title: Finding synergistic conservation values? Māori tikanga, science, resource management and law

authors: Simon, Katie

subjects: Indigenous knowledge

abstract: In this doctorate, I provide a balanced and collaborative approach to knowledge/value change between the contesting worldviews of indigenous knowledge and western science, termed 'synergistic'. My search for synergy is comparative and reconciliatory. This endeavours to overcome the popular pre-occupation with conflict and opposition. Rather, both difference and similarity are recognised. Through the comparison of such synergy, I argue that Māori development requires for its further advancement a focus not only on difference and conflict, but also on affinity and convergence.

My primary concern is to establish a better understanding of the synergistic, adaptive strategies or indigenous innovation of Māori kaitiaki, environmental stewards. I investigate conflicting and converging Māori and western scientific conservation and use values in Aotearoa/New Zealand  environmental governance and management regimes under the Resource Management Act 1991, with specific regard to indicator development. The balance of values were compared in ecological environmental governance, from five Aotearoa governmental authorities and three Māori river communities, utilising Māori and western social science methods. My focus on indicators pinpoints contesting knowledge/value change between the marginalisation of indigenous knowledge and dominance of western science. This seeks to highlight the potential viability of Māori kaitiakitanga, stewardship in global and national terms of sustainability.  

However, potential synergy is held back by a prevailing viewpoint of the indigenous worldview as backward, past-oriented and non-synergistic. An oppositional dogma predominates, which is a key problem to overcome. It spans world and national literature, resulting in considerable gaps in knowledge on synergy, conceptually, methodologically, empirically and analytically.  


This is addressed by an authoritative Māori synergistic standpoint from my own cultural lens and decolonised theorising, termed 'nuanced problem solving'. I articulate both worldviews in knowledge/value change through comparative, evolutionary, multi-dimensional, cross-cultural and inter-disciplinary research on synergy. My nuanced problem solving encapsulates the two main parts of the doctorate, whereby synergy is correlated between theory and social practice. Part one deals with value comparison in theory utilising high abstracted concepts and methods at the global level of environmental governance. Part two deals with value balance in social practice utilising medium abstracted and concrete empirical and analytical research at global, national, regional, district and cross-tribal levels of environmental governance. Potential synergy cross-cuts each part from high abstracted thought down and from the practical flax roots up. I argue that Māori advancement fluctuates between them. 

Drawing on cultural and theoretical leanings of the Māori synergistic standpoint, both a strong correlation with existing theory and expanded synergistic theorising was found. Due to the expansiveness of the research, these correlated findings only provide an embryonic understanding of potential synergy.

A postscript describes my other work on synergy with five external agencies concerning foreshore, lakeside, wastewater, land disposal and carbon marketing kaitiakitanga.  I argue that additional research on synergy is needed in order to further advance Māori.

text: Finding synergistic conservation values? Māori tikanga, science, resource management and law In this doctorate, I provide a balanced and collaborative approach to knowledge/value change between the contesting worldviews of indigenous knowledge and western science, termed 'synergistic'. My search for synergy is comparative and reconciliatory. This endeavours to overcome the popular pre-occupation with conflict and opposition. Rather, both difference and similarity are recognised. Through the comparison of such synergy, I argue that Māori development requires for its further advancement a focus not only on difference and conflict, but also on affinity and convergence.

My primary concern is to establish a better understanding of the synergistic, adaptive strategies or indigenous innovation of Māori kaitiaki, environmental stewards. I investigate conflicting and converging Māori and western scientific conservation and use values in Aotearoa/New Zealand  environmental governance and management regimes under the Resource Management Act 1991, with specific regard to indicator development. The balance of values were compared in ecological environmental governance, from five Aotearoa governmental authorities and three Māori river communities, utilising Māori and western social science methods. My focus on indicators pinpoints contesting knowledge/value change between the marginalisation of indigenous knowledge and dominance of western science. This seeks to highlight the potential viability of Māori kaitiakitanga, stewardship in global and national terms of sustainability.  

However, potential synergy is held back by a prevailing viewpoint of the indigenous worldview as backward, past-oriented and non-synergistic. An oppositional dogma predominates, which is a key problem to overcome. It spans world and national literature, resulting in considerable gaps in knowledge on synergy, conceptually, methodologically, empirically and analytically.  


This is addressed by an authoritative Māori synergistic standpoint from my own cultural lens and decolonised theorising, termed 'nuanced problem solving'. I articulate both worldviews in knowledge/value change through comparative, evolutionary, multi-dimensional, cross-cultural and inter-disciplinary research on synergy. My nuanced problem solving encapsulates the two main parts of the doctorate, whereby synergy is correlated between theory and social practice. Part one deals with value comparison in theory utilising high abstracted concepts and methods at the global level of environmental governance. Part two deals with value balance in social practice utilising medium abstracted and concrete empirical and analytical research at global, national, regional, district and cross-tribal levels of environmental governance. Potential synergy cross-cuts each part from high abstracted thought down and from the practical flax roots up. I argue that Māori advancement fluctuates between them. 

Drawing on cultural and theoretical leanings of the Māori synergistic standpoint, both a strong correlation with existing theory and expanded synergistic theorising was found. Due to the expansiveness of the research, these correlated findings only provide an embryonic understanding of potential synergy.

A postscript describes my other work on synergy with five external agencies concerning foreshore, lakeside, wastewater, land disposal and carbon marketing kaitiakitanga.  I argue that additional research on synergy is needed in order to further advance Māori.

year: 2007

title: Ka mate ko te mate, ka ora taku toa: Ko ngā matawhāura o te rau tau tekau mā iwa

authors: Murphy, Kane Ēnoka George

subjects: Matawhaura

abstract: Tēnei te urutomo atu ki te rau tau o te tekau mā iwa ki te nanaiore i ngā tai o te Matawhāura i ngaeki ai te whenua i horo ai tuanuku, i horo ai te tangata, i tū ai te rangatiratanga. Ko te kimihanga i te āhua ki te tikanga ki te pakanga, ki te mate te ihoiho, ko te rapunga i te āhua ki ōna neke, ki ōna nuku, ki ōna panoni, ki ōna hounga te whainga. Kei te kapi katoa ki tā te pukapuka, i tā te tuhinga. Wāhia ana kia whā ōna ahoaho, koia, ko te pūtakenga mai o te riri, o te Matawhāura. Muringa iho, ko ngā Matawhāura a te Māori ki te Māori. Ka whāia mai ko ngā riri ki te Pākehā, ā, ko ngā pakanga a te mana poropiti, mutu iho ki te kōtuitui.

Ko te whakaohooho, ko te whakamataara i a Ngāi Māori, i a Ngāi tauiwi otīa, i a Ngāi iwi taketake ki te nōhanga mai o te hītori ki te ahurea o te whenua, ki te ahurea o te tangata, ki ōna tuakiritanga. Ko te whakaariari i te āhua o te tikanga a te pakanga, a te mate me ōna neke i te oma a te wā i roto i te whakaeke a te iwi tini ngerongero ki te unu i te mono o te whenua o te iwi pū taketake. Ko te whakaihiihi i te iwi ka rawakoretia, ka reo koretia, ka whenua koretia, ka tikanga koretia. Ko te whakaatuatu i tā te Māori, i tā te Pākehā ki tā te kupu Māori, ki tā anō te kupu Pākehā.

Ko tōna mutunga iho, ko te whakakitenga ake, ko te whakatinanatanga i te mau tonu a te tikanga ki ngā rohe o te pakanga o te mate, ko te neke māna ko te panoni i ngā wāhi i kitea ai he huarahi ki te ora, he toa, he mau tonu ki tētahi pitonga whenua e huraia mai he tōnuitanga mā ngā uri whakatipu. Ko te hari i te kaupapa mā roto tonu i te reo ake a te kōrero, i te reo ake o te whenua. Ko te takahanga i te ara o te whakarauora i te reo, i te tikanga, i te tuakiri, i te mana Māori motuhake. Ko tōna otinga atu, ko te whakairi ake i ngā mahi a ngā tūpuna e ū ai te tangata whenuatanga e kitea ai ko tā rātou, e pātaia ai, he aha ia tā tātou?

text: Ka mate ko te mate, ka ora taku toa: Ko ngā matawhāura o te rau tau tekau mā iwa Tēnei te urutomo atu ki te rau tau o te tekau mā iwa ki te nanaiore i ngā tai o te Matawhāura i ngaeki ai te whenua i horo ai tuanuku, i horo ai te tangata, i tū ai te rangatiratanga. Ko te kimihanga i te āhua ki te tikanga ki te pakanga, ki te mate te ihoiho, ko te rapunga i te āhua ki ōna neke, ki ōna nuku, ki ōna panoni, ki ōna hounga te whainga. Kei te kapi katoa ki tā te pukapuka, i tā te tuhinga. Wāhia ana kia whā ōna ahoaho, koia, ko te pūtakenga mai o te riri, o te Matawhāura. Muringa iho, ko ngā Matawhāura a te Māori ki te Māori. Ka whāia mai ko ngā riri ki te Pākehā, ā, ko ngā pakanga a te mana poropiti, mutu iho ki te kōtuitui.

Ko te whakaohooho, ko te whakamataara i a Ngāi Māori, i a Ngāi tauiwi otīa, i a Ngāi iwi taketake ki te nōhanga mai o te hītori ki te ahurea o te whenua, ki te ahurea o te tangata, ki ōna tuakiritanga. Ko te whakaariari i te āhua o te tikanga a te pakanga, a te mate me ōna neke i te oma a te wā i roto i te whakaeke a te iwi tini ngerongero ki te unu i te mono o te whenua o te iwi pū taketake. Ko te whakaihiihi i te iwi ka rawakoretia, ka reo koretia, ka whenua koretia, ka tikanga koretia. Ko te whakaatuatu i tā te Māori, i tā te Pākehā ki tā te kupu Māori, ki tā anō te kupu Pākehā.

Ko tōna mutunga iho, ko te whakakitenga ake, ko te whakatinanatanga i te mau tonu a te tikanga ki ngā rohe o te pakanga o te mate, ko te neke māna ko te panoni i ngā wāhi i kitea ai he huarahi ki te ora, he toa, he mau tonu ki tētahi pitonga whenua e huraia mai he tōnuitanga mā ngā uri whakatipu. Ko te hari i te kaupapa mā roto tonu i te reo ake a te kōrero, i te reo ake o te whenua. Ko te takahanga i te ara o te whakarauora i te reo, i te tikanga, i te tuakiri, i te mana Māori motuhake. Ko tōna otinga atu, ko te whakairi ake i ngā mahi a ngā tūpuna e ū ai te tangata whenuatanga e kitea ai ko tā rātou, e pātaia ai, he aha ia tā tātou?

year: 2017

title: Effects of solutions with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH on soil properties

authors: Lieffering, Robert Ewout

abstract: The effects of solutions with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH on selected soil physical and chemical properties were investigated using a range of New Zealand soil types.

Some industries produce liquid wastes which are characterized by high pH and high monovalent cation concentrations. However, land treatment of these liquid wastes have been observed to cause adverse effects on soil properties, especially structural deterioration of the 0-10 cm depth of soil. To establish the mechanisms which cause the observed adverse effects, laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the processes which occur when high pH solutions which contain monovalent cations (NaOH and KOH) are applied to soil. To isolate pH and cation effects, NaCl and KCl solutions were also used as treatments throughout this study. In addition to laboratory experiments, a field trial was conducted to examine the short term (12 months) effects of a surface applied amendment (gypsum, applied at 5 t ha⁻¹) on selected properties of a soil which had been irrigated with high pH dairy factory liquid wastes. 

Single-step extraction experiments showed that hydroxide solutions dissolved organic carbon (OC) through the range of concentrations typically found in high pH liquid wastes (i.e. pH 10.5 - 13.5) and OC dissolution increased with increasing hydroxide concentration (i.e. increasing solution pH). Although NaOH dissolved more OC than KOH in the short term (after a single extraction), repeated treatment of soil with fresh hydroxide solution (using multi-step extractions) caused OC dissolution to increase though no cationic differences were measured in the longer term. In contrast to hydroxide solutions, chloride solutions dissolved minimal amounts of OC.

The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kₛ) of the soils used in this study decreased over time when hydroxide solutions were used as influent solutions. Aggregate stability was also shown to decrease when soils were treated with hydroxide solutions. A two-stage process was proposed to explain the decrease in Kₛ when high pH solutions were applied to soil. First, OC is dissolved at the surface of the soil (i.e. 0-1 cm depth of soil) where the high pH solution is in contact with soil aggregates. The time required for dissolution to weaken aggregates being concentration dependent. Second, once a critical amount of OC had been removed, increased repulsion of soil particles (associated with increased negative charge on variable charge components in the soil due to increased pH) was thought to cause dispersion and deflocculation of clays and movement of the dislodged particles into pore spaces resulted in decreased Kₛ. In contrast to hydroxide solutions, aggregate stability was unaffected when soil was treated with chloride solutions and Kₛ was maintained or increased when chloride solutions were used as influent solutions. Decreasing the electrolyte concentration of the soil solution (by replacing the influent chloride solutions with distilled water) caused Kₛ to decrease, consistent with widely accepted diffuse double layer theory.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) increased with increasing hydroxide concentration whereas chloride solutions had no effect on CEC. The increase in CEC in hydroxide-treated soil was attributed to negative sites being generated on components possessing variable charge characteristics. In general, higher exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and exchangeable potassium percentage (EPP) were found in hydroxide-treated soil compared to chloride-treated soil and were attributed to the new negative sites being counter-balanced by the monovalent cation present in the hydroxide solution (either Na⁺ or K⁺). Equations commonly used to predict ESP and EPP values from the composition of the soil solution (Richards, 1954) accurately predicted ESP and EPP in chloride-treated soil but did not accurately predict ESP or EPP in hydroxide-treated soil. These prediction equations do not take into account the increased total negative charge of the soil system and can therefore not be used to accurately predict ESP and EPP when high pH solutions are applied to soil.

The field trial showed that gypsum application increased infiltration rates in the irrigated soil by decreasing both the ESP and EPP of the soil and increasing the exchangeable Ca²⁺ concentration. Generally, gypsum did not affect any of the other measured properties (pH, OC, CEC, and bulk density) over the duration of the trial. In non-irrigated soil, the lack of effect of gypsum on any of measured soil properties was attributed to the high initial exchangeable Ca²⁺ concentration and low exchangeable Na⁺ and K⁺ concentrations compared to the irrigated soil.

It was concluded that for successful land treatment of liquid wastes with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH, pH neutralisation of the liquid is essential to decrease the likelihood of OC dissolution and a build-up of negative charge on soil particles occurring. In addition, divalent cations should either be added to the liquid waste prior to disposal or should be applied to the soil in a relatively soluble form, in order to decrease the magnitude of problems associated with accumulation of monovalent cations on exchange sites. A conceptual model was proposed to describe the reactions that occur in soils when liquid wastes with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH are applied using land treatment systems.

text: Effects of solutions with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH on soil properties The effects of solutions with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH on selected soil physical and chemical properties were investigated using a range of New Zealand soil types.

Some industries produce liquid wastes which are characterized by high pH and high monovalent cation concentrations. However, land treatment of these liquid wastes have been observed to cause adverse effects on soil properties, especially structural deterioration of the 0-10 cm depth of soil. To establish the mechanisms which cause the observed adverse effects, laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the processes which occur when high pH solutions which contain monovalent cations (NaOH and KOH) are applied to soil. To isolate pH and cation effects, NaCl and KCl solutions were also used as treatments throughout this study. In addition to laboratory experiments, a field trial was conducted to examine the short term (12 months) effects of a surface applied amendment (gypsum, applied at 5 t ha⁻¹) on selected properties of a soil which had been irrigated with high pH dairy factory liquid wastes. 

Single-step extraction experiments showed that hydroxide solutions dissolved organic carbon (OC) through the range of concentrations typically found in high pH liquid wastes (i.e. pH 10.5 - 13.5) and OC dissolution increased with increasing hydroxide concentration (i.e. increasing solution pH). Although NaOH dissolved more OC than KOH in the short term (after a single extraction), repeated treatment of soil with fresh hydroxide solution (using multi-step extractions) caused OC dissolution to increase though no cationic differences were measured in the longer term. In contrast to hydroxide solutions, chloride solutions dissolved minimal amounts of OC.

The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kₛ) of the soils used in this study decreased over time when hydroxide solutions were used as influent solutions. Aggregate stability was also shown to decrease when soils were treated with hydroxide solutions. A two-stage process was proposed to explain the decrease in Kₛ when high pH solutions were applied to soil. First, OC is dissolved at the surface of the soil (i.e. 0-1 cm depth of soil) where the high pH solution is in contact with soil aggregates. The time required for dissolution to weaken aggregates being concentration dependent. Second, once a critical amount of OC had been removed, increased repulsion of soil particles (associated with increased negative charge on variable charge components in the soil due to increased pH) was thought to cause dispersion and deflocculation of clays and movement of the dislodged particles into pore spaces resulted in decreased Kₛ. In contrast to hydroxide solutions, aggregate stability was unaffected when soil was treated with chloride solutions and Kₛ was maintained or increased when chloride solutions were used as influent solutions. Decreasing the electrolyte concentration of the soil solution (by replacing the influent chloride solutions with distilled water) caused Kₛ to decrease, consistent with widely accepted diffuse double layer theory.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) increased with increasing hydroxide concentration whereas chloride solutions had no effect on CEC. The increase in CEC in hydroxide-treated soil was attributed to negative sites being generated on components possessing variable charge characteristics. In general, higher exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and exchangeable potassium percentage (EPP) were found in hydroxide-treated soil compared to chloride-treated soil and were attributed to the new negative sites being counter-balanced by the monovalent cation present in the hydroxide solution (either Na⁺ or K⁺). Equations commonly used to predict ESP and EPP values from the composition of the soil solution (Richards, 1954) accurately predicted ESP and EPP in chloride-treated soil but did not accurately predict ESP or EPP in hydroxide-treated soil. These prediction equations do not take into account the increased total negative charge of the soil system and can therefore not be used to accurately predict ESP and EPP when high pH solutions are applied to soil.

The field trial showed that gypsum application increased infiltration rates in the irrigated soil by decreasing both the ESP and EPP of the soil and increasing the exchangeable Ca²⁺ concentration. Generally, gypsum did not affect any of the other measured properties (pH, OC, CEC, and bulk density) over the duration of the trial. In non-irrigated soil, the lack of effect of gypsum on any of measured soil properties was attributed to the high initial exchangeable Ca²⁺ concentration and low exchangeable Na⁺ and K⁺ concentrations compared to the irrigated soil.

It was concluded that for successful land treatment of liquid wastes with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH, pH neutralisation of the liquid is essential to decrease the likelihood of OC dissolution and a build-up of negative charge on soil particles occurring. In addition, divalent cations should either be added to the liquid waste prior to disposal or should be applied to the soil in a relatively soluble form, in order to decrease the magnitude of problems associated with accumulation of monovalent cations on exchange sites. A conceptual model was proposed to describe the reactions that occur in soils when liquid wastes with high monovalent cation concentrations and high pH are applied using land treatment systems.

year: 1995