title: Factors that influence motor performance: Colour, inhibition and conscious processing

authors: Park, So Hyun

subjects: Colour

abstract: This thesis investigates potential psychological mechanisms that influence motor performance in sport, including colour, inhibition function, and propensity for conscious control of movement. A question was raised about whether individuals with poor inhibition function would be more likely to have a high propensity for conscious control (i.e., reinvestment) because they are less able to inhibit conscious control. However, Experiment 1 (Chapter 2) and Experiment 2 (Chapter 3) revealed a positive association between inhibition function (indexed by the Go/NoGo task) and propensity for conscious control of movement (assessed by the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, MSRS). 
Experiment 3 (Chapter 4) examined the effect of colour on inhibition function during a basketball-specific Go/NoGo task. Worse inhibition performance was evident when participants viewed an opponent in a green uniform compared to a red and a grey uniform, possibly because green conveys the meaning to ‘go’ (e.g., at traffic lights). Archival data of professional netball games was analysed to examine whether teams in green uniforms made more intercepts because green lowers an opponent’s ability to inhibit an ill-chosen pass. Findings revealed higher mean intercepts for teams wearing green uniforms than for teams wearing red and other-coloured uniforms. 
Experiment 4 (Chapter 5) examined whether the effect of uniform colour may be due to differences in an opponent’s perception of size. A side-by-side comparison task revealed that goalkeepers in a red and a blue uniform were perceived as larger than goalkeepers in a green uniform, possibly because red and blue colours convey the meaning of dominance and threat in a football context (e.g., the most successful teams, like Manchester United and Chelsea, wear red and blue colours). Experiment 5 (Chapter 6) examined whether viewing a red and a blue spectator background would elicit avoidance motivation during football penalty-kicks, because they conveyed the meaning of dominance and threat. Professional football players displayed avoidance motivation (i.e., choosing the easier option/ kicking towards the larger side of the goal) when viewing a red and a blue spectator background compared to other-coloured backgrounds. Based on Experiments 4 and 5, it was argued that viewing a red and a blue spectator background elicited avoidance motivation because red and blue convey the meaning of dominance and threat in football. 
In Experiment 6 (Chapter 7), retrospective analysis of professional football games was conducted to examine whether avoidance motivation would also be evident when facing a hostile crowd (a threatening stimulus). Consistently, penalty-kickers chose the easier option/ kicked to the larger side of the goal (i.e., avoidance motivation) more often when facing a hostile crowd rather than a supportive crowd. It was suggested that viewing a threatening stimulus (1) increases arousal levels, which exacerbates the negative emotions that are experienced by kickers during penalty-kicks in real-life or (2) viewing a threatening stimulus aids visual discrimination of available space, allowing kickers to identify and kick towards the larger side more often. 
The findings of this thesis revealed a positive association between inhibition function and movement specific reinvestment propensity, which suggests that ability to inhibit inappropriate motor responses may be a function of inter-personal differences in the propensity for conscious control of movements. Support was found for the effect of colour in sporting contexts. Overall, the findings suggest that the colour effect only occurs if the colour-meaning association reaches an adequate salience threshold within a specific context. In addition, it was argued that while context influences emotional valence (positive, negative emotions), colour influences arousal, which exacerbates the level of negative emotion. An attempt is made to integrate the findings from the thesis with previous evidence to begin development of a theoretical framework for the effects of colour on human performance.

text: Factors that influence motor performance: Colour, inhibition and conscious processing This thesis investigates potential psychological mechanisms that influence motor performance in sport, including colour, inhibition function, and propensity for conscious control of movement. A question was raised about whether individuals with poor inhibition function would be more likely to have a high propensity for conscious control (i.e., reinvestment) because they are less able to inhibit conscious control. However, Experiment 1 (Chapter 2) and Experiment 2 (Chapter 3) revealed a positive association between inhibition function (indexed by the Go/NoGo task) and propensity for conscious control of movement (assessed by the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, MSRS). 
Experiment 3 (Chapter 4) examined the effect of colour on inhibition function during a basketball-specific Go/NoGo task. Worse inhibition performance was evident when participants viewed an opponent in a green uniform compared to a red and a grey uniform, possibly because green conveys the meaning to ‘go’ (e.g., at traffic lights). Archival data of professional netball games was analysed to examine whether teams in green uniforms made more intercepts because green lowers an opponent’s ability to inhibit an ill-chosen pass. Findings revealed higher mean intercepts for teams wearing green uniforms than for teams wearing red and other-coloured uniforms. 
Experiment 4 (Chapter 5) examined whether the effect of uniform colour may be due to differences in an opponent’s perception of size. A side-by-side comparison task revealed that goalkeepers in a red and a blue uniform were perceived as larger than goalkeepers in a green uniform, possibly because red and blue colours convey the meaning of dominance and threat in a football context (e.g., the most successful teams, like Manchester United and Chelsea, wear red and blue colours). Experiment 5 (Chapter 6) examined whether viewing a red and a blue spectator background would elicit avoidance motivation during football penalty-kicks, because they conveyed the meaning of dominance and threat. Professional football players displayed avoidance motivation (i.e., choosing the easier option/ kicking towards the larger side of the goal) when viewing a red and a blue spectator background compared to other-coloured backgrounds. Based on Experiments 4 and 5, it was argued that viewing a red and a blue spectator background elicited avoidance motivation because red and blue convey the meaning of dominance and threat in football. 
In Experiment 6 (Chapter 7), retrospective analysis of professional football games was conducted to examine whether avoidance motivation would also be evident when facing a hostile crowd (a threatening stimulus). Consistently, penalty-kickers chose the easier option/ kicked to the larger side of the goal (i.e., avoidance motivation) more often when facing a hostile crowd rather than a supportive crowd. It was suggested that viewing a threatening stimulus (1) increases arousal levels, which exacerbates the negative emotions that are experienced by kickers during penalty-kicks in real-life or (2) viewing a threatening stimulus aids visual discrimination of available space, allowing kickers to identify and kick towards the larger side more often. 
The findings of this thesis revealed a positive association between inhibition function and movement specific reinvestment propensity, which suggests that ability to inhibit inappropriate motor responses may be a function of inter-personal differences in the propensity for conscious control of movements. Support was found for the effect of colour in sporting contexts. Overall, the findings suggest that the colour effect only occurs if the colour-meaning association reaches an adequate salience threshold within a specific context. In addition, it was argued that while context influences emotional valence (positive, negative emotions), colour influences arousal, which exacerbates the level of negative emotion. An attempt is made to integrate the findings from the thesis with previous evidence to begin development of a theoretical framework for the effects of colour on human performance.

year: 2021

title: The Perceptions of Beginning Secondary Teachers about their Professional Learning Experiences in the Solomon Islands Context

authors: Rodie, Patricia

abstract: This thesis was designed to investigate the professional learning experiences of beginning secondary teachers (BSTs) in the Solomon Islands context. The study sought to interpret and document the lived experiences of a cohort of BSTs who graduated from the Diploma in Secondary Teaching programme at the School of Education, Solomon Islands College of Higher Education (SOE-SICHE) in 2007. The focus of the study was on the sense of preparedness of the BSTs at the end of their initial teacher education, and their induction and professional learning experiences during the first two years of their teaching careers. The aim of the study was to find out how prepared the secondary teacher graduates from SOE-SICHE felt at the end of their teacher education programmes, the kind of professional support they needed as beginning teachers, and whether Solomon Islands secondary schools have adequate professional support systems in place to promote early career learning and development for beginning teachers. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will add to the body of knowledge in the field of teacher learning and professional development experiences of beginning teachers from a Pacific Island, Melanesian, socio-cultural context. Existing studies on teacher learning and development have been conducted mainly in economically developed western countries, which are significantly different from a developing Pacific Island nation such as the Solomon Islands. This study is the first of its kind to be conducted in the Solomon Islands. There is growing recognition in the literature that teacher learning and professional development should be linked to learning experiences that match teachers’ socio-cultural contexts (Flores, 2004). Proponents of such a view contend that learners assimilate new information better when their learning experiences are based on the integration of what they already know and the new phenomena and ideas with which they come in contact (Bruner, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978b; Wertsch, 1997). Hence, there is a need for education systems to provide effective learning opportunities and professional support for teachers that are relevant to the teaching and learning contexts in which they are going to find themselves during their teaching careers (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). It is also important to note that initial teacher education (ITE) programmes cannot fully prepare beginning teachers for their teaching roles. Rather, teachers should be viewed as learners who need ongoing professional support throughout their teaching careers (Loughran, 2007; Murdoch, 1979). Two phases of teacher professional learning that are considered to have significant impact on teachers’ practice and retention in the profession are induction and continuing teacher professional development (Feiman-Nemser, 2001a). Therefore, it is vitally important that pedagogies used during these phases are not only well supported and resourced by school systems but also appropriate to teachers’ socio-cultural contexts (Anthony, Bell, Haigh, & Kane, 2007a). There is ample research evidence to suggest that ITE does have an impact on the quality of teaching in the classroom and students’ learning achievements (Cochran-Smith, 2003). This research took an interpretive qualitative case study research approach, drawing on social constructivism and socio-cultural theoretical perspectives to make meaning of the professional learning experiences of beginning secondary teachers in the Solomon Islands context. The experiences of the 11 BSTs who participated in this study informed the collective case of BSTs’ experiences in Solomon Islands secondary schools. The study explored the experiences of the BSTs in the five secondary schools where they were posted, in light of the personal and contextual factors that might have influenced their perceptions about their initial teacher education, induction, and professional learning experiences. The primary sources of data were a questionnaire and three in-depth semi-structured interviews, each of which lasted 50 to 60 minutes. The data analysis process was based on the interpretive qualitative research methodology adopted in the study. Content analysis techniques were used to identify emerging themes, and interpretive phenomenological analysis techniques were then used to interpret and make meaning of the relationships within and between the key themes that emerged. This study highlighted the BSTs’ perceptions of their sense of preparedness and professional learning experiences from initial teacher education through to their second year of teaching. The findings of the study suggest that the BSTs felt inadequately prepared in some aspects of their teaching roles, and needed guidance and support from their school communities. The lack of formal induction and planned professional development opportunities for beginning teachers in the five secondary schools that were involved in this study meant that they were deprived of the kind of advice and guidance needed by new teacher graduates at the beginning of their teaching careers. The findings also suggested that beginning teachers had little opportunity to observe, reflect, and learn from their teaching practices because they were assigned the same teaching load as their experienced colleagues from day one. The BSTs also taught under difficult conditions, given the general lack of teaching resources, crowded classrooms, and lack of specialised classroom facilities and equipment for subjects such as science, home economics, industrial arts, and agriculture. Information and clear guidelines on school processes and procedures were also lacking, including advice about new teacher registration processes and procedures. Such teaching conditions were a major source of anxiety for the BSTs during the first two years of their teaching careers. The study raises questions about how well secondary teachers are prepared and supported as beginning teachers during their early years of teaching in the Solomon Islands context. It also raises questions about the quality of leadership, school cultures, expectations of individual beginning teachers, the nature of teachers’ work, government and societal expectations, and government support for quality teaching and learning in Solomon Islands secondary schools. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will help improve initial teacher education and teacher professional development practices in the Solomon Islands. This thesis argues that there is a need to develop secondary schools as professional learning communities, or ‘villages of learning’ that promotes and encourages reflective dialogue, ongoing professional conversations, and collaboration between education authorities, school principals and teachers, to enhance teachers teaching practices, and promote students’ learning outcomes.

text: The Perceptions of Beginning Secondary Teachers about their Professional Learning Experiences in the Solomon Islands Context This thesis was designed to investigate the professional learning experiences of beginning secondary teachers (BSTs) in the Solomon Islands context. The study sought to interpret and document the lived experiences of a cohort of BSTs who graduated from the Diploma in Secondary Teaching programme at the School of Education, Solomon Islands College of Higher Education (SOE-SICHE) in 2007. The focus of the study was on the sense of preparedness of the BSTs at the end of their initial teacher education, and their induction and professional learning experiences during the first two years of their teaching careers. The aim of the study was to find out how prepared the secondary teacher graduates from SOE-SICHE felt at the end of their teacher education programmes, the kind of professional support they needed as beginning teachers, and whether Solomon Islands secondary schools have adequate professional support systems in place to promote early career learning and development for beginning teachers. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will add to the body of knowledge in the field of teacher learning and professional development experiences of beginning teachers from a Pacific Island, Melanesian, socio-cultural context. Existing studies on teacher learning and development have been conducted mainly in economically developed western countries, which are significantly different from a developing Pacific Island nation such as the Solomon Islands. This study is the first of its kind to be conducted in the Solomon Islands. There is growing recognition in the literature that teacher learning and professional development should be linked to learning experiences that match teachers’ socio-cultural contexts (Flores, 2004). Proponents of such a view contend that learners assimilate new information better when their learning experiences are based on the integration of what they already know and the new phenomena and ideas with which they come in contact (Bruner, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978b; Wertsch, 1997). Hence, there is a need for education systems to provide effective learning opportunities and professional support for teachers that are relevant to the teaching and learning contexts in which they are going to find themselves during their teaching careers (Darling-Hammond & Bransford, 2005). It is also important to note that initial teacher education (ITE) programmes cannot fully prepare beginning teachers for their teaching roles. Rather, teachers should be viewed as learners who need ongoing professional support throughout their teaching careers (Loughran, 2007; Murdoch, 1979). Two phases of teacher professional learning that are considered to have significant impact on teachers’ practice and retention in the profession are induction and continuing teacher professional development (Feiman-Nemser, 2001a). Therefore, it is vitally important that pedagogies used during these phases are not only well supported and resourced by school systems but also appropriate to teachers’ socio-cultural contexts (Anthony, Bell, Haigh, & Kane, 2007a). There is ample research evidence to suggest that ITE does have an impact on the quality of teaching in the classroom and students’ learning achievements (Cochran-Smith, 2003). This research took an interpretive qualitative case study research approach, drawing on social constructivism and socio-cultural theoretical perspectives to make meaning of the professional learning experiences of beginning secondary teachers in the Solomon Islands context. The experiences of the 11 BSTs who participated in this study informed the collective case of BSTs’ experiences in Solomon Islands secondary schools. The study explored the experiences of the BSTs in the five secondary schools where they were posted, in light of the personal and contextual factors that might have influenced their perceptions about their initial teacher education, induction, and professional learning experiences. The primary sources of data were a questionnaire and three in-depth semi-structured interviews, each of which lasted 50 to 60 minutes. The data analysis process was based on the interpretive qualitative research methodology adopted in the study. Content analysis techniques were used to identify emerging themes, and interpretive phenomenological analysis techniques were then used to interpret and make meaning of the relationships within and between the key themes that emerged. This study highlighted the BSTs’ perceptions of their sense of preparedness and professional learning experiences from initial teacher education through to their second year of teaching. The findings of the study suggest that the BSTs felt inadequately prepared in some aspects of their teaching roles, and needed guidance and support from their school communities. The lack of formal induction and planned professional development opportunities for beginning teachers in the five secondary schools that were involved in this study meant that they were deprived of the kind of advice and guidance needed by new teacher graduates at the beginning of their teaching careers. The findings also suggested that beginning teachers had little opportunity to observe, reflect, and learn from their teaching practices because they were assigned the same teaching load as their experienced colleagues from day one. The BSTs also taught under difficult conditions, given the general lack of teaching resources, crowded classrooms, and lack of specialised classroom facilities and equipment for subjects such as science, home economics, industrial arts, and agriculture. Information and clear guidelines on school processes and procedures were also lacking, including advice about new teacher registration processes and procedures. Such teaching conditions were a major source of anxiety for the BSTs during the first two years of their teaching careers. The study raises questions about how well secondary teachers are prepared and supported as beginning teachers during their early years of teaching in the Solomon Islands context. It also raises questions about the quality of leadership, school cultures, expectations of individual beginning teachers, the nature of teachers’ work, government and societal expectations, and government support for quality teaching and learning in Solomon Islands secondary schools. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will help improve initial teacher education and teacher professional development practices in the Solomon Islands. This thesis argues that there is a need to develop secondary schools as professional learning communities, or ‘villages of learning’ that promotes and encourages reflective dialogue, ongoing professional conversations, and collaboration between education authorities, school principals and teachers, to enhance teachers teaching practices, and promote students’ learning outcomes.

year: 2011

title: The timing of the human discovery and colonization of New Zealand

authors: Sutton, Douglas G.

abstract: In discriminating between the proposed Long, Short and Intermediate Chronologies for New Zealand prehistory, archaeologists have recently voted by a narrow majority that the human commensal, Rattus exulans, was present in New Zealand up to 2000 years BP, although the preferred date of ‘first settlement’ by people was ca 800 years BP. A recalibration of New Zealand chronometric data has resulted in reinterpretations of the date and duration of occupation on critical archaeological sites. A remodelling of the ages of the putatively earliest sites in New Zealand has shown these to indicate only a broadly defined period when settlement occurred rather than the date when New Zealand was discovered (as the Short Chronology advocates have insisted). Finally, comparisons with archaeological research on islands elsewhere in the world have brought with them recognition that the discovery, exploration, initial settlement and colonization of New Zealand by Polynesian voyagers were broadly consecutive processes. This paper reviews a range of current evidence in the context of its current theorization and affirms the Long Chronology, recognizing it as the most plausible hypothesis.

text: The timing of the human discovery and colonization of New Zealand In discriminating between the proposed Long, Short and Intermediate Chronologies for New Zealand prehistory, archaeologists have recently voted by a narrow majority that the human commensal, Rattus exulans, was present in New Zealand up to 2000 years BP, although the preferred date of ‘first settlement’ by people was ca 800 years BP. A recalibration of New Zealand chronometric data has resulted in reinterpretations of the date and duration of occupation on critical archaeological sites. A remodelling of the ages of the putatively earliest sites in New Zealand has shown these to indicate only a broadly defined period when settlement occurred rather than the date when New Zealand was discovered (as the Short Chronology advocates have insisted). Finally, comparisons with archaeological research on islands elsewhere in the world have brought with them recognition that the discovery, exploration, initial settlement and colonization of New Zealand by Polynesian voyagers were broadly consecutive processes. This paper reviews a range of current evidence in the context of its current theorization and affirms the Long Chronology, recognizing it as the most plausible hypothesis.

year: 2008