title: N-gram models of agreement in language

authors: Smith, Anthony Clive

abstract: Conventional n-gram language models are well-established as powerful yet simple mechanisms for characterising language structure when low data complexity is the primary objective. Much of their predictive power can be traced to a relatively small number of common word sequences usually comprised of grammatical terms, and a large number of infrequent word patterns comprised of thematic terms with high mutual information. The drawback for conventional approaches is an exceedingly large number of other n-grams which waste probability mass without making a reciprocal contribution in the formulation of accurate probability estimates. 

This thesis describes a simple modification to the n-gram approach which attempts to preserve and enhance the most useful characteristics of conventional models while mitigating their weaknesses by eradicating low utility contexts. If one divides the vocabulary of a language into two broad classes - one comprised solely of contents words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) and the other of grammatical words (determiners, prepositions, modal auxiliaries, etc.) - then language can be viewed as the interlacing of two lexical streams: a content word sequence and a grammatical word sequence. Two words are said to be “super-adjacent” if they are next to each other in one of the two streams. 

It is shown that an n-gram model of super-adjacent terms is better able to exploit the high mutual information of close proximity semantic words and the strong syntactic dependencies exhibited in patterns of grammatical words, while many low-utility n-grams that include words from both classes are eliminated. In addition, by reducing regularly inflected words to their base forms and moving inflectional suffixes to the grammatical stream, large numbers of low frequency content bigrams are collapsed into many fewer more general cases, and morphological agreement is made accessible in abstraction. The result is a more compact model that gives better complexity estimates than is possible from the conventional approach.

text: N-gram models of agreement in language Conventional n-gram language models are well-established as powerful yet simple mechanisms for characterising language structure when low data complexity is the primary objective. Much of their predictive power can be traced to a relatively small number of common word sequences usually comprised of grammatical terms, and a large number of infrequent word patterns comprised of thematic terms with high mutual information. The drawback for conventional approaches is an exceedingly large number of other n-grams which waste probability mass without making a reciprocal contribution in the formulation of accurate probability estimates. 

This thesis describes a simple modification to the n-gram approach which attempts to preserve and enhance the most useful characteristics of conventional models while mitigating their weaknesses by eradicating low utility contexts. If one divides the vocabulary of a language into two broad classes - one comprised solely of contents words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc) and the other of grammatical words (determiners, prepositions, modal auxiliaries, etc.) - then language can be viewed as the interlacing of two lexical streams: a content word sequence and a grammatical word sequence. Two words are said to be “super-adjacent” if they are next to each other in one of the two streams. 

It is shown that an n-gram model of super-adjacent terms is better able to exploit the high mutual information of close proximity semantic words and the strong syntactic dependencies exhibited in patterns of grammatical words, while many low-utility n-grams that include words from both classes are eliminated. In addition, by reducing regularly inflected words to their base forms and moving inflectional suffixes to the grammatical stream, large numbers of low frequency content bigrams are collapsed into many fewer more general cases, and morphological agreement is made accessible in abstraction. The result is a more compact model that gives better complexity estimates than is possible from the conventional approach.

year: 2000

title: Non-South East Asians have a better running economy and different anthropometrics and biomechanics than South East Asians

authors: Patoz, Aurélien

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Running biomechanics and ethnicity can influence running economy (RE), which is a critical factor of running performance. Our aim was to compare RE of South East Asian (SEA) and non‑South East Asian (non‑SEA) runners at several endurance running speeds (10–14 km/h) matched for on‑road racing performance and sex. Secondly, we explored anthropometric characteristics and relationships between RE and anthropometric and biomechanical variables. SEA were 6% less economical (p = 0.04) than non‑SEA. SEA were lighter and shorter than non‑SEA, and had lower body mass indexes and leg lengths (p ≤ 0.01). In terms of biomechanics, a higher prevalence of forefoot strikers in SEA than non‑SEA was seen at each speed tested (p ≤ 0.04). Furthermore, SEA had a significantly higher step frequency (p = 0.02), shorter contact time (p = 0.04), smaller footstrike angle (p < 0.001), and less knee extension at toe‑off (p = 0.03) than non‑SEA. Amongst these variables, only mass was positively correlated to RE for both SEA (12 km/h) and non‑SEA (all speeds); step frequency, negatively correlated to RE for both SEA (10 km/h) and non‑SEA (12 km/h); and contact time, positively correlated to RE for SEA (12 km/h). Despite the observed anthropometric and biomechanical differences between cohorts, these data were limited in underpinning the observed RE differences at a group level. This exploratory study provides preliminary indications of potential differences between SEA and non‑SEA runners warranting further consideration. Altogether, these findings suggest caution when generalizing from non‑SEA running studies to SEA runners.

text: Non-South East Asians have a better running economy and different anthropometrics and biomechanics than South East Asians Running biomechanics and ethnicity can influence running economy (RE), which is a critical factor of running performance. Our aim was to compare RE of South East Asian (SEA) and non‑South East Asian (non‑SEA) runners at several endurance running speeds (10–14 km/h) matched for on‑road racing performance and sex. Secondly, we explored anthropometric characteristics and relationships between RE and anthropometric and biomechanical variables. SEA were 6% less economical (p = 0.04) than non‑SEA. SEA were lighter and shorter than non‑SEA, and had lower body mass indexes and leg lengths (p ≤ 0.01). In terms of biomechanics, a higher prevalence of forefoot strikers in SEA than non‑SEA was seen at each speed tested (p ≤ 0.04). Furthermore, SEA had a significantly higher step frequency (p = 0.02), shorter contact time (p = 0.04), smaller footstrike angle (p < 0.001), and less knee extension at toe‑off (p = 0.03) than non‑SEA. Amongst these variables, only mass was positively correlated to RE for both SEA (12 km/h) and non‑SEA (all speeds); step frequency, negatively correlated to RE for both SEA (10 km/h) and non‑SEA (12 km/h); and contact time, positively correlated to RE for SEA (12 km/h). Despite the observed anthropometric and biomechanical differences between cohorts, these data were limited in underpinning the observed RE differences at a group level. This exploratory study provides preliminary indications of potential differences between SEA and non‑SEA runners warranting further consideration. Altogether, these findings suggest caution when generalizing from non‑SEA running studies to SEA runners.

year: 2022-04-15

title: The Oral Transmission of Mātauranga Māori in regard to Traditional Hokianga Stories and the Revitalization of Significant Place Names.

authors: Barnes, Maria

subjects: Hokianga

abstract: This thesis researched the oral transmission of mātauranga Māori from one generation to another with a particular focus on the significance of place names in the Hokianga area from Waimamaku through to Opononi. It also sought to understand the stories and history that accompany this area. Our oral traditions are critical in helping to define our identity as Māori, and our relationship with the land.

This thesis begins by looking at the ways in which we as Māori are connected to the land and some of our traditional values regarding cultural practices and the way our tūpuna lived.  It also shares an example of the way in which our oral traditions and histories were preserved and taught.  There is then a detailed section regarding the significance of Hokianga place names within the Waimamaku, Omapere and Opononi area of Hokianga.  This information has been provided orally from the generosity of kaumātua of our area.  Following this I have concluded by providing an overall statement about the significance of findings and outcomes of my research.

This kaupapa is important as more and more of these place names and their histories will continue to be lost if records are not kept and shared with future generations.  I also understand the importance of protecting this knowledge.  Through colonisation and over time the use of our traditional educational practices and our place names and their histories have been forgotten, watered down, and sometimes lost.  Our learning methods, histories and whakapapa constitute important elements of who we are as Māori. They recognise the past, help us to understand today and guide us into the future. 

The research strategy used in my thesis is collaborative storying co-constructed between myself the researcher and local kaumātua deemed to hold traditional knowledge of our area.  This has provided the opportunity to find out significant place names and our local histories. Prior to working on this thesis only a few names were known and understood.  However in the end we are able to get a more detailed picture of our history.  There are still plenty more place names to be found and understood.


We live and come from a beautiful place.

text: The Oral Transmission of Mātauranga Māori in regard to Traditional Hokianga Stories and the Revitalization of Significant Place Names. This thesis researched the oral transmission of mātauranga Māori from one generation to another with a particular focus on the significance of place names in the Hokianga area from Waimamaku through to Opononi. It also sought to understand the stories and history that accompany this area. Our oral traditions are critical in helping to define our identity as Māori, and our relationship with the land.

This thesis begins by looking at the ways in which we as Māori are connected to the land and some of our traditional values regarding cultural practices and the way our tūpuna lived.  It also shares an example of the way in which our oral traditions and histories were preserved and taught.  There is then a detailed section regarding the significance of Hokianga place names within the Waimamaku, Omapere and Opononi area of Hokianga.  This information has been provided orally from the generosity of kaumātua of our area.  Following this I have concluded by providing an overall statement about the significance of findings and outcomes of my research.

This kaupapa is important as more and more of these place names and their histories will continue to be lost if records are not kept and shared with future generations.  I also understand the importance of protecting this knowledge.  Through colonisation and over time the use of our traditional educational practices and our place names and their histories have been forgotten, watered down, and sometimes lost.  Our learning methods, histories and whakapapa constitute important elements of who we are as Māori. They recognise the past, help us to understand today and guide us into the future. 

The research strategy used in my thesis is collaborative storying co-constructed between myself the researcher and local kaumātua deemed to hold traditional knowledge of our area.  This has provided the opportunity to find out significant place names and our local histories. Prior to working on this thesis only a few names were known and understood.  However in the end we are able to get a more detailed picture of our history.  There are still plenty more place names to be found and understood.


We live and come from a beautiful place.

year: 2010