title: Harakeke (Phormium tenax) ecology and historical management by Maori: The changing landscape in New Zealand

authors: Wehi, Priscilla M.

subjects: ethnobotany

abstract: Harakeke (Phormium tenax: Phormiaceae) is an important weaving resource for the indigenous Maori people of New Zealand. This research project investigates Maori knowledge of harakeke ecology and management practices prior to the early 20th century within the context of a study of relevant environmental parameters that limit its natural distribution. Ecological information referring to harakeke was analysed from interviews with elders and ancestral sayings (whakatauki). As well, documents from the late 181h to the early 20th century were examined, and environmental parameters for both harakeke and wharariki (Phormium cookianum) were quantified and analysed using correlative models. 
Interviews with 11 elders (from Waikato and Northland) identified key issues in harakeke management, including 'correct' harvesting procedures, use of natural harakeke stands, and specific use of different varieties. Planting practices varied regionally. Three different methods of excess harakeke disposal were reported, including burning. The 15 whakatauki analysed emphasise the interconnectedness of ecosystems, including pollinator-plant relationships for kaka and bellbirds. Four whakataukirefer to environmental tolerances for harakeke and two to the use of fire to stimulate harakeke growth. Others refer to competition between shoots, nutrient requirements, and the growth and multiplication of harakeke offsets. 
Numerous early reports indicate that harakeke has been cultivated throughout much of New Zealand, with cultivations ranging in size from a few bushes to at least several acres. Thirty six varieties were linked to specific weaving uses. Twenty varieties were cultivated, but ten prized fibre varieties were also harvested from natural stands. Numbers of recorded varieties varied between districts, with 31 recorded in Taranaki but only two recorded by name for Northland. Valued varieties, including raumoa and oue, were dispersed throughout the North Island. Mapping different varieties revealed a wide spatial spread for varieties such as rataroa and oue. Specific management techniques included seed germination as well as vegetative propagation. Early records of harakeke pests were not found. Records of harakeke irrigation and the use of fire indicate that Maori created suitable conditions for new cultivations or pii harakeke, which may also have prevented insect infestation. Cumulatively, there is evidence of extensive active management of harakeke. Wharariki and harakeke were found to have distinct environmental niches, with wharariki better able to withstand cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and greater frequency of ground frost than harakeke.
Predictive mapping of harakeke for the northern region of New Zealand shows a low probability of naturally occurring harakeke in much of the Northland and Waikato interior, and a high probability in coastal areas with warm temperatures. It seems likely that Maori transported harakeke into areas where it was unlikely to have occurred naturally and that some apparently 'natural' stands ofharakeke were created and maintained by Maori.
Maori cultivation, dispersal and active management of harakeke, as well as possible creation of wetland areas, emphasises the importance of harakeke as an economic resource prior to European colonisation, and indicates how the New Zealand landscape may have been transformed. Maori ecological knowledge can contribute new perspectives to restoration ecology and ecosystem research.

text: Harakeke (Phormium tenax) ecology and historical management by Maori: The changing landscape in New Zealand Harakeke (Phormium tenax: Phormiaceae) is an important weaving resource for the indigenous Maori people of New Zealand. This research project investigates Maori knowledge of harakeke ecology and management practices prior to the early 20th century within the context of a study of relevant environmental parameters that limit its natural distribution. Ecological information referring to harakeke was analysed from interviews with elders and ancestral sayings (whakatauki). As well, documents from the late 181h to the early 20th century were examined, and environmental parameters for both harakeke and wharariki (Phormium cookianum) were quantified and analysed using correlative models. 
Interviews with 11 elders (from Waikato and Northland) identified key issues in harakeke management, including 'correct' harvesting procedures, use of natural harakeke stands, and specific use of different varieties. Planting practices varied regionally. Three different methods of excess harakeke disposal were reported, including burning. The 15 whakatauki analysed emphasise the interconnectedness of ecosystems, including pollinator-plant relationships for kaka and bellbirds. Four whakataukirefer to environmental tolerances for harakeke and two to the use of fire to stimulate harakeke growth. Others refer to competition between shoots, nutrient requirements, and the growth and multiplication of harakeke offsets. 
Numerous early reports indicate that harakeke has been cultivated throughout much of New Zealand, with cultivations ranging in size from a few bushes to at least several acres. Thirty six varieties were linked to specific weaving uses. Twenty varieties were cultivated, but ten prized fibre varieties were also harvested from natural stands. Numbers of recorded varieties varied between districts, with 31 recorded in Taranaki but only two recorded by name for Northland. Valued varieties, including raumoa and oue, were dispersed throughout the North Island. Mapping different varieties revealed a wide spatial spread for varieties such as rataroa and oue. Specific management techniques included seed germination as well as vegetative propagation. Early records of harakeke pests were not found. Records of harakeke irrigation and the use of fire indicate that Maori created suitable conditions for new cultivations or pii harakeke, which may also have prevented insect infestation. Cumulatively, there is evidence of extensive active management of harakeke. Wharariki and harakeke were found to have distinct environmental niches, with wharariki better able to withstand cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and greater frequency of ground frost than harakeke.
Predictive mapping of harakeke for the northern region of New Zealand shows a low probability of naturally occurring harakeke in much of the Northland and Waikato interior, and a high probability in coastal areas with warm temperatures. It seems likely that Maori transported harakeke into areas where it was unlikely to have occurred naturally and that some apparently 'natural' stands ofharakeke were created and maintained by Maori.
Maori cultivation, dispersal and active management of harakeke, as well as possible creation of wetland areas, emphasises the importance of harakeke as an economic resource prior to European colonisation, and indicates how the New Zealand landscape may have been transformed. Maori ecological knowledge can contribute new perspectives to restoration ecology and ecosystem research.

year: 2005

title: Balancing openness with Indigenous data sovereignty: An opportunity to leave no one behind in the journey to sequence all of life

authors: Cartney, Ann M. Mc

abstract: The field of genomics has benefited greatly from its "openness" approach to data sharing. However, with the increasing volume of sequence information being created and stored and the growing number of international genomics efforts, the equity of openness is under question. The United Nations Convention of Biodiversity aims to develop and adopt a standard policy on access and benefit-sharing for sequence information across signatory parties. This standardization will have profound implications on genomics research, requiring a new definition of open data sharing. The redefinition of openness is not unwarranted, as its limitations have unintentionally introduced barriers of engagement to some, including Indigenous Peoples. This commentary provides an insight into the key challenges of openness faced by the researchers who aspire to protect and conserve global biodiversity, including Indigenous flora and fauna, and presents immediate, practical solutions that, if implemented, will equip the genomics community with both the diversity and inclusivity required to respectfully protect global biodiversity.

text: Balancing openness with Indigenous data sovereignty: An opportunity to leave no one behind in the journey to sequence all of life The field of genomics has benefited greatly from its "openness" approach to data sharing. However, with the increasing volume of sequence information being created and stored and the growing number of international genomics efforts, the equity of openness is under question. The United Nations Convention of Biodiversity aims to develop and adopt a standard policy on access and benefit-sharing for sequence information across signatory parties. This standardization will have profound implications on genomics research, requiring a new definition of open data sharing. The redefinition of openness is not unwarranted, as its limitations have unintentionally introduced barriers of engagement to some, including Indigenous Peoples. This commentary provides an insight into the key challenges of openness faced by the researchers who aspire to protect and conserve global biodiversity, including Indigenous flora and fauna, and presents immediate, practical solutions that, if implemented, will equip the genomics community with both the diversity and inclusivity required to respectfully protect global biodiversity.

year: 2022

title: Corporate social responsibility in the New Zealand hotel industry: An explorative study

authors: Mackenzie, Murray James

subjects: CSR

abstract: This explorative study examines the extent to which New Zealand 4 and 5 star hotel managers have adopted CSR practices and their commitment through CSR participation. Additionally, this study investigated the influence that New Zealand Government CSR sponsored incentives (“Qualmark” and “Enviro Awards”) have on the adoption of social and environmental practices into the hotel industry and the effect this has on hotel employees' CSR participation. Importantly, previous studies have indicated that employee involvement in CSR has been shown to result a more committed and loyal workforce. This study has indicated that through a greater CSR participation, hotel managers can influence attraction and retention of employees, therefore lowering employee turnover. 
A pragmatic interruptive methodological approach was adopted in designing the research method for this study.  By employing a mixed method research approach the findings of this study reveal that Chain hotel is more likely to incorporate a CSR approach in daily operations. However, evidence from this study has indicated that a hotel's involvement in social and environmental activities have no significant affect upon employee decision to seek employment with that hotel. This study also provides evidence that the initial cost of CSR implementation affected the type and range of CSR involvement. Although employee involvement in CSR activities was viewed as important, there was a lack of related rewards and incentives for CSR participation in line with organisational and employee goals and perception offered in this study. Evidence from this study also implies that an employee's social and environmentally responsibility, although beneficial, was not looked upon as essential in employee selection criteria. However, some hotels had incorporated social and environmental questions when selecting employees, indicating a gradual change in adopting a more knowledgeable and socially involved employee.   
These findings will contribute to evaluating the impacts of a hotel manager's CSR decisions influencing employee turnover and CSR participation.

text: Corporate social responsibility in the New Zealand hotel industry: An explorative study This explorative study examines the extent to which New Zealand 4 and 5 star hotel managers have adopted CSR practices and their commitment through CSR participation. Additionally, this study investigated the influence that New Zealand Government CSR sponsored incentives (“Qualmark” and “Enviro Awards”) have on the adoption of social and environmental practices into the hotel industry and the effect this has on hotel employees' CSR participation. Importantly, previous studies have indicated that employee involvement in CSR has been shown to result a more committed and loyal workforce. This study has indicated that through a greater CSR participation, hotel managers can influence attraction and retention of employees, therefore lowering employee turnover. 
A pragmatic interruptive methodological approach was adopted in designing the research method for this study.  By employing a mixed method research approach the findings of this study reveal that Chain hotel is more likely to incorporate a CSR approach in daily operations. However, evidence from this study has indicated that a hotel's involvement in social and environmental activities have no significant affect upon employee decision to seek employment with that hotel. This study also provides evidence that the initial cost of CSR implementation affected the type and range of CSR involvement. Although employee involvement in CSR activities was viewed as important, there was a lack of related rewards and incentives for CSR participation in line with organisational and employee goals and perception offered in this study. Evidence from this study also implies that an employee's social and environmentally responsibility, although beneficial, was not looked upon as essential in employee selection criteria. However, some hotels had incorporated social and environmental questions when selecting employees, indicating a gradual change in adopting a more knowledgeable and socially involved employee.   
These findings will contribute to evaluating the impacts of a hotel manager's CSR decisions influencing employee turnover and CSR participation.

year: 2015