though the old women are the major users. 
Changes m reproductive behaviour have resulted from social change coming in response to land crises, community contextual factors, the Non-Government Organisation programmes, and other macro level social changes occurring in more recent times. These changes affect both the macro and community level social structures related to patriarchy, which, in tum, influence the proximate determinants: the demand for no additional children and the current use of contraceptives. 
The study suggests that reproductive women in all three areas shared a similar notion of desired family size and level of demand for no more children prior to the fertility decline of the 1980s. This desired family size is much lower than the actual fertility rate and is probably affected by the prior mortality changes and improved survivorship. During the period studied, desired family size reduced further but it reduced equally, despite a different level of family planning intervention in one of the three areas. With this same level of desired family size, Matlab family planning intervention with an efficient supply logistics show an extremely successful mechanism for increasing contraceptive use and there reducing fertility levels in the mid 1970s, while high fertility in the other two areas began to decline in the 1980s. 
Finally, examining the four possible postulates, the present study found that no one postulate alone could explain the changes in reproductive behaviour among rural Bangladeshi women. Further in-depth study is needed for better understanding of the dynamics of these reproductive changes.

text: Social Change and Reproductive Behaviour in Rural Bangladesh, 1983-1996 Recent changes in the reproductive behaviour of women m the rural areas of Bangladesh have occurred at a time when the country has been and still 1s predominantly agricultural and socio-economic conditions poor. Attempts to explain the causes of these changes, especially consideration of the role of family planning programmes, in such an unfavourable context, have generated enormous controversy among academics. 
This study examines the determinants of these recent reproductive changes in rural Bangladesh over a 13-year period. It uses quasi-experimental design based on comparison between three areas: national rural, Matlab intervention and Matlab control, using time series analysis of the repeated surveys. The changes were measured by two major proximate determinants: demand for additional children and trends in current contraceptive use. The outcome of these two factors, the fertility decline, was also analysed. The specific objective was to examine whether the family planning programme is a determinant of, or a mechanism towards, the changes m reproductive behaviour, and what role other micro and macro factors play in this. 
The major findings of the study show that the demand for no additional children was generated prior to the fertility decline among rural women of Bangladesh indicating a demand for fertility control. The family planning programme has helped to mitigate the demand for fertility control modifying supply logistics since the late 1970s. 
In terms of the determinants of reproductive change at the macro, macro and community level, this study documented that reproductive behaviour is strongly affected by biosocial and cultural factors related to macro level social structures existing at the community level. It is less strongly affected by social factors, and weakly affected by economic factors. However, the strong relationship between biosocial and cultural factors and reproductive behaviour changed over the period studied. In all three areas studied, young women who have fewer living children or sons have started using contraceptives though the old women are the major users. 
Changes m reproductive behaviour have resulted from social change coming in response to land crises, community contextual factors, the Non-Government Organisation programmes, and other macro level social changes occurring in more recent times. These changes affect both the macro and community level social structures related to patriarchy, which, in tum, influence the proximate determinants: the demand for no additional children and the current use of contraceptives. 
The study suggests that reproductive women in all three areas shared a similar notion of desired family size and level of demand for no more children prior to the fertility decline of the 1980s. This desired family size is much lower than the actual fertility rate and is probably affected by the prior mortality changes and improved survivorship. During the period studied, desired family size reduced further but it reduced equally, despite a different level of family planning intervention in one of the three areas. With this same level of desired family size, Matlab family planning intervention with an efficient supply logistics show an extremely successful mechanism for increasing contraceptive use and there reducing fertility levels in the mid 1970s, while high fertility in the other two areas began to decline in the 1980s. 
Finally, examining the four possible postulates, the present study found that no one postulate alone could explain the changes in reproductive behaviour among rural Bangladeshi women. Further in-depth study is needed for better understanding of the dynamics of these reproductive changes.

year: 2003

title: Teacher understanding and management of students with anxiety in New Zealand primary schools

authors: Margon, Carla Lee

subjects: Psychology

abstract: New Zealand has increasing rates of anxiety with 1 in 5 young people meeting the diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder by the age of 19 (Ministry of Health, 2018). As of June 2023, over 666,000 children aged between 5 and 14 years old were diagnosed with anxiety, equating to 12.8% of the total population of New Zealand (Stats NZ, 2022). As these children are likely to be engaged in formal education, this study investigated teachers understanding and management of students with anxiety in New Zealand primary schools. Twenty-three teachers from three primary schools completed a questionnaire exploring their definitions of anxiety, the training and support they received, and their identification of the manifestations of anxiety in primary school students. Teachers were also asked about their perceptions of the impacts of COVID-19 on student anxiety. Results revealed that while teachers had a general understanding of anxiety and could identify mild and severe anxiety symptoms, they reported a lack of training and confidence in the area and could not consistently distinguish normal anxiety from excessive anxiety, often defining all anxiety to be a generally negative experience. This study provides a first look into teachers understanding of anxiety in New Zealand primary school students.

text: Teacher understanding and management of students with anxiety in New Zealand primary schools New Zealand has increasing rates of anxiety with 1 in 5 young people meeting the diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder by the age of 19 (Ministry of Health, 2018). As of June 2023, over 666,000 children aged between 5 and 14 years old were diagnosed with anxiety, equating to 12.8% of the total population of New Zealand (Stats NZ, 2022). As these children are likely to be engaged in formal education, this study investigated teachers understanding and management of students with anxiety in New Zealand primary schools. Twenty-three teachers from three primary schools completed a questionnaire exploring their definitions of anxiety, the training and support they received, and their identification of the manifestations of anxiety in primary school students. Teachers were also asked about their perceptions of the impacts of COVID-19 on student anxiety. Results revealed that while teachers had a general understanding of anxiety and could identify mild and severe anxiety symptoms, they reported a lack of training and confidence in the area and could not consistently distinguish normal anxiety from excessive anxiety, often defining all anxiety to be a generally negative experience. This study provides a first look into teachers understanding of anxiety in New Zealand primary school students.

year: 2023

title: Restoring Indigneous Law and Justice Traditions

authors: Cook, Michelle Lynn

subjects: Indigenous peoples

abstract: Restoring indigenous people's law and their ability to practice their justice traditions is a fundamental aspect of non-discrimination, decolonization, self-governance, self-determination, and social justice. The critical application and interpretation of indigenous people's law has revolutionary potentiality to transform, confront, and heal multiple forms of oppression such as environmental destruction, patriarchy, and the prison/criminal justice system. The sovereign jurisgenerative (law making) power of indigenous peoples is a site of profound hope for the revitalization of indigenous law and justice traditions restores legal principles and values of sacredness, harmony, balance, and interconnectivity within human relationships and with the natural world. Revitalizing indigenous law is a way to re-construct the self and society while also finding and re-connecting to new/old ways of being human. This thesis focuses on both Navajo and Māori practices and visions of law and justice; the challenges and, successes they have faced and the hopes they have of living by their law. Indigenous peoples, their ways of being, their wisdom, laws, and philosophies, must be respected, protected, and preserved not only because they contribute to humanity's richness and cultural diversity but also because they are living examples of  a more just, dignified, and ecologically sustainable society, which can serve all humanity.

text: Restoring Indigneous Law and Justice Traditions Restoring indigenous people's law and their ability to practice their justice traditions is a fundamental aspect of non-discrimination, decolonization, self-governance, self-determination, and social justice. The critical application and interpretation of indigenous people's law has revolutionary potentiality to transform, confront, and heal multiple forms of oppression such as environmental destruction, patriarchy, and the prison/criminal justice system. The sovereign jurisgenerative (law making) power of indigenous peoples is a site of profound hope for the revitalization of indigenous law and justice traditions restores legal principles and values of sacredness, harmony, balance, and interconnectivity within human relationships and with the natural world. Revitalizing indigenous law is a way to re-construct the self and society while also finding and re-connecting to new/old ways of being human. This thesis focuses on both Navajo and Māori practices and visions of law and justice; the challenges and, successes they have faced and the hopes they have of living by their law. Indigenous peoples, their ways of being, their wisdom, laws, and philosophies, must be respected, protected, and preserved not only because they contribute to humanity's richness and cultural diversity but also because they are living examples of  a more just, dignified, and ecologically sustainable society, which can serve all humanity.

year: 2010