title: Which households are most distant from health centers in rural China? Evidence from a GIS network analysis

authors: Gibson, John

subjects: health access

abstract: In this paper we have two objectives - one empirical; one methodological. Although China’s leaders are beginning to pay attention to health care in rural China, there are still concerns about access to health services. To examine this issue, we use measures of travel distances to health services to examine the nature of coverage in Shaanxi Province, our case study. The mean distance by road to the nearest health center is still more than 6 kilometers. When we use thresholds for access of 5 and 10 kilometers we find that more than 40 (15) percent of the rural population lives outside of these 5 (10) kilometer service areas for health centers. The nature of the access differs by geographical region and demographic composition of the household. The methodological contribution of our paper originates from a key feature of our analysis in which we use Geographic Information System (GIS) network analysis methods to measure traveling distance along the road network. We compare these measures to straight-line distance measures. Road distances (produced by network analysis) produce measures (using means) that are nearly twice as great as straight-line distances. Moreover, the errors in the measures (that is, the difference between road distances and straight-line distances) are not random. Therefore, traditional econometric methods of ameliorating the effects of measurement errors, such as instrument variables regression, will not produce consistent results when used with straight-line distances.

text: Which households are most distant from health centers in rural China? Evidence from a GIS network analysis In this paper we have two objectives - one empirical; one methodological. Although China’s leaders are beginning to pay attention to health care in rural China, there are still concerns about access to health services. To examine this issue, we use measures of travel distances to health services to examine the nature of coverage in Shaanxi Province, our case study. The mean distance by road to the nearest health center is still more than 6 kilometers. When we use thresholds for access of 5 and 10 kilometers we find that more than 40 (15) percent of the rural population lives outside of these 5 (10) kilometer service areas for health centers. The nature of the access differs by geographical region and demographic composition of the household. The methodological contribution of our paper originates from a key feature of our analysis in which we use Geographic Information System (GIS) network analysis methods to measure traveling distance along the road network. We compare these measures to straight-line distance measures. Road distances (produced by network analysis) produce measures (using means) that are nearly twice as great as straight-line distances. Moreover, the errors in the measures (that is, the difference between road distances and straight-line distances) are not random. Therefore, traditional econometric methods of ameliorating the effects of measurement errors, such as instrument variables regression, will not produce consistent results when used with straight-line distances.

year: 2008-12

title: The tetrad effect and geochemistry of apatite from the Altay Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite, Xinjiang, China: implications for pegmatite petrogenesis

authors: Cao, Ming-Jian

abstract: In order to better constrain the evolution and petrogenesis of pegmatite, geochemical analysis was conducted on a suite of apatite crystals from the Altay Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite, Xinjiang, China and from the granitic and amphibolitic wall rocks. Apatite samples derived from pegmatite zones show convex tetrad effects in their REE patterns, extremely negative Eu anomalies and non-chondritic Y/Ho ratios. In contrast, chondritic Y/Ho ratios and convex tetrad effects are observed in the muscovite granite suggesting that different processes caused non-chondritic Y/Ho ratios and lanthanide tetrad effects. Based on the occurrence of convex tetrad effects in the host rocks and their associated minerals, we propose that the tetrad effects are likely produced from immiscible fluoride and silicate melts. This is in contrast to previous explanations of the tetrad effect; i.e. surface weathering, fractional crystallization and/or fluid-rock interaction. Additionally, we put forward that extreme negative Eu and non-chondritic Y/Ho in apatite are likely caused by the large amount of hydrothermal fluid exsolved from the pegmatite melts. Evolution of melt composition was found to be the primary cause of inter and intra-crystal major and trace element variations in apatite. Mn entering into apatite via substitution of Ca is supported by the positive correlation between CaO and MnO. Different evolution trends in apatite composition imply different crystallization environments between wall rocks and pegmatite zones. Based on the geochemistry of apatite samples, it is likely that there is a genetic relationship between the source of muscovite granite and the source of the pegmatite.

text: The tetrad effect and geochemistry of apatite from the Altay Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite, Xinjiang, China: implications for pegmatite petrogenesis In order to better constrain the evolution and petrogenesis of pegmatite, geochemical analysis was conducted on a suite of apatite crystals from the Altay Koktokay No. 3 pegmatite, Xinjiang, China and from the granitic and amphibolitic wall rocks. Apatite samples derived from pegmatite zones show convex tetrad effects in their REE patterns, extremely negative Eu anomalies and non-chondritic Y/Ho ratios. In contrast, chondritic Y/Ho ratios and convex tetrad effects are observed in the muscovite granite suggesting that different processes caused non-chondritic Y/Ho ratios and lanthanide tetrad effects. Based on the occurrence of convex tetrad effects in the host rocks and their associated minerals, we propose that the tetrad effects are likely produced from immiscible fluoride and silicate melts. This is in contrast to previous explanations of the tetrad effect; i.e. surface weathering, fractional crystallization and/or fluid-rock interaction. Additionally, we put forward that extreme negative Eu and non-chondritic Y/Ho in apatite are likely caused by the large amount of hydrothermal fluid exsolved from the pegmatite melts. Evolution of melt composition was found to be the primary cause of inter and intra-crystal major and trace element variations in apatite. Mn entering into apatite via substitution of Ca is supported by the positive correlation between CaO and MnO. Different evolution trends in apatite composition imply different crystallization environments between wall rocks and pegmatite zones. Based on the geochemistry of apatite samples, it is likely that there is a genetic relationship between the source of muscovite granite and the source of the pegmatite.

year: 2013

title: Ngāti Whakaue Māngai Nui

authors: Hiini, Anaha Te Wheoro

subjects: Ngāti Whakaue Māngai Nui

abstract: Ko Ngāti Whakaue tētehi iwi ahurei o te waka o Te Arawa.  Ko tētehi taha ōna kei ngā tahataha o te kōroto moana o Te Rotorua-nui-a-Kahumatamomoe, i Waingaehe ki Waimihia.  Ko tētehi atu taha ōna kei te ūnga o te waka rongomaiwhiti o Te Arawa, arā ki Maketū.  
Kua whai mana a Ngāti Whakaue i ngā rautau e tū whakahīhī ai rātau hei iwi mana nui i ō rātau pūkenga me ō rātau pūmanawa kia mau tonu tō rātau Whakauetanga, tō rātau ahurea me ā rātau tikanga.   Ko tētehi pūkenga pēnei i te āheinga ki te whakairo i te kupu rōreka, ki te tuitui i te kōrero i whakaputaina ai te kōrero ‘Te Arawa Māngai Nui’.  He mea whakapuaki te kōrero rā e iwi kē ki te whakanui i ngā pūkōrero o ngā paepae o Te Arawa, ka mutu, koirā hoki tētehi pūkenga i hau ai te rongo o Ngāti Whakaue.  
Nā, ko te pūkenga e kōrerohia nei, ko te reo o Ngāti Whakaue.  Ko tōna oranga tonutanga te kaupapa matua o tēnei tuhinga e rangahaua ana i te putanga o te kōrero a tētehi o ngā koroua matatau o te iwi i te tau 1992, arā a Hamuera Mitchell, nāna tonu nei i whakapuaki ‘Ka mate te reo o Ngāti Whakaue ā te tekau tau’.  

Nō reira, he whakatewhatewhahanga tēnei tuhinga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue o tua, o mohoa noa nei hoki kia mōhiotia ai te oranga, te matenga haeretanga rānei o te reo o te iwi, o ngā hapū, o te hapori, o te kāinga o nāianei, kia tau hoki mehemea āe rānei kua whai hua ngā rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue ki te whakarauora i tōna ake reo, ā, ka aha te iwi e anga whakamua ai.  Ka mātaitia te āhua o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue kia mōhiotia mehemea i tika tā Hamera Mitchell i kī ai i te tau 1992, karekau rānei, mehemea rānei he wero kē nāna kia kaua e tukuna e te iwi o Ngāti Whakaue tō rātau reo kia mate.

Ko te tikanga rangahau Pākehā, ko te tikanga rangahau Māori, me ngā tikanga ako reo ka kaha mātaitia i tēnei tuhinga kia tika ai te kohinga o ngā raraunga o tēnei momo rangahau, ngā tikanga matatika a te wānanga, ngā tukanga tātari me te whakahōrapatanga atu i ngā whakataunga o te rangahau.  

Hei āpiti atu, ka kōrerohia ngā kaupapa mātauranga a Ngāti Whakaue, tae noa atu ki ngā tini kaupapa whakarauora reo a te iwi kua whakahaerehia mai i te tau 2005 ki ēnei rangi tonu nei mō te oranga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue te take e anga tōtika atu ai ki te wetenga o te rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue i whakahaerehia ai i ngā tau 2013 ki te tau 2017 i kitea ai ōna pikinga, ōna hekenga, ōna ngoikoretanga me ōna hua.  

Heoi anō, hei whaiwhai noa ake i te rautaki o mua nei, ko ngā mātātuhi kua mahue iho rā, ko te korenga o ngā arotakenga, ko te korenga o ngā pūrongo, ko te korenga o ētehi taunakitanga ā-tuhi nei, ko te korenga o tētehi aha kē atu rānei kia kitea he hua, he pikinga, he hekenga, he aha rānei.  Ahakoa tērā raru, nā te kitenga me te rongotanga o te pikinga haeretanga o te āhua o te reo, nā ngā kōrero ā-waha me ngā kauhau a ētehi mō ngā hua i puta ai i te rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue i mana ai te whakahaumanutanga o te reo o ngā paepae o te iwi.

Nā te mea ko te reo Māori te remurere o te kaituhi nei, kua tekau mā waru tau ia e whai ana i te kaupapa i a ia e whakaako ana, i a ia e wānanga ana, i a ia hoki e whakapau kaha ana ki te whakaora anō i te reo Māori, kua whakaritea e ia tētehi rautaki reo hou e toru tekau tau te roa hei kōkiri mā te iwi e ora rawa atu anō ai te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, e whai hua anō ai hoki te whakapuakitanga o te kōrero rā ‘Te Arawa Māngai Nui’, hei tohu whakanui i ngā pūkenga kōrero o te iwi.

E ai ki te kōrero, ‘he tīmohea kua pakari’.  Nā roto i te āta rangahaua o te kaupapa nei i mōhio ai e ora tonu nei te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, heoi, kāore e pērā rawa te kaha o te oranga i te wā i a kui mā, i a koro mā.  Ahakoa te kōrero mō te matenga haeretanga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, nā ngā kaupapa whakaora reo a te iwi i ngā tau i piki anō ai te oranga o te reo, ka mutu, mā te whakahaerenga tonutanga o ngā wānanga nei e ora tonu anō ai te reo.

text: Ngāti Whakaue Māngai Nui Ko Ngāti Whakaue tētehi iwi ahurei o te waka o Te Arawa.  Ko tētehi taha ōna kei ngā tahataha o te kōroto moana o Te Rotorua-nui-a-Kahumatamomoe, i Waingaehe ki Waimihia.  Ko tētehi atu taha ōna kei te ūnga o te waka rongomaiwhiti o Te Arawa, arā ki Maketū.  
Kua whai mana a Ngāti Whakaue i ngā rautau e tū whakahīhī ai rātau hei iwi mana nui i ō rātau pūkenga me ō rātau pūmanawa kia mau tonu tō rātau Whakauetanga, tō rātau ahurea me ā rātau tikanga.   Ko tētehi pūkenga pēnei i te āheinga ki te whakairo i te kupu rōreka, ki te tuitui i te kōrero i whakaputaina ai te kōrero ‘Te Arawa Māngai Nui’.  He mea whakapuaki te kōrero rā e iwi kē ki te whakanui i ngā pūkōrero o ngā paepae o Te Arawa, ka mutu, koirā hoki tētehi pūkenga i hau ai te rongo o Ngāti Whakaue.  
Nā, ko te pūkenga e kōrerohia nei, ko te reo o Ngāti Whakaue.  Ko tōna oranga tonutanga te kaupapa matua o tēnei tuhinga e rangahaua ana i te putanga o te kōrero a tētehi o ngā koroua matatau o te iwi i te tau 1992, arā a Hamuera Mitchell, nāna tonu nei i whakapuaki ‘Ka mate te reo o Ngāti Whakaue ā te tekau tau’.  

Nō reira, he whakatewhatewhahanga tēnei tuhinga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue o tua, o mohoa noa nei hoki kia mōhiotia ai te oranga, te matenga haeretanga rānei o te reo o te iwi, o ngā hapū, o te hapori, o te kāinga o nāianei, kia tau hoki mehemea āe rānei kua whai hua ngā rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue ki te whakarauora i tōna ake reo, ā, ka aha te iwi e anga whakamua ai.  Ka mātaitia te āhua o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue kia mōhiotia mehemea i tika tā Hamera Mitchell i kī ai i te tau 1992, karekau rānei, mehemea rānei he wero kē nāna kia kaua e tukuna e te iwi o Ngāti Whakaue tō rātau reo kia mate.

Ko te tikanga rangahau Pākehā, ko te tikanga rangahau Māori, me ngā tikanga ako reo ka kaha mātaitia i tēnei tuhinga kia tika ai te kohinga o ngā raraunga o tēnei momo rangahau, ngā tikanga matatika a te wānanga, ngā tukanga tātari me te whakahōrapatanga atu i ngā whakataunga o te rangahau.  

Hei āpiti atu, ka kōrerohia ngā kaupapa mātauranga a Ngāti Whakaue, tae noa atu ki ngā tini kaupapa whakarauora reo a te iwi kua whakahaerehia mai i te tau 2005 ki ēnei rangi tonu nei mō te oranga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue te take e anga tōtika atu ai ki te wetenga o te rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue i whakahaerehia ai i ngā tau 2013 ki te tau 2017 i kitea ai ōna pikinga, ōna hekenga, ōna ngoikoretanga me ōna hua.  

Heoi anō, hei whaiwhai noa ake i te rautaki o mua nei, ko ngā mātātuhi kua mahue iho rā, ko te korenga o ngā arotakenga, ko te korenga o ngā pūrongo, ko te korenga o ētehi taunakitanga ā-tuhi nei, ko te korenga o tētehi aha kē atu rānei kia kitea he hua, he pikinga, he hekenga, he aha rānei.  Ahakoa tērā raru, nā te kitenga me te rongotanga o te pikinga haeretanga o te āhua o te reo, nā ngā kōrero ā-waha me ngā kauhau a ētehi mō ngā hua i puta ai i te rautaki reo o mua a Ngāti Whakaue i mana ai te whakahaumanutanga o te reo o ngā paepae o te iwi.

Nā te mea ko te reo Māori te remurere o te kaituhi nei, kua tekau mā waru tau ia e whai ana i te kaupapa i a ia e whakaako ana, i a ia e wānanga ana, i a ia hoki e whakapau kaha ana ki te whakaora anō i te reo Māori, kua whakaritea e ia tētehi rautaki reo hou e toru tekau tau te roa hei kōkiri mā te iwi e ora rawa atu anō ai te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, e whai hua anō ai hoki te whakapuakitanga o te kōrero rā ‘Te Arawa Māngai Nui’, hei tohu whakanui i ngā pūkenga kōrero o te iwi.

E ai ki te kōrero, ‘he tīmohea kua pakari’.  Nā roto i te āta rangahaua o te kaupapa nei i mōhio ai e ora tonu nei te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, heoi, kāore e pērā rawa te kaha o te oranga i te wā i a kui mā, i a koro mā.  Ahakoa te kōrero mō te matenga haeretanga o te reo o Ngāti Whakaue, nā ngā kaupapa whakaora reo a te iwi i ngā tau i piki anō ai te oranga o te reo, ka mutu, mā te whakahaerenga tonutanga o ngā wānanga nei e ora tonu anō ai te reo.

year: 2020