title: What's the risk? A comparison of actual and perceived driving risk

authors: Charlton, Samuel G.

subjects: Social Sciences

abstract: It has long been presumed that drivers’ perceptions of risk play an important role in guiding on-road behaviour. The answer to how accurately drivers perceive the momentary risk of a driving situation, however, is unknown. This research compared drivers’ perceptions of the momentary risk for a range of roads to the objective risk associated with those roads. Videos of rural roads, filmed from the drivers’ perspective, were presented to 69 participants seated in a driving simulator while they indicated the momentary levels of risk they were experiencing by moving a risk meter mounted on the steering wheel. Estimates of the objective levels of risk for the roads were calculated using road protection scores from the KiwiRAP database (part of the International Road Assessment Programme). Subsequently, the participants also provided risk estimates for still photos taken from the videos. Another group of 10 participants viewed the videos and photos while their eye movements and fixations were recorded. In a third experiment, 14 participants drove a subset of the roads in a car while providing risk ratings at selected points of interest. Results showed a high degree of consistency across the different methods. Certain road situations were rated as being riskier than the objective risk, and perhaps more importantly, the risk of other situations was significantly under-rated. Horizontal curves and narrow lanes were associated with over-rated risk estimates, while intersections and roadside hazards such as narrow road shoulders, power poles and ditches were significantly under-rated. Analysis of eye movements indicated that drivers did not fixate these features and that the spread of fixations, pupil size and eye blinks were significantly correlated with the risk ratings. An analysis of the road design elements at 77 locations in the video revealed five road characteristics that predicted nearly 80% of the variance in drivers’ risk perceptions; horizontal curvature, lane and shoulder width, gradient, and the presence of median barriers.

text: What's the risk? A comparison of actual and perceived driving risk It has long been presumed that drivers’ perceptions of risk play an important role in guiding on-road behaviour. The answer to how accurately drivers perceive the momentary risk of a driving situation, however, is unknown. This research compared drivers’ perceptions of the momentary risk for a range of roads to the objective risk associated with those roads. Videos of rural roads, filmed from the drivers’ perspective, were presented to 69 participants seated in a driving simulator while they indicated the momentary levels of risk they were experiencing by moving a risk meter mounted on the steering wheel. Estimates of the objective levels of risk for the roads were calculated using road protection scores from the KiwiRAP database (part of the International Road Assessment Programme). Subsequently, the participants also provided risk estimates for still photos taken from the videos. Another group of 10 participants viewed the videos and photos while their eye movements and fixations were recorded. In a third experiment, 14 participants drove a subset of the roads in a car while providing risk ratings at selected points of interest. Results showed a high degree of consistency across the different methods. Certain road situations were rated as being riskier than the objective risk, and perhaps more importantly, the risk of other situations was significantly under-rated. Horizontal curves and narrow lanes were associated with over-rated risk estimates, while intersections and roadside hazards such as narrow road shoulders, power poles and ditches were significantly under-rated. Analysis of eye movements indicated that drivers did not fixate these features and that the spread of fixations, pupil size and eye blinks were significantly correlated with the risk ratings. An analysis of the road design elements at 77 locations in the video revealed five road characteristics that predicted nearly 80% of the variance in drivers’ risk perceptions; horizontal curvature, lane and shoulder width, gradient, and the presence of median barriers.

year: 2014-07-01

title: Practice Makes the Difference: The Effect of Rate-Building and Rate-Controlled Practice on Retention

authors: McGregor, Susan Jennifer

subjects: Pecision Teaching

abstract: Six home-schooled students and one adult participant each initially practiced to accuracy two decks of five previously unknown multiplication facts. The decks were yoked for practice and reinforcement. Once accurate performance was achieved, overpractice was undertaken using custom computer software that allowed either fast (free-operant) or rate controlled responding. Rate-building practice, to an established fluency performance standard, was used with one deck while practice with the other deck was rate-controlled.  The number of times a fact was practiced was the same for both methods. Response rate and accuracy was assessed after training to accuracy, at the end of overpractice and after 4  and 8-weeks of no practice. The assessment at the end of rate-building confirmed that rate building resulted in fast and accurate responding. It also confirmed that, for the rate controlled facts, response rates did not meet the fluency performance standard. However, the 4- and 8-week retention assessments showed no consistent differences in accuracy or response rate between the rate-controlled and rate built decks. After 8 weeks without practice, performance on the rate-built deck was not significantly different to that prior to rate building. These results suggest that practice to fluency does not lead to superior retention when compared to the same amount of rate-controlled practice. The results also indicate that when a skill is practiced to fluency, a period without practice leads to deterioration, to pre-rate-building levels, of accuracy and response rate. This study highlights the need for research examining the role of maintenance in the effectiveness of fluency based learning like Precision Teaching.

text: Practice Makes the Difference: The Effect of Rate-Building and Rate-Controlled Practice on Retention Six home-schooled students and one adult participant each initially practiced to accuracy two decks of five previously unknown multiplication facts. The decks were yoked for practice and reinforcement. Once accurate performance was achieved, overpractice was undertaken using custom computer software that allowed either fast (free-operant) or rate controlled responding. Rate-building practice, to an established fluency performance standard, was used with one deck while practice with the other deck was rate-controlled.  The number of times a fact was practiced was the same for both methods. Response rate and accuracy was assessed after training to accuracy, at the end of overpractice and after 4  and 8-weeks of no practice. The assessment at the end of rate-building confirmed that rate building resulted in fast and accurate responding. It also confirmed that, for the rate controlled facts, response rates did not meet the fluency performance standard. However, the 4- and 8-week retention assessments showed no consistent differences in accuracy or response rate between the rate-controlled and rate built decks. After 8 weeks without practice, performance on the rate-built deck was not significantly different to that prior to rate building. These results suggest that practice to fluency does not lead to superior retention when compared to the same amount of rate-controlled practice. The results also indicate that when a skill is practiced to fluency, a period without practice leads to deterioration, to pre-rate-building levels, of accuracy and response rate. This study highlights the need for research examining the role of maintenance in the effectiveness of fluency based learning like Precision Teaching.

year: 2006

title: A history of Māori literacy success

authors: Derby, Melissa

abstract: This article explores literacy in 19th century Māori society, and in particular, this work considers the initial interactions Māori tribal groups had with literacy following contact with British settlers. The overarching purpose of this article is to respond to the increasingly prevalent suggestion that literacy is a Western competency, and that to be concerned with ensuring Māori children are achieving well in reading and writing is an act of colonisation. This work illustrates that these narratives run counter to the history, behaviour, and values of many tribal groups in New Zealand. More specifically, the historical interactions Māori had with literacy illustrate that both the ability and the desire to succeed in reading and writing was a feature of Māori historical practices. Therefore, to ensure high levels of literacy achievement in contemporary times is not a colonising act but rather aligns with Māori history, behaviour, and values.

text: A history of Māori literacy success This article explores literacy in 19th century Māori society, and in particular, this work considers the initial interactions Māori tribal groups had with literacy following contact with British settlers. The overarching purpose of this article is to respond to the increasingly prevalent suggestion that literacy is a Western competency, and that to be concerned with ensuring Māori children are achieving well in reading and writing is an act of colonisation. This work illustrates that these narratives run counter to the history, behaviour, and values of many tribal groups in New Zealand. More specifically, the historical interactions Māori had with literacy illustrate that both the ability and the desire to succeed in reading and writing was a feature of Māori historical practices. Therefore, to ensure high levels of literacy achievement in contemporary times is not a colonising act but rather aligns with Māori history, behaviour, and values.

year: 2021