title: Passive in-situ estrogenic potency sampling with DGT-YES

authors: Iuele, Helena

abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate the presence of bisphenolic plastics and synthetic estrogens in municipal water systems, as well as along the Waikato River. The concentration of these compounds was assessed using a novel combination of methods that allowed the actual levels of endocrine disruption to be ascertained. This was based on diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs) coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis (HPLC/MS) and the Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES).
DGT estimated time-integrated concentrations while HPLC/MS ensured a robust, automated and sensitive routine analysis. Most significantly, YES, a biomarker-based assay, was deployed to quantify the total estrogenic potency of the compounds adsorbed to the DGT matrix. The unique dimension of this research was to extend the application of DGTs to estrogen sampling and to combine the DGT and YES technique to provide in situ quantification of the estrogenic potency of water bodies through time.
DGTs were developed specifically for the sampling of BPA, BPAF, E2 and EE2. Several physical-chemical and chemical analyses were conducted to attest the suitability of the agarose (1.5%) and agarose (1.5%) – activated charcoal (1%) chosen respectively as diffusive gel and binding gel. They were found to be suitable for the detection of organic molecules with a bigger steric hindrance and agarose (1.5%) – AC (1%) appeared suitable for long deployments thanks to its high thermal resistance. An HPLC-MS method was optimised to quantify the compounds of interest. A methanol (MeOH, NH4OH 0.06 M)/water (H2O, NH4OH 0.06 M) fast gradient elution program of 15 min was chosen to elute the analytes, MS parameters were optimized for each compound and the negative mode was selected to perform the fragmentation. LODs and LOQs of all targets resulted in the nanomolar range assuming 24 h as deployment time at 25°C with a 0.54 mm thick diffusive gel. The sensitivity of the method was increased in the sub-nanomolar range by adopting long deployment times (18 days) thus enhancing the accumulation of the targets.The YES was successfully developed to quantify the total estrogenic potency of the DGTs eluted. The dose-response calibration curve of E2, employed as a control, demonstrated LOD and experimental EC50 values in the sub-nanomolar range. EE2, BPA and BPAF demonstrated agonistic endocrine activity, in particular EE2 being more potent than E2, while BPAF and BPA were less potent.
The environmental monitoring assessed the efficiency of removal of the selected ECs during the water treatment processes from river-to-tap and effluent-to-treated wastewater in Hamilton as well the water quality from source-to-outfall of the Waikato River. The HPLC-MS and YES results highlighted that primary treatments were not suitable for the removal of bisphenolic plastics and estrogens both at drinkable and wastewater treatment plants in Hamilton where they appear to worsen the water quality making these pollutants more available. At both treatment plants, the concentration and the estrogenic activity of the targets appeared to fluctuate around the same value, pointing out the inefficiency of removal of these compounds with the actual treatments. EE2 contributed the most to the estrogenic activity due to its higher concentration and higher potency at all sites.
The concentration and the estrogenic potency of all targets were found to be higher downstream at all sites monitored along the Waikato River. EE2 was the compound with the highest concentration at all sites. A moderate worsening of water quality was apparent moving from Taupo to Tuakau. The most polluted sites were Hamilton and Huntley after the outlets of wastewater treatment plants that serve the main conurbations in the area. The EDC concentrations recorded in November 2017 and February 2018 during the monitoring of the Waikato River at Hamilton upstream and downstream sites showed a significant dilution due to the weather conditions.
The data from a previous monitoring of the Waikato River adopting an SPE-HRGC/MS method were compared with those of the DGT-HPLC/MS investigation. The water quality appeared slightly worsened at all sites from 2013 to 2018 due to increased concentrations of BPA and EE2. The DGT-HPLC/MS quantification with the YES assay proved that not only active samplings but passive samplings as well can be coupled with a bioassay. This combined approach had the excellent potential to provide a reliable total estrogenic potency evaluation with time integrated concentrations. The use of the assay allowed estimation of the total estrogenic potency of the eluted DGT. The eluate appeared enriched by other compounds with estrogenic activity, suggesting this type of DGT could be suitable for the sampling and accumulation of other analytes that could be further investigated via HPLC/MS analysis. Compared to the traditional active approaches, DGT ensured sampling and concentration in one step, was easy to prepare and to use, required a very simple sample preparation step prior to analysis, and provided sensitivity in the sub-nanomolar range comparable to active sampling analyses. The YES assay was responsive, robust and easy to use compared to other assays that require laborious procedures and longer times for estrogenic potency evaluation and high sensitivity in the sub-nanomolar range comparable to other assays.

text: Passive in-situ estrogenic potency sampling with DGT-YES The purpose of this research was to investigate the presence of bisphenolic plastics and synthetic estrogens in municipal water systems, as well as along the Waikato River. The concentration of these compounds was assessed using a novel combination of methods that allowed the actual levels of endocrine disruption to be ascertained. This was based on diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs) coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis (HPLC/MS) and the Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES).
DGT estimated time-integrated concentrations while HPLC/MS ensured a robust, automated and sensitive routine analysis. Most significantly, YES, a biomarker-based assay, was deployed to quantify the total estrogenic potency of the compounds adsorbed to the DGT matrix. The unique dimension of this research was to extend the application of DGTs to estrogen sampling and to combine the DGT and YES technique to provide in situ quantification of the estrogenic potency of water bodies through time.
DGTs were developed specifically for the sampling of BPA, BPAF, E2 and EE2. Several physical-chemical and chemical analyses were conducted to attest the suitability of the agarose (1.5%) and agarose (1.5%) – activated charcoal (1%) chosen respectively as diffusive gel and binding gel. They were found to be suitable for the detection of organic molecules with a bigger steric hindrance and agarose (1.5%) – AC (1%) appeared suitable for long deployments thanks to its high thermal resistance. An HPLC-MS method was optimised to quantify the compounds of interest. A methanol (MeOH, NH4OH 0.06 M)/water (H2O, NH4OH 0.06 M) fast gradient elution program of 15 min was chosen to elute the analytes, MS parameters were optimized for each compound and the negative mode was selected to perform the fragmentation. LODs and LOQs of all targets resulted in the nanomolar range assuming 24 h as deployment time at 25°C with a 0.54 mm thick diffusive gel. The sensitivity of the method was increased in the sub-nanomolar range by adopting long deployment times (18 days) thus enhancing the accumulation of the targets.The YES was successfully developed to quantify the total estrogenic potency of the DGTs eluted. The dose-response calibration curve of E2, employed as a control, demonstrated LOD and experimental EC50 values in the sub-nanomolar range. EE2, BPA and BPAF demonstrated agonistic endocrine activity, in particular EE2 being more potent than E2, while BPAF and BPA were less potent.
The environmental monitoring assessed the efficiency of removal of the selected ECs during the water treatment processes from river-to-tap and effluent-to-treated wastewater in Hamilton as well the water quality from source-to-outfall of the Waikato River. The HPLC-MS and YES results highlighted that primary treatments were not suitable for the removal of bisphenolic plastics and estrogens both at drinkable and wastewater treatment plants in Hamilton where they appear to worsen the water quality making these pollutants more available. At both treatment plants, the concentration and the estrogenic activity of the targets appeared to fluctuate around the same value, pointing out the inefficiency of removal of these compounds with the actual treatments. EE2 contributed the most to the estrogenic activity due to its higher concentration and higher potency at all sites.
The concentration and the estrogenic potency of all targets were found to be higher downstream at all sites monitored along the Waikato River. EE2 was the compound with the highest concentration at all sites. A moderate worsening of water quality was apparent moving from Taupo to Tuakau. The most polluted sites were Hamilton and Huntley after the outlets of wastewater treatment plants that serve the main conurbations in the area. The EDC concentrations recorded in November 2017 and February 2018 during the monitoring of the Waikato River at Hamilton upstream and downstream sites showed a significant dilution due to the weather conditions.
The data from a previous monitoring of the Waikato River adopting an SPE-HRGC/MS method were compared with those of the DGT-HPLC/MS investigation. The water quality appeared slightly worsened at all sites from 2013 to 2018 due to increased concentrations of BPA and EE2. The DGT-HPLC/MS quantification with the YES assay proved that not only active samplings but passive samplings as well can be coupled with a bioassay. This combined approach had the excellent potential to provide a reliable total estrogenic potency evaluation with time integrated concentrations. The use of the assay allowed estimation of the total estrogenic potency of the eluted DGT. The eluate appeared enriched by other compounds with estrogenic activity, suggesting this type of DGT could be suitable for the sampling and accumulation of other analytes that could be further investigated via HPLC/MS analysis. Compared to the traditional active approaches, DGT ensured sampling and concentration in one step, was easy to prepare and to use, required a very simple sample preparation step prior to analysis, and provided sensitivity in the sub-nanomolar range comparable to active sampling analyses. The YES assay was responsive, robust and easy to use compared to other assays that require laborious procedures and longer times for estrogenic potency evaluation and high sensitivity in the sub-nanomolar range comparable to other assays.

year: 2019

title: A trajectory of financial inclusion towards economic inclusion: Empirical evidence from LICs-Ghana as a case.

authors: Agyekum, Kwame Francis

subjects: Financial inclusion

abstract: This study investigates the trajectory of financial inclusion towards economic inclusion in Ghana. The aim is to track the dynamisms and the conduits through which financial inclusion translates into an inclusive-economic system in a way that becomes pro-poor and growth engendering. Specifically, the study  i) examines the role that regulatory and institutional factors play in the attainment of broader inclusion in lower-income countries (LICs), with Ghana as reference case; ii) examines the means by which technological deepening contributes to drive towards an inclusive financial system in Ghana; iii) identifies firm attributes that are most significantly predisposed to the risk of exclusion from the use of formal financial services; iv) ascertains the most efficient means through which financial inclusion can impact on economic growth in Ghana; and v) scientifically assesses the means through which financial inclusion translates into economic inclusion at the household level.
The raison d'être of financial intermediaries (FIs), is fundamental to our understanding of why financial exclusion exists and appears endemic in LICs. Past studies have failed to link the two. The complete understanding of why financial exclusion exists and appears dominant in LICs is embedded in the understanding of why financial intermediaries exist and operate. It becomes difficult to explain why exclusion exists if FIs are merely perceived as delegated monitors, risk managers and a coalition of information sharers. Profit-maximisation, which implies cost minimisation, suggests that intermediaries will refrain from serving those economic agents perceived to be associated with significant information asymmetry and transaction costs that characterise imperfect financial markets. 
This thesis, therefore, contributes to illuminating an understanding of why financial exclusion appears prevalent in LICs and demonstrates a means through which economic inclusion can emerge out of an inclusive financial system. Failure to establish these linkages tends to lead to financial policies that either lack theoretic groundings or miss the intended outcomes.
Using multi-sourced datasets from reliable domains such as the World Bank (World Development Indicators, Gallup Poll Global Findex and Enterprise Surveys), World Governance Index, Transparency International, Heritage Foundation/Wall Street and the ICPSR (via Princeton University database) allows the underlying relationships to be investigated. The empirical investigations are based on the four key pillars/dimensions of financial inclusion (impact, quality, usage and access-IQUA). Econometric models are estimated using multiple regression analysis. Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) process, Instrumental Variable Estimation (IVE) and Linear but semi-parametric models are employed in empirical estimations that lead to robust outcomes.
The use of logistic regression, which is a family of binary models based on MLE process, underscores the concept of financial inclusion/exclusion itself being dichotomous in nature. That is, either an agent is included financially or otherwise. Again, the adoption of the generalised method of moment (GMM) model which is part of the IV estimation process recognises the problem of endogeneity and simultaneity that often characterise household-level data on financial accessibility and its impact. 
The findings indicate that financial inclusion does not occur in a vacuum, and the impact of institutional and infrastructural factors on a broader inclusion is critical. The study identifies key institutional factors, such as national-level governance, corruption perceptions, economic freedom, and economic and technological deepening, as playing crucial roles. The findings further suggest that rule of law (which ensures contract enforceability), political stability, regulatory quality, voice and accountability, all significantly influence financial inclusion positively.
The study finds a positive impact of technology on financial inclusion. Specifically, the use of modern technological amenities, such as mobile phone and internet, can offer digitalised-based, branchless financial services which help reduce both information asymmetry and transaction costs for providing financial services. The findings further suggest that nonbank-based digitalised-financial services (DFS) provision appears non-discriminatory, compared with bank-based DFS. Again, the inclusion driven by bank-based DFS reduces over time, while nonbank-based DFS rises. This substitutability trend observed in this study defines the contemporaneous trade-off of bank-based DFS and nonbank-based DFS over time. 
Identification of the firm-level characteristics that either contribute to, or reduce their predisposition to risk of being excluded from the use of financial services is one of the key objectives that motivated this study. Using a logistic regression model as a link function and with a rich dataset from the World Bank Enterprise Survey on Ghana, the results suggest that firm age, size, sector of operation and ownership of website are key determinants of financial inclusion. The likelihood of exclusion among firms reduces with website ownership that helps reduce information and transaction costs associated with lending to information-opaque sectors such as SMEs. Similarly, the findings suggest that the retailing, matured and high-sales firms have a better chance of accessing lines of credit from financial intermediaries. Consistent with prior studies, risk of financial exclusion is found to be higher among SMEs than larger firms.  Again, sole-proprietorship and partnership firms are found to have high-risk dispositions when it comes to credit constraints, compared with publicly listed companies.
The study further reveals that certain key structural changes at national level that occurred specifically within the follow-up data collection period, account for the observed differences in the results of the two datasets used. The political change from the private sector-led administration (baseline) to the social democratic regime (follow-up), the discovery of oil in commercial quantities and the eight-month post-election hearing by the country’s Supreme Court were identified as having played a part in exerting latent impacts on financial exclusion/inclusion, especially among SMEs.
Using a quantile regression model, the study contributes significantly to our understanding on the role financial development, inclusion and structure play in economic growth of developing economies. The results suggest that the banks’ growth-facilitating role is much stronger than that of the financial markets. Depth of financial inclusion (proxied by the amount of credit to the private sector), is found to be positively related to economic growth. This suggests that, for LICs, the growth-enhancing effect of finance thrives on the strength of financial institutions as it engenders wider inclusion.
The results further suggest that the impact of a financial inclusion programme at household level depends largely on the quality of the process leading to its implementation.  It reveals that donor- funded programmes implemented via donor-agencies have more positive poverty-reducing impacts on the beneficiaries than those implemented by government agencies.
These findings have policy ramifications for LICs aiming for a broader and more inclusive financial system. That technological infrastructure and amenities significantly influence financial inclusion, suggests that developing countries aiming to achieve a financially inclusive society must pay attention to these institutional contexts with more emphasis on technological infrastructure.
At the firm level, policy attention of donors, sector players and regulators needs to focus on the firm’s attributes that are predisposed to their exclusion from the formal financial sector, while strengthening policies for those that are inclusive-inducing. Policy and capacity building on enterprise growth and sustainability will be strategic in targeting the inclusion-inhibiting factors. Firm-level constraints that confront small, individually owned businesses when addressed will both ensure their inclusion in the formal financial system and, most importantly, their growth and sustainability. Tracking potential externalities that originate from structural changes and how that affects other sectors at the micro-level, must not elude policy attention. This way, mitigation measures will be fashioned to address any negative confounders while any unintended gains are consolidated. 
For donor agencies, a clear signal is given: channel pro-growth and poverty-reducing financial inclusion funds through financial intermediaries where wider inclusion can be guaranteed. The synergistic role of the implementation quality of a financial inclusion programme/policy is very important to ensure the desired impact at the household level. This is particularly important to the understanding of how access and utilisation, which define broader financial inclusion, would be incentivised.
Policymakers, donors and researchers pursuing the agenda of financial inclusion need to pay attention to the wider institutional and environmental context within which broader inclusion is expected, as they do interact pari-pasu in creating a harmonized developmental trajectory. Poverty-reducing impacts of financial inclusion will then be guaranteed as financial inclusion translates into broader economic inclusion. This way, the trajectory of financial inclusion leading to economic inclusion is trackable to serves as a basis for inclusion policy formulation in LICs.

text: A trajectory of financial inclusion towards economic inclusion: Empirical evidence from LICs-Ghana as a case. This study investigates the trajectory of financial inclusion towards economic inclusion in Ghana. The aim is to track the dynamisms and the conduits through which financial inclusion translates into an inclusive-economic system in a way that becomes pro-poor and growth engendering. Specifically, the study  i) examines the role that regulatory and institutional factors play in the attainment of broader inclusion in lower-income countries (LICs), with Ghana as reference case; ii) examines the means by which technological deepening contributes to drive towards an inclusive financial system in Ghana; iii) identifies firm attributes that are most significantly predisposed to the risk of exclusion from the use of formal financial services; iv) ascertains the most efficient means through which financial inclusion can impact on economic growth in Ghana; and v) scientifically assesses the means through which financial inclusion translates into economic inclusion at the household level.
The raison d'être of financial intermediaries (FIs), is fundamental to our understanding of why financial exclusion exists and appears endemic in LICs. Past studies have failed to link the two. The complete understanding of why financial exclusion exists and appears dominant in LICs is embedded in the understanding of why financial intermediaries exist and operate. It becomes difficult to explain why exclusion exists if FIs are merely perceived as delegated monitors, risk managers and a coalition of information sharers. Profit-maximisation, which implies cost minimisation, suggests that intermediaries will refrain from serving those economic agents perceived to be associated with significant information asymmetry and transaction costs that characterise imperfect financial markets. 
This thesis, therefore, contributes to illuminating an understanding of why financial exclusion appears prevalent in LICs and demonstrates a means through which economic inclusion can emerge out of an inclusive financial system. Failure to establish these linkages tends to lead to financial policies that either lack theoretic groundings or miss the intended outcomes.
Using multi-sourced datasets from reliable domains such as the World Bank (World Development Indicators, Gallup Poll Global Findex and Enterprise Surveys), World Governance Index, Transparency International, Heritage Foundation/Wall Street and the ICPSR (via Princeton University database) allows the underlying relationships to be investigated. The empirical investigations are based on the four key pillars/dimensions of financial inclusion (impact, quality, usage and access-IQUA). Econometric models are estimated using multiple regression analysis. Maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) process, Instrumental Variable Estimation (IVE) and Linear but semi-parametric models are employed in empirical estimations that lead to robust outcomes.
The use of logistic regression, which is a family of binary models based on MLE process, underscores the concept of financial inclusion/exclusion itself being dichotomous in nature. That is, either an agent is included financially or otherwise. Again, the adoption of the generalised method of moment (GMM) model which is part of the IV estimation process recognises the problem of endogeneity and simultaneity that often characterise household-level data on financial accessibility and its impact. 
The findings indicate that financial inclusion does not occur in a vacuum, and the impact of institutional and infrastructural factors on a broader inclusion is critical. The study identifies key institutional factors, such as national-level governance, corruption perceptions, economic freedom, and economic and technological deepening, as playing crucial roles. The findings further suggest that rule of law (which ensures contract enforceability), political stability, regulatory quality, voice and accountability, all significantly influence financial inclusion positively.
The study finds a positive impact of technology on financial inclusion. Specifically, the use of modern technological amenities, such as mobile phone and internet, can offer digitalised-based, branchless financial services which help reduce both information asymmetry and transaction costs for providing financial services. The findings further suggest that nonbank-based digitalised-financial services (DFS) provision appears non-discriminatory, compared with bank-based DFS. Again, the inclusion driven by bank-based DFS reduces over time, while nonbank-based DFS rises. This substitutability trend observed in this study defines the contemporaneous trade-off of bank-based DFS and nonbank-based DFS over time. 
Identification of the firm-level characteristics that either contribute to, or reduce their predisposition to risk of being excluded from the use of financial services is one of the key objectives that motivated this study. Using a logistic regression model as a link function and with a rich dataset from the World Bank Enterprise Survey on Ghana, the results suggest that firm age, size, sector of operation and ownership of website are key determinants of financial inclusion. The likelihood of exclusion among firms reduces with website ownership that helps reduce information and transaction costs associated with lending to information-opaque sectors such as SMEs. Similarly, the findings suggest that the retailing, matured and high-sales firms have a better chance of accessing lines of credit from financial intermediaries. Consistent with prior studies, risk of financial exclusion is found to be higher among SMEs than larger firms.  Again, sole-proprietorship and partnership firms are found to have high-risk dispositions when it comes to credit constraints, compared with publicly listed companies.
The study further reveals that certain key structural changes at national level that occurred specifically within the follow-up data collection period, account for the observed differences in the results of the two datasets used. The political change from the private sector-led administration (baseline) to the social democratic regime (follow-up), the discovery of oil in commercial quantities and the eight-month post-election hearing by the country’s Supreme Court were identified as having played a part in exerting latent impacts on financial exclusion/inclusion, especially among SMEs.
Using a quantile regression model, the study contributes significantly to our understanding on the role financial development, inclusion and structure play in economic growth of developing economies. The results suggest that the banks’ growth-facilitating role is much stronger than that of the financial markets. Depth of financial inclusion (proxied by the amount of credit to the private sector), is found to be positively related to economic growth. This suggests that, for LICs, the growth-enhancing effect of finance thrives on the strength of financial institutions as it engenders wider inclusion.
The results further suggest that the impact of a financial inclusion programme at household level depends largely on the quality of the process leading to its implementation.  It reveals that donor- funded programmes implemented via donor-agencies have more positive poverty-reducing impacts on the beneficiaries than those implemented by government agencies.
These findings have policy ramifications for LICs aiming for a broader and more inclusive financial system. That technological infrastructure and amenities significantly influence financial inclusion, suggests that developing countries aiming to achieve a financially inclusive society must pay attention to these institutional contexts with more emphasis on technological infrastructure.
At the firm level, policy attention of donors, sector players and regulators needs to focus on the firm’s attributes that are predisposed to their exclusion from the formal financial sector, while strengthening policies for those that are inclusive-inducing. Policy and capacity building on enterprise growth and sustainability will be strategic in targeting the inclusion-inhibiting factors. Firm-level constraints that confront small, individually owned businesses when addressed will both ensure their inclusion in the formal financial system and, most importantly, their growth and sustainability. Tracking potential externalities that originate from structural changes and how that affects other sectors at the micro-level, must not elude policy attention. This way, mitigation measures will be fashioned to address any negative confounders while any unintended gains are consolidated. 
For donor agencies, a clear signal is given: channel pro-growth and poverty-reducing financial inclusion funds through financial intermediaries where wider inclusion can be guaranteed. The synergistic role of the implementation quality of a financial inclusion programme/policy is very important to ensure the desired impact at the household level. This is particularly important to the understanding of how access and utilisation, which define broader financial inclusion, would be incentivised.
Policymakers, donors and researchers pursuing the agenda of financial inclusion need to pay attention to the wider institutional and environmental context within which broader inclusion is expected, as they do interact pari-pasu in creating a harmonized developmental trajectory. Poverty-reducing impacts of financial inclusion will then be guaranteed as financial inclusion translates into broader economic inclusion. This way, the trajectory of financial inclusion leading to economic inclusion is trackable to serves as a basis for inclusion policy formulation in LICs.

year: 2017

title: Culture and climate change: A study of future-proofing Māori tourism businesses

authors: Tawhai, Crystal Candace

subjects: culture

abstract: This thesis explores how prepared Māori tourism businesses are to adapt to climate change and how Māori values may influence the business's perception of responses to climate change. As climate impacts are growing in New Zealand, as a result of increasing extreme weather events, how can Māori tourism businesses protect their taonga (resources)? Taonga in the context of this study includes Māori values, lands, seas and their businesses. Furthermore, the literature indicates that Māori tourism significantly contributes to the economic, social and cultural wellbeing for Māori and wider New Zealand (NZ Māori Tourism, 2018). 
At a specific level, the study focuses on three Māori tourism businesses. Two of the businesses are North Island-based whānau-owned enterprises, one on Kāpiti Island and the other in Napier. The third is a hapū-owned business located in Kaikoura in the South Island. Drawing on kaupapa Māori frameworks built on Māori struggles for tino rangatiratanga and mana motuhake (self-determination), the study adheres to kaupapa Māori principles of carrying out research by Māori to benefit Māori. The primary data for the study was collected through semi-structured interviews with each of the businesses, taking care to ensure the cultural safety of the participants and using appropriate tikanga (protocol) in each interview. 

The findings of the study show that Māori tourism businesses are adapting to environmental changes but are unsure about the pace of climate change. The uncertainties are due to a lack of access to information and competing priorities within their businesses. The research also shows how decisions made by local government as well as business perceptions of local and central government institutions negatively impacts on the ability of businesses to adapt to climate change. While there were differences in the businesses’ treatment of science and scientific information, all of them prioritised Māori cultural values. Significantly, these values underpin all the activities of the businesses, including, environmental enhancement and protection. An emphasis on Māori values in facilitated partnerships between tourism businesses, government bodies, and other community stakeholders on co-designing climate change adaptation strategies can help the tourism sector to prepare for a changing climate.

text: Culture and climate change: A study of future-proofing Māori tourism businesses This thesis explores how prepared Māori tourism businesses are to adapt to climate change and how Māori values may influence the business's perception of responses to climate change. As climate impacts are growing in New Zealand, as a result of increasing extreme weather events, how can Māori tourism businesses protect their taonga (resources)? Taonga in the context of this study includes Māori values, lands, seas and their businesses. Furthermore, the literature indicates that Māori tourism significantly contributes to the economic, social and cultural wellbeing for Māori and wider New Zealand (NZ Māori Tourism, 2018). 
At a specific level, the study focuses on three Māori tourism businesses. Two of the businesses are North Island-based whānau-owned enterprises, one on Kāpiti Island and the other in Napier. The third is a hapū-owned business located in Kaikoura in the South Island. Drawing on kaupapa Māori frameworks built on Māori struggles for tino rangatiratanga and mana motuhake (self-determination), the study adheres to kaupapa Māori principles of carrying out research by Māori to benefit Māori. The primary data for the study was collected through semi-structured interviews with each of the businesses, taking care to ensure the cultural safety of the participants and using appropriate tikanga (protocol) in each interview. 

The findings of the study show that Māori tourism businesses are adapting to environmental changes but are unsure about the pace of climate change. The uncertainties are due to a lack of access to information and competing priorities within their businesses. The research also shows how decisions made by local government as well as business perceptions of local and central government institutions negatively impacts on the ability of businesses to adapt to climate change. While there were differences in the businesses’ treatment of science and scientific information, all of them prioritised Māori cultural values. Significantly, these values underpin all the activities of the businesses, including, environmental enhancement and protection. An emphasis on Māori values in facilitated partnerships between tourism businesses, government bodies, and other community stakeholders on co-designing climate change adaptation strategies can help the tourism sector to prepare for a changing climate.

year: 2020