title: Academic identity development: Insights of doctoral students from Pakistan

authors: Khalil , Muhammad Atif

subjects: Doctoral socialisation

abstract: The development of doctoral students’ academic identity is an emerging area of research.  However, there is limited research that has investigated the roles and activities which contribute to the transitions students undergo in the journey towards the formation of an academic identity. Research of this nature has become especially relevant as a number of countries, especially developing countries, are seeking ways to engage and socialise doctoral students into a professional or academic identity during their studies. 
Pakistan is an example of a country which is trying to address these concerns. There has been an increase in doctoral enrolments in Pakistan, the site of this study, and the resulting growth in the number of those with PhDs has intensified competition for academic positions. The Higher Education Commission is struggling to provide sufficient support and resources to ensure doctoral programmes prepare graduates for professional roles and develop their academic identities. Recent reports indicate that doctoral students are facing numerous challenges which hinder their successful socialisation and academic identity development. 
This narrative study aimed to scope doctoral students’ expectations and experiences during their doctoral journey and transition towards an academic identity. The research focused on doctoral students in the field of Education. Six students from a prestigious Pakistan university were recruited through purposive sampling. All the participants were near to completing their PhD; they were working on their data analysis or waiting for their examination reports. All the participants intended to pursue academic careers upon completion of their studies. Each participant completed two online narrative interviews. Thematic analysis of the narrative interviews was completed using a guiding framework which integrated a doctoral socialisation perspective, a stage approach of doctoral education, and role identity theory. This framework provided rich opportunities to examine the role identity development of each of the students.
The analysis of each case revealed that students’ academic identity development happened through shifts in their prominent role identities across three key institutional milestone stages. The students outlined different socialisation experiences and identification based on the prominent roles in each milestone stage. These prominent roles were consistent with their increasing competence, confidence, and independence to perform a range of academic activities. The first coursework stage developed students’ prominent role identity as that of a learner. They developed a prominent role identity as an emerging researcher in stage two when crafting and presenting their research proposal. In the final stage, when they were writing their dissertation, students developed a prominent role identity as an emerging academic. In this stage students continued and expanded the researcher role and engaged in a range of academic activities (teaching, writing research papers, attending research conferences, managing research journals and research projects) beyond those involved in their dissertation work. The combination and dynamic development of multiple role identities (learner, emerging researcher, and emerging academic) served to prepare these doctoral students for an academic and professional identity. Importantly, while students had a learner role identity in all stages, the focus of their learning moved from mastering prescribed content to application and then production of knowledge.
Cross case analysis identified that social interaction, personal motivation and the nature of academic writing were the dominant aspects in the composition and development of students’ role identities. Social interaction was the key means through which students could gain support and validation from others for their different role identities. Motivation was a personal dimension which drove students’ courage and persistence to engage in academic activities and seek to meet the expectations of each role identity. The writing aspect provided students with evidence for self-evaluation and evaluation by others in relation to their progress within the different role identities. 
The study contributes to understanding of the complex socialisation processes doctoral students experience and the various roles they perform as they progress through their doctoral journey. Findings suggest that creating more opportunities for doctoral students to engage in learning activities and extend their interactions with teachers, peers, supervisors, and experts within an academic community would assist them to gain the competence, confidence, and the independence needed to perform relevant academic activities.

text: Academic identity development: Insights of doctoral students from Pakistan The development of doctoral students’ academic identity is an emerging area of research.  However, there is limited research that has investigated the roles and activities which contribute to the transitions students undergo in the journey towards the formation of an academic identity. Research of this nature has become especially relevant as a number of countries, especially developing countries, are seeking ways to engage and socialise doctoral students into a professional or academic identity during their studies. 
Pakistan is an example of a country which is trying to address these concerns. There has been an increase in doctoral enrolments in Pakistan, the site of this study, and the resulting growth in the number of those with PhDs has intensified competition for academic positions. The Higher Education Commission is struggling to provide sufficient support and resources to ensure doctoral programmes prepare graduates for professional roles and develop their academic identities. Recent reports indicate that doctoral students are facing numerous challenges which hinder their successful socialisation and academic identity development. 
This narrative study aimed to scope doctoral students’ expectations and experiences during their doctoral journey and transition towards an academic identity. The research focused on doctoral students in the field of Education. Six students from a prestigious Pakistan university were recruited through purposive sampling. All the participants were near to completing their PhD; they were working on their data analysis or waiting for their examination reports. All the participants intended to pursue academic careers upon completion of their studies. Each participant completed two online narrative interviews. Thematic analysis of the narrative interviews was completed using a guiding framework which integrated a doctoral socialisation perspective, a stage approach of doctoral education, and role identity theory. This framework provided rich opportunities to examine the role identity development of each of the students.
The analysis of each case revealed that students’ academic identity development happened through shifts in their prominent role identities across three key institutional milestone stages. The students outlined different socialisation experiences and identification based on the prominent roles in each milestone stage. These prominent roles were consistent with their increasing competence, confidence, and independence to perform a range of academic activities. The first coursework stage developed students’ prominent role identity as that of a learner. They developed a prominent role identity as an emerging researcher in stage two when crafting and presenting their research proposal. In the final stage, when they were writing their dissertation, students developed a prominent role identity as an emerging academic. In this stage students continued and expanded the researcher role and engaged in a range of academic activities (teaching, writing research papers, attending research conferences, managing research journals and research projects) beyond those involved in their dissertation work. The combination and dynamic development of multiple role identities (learner, emerging researcher, and emerging academic) served to prepare these doctoral students for an academic and professional identity. Importantly, while students had a learner role identity in all stages, the focus of their learning moved from mastering prescribed content to application and then production of knowledge.
Cross case analysis identified that social interaction, personal motivation and the nature of academic writing were the dominant aspects in the composition and development of students’ role identities. Social interaction was the key means through which students could gain support and validation from others for their different role identities. Motivation was a personal dimension which drove students’ courage and persistence to engage in academic activities and seek to meet the expectations of each role identity. The writing aspect provided students with evidence for self-evaluation and evaluation by others in relation to their progress within the different role identities. 
The study contributes to understanding of the complex socialisation processes doctoral students experience and the various roles they perform as they progress through their doctoral journey. Findings suggest that creating more opportunities for doctoral students to engage in learning activities and extend their interactions with teachers, peers, supervisors, and experts within an academic community would assist them to gain the competence, confidence, and the independence needed to perform relevant academic activities.

year: 2024

title: Towards a Better Understanding of Coastal Cliff Erosion in Waitemata Group Rock; Auckland, New Zealand.

authors: Bell, Jessica Emily

subjects: Waitemata Group

abstract: The soft sedimentary deposits of the Waitemata Group which outcrop on the eastern coastline of the Auckland region are a coastal cliff erosion hazard. The determination of the rate that these cliffs erode for hazard zonation purposes still requires research. A database has been collated of a range of structural, geological, geomorphic and climate parameters from 16 representative cliff sites in order to statistically assess what parameters influence cliff erosion and why erosion rates vary within the relatively uniform geology. 

Four different lithological units have been defined: sandstone beds of turbidites; sandstone beds of densites (contain rip-up clasts); sand to gravel beds of debrites; and siltstone beds. Cliff rock has very weak to weak intact rock strength; apertures of 0.1 to 15 mm; infill types are soft clay and grit, and hard calcite and iron; spacing of discontinuities are smaller in siltstone beds (≥ 5 mm), and up to 5 m in sandstone and debrite beds; bedding and fault planes are continuous, joints are non-continuous; block size is dictated by bed thickness and non-continuous joints. Shore platform widths were used to determine long-term erosion rates which range from 1.2 to 53.0 mm y-1. Platform morphologies are either sloping or horizontal or are a combination of both. Higher platform benches found at some sites are considered to be the result of a higher period of sea-level or are high-tide benches. Intact and rock mass strength increases northwards. Cliff heights are 8 to 38 m; cliff angles are 51 to 79 . Conditions for sporadic planar and wedge failure were determined at some sites; frittered siltstone and low durability sandstone allow smaller-scale, continual erosion. Castor Bay, Army Bay, Waiwera Beach and Leigh Marine Reserve have the lowest rock mass quality. Musick Point, Narrowneck Beach and Waiake Bay have good rock mass quality.

A conceptual model for coastal cliff erosion has been developed for Waitemata Group coastal cliffs, based on the dominant processes that act on the cliffs determined from statistical analysis (student t-test, correlation and regression) and field observations. The primary factor for cliff erosion is bed dip, whereby seaward dipping beds have higher erosion rates than landward dipping beds. The secondary factors for cliff erosion include: the intact and rock mass strength of the rock; the rock mass quality; strength of the siltstone beds; strength and structure of the sandstone beds; and orientation of the bedding planes with respect to the cliff face. Shear stresses are enhanced when beds dip seaward and thus shear failure along continuous surfaces is achievable. When beds dip landward the influence of shear stresses along bedding planes, and their contribution to the removal of individual blocks of rock, is severely inhibited resulting in reduced rates of erosion.  There is no relationship between cliff height and erosion rates and cliff heights are mainly controlled by the pre-existing landscape. Cliff angle is controlled by the proportion of sandstone and siltstone (whereby lower cliff angles are more siltstone-dominated), rock mass strength and weathering.  Erosion rates do vary in Waitemata Group rock of the Auckland region because of the variation in structural and geomorphic conditions of the cliff, most strongly controlled by the dip angle of bedding planes.

text: Towards a Better Understanding of Coastal Cliff Erosion in Waitemata Group Rock; Auckland, New Zealand. The soft sedimentary deposits of the Waitemata Group which outcrop on the eastern coastline of the Auckland region are a coastal cliff erosion hazard. The determination of the rate that these cliffs erode for hazard zonation purposes still requires research. A database has been collated of a range of structural, geological, geomorphic and climate parameters from 16 representative cliff sites in order to statistically assess what parameters influence cliff erosion and why erosion rates vary within the relatively uniform geology. 

Four different lithological units have been defined: sandstone beds of turbidites; sandstone beds of densites (contain rip-up clasts); sand to gravel beds of debrites; and siltstone beds. Cliff rock has very weak to weak intact rock strength; apertures of 0.1 to 15 mm; infill types are soft clay and grit, and hard calcite and iron; spacing of discontinuities are smaller in siltstone beds (≥ 5 mm), and up to 5 m in sandstone and debrite beds; bedding and fault planes are continuous, joints are non-continuous; block size is dictated by bed thickness and non-continuous joints. Shore platform widths were used to determine long-term erosion rates which range from 1.2 to 53.0 mm y-1. Platform morphologies are either sloping or horizontal or are a combination of both. Higher platform benches found at some sites are considered to be the result of a higher period of sea-level or are high-tide benches. Intact and rock mass strength increases northwards. Cliff heights are 8 to 38 m; cliff angles are 51 to 79 . Conditions for sporadic planar and wedge failure were determined at some sites; frittered siltstone and low durability sandstone allow smaller-scale, continual erosion. Castor Bay, Army Bay, Waiwera Beach and Leigh Marine Reserve have the lowest rock mass quality. Musick Point, Narrowneck Beach and Waiake Bay have good rock mass quality.

A conceptual model for coastal cliff erosion has been developed for Waitemata Group coastal cliffs, based on the dominant processes that act on the cliffs determined from statistical analysis (student t-test, correlation and regression) and field observations. The primary factor for cliff erosion is bed dip, whereby seaward dipping beds have higher erosion rates than landward dipping beds. The secondary factors for cliff erosion include: the intact and rock mass strength of the rock; the rock mass quality; strength of the siltstone beds; strength and structure of the sandstone beds; and orientation of the bedding planes with respect to the cliff face. Shear stresses are enhanced when beds dip seaward and thus shear failure along continuous surfaces is achievable. When beds dip landward the influence of shear stresses along bedding planes, and their contribution to the removal of individual blocks of rock, is severely inhibited resulting in reduced rates of erosion.  There is no relationship between cliff height and erosion rates and cliff heights are mainly controlled by the pre-existing landscape. Cliff angle is controlled by the proportion of sandstone and siltstone (whereby lower cliff angles are more siltstone-dominated), rock mass strength and weathering.  Erosion rates do vary in Waitemata Group rock of the Auckland region because of the variation in structural and geomorphic conditions of the cliff, most strongly controlled by the dip angle of bedding planes.

year: 2007

title: The general cognitive ability of Maori and European subjects: a comparative study of Queensland test performances and psychometric properties

authors: St George, Ross

abstract: Research was undertaken into the performances of New Zealand Maori and European children on the Queensland Test of Cognitive Abilities. In addition to studying the comparative performances of the two ethnic groups at six age levels, major psychometric properties of the instrument were investigated. Such data have an important bearing upon the issue of psychological equivalence across ethnic or culture group samples.
Seven hundred children (303 Maori and 397 European) aged between eight and a half and fourteen and a half years were tested with the Queensland Test. A small statistically significant ethnic group difference was found favouring the European children. Subsequent analyses indicated that the small difference was of little practical significance. Queensland Test subtest data were also analysed, This indicated that subtest performances were likely to be influenced by subject variables in a manner not necessarily evident in the overall test results. Gender differences in performance on the Pattern Matching Subtest were found and are consistent with other data. 
Queensland Test reliability, validity and item characteristics were researched for the two ethnic groups. 
To obtain test-retest reliability estimates and data on criterion related validity longitudinal studies were undertaken with four ethnically mixed class groups Standard 3 to Form 2). 
The Queensland Test was found to be equally reliable with both ethnic groups although the levels of reliability obtained were not considered entirely satisfactory. 
Validity data indicated that the same general intelligence construct could be employed in the interpretation of Queensland Test results with both European and Maori subjects. Content validity issues were considered and it was argued that in terms of both test content and measurement procedures the Queensland Test should provide an equally valid measure of general intelligence with both groups. 
The criterion related validity coefficients were of approximately the same order for each ethnic group although doubts were expressed about the adequacy of the criteria. Construct validity was investigated by considering the relationship of test performance to age and through factor analytic evidence. The analyses supported the view that the Queensland Test was primarily a measure of the same underlying construct within each ethnic group. In terms of prevailing psychological theories on human intelligence this construct was interpreted as being of a general intelligence nature.
Comparative data on item characteristics did not indicate any marked ethnic group differences. More apparent was the need to restructure particular subtests where items failed to discriminate adequately within both ethnic groups. It was concluded that the weight of evidence was in favour of the psychological equivalence of this ability measure with Maori and European children. 
Data for combined ethnic group samples have been reported, Pooled data were employed in some factor analyses and these supported a general intelligence interpretation of Queensland Test results. Preliminary norms were also derived from combined ethnic group data. 
Findings are discussed in relation to the concept of intelligence and its cross-cultural measurement, other Queensland Test research and recent cross-cultural studies on cognitive abilities in New Zealand.

text: The general cognitive ability of Maori and European subjects: a comparative study of Queensland test performances and psychometric properties Research was undertaken into the performances of New Zealand Maori and European children on the Queensland Test of Cognitive Abilities. In addition to studying the comparative performances of the two ethnic groups at six age levels, major psychometric properties of the instrument were investigated. Such data have an important bearing upon the issue of psychological equivalence across ethnic or culture group samples.
Seven hundred children (303 Maori and 397 European) aged between eight and a half and fourteen and a half years were tested with the Queensland Test. A small statistically significant ethnic group difference was found favouring the European children. Subsequent analyses indicated that the small difference was of little practical significance. Queensland Test subtest data were also analysed, This indicated that subtest performances were likely to be influenced by subject variables in a manner not necessarily evident in the overall test results. Gender differences in performance on the Pattern Matching Subtest were found and are consistent with other data. 
Queensland Test reliability, validity and item characteristics were researched for the two ethnic groups. 
To obtain test-retest reliability estimates and data on criterion related validity longitudinal studies were undertaken with four ethnically mixed class groups Standard 3 to Form 2). 
The Queensland Test was found to be equally reliable with both ethnic groups although the levels of reliability obtained were not considered entirely satisfactory. 
Validity data indicated that the same general intelligence construct could be employed in the interpretation of Queensland Test results with both European and Maori subjects. Content validity issues were considered and it was argued that in terms of both test content and measurement procedures the Queensland Test should provide an equally valid measure of general intelligence with both groups. 
The criterion related validity coefficients were of approximately the same order for each ethnic group although doubts were expressed about the adequacy of the criteria. Construct validity was investigated by considering the relationship of test performance to age and through factor analytic evidence. The analyses supported the view that the Queensland Test was primarily a measure of the same underlying construct within each ethnic group. In terms of prevailing psychological theories on human intelligence this construct was interpreted as being of a general intelligence nature.
Comparative data on item characteristics did not indicate any marked ethnic group differences. More apparent was the need to restructure particular subtests where items failed to discriminate adequately within both ethnic groups. It was concluded that the weight of evidence was in favour of the psychological equivalence of this ability measure with Maori and European children. 
Data for combined ethnic group samples have been reported, Pooled data were employed in some factor analyses and these supported a general intelligence interpretation of Queensland Test results. Preliminary norms were also derived from combined ethnic group data. 
Findings are discussed in relation to the concept of intelligence and its cross-cultural measurement, other Queensland Test research and recent cross-cultural studies on cognitive abilities in New Zealand.

year: 1977