title: Phosphofructokinases from extremely thermophilic microorganisms

authors: Ding, Yan-Huai R.

abstract: The distribution of phosphofructokinase (PFK) phosphoryl donor subtypes [ATP-, ADP- and pyrophosphate (PPᵢ)] in the deeply rooted phylogenetic lineages of thermophiles is of interest with respect to the evolution of PFK activity and of the Embden-Meyerhof (EM) pathway. To gain additional insight into the understanding of this key enzyme in the central metabolism within the three domains of life, PFKs with different phosphoryl donor specificities were studied from some extremely thermophilic bacteria, archaea and non-thermophilic bacteria.

Results from a survey of species from the order Spirochaetales showed that all of the tested species of Spirochaeta, both thermophilic and mesophilic species/strains, possessed a PPᵢ-dependent PFK (PPᵢ-PFK) activity. However, ATP dependent-PFK activities were found to be predominant in some strains of Leptospira and Treponema. Overall, the results suggest that the presence of a PPᵢ-PFK might be a reliable phenotypic marker for the genus Spirochaeta and that there are some potentially interesting differences in how the catabolism of saccharides is controlled among members of genera within the Spirochaetales.

The PPᵢ-PFK from an extremely thermophilic bacterium Dictyoglomus thermophilum Rt46 B.1 has been purified and characterised. Biochemical studies with the Dictyoglomus native enzyme showed that this enzyme possesses some properties that are similar to other bacterial PPᵢ-PFKs. The enzyme is homodimeric, non-allosteric and possesses an acidic pH optimum for the forward reaction and a neutral to slightly alkaline optimum for the reverse reaction. The enzyme requires Mg²⁺ for optimal activity and has significant activity with tripolyphosphate (PPPᵢ) and polyphosphate (polyP, n=15±3). The Dictyoglomus enzyme is extremely sensitive to Cu²⁺.

The Dictyoglomus PPᵢ-PFK-encoding gene (pfp) was also sequenced, cloned and the enzyme expressed in Escherichia coli. The full-length sequence of the pfp gene was obtained using degenerate PCR and inverse-PCR. Sequence analysis and a phylogenetic comparison suggest that the Dictyoglomus PPᵢ-PFK represents an ancient lineage and is closely related to those PPᵢPFKѕ from the archaeal Thermoproteus tenax, bacterial Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Amycolatopsis methanolica, and the ATP-PFK from Streptomyces coelicolor, all of which belong to group III PFKѕ.

A biochemical comparison between the Dictyoglomus native and recombinant enzymes demonstrated that they possessed a high degree of similarity in most of properties examined, e.g. the optimal pH values and Mg²⁺ concentration for activity, lack of allosteric response to metabolites, thermostability, most kinetic parameters and extreme sensitivity to Cu²⁺.

An ATP-PFK from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Desulfurococcus amylolyticus was also purified to homogeneity and characterised. The enzyme was confirmed as an ATP-dependent enzyme possessing no activity with either ADP or PPᵢ. The Desulfarococcus enzyme was not significantly affected by traditional allosteric modulators, e.g. phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), citrate, succinate or fructose- 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-P₂). This enzyme similar to what was found for the Dictyoglomus PFK is also extremely sensitive to Cu²⁺.
 
Two genes from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima, one encoding a PPᵢ- PFK and the other an ATP-PFK, were cloned, expressed and characterised. Both enzymes were shown to be extremely thermostable, activated by KC1 and strongly inhibited by Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺. The PPᵢ-PFK enzyme is indicated to be a non-allosteric homodimer which catalyses a near-reversible reaction. Significantly, the apparent Kₘ values for the phosphoryl donors PPᵢ, PPPᵢ and polyP (n=15±3) for the forward reaction were 67 μM, 10 μM and 3.8 μM respectively, and thus the enzyme might operate in vivo as a polyP-dependent PFK. The ATP-PFK exhibited significant activity with other nucleotide triphosphates, GTP (42% of control activity with ATP), UTP (14%), CTP (13%) and TTP (10%), but its activity was not significantly affected by common allosteric effectors, i.e. PEP, although it was partially inhibited by citrate. Surprisingly, the ATP-PFK was strongly inhibited by PPᵢ, PPPᵢ and polyP. The inhibition by PPᵢ could be partially relieved by nucleotide diphosphates including ADP, GDP, TDP and UDP. The T. maritima ATP-PFK is thus likely to be modulated by PPᵢ and/or polyP which would represent a novel mechanism for controlling glycolytic flux.

Taken together, the data suggests that the distribution, subtypes and regulatory mechanisms of PFK in the control of the EM pathway in extremely thermophilic organisms are much more complex than we expected. As originally intended, the results from this work has provided additional insights into the understanding of the evolution of this key enzyme in glycolysis.

text: Phosphofructokinases from extremely thermophilic microorganisms The distribution of phosphofructokinase (PFK) phosphoryl donor subtypes [ATP-, ADP- and pyrophosphate (PPᵢ)] in the deeply rooted phylogenetic lineages of thermophiles is of interest with respect to the evolution of PFK activity and of the Embden-Meyerhof (EM) pathway. To gain additional insight into the understanding of this key enzyme in the central metabolism within the three domains of life, PFKs with different phosphoryl donor specificities were studied from some extremely thermophilic bacteria, archaea and non-thermophilic bacteria.

Results from a survey of species from the order Spirochaetales showed that all of the tested species of Spirochaeta, both thermophilic and mesophilic species/strains, possessed a PPᵢ-dependent PFK (PPᵢ-PFK) activity. However, ATP dependent-PFK activities were found to be predominant in some strains of Leptospira and Treponema. Overall, the results suggest that the presence of a PPᵢ-PFK might be a reliable phenotypic marker for the genus Spirochaeta and that there are some potentially interesting differences in how the catabolism of saccharides is controlled among members of genera within the Spirochaetales.

The PPᵢ-PFK from an extremely thermophilic bacterium Dictyoglomus thermophilum Rt46 B.1 has been purified and characterised. Biochemical studies with the Dictyoglomus native enzyme showed that this enzyme possesses some properties that are similar to other bacterial PPᵢ-PFKs. The enzyme is homodimeric, non-allosteric and possesses an acidic pH optimum for the forward reaction and a neutral to slightly alkaline optimum for the reverse reaction. The enzyme requires Mg²⁺ for optimal activity and has significant activity with tripolyphosphate (PPPᵢ) and polyphosphate (polyP, n=15±3). The Dictyoglomus enzyme is extremely sensitive to Cu²⁺.

The Dictyoglomus PPᵢ-PFK-encoding gene (pfp) was also sequenced, cloned and the enzyme expressed in Escherichia coli. The full-length sequence of the pfp gene was obtained using degenerate PCR and inverse-PCR. Sequence analysis and a phylogenetic comparison suggest that the Dictyoglomus PPᵢ-PFK represents an ancient lineage and is closely related to those PPᵢPFKѕ from the archaeal Thermoproteus tenax, bacterial Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Amycolatopsis methanolica, and the ATP-PFK from Streptomyces coelicolor, all of which belong to group III PFKѕ.

A biochemical comparison between the Dictyoglomus native and recombinant enzymes demonstrated that they possessed a high degree of similarity in most of properties examined, e.g. the optimal pH values and Mg²⁺ concentration for activity, lack of allosteric response to metabolites, thermostability, most kinetic parameters and extreme sensitivity to Cu²⁺.

An ATP-PFK from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Desulfurococcus amylolyticus was also purified to homogeneity and characterised. The enzyme was confirmed as an ATP-dependent enzyme possessing no activity with either ADP or PPᵢ. The Desulfarococcus enzyme was not significantly affected by traditional allosteric modulators, e.g. phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), citrate, succinate or fructose- 2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-P₂). This enzyme similar to what was found for the Dictyoglomus PFK is also extremely sensitive to Cu²⁺.
 
Two genes from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima, one encoding a PPᵢ- PFK and the other an ATP-PFK, were cloned, expressed and characterised. Both enzymes were shown to be extremely thermostable, activated by KC1 and strongly inhibited by Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺. The PPᵢ-PFK enzyme is indicated to be a non-allosteric homodimer which catalyses a near-reversible reaction. Significantly, the apparent Kₘ values for the phosphoryl donors PPᵢ, PPPᵢ and polyP (n=15±3) for the forward reaction were 67 μM, 10 μM and 3.8 μM respectively, and thus the enzyme might operate in vivo as a polyP-dependent PFK. The ATP-PFK exhibited significant activity with other nucleotide triphosphates, GTP (42% of control activity with ATP), UTP (14%), CTP (13%) and TTP (10%), but its activity was not significantly affected by common allosteric effectors, i.e. PEP, although it was partially inhibited by citrate. Surprisingly, the ATP-PFK was strongly inhibited by PPᵢ, PPPᵢ and polyP. The inhibition by PPᵢ could be partially relieved by nucleotide diphosphates including ADP, GDP, TDP and UDP. The T. maritima ATP-PFK is thus likely to be modulated by PPᵢ and/or polyP which would represent a novel mechanism for controlling glycolytic flux.

Taken together, the data suggests that the distribution, subtypes and regulatory mechanisms of PFK in the control of the EM pathway in extremely thermophilic organisms are much more complex than we expected. As originally intended, the results from this work has provided additional insights into the understanding of the evolution of this key enzyme in glycolysis.

year: 2000

title: Characterization and adsorption performance of New Zealand biochar for the removal of paracetamol and ibuprofen from synthetic solutions in batch and column systems

authors: Shein, Shun Lei Shwe Yee

abstract: Pharmaceuticals are a significant class of emerging organic contaminants that have been increasingly detected in aquatic environments. Their persistence and limited removal by conventional treatment methods poses considerable risks to both flora and fauna. The study investigates the adsorption performance of New Zealand-sourced biochar both raw and surface-modified for the removal of two widely used pharmaceuticals, paracetamol and ibuprofen, from aqueous solutions. With its local availability and carbon-rich structure, biochar was evaluated as an innovative solution to address the growing challenge of emerging pharmaceutical pollutants in aquatic environments. The research aimed to characterize the physicochemical properties of biochar and evaluate its adsorption capacity under batch and column configurations, addressing removal efficiency, equilibrium behaviour, kinetic mechanisms, and dynamic breakthrough performance. The biochar was instrumentally analysed by BET surface area analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX) to examine the biochar’s surface structure and functional groups. Premium Biochar demonstrated the highest BET surface area (308.3 m²/g), which further increased to 354 m²/g after 30% KOH activation, indicating enhanced porosity and improved availability of adsorption sites. Batch adsorption experiments revealed that paracetamol achieved higher removal efficiencies and adsorption capacities (up to 8.5 mg/g) compared to ibuprofen (maximum of 2.8 mg/g), largely due to its smaller molecular size and greater polarity. The non-linear technique using isotherm and kinetic model was used to validate the process efficiency of pharmaceuticals removal. Kinetic modelling indicated pseudo-second order and Elovich models best described the adsorption mechanisms (R² > 0.997), confirming chemisorption on heterogeneous surfaces as the dominant process. Isotherm analysis showed multilayer Freundlich adsorption for paracetamol and monolayer Langmuir adsorption for ibuprofen reflecting differences in multilayer versus monolayer adsorption behaviour. Column experiments were conducted under single-pass, closed-loop recirculation, and semi-continuous dosing modes. Single-pass continuous flow showed in rapid breakthrough at short empty bed contact times (1.6–4.5 minutes) due to hydraulic limitations. In contrast, closed-loop recirculation columns achieved up to 90% paracetamol removal and 58% ibuprofen removal under extended operation, specifically, the optimal condition when using 1 mm particle size KOH-activated biochar (1 mm KOH-modified biochar, 15 L/min flow, 500 min runtime). Semi-continuous dosing experiments demonstrated gradual adsorbent saturation with final adsorption capacities of approximately 0.43–0.57 mg/g, supporting the need for regeneration strategies in long-term applications.

text: Characterization and adsorption performance of New Zealand biochar for the removal of paracetamol and ibuprofen from synthetic solutions in batch and column systems Pharmaceuticals are a significant class of emerging organic contaminants that have been increasingly detected in aquatic environments. Their persistence and limited removal by conventional treatment methods poses considerable risks to both flora and fauna. The study investigates the adsorption performance of New Zealand-sourced biochar both raw and surface-modified for the removal of two widely used pharmaceuticals, paracetamol and ibuprofen, from aqueous solutions. With its local availability and carbon-rich structure, biochar was evaluated as an innovative solution to address the growing challenge of emerging pharmaceutical pollutants in aquatic environments. The research aimed to characterize the physicochemical properties of biochar and evaluate its adsorption capacity under batch and column configurations, addressing removal efficiency, equilibrium behaviour, kinetic mechanisms, and dynamic breakthrough performance. The biochar was instrumentally analysed by BET surface area analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM–EDX) to examine the biochar’s surface structure and functional groups. Premium Biochar demonstrated the highest BET surface area (308.3 m²/g), which further increased to 354 m²/g after 30% KOH activation, indicating enhanced porosity and improved availability of adsorption sites. Batch adsorption experiments revealed that paracetamol achieved higher removal efficiencies and adsorption capacities (up to 8.5 mg/g) compared to ibuprofen (maximum of 2.8 mg/g), largely due to its smaller molecular size and greater polarity. The non-linear technique using isotherm and kinetic model was used to validate the process efficiency of pharmaceuticals removal. Kinetic modelling indicated pseudo-second order and Elovich models best described the adsorption mechanisms (R² > 0.997), confirming chemisorption on heterogeneous surfaces as the dominant process. Isotherm analysis showed multilayer Freundlich adsorption for paracetamol and monolayer Langmuir adsorption for ibuprofen reflecting differences in multilayer versus monolayer adsorption behaviour. Column experiments were conducted under single-pass, closed-loop recirculation, and semi-continuous dosing modes. Single-pass continuous flow showed in rapid breakthrough at short empty bed contact times (1.6–4.5 minutes) due to hydraulic limitations. In contrast, closed-loop recirculation columns achieved up to 90% paracetamol removal and 58% ibuprofen removal under extended operation, specifically, the optimal condition when using 1 mm particle size KOH-activated biochar (1 mm KOH-modified biochar, 15 L/min flow, 500 min runtime). Semi-continuous dosing experiments demonstrated gradual adsorbent saturation with final adsorption capacities of approximately 0.43–0.57 mg/g, supporting the need for regeneration strategies in long-term applications.

year: 2025-07-06

title: Sixty years of adult learning in Aotearoa New Zealand: Looking back to the 1960s and beyond the 2020s

authors: Amundsen, Diana Leigh

abstract: This article offers a historical analysis of the past sixty years of adult learning in Aotearoa New Zealand and critically appraises events which have shaped today’s context. Drawing on a substantial body of research by key adult educators, researchers and scholars, the review assesses historical, socio-cultural, and political factors that influenced adult learning policies and practices. First, a brief discussion is given of traditional Māori education, colonisation, bi-culturalism and multiculturalism for relevance to the Aotearoa New Zealand context. Next, a historical analysis is offered in a decade-by-decade review. Looking back over the past sixty years, this historical analysis exposes key influences which have shaped adult learning in Aotearoa, and discusses trends emerging as significant future directions going into and beyond the 2020s.

text: Sixty years of adult learning in Aotearoa New Zealand: Looking back to the 1960s and beyond the 2020s This article offers a historical analysis of the past sixty years of adult learning in Aotearoa New Zealand and critically appraises events which have shaped today’s context. Drawing on a substantial body of research by key adult educators, researchers and scholars, the review assesses historical, socio-cultural, and political factors that influenced adult learning policies and practices. First, a brief discussion is given of traditional Māori education, colonisation, bi-culturalism and multiculturalism for relevance to the Aotearoa New Zealand context. Next, a historical analysis is offered in a decade-by-decade review. Looking back over the past sixty years, this historical analysis exposes key influences which have shaped adult learning in Aotearoa, and discusses trends emerging as significant future directions going into and beyond the 2020s.

year: 2020