title: Consumer Demand for Green Electricity: A Study of Consumer Switching in New Zealand Retail Electricity Markets

authors: Ndebele, Tom

subjects: consumer demand

abstract: The extent to which deregulation increases the competitiveness of retail electricity markets depends largely on consumer switching activity. The USA, UK, Norway, Sweden, and Australia have all implemented electricity market reforms but consumers have often been reluctant to switch suppliers. In New Zealand, most consumers have not switched suppliers despite potential annual power bill savings of $150. Campaigns promoting consumer switching rely on price differences and ignore the value of non-price attributes, including whether the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources. 
This thesis improves our understanding of consumer switching and the demand for green electricity by analysing consumer preferences for the attributes of electricity services, estimating willingness to pay (WTP) for non-price attributes, and explaining consumer switching in terms of eight attributes:- power bill, call waiting time, fixed rate contract, discount, loyalty rewards, renewables, ownership of supplier, and supplier type. The analysis is based on a panel choice dataset generated using a choice experiment which was administered in 2014 to an online panel of 224 electricity bill payers in New Zealand. The multinomial logit, random parameter logit and latent class models are used to analyse the choice data with psychological constructs included to explain heterogeneity of preferences. The effect of attribute non-attendance (AN-A) and hypothetical bias on WTP estimates is investigated. We also explore whether using shorter versions of the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Scale to measure environmental attitudes (EA) affects estimates of WTP for green electricity.
The results indicate that non-price attributes of electricity services are significant determinants of consumer switching. Three latent classes with distinct preferences for the attributes are identified. Class 1 (40%) is mainly concerned about the power bill, and would switch supplier to save at least NZ$125 per year in power bills, ceteris paribus. This value mainly captures the status quo effect. Class 2 (46%) exhibits no status quo effect and values all the attributes offered including renewables, and particularly dislikes entrants from other sectors which have to charge at least NZ$135 less per year compared to a traditional retailer for a 50% chance of attracting customers. Class 3 (14%) consists of captive and loyal respondents who would not switch supplier for any realistic bill savings.
We find that failing to account for attribute non-attendance results in WTP estimates that are significantly lower for attributes that are not normally included in standard electricity plans. Also, respondents who claim to have ignored some attributes may not have done so; instead they assigned lower weights to these attributes. Respondents with low certainty scores are less sensitive to the power bill and are predicted to have significantly higher WTP. We find that using shorter versions of the NEP Scale to measure EA, increases bias in WTP for green electricity.  
We conclude that price differences in retail markets reflect, in part, consumer preferences for non-price attributes, and that providing consumers with information on the levels of non-price attributes could influence switching rates, the uptake of green electricity and potentially the level of competition in the retail electricity sector.

text: Consumer Demand for Green Electricity: A Study of Consumer Switching in New Zealand Retail Electricity Markets The extent to which deregulation increases the competitiveness of retail electricity markets depends largely on consumer switching activity. The USA, UK, Norway, Sweden, and Australia have all implemented electricity market reforms but consumers have often been reluctant to switch suppliers. In New Zealand, most consumers have not switched suppliers despite potential annual power bill savings of $150. Campaigns promoting consumer switching rely on price differences and ignore the value of non-price attributes, including whether the electricity is generated from renewable energy sources. 
This thesis improves our understanding of consumer switching and the demand for green electricity by analysing consumer preferences for the attributes of electricity services, estimating willingness to pay (WTP) for non-price attributes, and explaining consumer switching in terms of eight attributes:- power bill, call waiting time, fixed rate contract, discount, loyalty rewards, renewables, ownership of supplier, and supplier type. The analysis is based on a panel choice dataset generated using a choice experiment which was administered in 2014 to an online panel of 224 electricity bill payers in New Zealand. The multinomial logit, random parameter logit and latent class models are used to analyse the choice data with psychological constructs included to explain heterogeneity of preferences. The effect of attribute non-attendance (AN-A) and hypothetical bias on WTP estimates is investigated. We also explore whether using shorter versions of the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) Scale to measure environmental attitudes (EA) affects estimates of WTP for green electricity.
The results indicate that non-price attributes of electricity services are significant determinants of consumer switching. Three latent classes with distinct preferences for the attributes are identified. Class 1 (40%) is mainly concerned about the power bill, and would switch supplier to save at least NZ$125 per year in power bills, ceteris paribus. This value mainly captures the status quo effect. Class 2 (46%) exhibits no status quo effect and values all the attributes offered including renewables, and particularly dislikes entrants from other sectors which have to charge at least NZ$135 less per year compared to a traditional retailer for a 50% chance of attracting customers. Class 3 (14%) consists of captive and loyal respondents who would not switch supplier for any realistic bill savings.
We find that failing to account for attribute non-attendance results in WTP estimates that are significantly lower for attributes that are not normally included in standard electricity plans. Also, respondents who claim to have ignored some attributes may not have done so; instead they assigned lower weights to these attributes. Respondents with low certainty scores are less sensitive to the power bill and are predicted to have significantly higher WTP. We find that using shorter versions of the NEP Scale to measure EA, increases bias in WTP for green electricity.  
We conclude that price differences in retail markets reflect, in part, consumer preferences for non-price attributes, and that providing consumers with information on the levels of non-price attributes could influence switching rates, the uptake of green electricity and potentially the level of competition in the retail electricity sector.

year: 2016

title: Temporal Stimulus Generalization in Humans

authors: Hay, Louise

subjects: Temporal

abstract: Two experiments investigated temporal generalization in humans using a computer based task which presented red dots with a range of lines at different angles and durations.  After training with a standard S+ stimulus duration, generalization testing commenced with an asymmetrical series of presentations of lines of varying angles and durations.  
Experiment 1 had four conditions, with a standard S+ duration being the presentation of a red dot for a fixed duration.  Two of the conditions had the addition of the line tilt.  In Experiment 1, 11 participants produced a peak shift effect in all four conditions.  
Experiment 2 was the same as Experiment 1 except that there were two conditions.  Condition 2 was the same as Condition 1 except that the participants were given a verbal instruction to think of the line tilt as if hands on a clock.  All 9 participants produced a peak shift effect in both conditions.
In Experiment 2, the effect of categorising the stimuli and in turn changing the stimuli from a continuous dimension to discrete stimuli (one in which could be labelled) and the verbal instruction of to think of the line tilt as if hands on a clock did not have an effect on the peak shift as predicted.   
The results for both experiments were in accordance with predictions of adaptation level theory.

text: Temporal Stimulus Generalization in Humans Two experiments investigated temporal generalization in humans using a computer based task which presented red dots with a range of lines at different angles and durations.  After training with a standard S+ stimulus duration, generalization testing commenced with an asymmetrical series of presentations of lines of varying angles and durations.  
Experiment 1 had four conditions, with a standard S+ duration being the presentation of a red dot for a fixed duration.  Two of the conditions had the addition of the line tilt.  In Experiment 1, 11 participants produced a peak shift effect in all four conditions.  
Experiment 2 was the same as Experiment 1 except that there were two conditions.  Condition 2 was the same as Condition 1 except that the participants were given a verbal instruction to think of the line tilt as if hands on a clock.  All 9 participants produced a peak shift effect in both conditions.
In Experiment 2, the effect of categorising the stimuli and in turn changing the stimuli from a continuous dimension to discrete stimuli (one in which could be labelled) and the verbal instruction of to think of the line tilt as if hands on a clock did not have an effect on the peak shift as predicted.   
The results for both experiments were in accordance with predictions of adaptation level theory.

year: 2014

title: Wāhine Māori engagement with literacies

authors: Masters-Awatere, Bridgette

subjects: Literacy

abstract: Wāhine Māori engagement with literacies (2023) is a case study report in collaboration with Te Whakaruruhau. It has been undertaken as part of a larger project, The expression, experience and transcendence of low skills in Aotearoa New Zealand (2019–2024), the aim of which is to provide policy recommendations to improve life-course trajectories and socio-economic outcomes for adults with low literacy and numeracy skills in Aotearoa New Zealand. Broadly speaking, Wāhine Māori engagement with literacy examines the framing and application of literacy measures in contemporary New Zealand culture. More specifically, it is about the lives and learning of wāhine (women) Māori (the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand) within that culture and their attitudes towards, and complex relationships with, literacy as it is defined in their own lives and in the current setting. The study aims for a holistic understanding of lived literacies in driving the development of educational policies by public institutions and private groups. Reframing literacy as literacies is posited as a means to empower marginalised groups and to challenge the dominance of the Eurocentric education paradigm. Formal learning in English-language schools cannot be the extent of national literacy standards as it disregards Māori epistemological and ontological realities and can discount wāhine, many of whom may prioritise other modes of literacy. Centring their perspectives will bring about a more culturally inclusive future, one that makes space for the development of emotional and cultural literacies—as well as other forms such as digital, media, visual, financial, and health literacies—alongside the conventional version of literacy that has a monopoly in the present system.

text: Wāhine Māori engagement with literacies Wāhine Māori engagement with literacies (2023) is a case study report in collaboration with Te Whakaruruhau. It has been undertaken as part of a larger project, The expression, experience and transcendence of low skills in Aotearoa New Zealand (2019–2024), the aim of which is to provide policy recommendations to improve life-course trajectories and socio-economic outcomes for adults with low literacy and numeracy skills in Aotearoa New Zealand. Broadly speaking, Wāhine Māori engagement with literacy examines the framing and application of literacy measures in contemporary New Zealand culture. More specifically, it is about the lives and learning of wāhine (women) Māori (the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand) within that culture and their attitudes towards, and complex relationships with, literacy as it is defined in their own lives and in the current setting. The study aims for a holistic understanding of lived literacies in driving the development of educational policies by public institutions and private groups. Reframing literacy as literacies is posited as a means to empower marginalised groups and to challenge the dominance of the Eurocentric education paradigm. Formal learning in English-language schools cannot be the extent of national literacy standards as it disregards Māori epistemological and ontological realities and can discount wāhine, many of whom may prioritise other modes of literacy. Centring their perspectives will bring about a more culturally inclusive future, one that makes space for the development of emotional and cultural literacies—as well as other forms such as digital, media, visual, financial, and health literacies—alongside the conventional version of literacy that has a monopoly in the present system.

year: 2023-09-28