title: Family myths in oral history: The unsettled narratives of descendants of a missionary-settler family in New Zealand

authors: Moodie, Jane

abstract: The ramifications of family myths used in the narrative construction of lives are explored in the light of Alistair Thomson's model of remembering and concept of composure. Just as public legends have been shown to shape the remembering of individual experience, so the myths of a family shape the narrative construction of lives of members of that family. Family myths may be seen as those beliefs that members of a family hold about themselves, their family, and the society in which they live, arising out of their shared history. The investigation focuses on members of one large extended family, the first of whom arrived in New Zealand in 1823 as missionaries to the Maori. Among their many children, several were involved in the Anglican Church and with Maori, while others became wealthy landowners. The life narratives of 52 descendants of these missionaries were recorded using an interactive interviewing technique. It is the first study of its kind in New Zealand, and possibly further afield, throwing light on the multitude of ways members of a particular family can create a usable past out of their common history. 
Family myths are shown to be fundamental in the construction of memory, and a powerful component in the process of negotiating narratives. The myths arising from the missionary-settler background of this family are multiple. They fall into four main groups: myths associated with land and landownership, those concerned with class and refinement; those concerned with religion and the family's dual tradition as Dissenters and as part of the Anglican hierarchy; and finally those concerned with the Williams family's special relationship with Maori arising from the missionary past. It is argued that family memory and myths are collective memory, the family a mnemonic community. Some of the ways in which family myths are formed and passed on are revealed in the testimonies. 
It is also shown that the narratives in this cohort were lacking in composure. Within individual narratives there is considerable overlap and interaction between the many different family myths, and also between these and public ideologies such as egalitarianism and biculturalism. Some may interact synergetically, but often they are in conflict. In addition, myths are shown to be subject to gradual metamorphosis according to changing external circumstances. The construction of memory requires constant adjustments to accommodate these conflicting and ever-changing myths. Life narrative remains always partial, provisional and open-ended. We may try to compose our memories in the sense of a process, but we cannot achieve composure, a product. It is suggested that oral historians should reconsider the concept of composure in the analysis of memory and narrative. 
Particular family myths may also allow narrators to embed themselves deeply into history, extending their links into both past and future well beyond the reach of their own life-spans. The use of myths in this way may also allow narrators to make claims to legitimacy, indigeneity and destiny.

text: Family myths in oral history: The unsettled narratives of descendants of a missionary-settler family in New Zealand The ramifications of family myths used in the narrative construction of lives are explored in the light of Alistair Thomson's model of remembering and concept of composure. Just as public legends have been shown to shape the remembering of individual experience, so the myths of a family shape the narrative construction of lives of members of that family. Family myths may be seen as those beliefs that members of a family hold about themselves, their family, and the society in which they live, arising out of their shared history. The investigation focuses on members of one large extended family, the first of whom arrived in New Zealand in 1823 as missionaries to the Maori. Among their many children, several were involved in the Anglican Church and with Maori, while others became wealthy landowners. The life narratives of 52 descendants of these missionaries were recorded using an interactive interviewing technique. It is the first study of its kind in New Zealand, and possibly further afield, throwing light on the multitude of ways members of a particular family can create a usable past out of their common history. 
Family myths are shown to be fundamental in the construction of memory, and a powerful component in the process of negotiating narratives. The myths arising from the missionary-settler background of this family are multiple. They fall into four main groups: myths associated with land and landownership, those concerned with class and refinement; those concerned with religion and the family's dual tradition as Dissenters and as part of the Anglican hierarchy; and finally those concerned with the Williams family's special relationship with Maori arising from the missionary past. It is argued that family memory and myths are collective memory, the family a mnemonic community. Some of the ways in which family myths are formed and passed on are revealed in the testimonies. 
It is also shown that the narratives in this cohort were lacking in composure. Within individual narratives there is considerable overlap and interaction between the many different family myths, and also between these and public ideologies such as egalitarianism and biculturalism. Some may interact synergetically, but often they are in conflict. In addition, myths are shown to be subject to gradual metamorphosis according to changing external circumstances. The construction of memory requires constant adjustments to accommodate these conflicting and ever-changing myths. Life narrative remains always partial, provisional and open-ended. We may try to compose our memories in the sense of a process, but we cannot achieve composure, a product. It is suggested that oral historians should reconsider the concept of composure in the analysis of memory and narrative. 
Particular family myths may also allow narrators to embed themselves deeply into history, extending their links into both past and future well beyond the reach of their own life-spans. The use of myths in this way may also allow narrators to make claims to legitimacy, indigeneity and destiny.

year: 2004

title: The Effect of Effort: An analysis of Killeen's (1994) Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement

authors: Bjarnesen, Rebecca Claire

subjects: Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement

abstract: Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement (MPR, Killeen, 1994) is a mathematical model comprising three main concepts; an animal’s arousal to behaviour based on its motivation for a particular reinforcer, time and energy constraints on responding, and coupling between a response class and reinforcer. This experiment tested the ability of MPR to predict response rates when the minimum force requirement and topography of response was changed. Increasing the minimum force requirement was expected to increase the value of δ, the parameter related to response constraint. Altering the topography of the response was expected to also alter the δ value, as different response forms were expected to take different lengths of time to perform. There were four conditions; low force key, low force door, high force key and high force door, and 6 hens responded under each of these conditions in an ascending geometric series of Fixed Ratio (FR) values. It was shown that hens responded at a faster rate and to higher FR values when responding on the key than on the door, and for both apparatus, the hens stopped responding at lower FR values when weights were added. Unexpectedly, there were no statistically significant differences in the value of δ across conditions, but the values for a, meant to represent the animals’ arousal, did change. It was suggested that the changes in a reflected changes in the animals’ motivation to perform the different responses, probably due to rewarding or aversive properties of the operant response related to the different response forms.

text: The Effect of Effort: An analysis of Killeen's (1994) Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement Mathematical Principles of Reinforcement (MPR, Killeen, 1994) is a mathematical model comprising three main concepts; an animal’s arousal to behaviour based on its motivation for a particular reinforcer, time and energy constraints on responding, and coupling between a response class and reinforcer. This experiment tested the ability of MPR to predict response rates when the minimum force requirement and topography of response was changed. Increasing the minimum force requirement was expected to increase the value of δ, the parameter related to response constraint. Altering the topography of the response was expected to also alter the δ value, as different response forms were expected to take different lengths of time to perform. There were four conditions; low force key, low force door, high force key and high force door, and 6 hens responded under each of these conditions in an ascending geometric series of Fixed Ratio (FR) values. It was shown that hens responded at a faster rate and to higher FR values when responding on the key than on the door, and for both apparatus, the hens stopped responding at lower FR values when weights were added. Unexpectedly, there were no statistically significant differences in the value of δ across conditions, but the values for a, meant to represent the animals’ arousal, did change. It was suggested that the changes in a reflected changes in the animals’ motivation to perform the different responses, probably due to rewarding or aversive properties of the operant response related to the different response forms.

year: 2011

title: Disrupted spaces: Racism and the lived experience of Maori identity formation

authors: Te Hiwi, Erika

subjects: Maori

abstract: In 2004, when Don Brash –then leader of the National Party, hit the headlines with his controversial ‘Orewa’ speech, so-called ‘mainstream’ New Zealanders, felt that at last they had their hero. Brash articulated what this group felt was the source of trouble in contemporary Aotearoa society – brown privilege. Letters to the editor and talkback lines ran hot with many applauding Brash’s calls for an end to the treaty gravy train and ‘race-based’ funding in health; anecdotes abounded of Māori students up and down the country getting a ‘free-ride’ through education and taking prized positions in training programmes from better qualified Pākehā. It was, according to the writers and callers, an oppressive Apartheid-style system favouring Māori that had to end.

text: Disrupted spaces: Racism and the lived experience of Maori identity formation In 2004, when Don Brash –then leader of the National Party, hit the headlines with his controversial ‘Orewa’ speech, so-called ‘mainstream’ New Zealanders, felt that at last they had their hero. Brash articulated what this group felt was the source of trouble in contemporary Aotearoa society – brown privilege. Letters to the editor and talkback lines ran hot with many applauding Brash’s calls for an end to the treaty gravy train and ‘race-based’ funding in health; anecdotes abounded of Māori students up and down the country getting a ‘free-ride’ through education and taking prized positions in training programmes from better qualified Pākehā. It was, according to the writers and callers, an oppressive Apartheid-style system favouring Māori that had to end.

year: 2008