title: The influence of income on subjective well-being: An empirical study in transitional country of Vietnam

authors: La, Binh

abstract: Abstracts
The pursuit of happiness is not merely a personal endeavour but also a societal imperative, influencing governmental policies and individual well-being. In the realm of economics, the correlation between income and happiness has long been a subject of scrutiny, particularly the phenomenon known as the income paradox. This paradox, first highlighted by Easterlin in 1974, questions why despite rising incomes, average happiness levels often remain stagnant. Numerous studies have since delved into this puzzle, with a predominant focus on relative income and income inequality. However, there remains a notable research gap on this subject in transitional countries, especially Vietnam.
This thesis aims to enrich the empirical study of the influence of income on subjective well-being, in part to elucidate the income - happiness paradox in Vietnam. This thesis includes three papers.
The first paper employs panel data sourced from the Viet Nam Access to Resources Household Survey (VARHS), spanning three periods — 2012, 2014, and 2016. Utilising fixed effect estimates, it assessed the impact of absolute income and three specifications of external comparison income on individual happiness. The focal point of this paper lies in categorizing subgroups based on relative income rather than absolute income. This approach enables the removal of conflicting relationships, allowing for a clearer understanding of how social comparison income influences individual happiness. Findings suggest that individuals compare themselves to multiple reference groups, both upwards to those better off and downwards to those worse off. However, statistically significant results emerge only when one comparison outweighs the other, or when both comparisons align either upward or downward impact. Intriguingly, the outcome shifts from asymmetry to near symmetry when the interactive effects among reference groups change from opposition to alignment. 
The second paper presents a pioneering investigation into the impact of self-perceived economic status on subjective well-being. This study employs panel data sourced from VARHS, covering three periods: 2016, 2018, and 2020. By employing fixed effect estimates, it investigates the dynamic interplay between absolute and relative self-perceived household economic status within the commune and subjective well-being. This exploration is conducted by applying four primary specifications and an analysis of the interaction between increases in per capita income and shifts in household economic status. The findings reveal that present self-perceived economics status positively influences personal happiness, while past self-perceived economics status has the opposite effect. 
Additionally, the influence of comparisons between present and past self-perceived relative income can exhibit symmetry or asymmetry, depending on the approach. Moreover, a positive relationship is identified between the distance in a household's current and past economic household rank and individual happiness. External comparison is asymmetrical and is a stronger factor than internal income comparison. Despite an increase in absolute income, overall personal SWB is not guaranteed to rise, underscoring the pivotal role of the perception of household economic position or relative income in determining individual happiness. 
The third and final paper represents one of the earliest studies to examine the influence of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction, employing an instrumental variable approach. It is also a pioneering study in utilising data from the VARHS of 2020 in investigating the effects of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction in Vietnam. The results highlight the adverse impact of perceived income inequality on individuals' overall life satisfaction, with controls for endogeneity further emphasizing this effect. These findings underscore the importance of government initiatives aimed at reducing economic disparities to enhance individual subjective well-being.

text: The influence of income on subjective well-being: An empirical study in transitional country of Vietnam Abstracts
The pursuit of happiness is not merely a personal endeavour but also a societal imperative, influencing governmental policies and individual well-being. In the realm of economics, the correlation between income and happiness has long been a subject of scrutiny, particularly the phenomenon known as the income paradox. This paradox, first highlighted by Easterlin in 1974, questions why despite rising incomes, average happiness levels often remain stagnant. Numerous studies have since delved into this puzzle, with a predominant focus on relative income and income inequality. However, there remains a notable research gap on this subject in transitional countries, especially Vietnam.
This thesis aims to enrich the empirical study of the influence of income on subjective well-being, in part to elucidate the income - happiness paradox in Vietnam. This thesis includes three papers.
The first paper employs panel data sourced from the Viet Nam Access to Resources Household Survey (VARHS), spanning three periods — 2012, 2014, and 2016. Utilising fixed effect estimates, it assessed the impact of absolute income and three specifications of external comparison income on individual happiness. The focal point of this paper lies in categorizing subgroups based on relative income rather than absolute income. This approach enables the removal of conflicting relationships, allowing for a clearer understanding of how social comparison income influences individual happiness. Findings suggest that individuals compare themselves to multiple reference groups, both upwards to those better off and downwards to those worse off. However, statistically significant results emerge only when one comparison outweighs the other, or when both comparisons align either upward or downward impact. Intriguingly, the outcome shifts from asymmetry to near symmetry when the interactive effects among reference groups change from opposition to alignment. 
The second paper presents a pioneering investigation into the impact of self-perceived economic status on subjective well-being. This study employs panel data sourced from VARHS, covering three periods: 2016, 2018, and 2020. By employing fixed effect estimates, it investigates the dynamic interplay between absolute and relative self-perceived household economic status within the commune and subjective well-being. This exploration is conducted by applying four primary specifications and an analysis of the interaction between increases in per capita income and shifts in household economic status. The findings reveal that present self-perceived economics status positively influences personal happiness, while past self-perceived economics status has the opposite effect. 
Additionally, the influence of comparisons between present and past self-perceived relative income can exhibit symmetry or asymmetry, depending on the approach. Moreover, a positive relationship is identified between the distance in a household's current and past economic household rank and individual happiness. External comparison is asymmetrical and is a stronger factor than internal income comparison. Despite an increase in absolute income, overall personal SWB is not guaranteed to rise, underscoring the pivotal role of the perception of household economic position or relative income in determining individual happiness. 
The third and final paper represents one of the earliest studies to examine the influence of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction, employing an instrumental variable approach. It is also a pioneering study in utilising data from the VARHS of 2020 in investigating the effects of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction in Vietnam. The results highlight the adverse impact of perceived income inequality on individuals' overall life satisfaction, with controls for endogeneity further emphasizing this effect. These findings underscore the importance of government initiatives aimed at reducing economic disparities to enhance individual subjective well-being.

year: 2024-11-30

title: The financial costs of environmental compliance through reducing nitrate leaching for a range of Waikato dairy farm system intensities

authors: Macdonald, Thomas Owen

subjects: Dairy

abstract: The New Zealand dairy industry has grown significantly over the past decade through increasing both area farmed and the number of cows milked.  Dairy farm systems have intensified as a result of the use of supplementary feeding, increased stocking rate and land use changes. Environmental regulations have been implemented as a means to limit and mitigate the negative environmental impacts of dairy under the National Policy Statement for Fresh Water. In the Waikato, regulation to date has predominatly been focused on effluent storage and application. As such, regulation has not yet shaped how Waikato farm systems are implemented. It is likely that future regulation for the Waikato will include nitrogen loss limits. Management of nutrient cycles will therefore become a high priority for effective farm management as well as being used to inform the adoption of changes to farming systems.
Four nitrogen (N) loss mitigation strategies were modelled for Waikato dairy farm systems of low, medium and high input to show the changes in N leaching and economic farm surplus per hectare. Reductions in N leaching for farm environmental compliance were able to be achieved through farm management practices as well as through additional farm infrastructure. Large reductions of 20 percent and 17 percent were achieved through destocking and cow housing scenarios respectively. A corresponding lift in farm surplus per hectare of 1 percent and 11 percent was recorded. Similarly, moderate reductions in N leaching were achieved through winter grazing off farm (9 percent) and increased effluent management facilities (8 percent). However a 4 percent reduction in farm surplus was noted for the winter grazing scenario while increasing the effluent area had no material impact on farm working expenses or revenue. 
This research identified cow housing as farm infrastructure which for low, medium and high input farm systems was able to return a reduction in N leaching greater than 15 percent and increase farm surplus by greater than 9 percent. 
The implementation of cow housing was modelled for a large scale farm system in the Taharua catchment where N limits are currently being enforced. Results of the modelling show a cow housing facility for large scale dairy farming has a positive internal rate of return of 13 percent. 
Waikato dairy farmers were surveyed to gather data on the initial capital cost of compliance and the farm system implications of increased regulation to date. The survey illustrated that effluent compliance has been the focus of investment and highlights the significant cost to the dairy industry of internalising environmental impacts. Aggregated survey results indicate that the capital cost of environmental spending to date for the average Waikato farm system has totaled $1.02 per kgMS, $1487 per hectare or $404 per cow. This equates to an average investment of $110,000 per farm.
A clear understanding of the impact of environmental regulation and the relative cost of compliance for different farm systems is needed to produce accurate measures of environmental performance and to improve the cost efficiency of dairy production systems. Importantly there is a need to understand how different farming systems can work together at a catchment, regional and national level to achieve both value creation and environmental sustainability as set out in the national policy frameworks.

text: The financial costs of environmental compliance through reducing nitrate leaching for a range of Waikato dairy farm system intensities The New Zealand dairy industry has grown significantly over the past decade through increasing both area farmed and the number of cows milked.  Dairy farm systems have intensified as a result of the use of supplementary feeding, increased stocking rate and land use changes. Environmental regulations have been implemented as a means to limit and mitigate the negative environmental impacts of dairy under the National Policy Statement for Fresh Water. In the Waikato, regulation to date has predominatly been focused on effluent storage and application. As such, regulation has not yet shaped how Waikato farm systems are implemented. It is likely that future regulation for the Waikato will include nitrogen loss limits. Management of nutrient cycles will therefore become a high priority for effective farm management as well as being used to inform the adoption of changes to farming systems.
Four nitrogen (N) loss mitigation strategies were modelled for Waikato dairy farm systems of low, medium and high input to show the changes in N leaching and economic farm surplus per hectare. Reductions in N leaching for farm environmental compliance were able to be achieved through farm management practices as well as through additional farm infrastructure. Large reductions of 20 percent and 17 percent were achieved through destocking and cow housing scenarios respectively. A corresponding lift in farm surplus per hectare of 1 percent and 11 percent was recorded. Similarly, moderate reductions in N leaching were achieved through winter grazing off farm (9 percent) and increased effluent management facilities (8 percent). However a 4 percent reduction in farm surplus was noted for the winter grazing scenario while increasing the effluent area had no material impact on farm working expenses or revenue. 
This research identified cow housing as farm infrastructure which for low, medium and high input farm systems was able to return a reduction in N leaching greater than 15 percent and increase farm surplus by greater than 9 percent. 
The implementation of cow housing was modelled for a large scale farm system in the Taharua catchment where N limits are currently being enforced. Results of the modelling show a cow housing facility for large scale dairy farming has a positive internal rate of return of 13 percent. 
Waikato dairy farmers were surveyed to gather data on the initial capital cost of compliance and the farm system implications of increased regulation to date. The survey illustrated that effluent compliance has been the focus of investment and highlights the significant cost to the dairy industry of internalising environmental impacts. Aggregated survey results indicate that the capital cost of environmental spending to date for the average Waikato farm system has totaled $1.02 per kgMS, $1487 per hectare or $404 per cow. This equates to an average investment of $110,000 per farm.
A clear understanding of the impact of environmental regulation and the relative cost of compliance for different farm systems is needed to produce accurate measures of environmental performance and to improve the cost efficiency of dairy production systems. Importantly there is a need to understand how different farming systems can work together at a catchment, regional and national level to achieve both value creation and environmental sustainability as set out in the national policy frameworks.

year: 2014

title: Restorying the individual: The cultural dimension of special education in three Te Arawa sites

authors: Macfarlane, Angus H

subjects: Māori special education

abstract: On the basis of observation of three Te Arawa educational sites, it is argued here that a central characteristic of successful programmes that attend to Māori students with special needs is cultural-centredness. Significant aspects of that culture-centredness are outlined here, aspects that, it is argued, are fundamental to the process of restorying that is, it is argued, critical to the success of many Māori students, particularly those with special needs.

text: Restorying the individual: The cultural dimension of special education in three Te Arawa sites On the basis of observation of three Te Arawa educational sites, it is argued here that a central characteristic of successful programmes that attend to Māori students with special needs is cultural-centredness. Significant aspects of that culture-centredness are outlined here, aspects that, it is argued, are fundamental to the process of restorying that is, it is argued, critical to the success of many Māori students, particularly those with special needs.

year: 2002-09