title: Negotiating the Spaces: Relational Pedagogy and Power in Drama Teaching

authors: Aitken, Vivienne Jane

subjects: drama teaching

abstract: While there is a growing body of literature on relational pedagogy as a concept, less attention is given to the details of just how relational pedagogy manifests in classroom practice. Similarly, while issues of power, democracy and co-constructed learning feature in contemporary research, the details of how power relationships can be effectively altered between teachers and children warrants closer scrutiny. This paper explores how pedagogy is enhanced when spaces are negotiated between teachers and children in the real and fictional worlds of drama. The findings emerge from a two year collaborative research project between generalist elementary teachers and university researchers. Salient issues of trust, power sharing, and metaxis, which are part of relational pedagogy in the drama classroom, are explored. In particular, the paper discusses how traditional power and knowledge positions are 'disrupted' through the drama strategy of 'teacher-in-role' - a strategy with both political significance and pedagogical force.

text: Negotiating the Spaces: Relational Pedagogy and Power in Drama Teaching While there is a growing body of literature on relational pedagogy as a concept, less attention is given to the details of just how relational pedagogy manifests in classroom practice. Similarly, while issues of power, democracy and co-constructed learning feature in contemporary research, the details of how power relationships can be effectively altered between teachers and children warrants closer scrutiny. This paper explores how pedagogy is enhanced when spaces are negotiated between teachers and children in the real and fictional worlds of drama. The findings emerge from a two year collaborative research project between generalist elementary teachers and university researchers. Salient issues of trust, power sharing, and metaxis, which are part of relational pedagogy in the drama classroom, are explored. In particular, the paper discusses how traditional power and knowledge positions are 'disrupted' through the drama strategy of 'teacher-in-role' - a strategy with both political significance and pedagogical force.

year: 2007

title: The influence of first-year chemistry students' learning experiences on their educational choices

authors: Dalgety, Jacinta

abstract: The research presented in this thesis examined the influence students' learning experiences in their first year chemistry classes had on their enrolment choices. Students enrolled in first-year chemistry were surveyed three times throughout their academic year using a purpose designed questionnaire – at the start of the year (n=l26), the end of the first semester (n=l09) and the end of the second semester (n=84). Additionally, a cohort of 19 students were interviewed at the same stages throughout the year. The research involved investigating students' learning experiences, attitude-towards-chemistry and chemistry self-efficacy. Additionally, students attitude-towards-enrolling in chemistry, perceived control over enrolling in chemistry and normative beliefs (perception of associates' beliefs) about enrolling in chemistry were examined. Finally, all of these aspects were related to students' enrolment intentions. 
The structure of the research was guided by the Modified Theory of Planned Behaviour (MTPB), which relates behaviour directly to intention to carry out the behaviour (Ajzen, 1989). The MTPB suggests that students' enrolment in second-year chemistry is directly related to their intention to enrol in second-year chemistry. Furthermore, the MTPB suggests that students' enrolment intentions are influenced by their attitude-towards-enrolling in second-year chemistry, their perceived control over enrolling in second-year chemistry and subjective norm about enrolling in second-year chemistry. The MTPB also suggests that attitude-towards-enrolling in second-year chemistry is influenced by students' attitude-towards-chemistry, chemistry self-efficacy and first-year chemistry learning experiences. 
The MTPB was used to inform the methodology of the inquiry. The research involved following students throughout their first-year of chemistry study. Students were interviewed at key stages using a semi-structured interview protocol developed to include questions on all key areas of the MTPB. Furthermore, students were surveyed at three stages using the Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences Questionnaire (CAEQ). 
The CAEQ was developed to examine chemistry learning experiences, attitude-towards-chemistry and chemistry self-efficacy - using the MTPB as a guiding framework. The instrument was designed in a manner that maximised construct validity and piloted with a cohort of science and technology students (n=129) at the end of their first-year. Based on statistical analysis the instrument was modified and subsequently administered on two occasions at two tertiary institutions (n = 669). Statistical data along with additional data gathered from interviews suggests that the CAEQ possess good construct validity and will prove a useful tool for tertiary level educators who wish to gain an understanding of factors that influence student choice of chemistry enrolment. 
The findings from this research suggest that learning experiences have some impact on students' enrolment intentions. Students who drop out of chemistry at some stage of their first-year cited experiences in their classes as a reason for this. There is also a cohort of students' who drop out of university entirely during their first semester of study. Chemistry self-efficacy also impacted upon students' enrolment choices with students who had perceived they had achieved in their first-year of chemistry study likely to intend to continue to on and study chemistry at second-year level. 
Other factors that influenced students' enrolment intentions included a desire to have a broad spectrum of courses in their degree, and an interest in the subject from secondary schooling. A number of students enrolled in first-year chemistry as a compulsory part of another degree programme, consequently their decisions to study second-year chemistry were dependent on whether a course was compulsory or not. 
Students perceived their associates to have a wide range of beliefs about chemistry including stereotypical images such as mad scientists and laboratory-based images. Additionally, students thought their peers would think chemists did not consider society when designing research, whereas their parents and mentors - typically employed in a science related field – would hold more positive conceptions. 
It appears that reduced number of enrolments at the second-year level are contributed to by students' dropping chemistry at some stage throughout their first-year. Additionally there were no corresponding cohort of students that choose to pick-up a chemistry course courses. The salient beliefs that directly influenced students' enrolment intentions were negative learning experiences in laboratory classes and students' chemistry self-efficacy beliefs. Additionally, students who enrolled in first-year chemistry as a compulsory paper often made their decision about enrolling in second-year chemistry based whether they had any compulsory second-year chemistry courses. Normative beliefs appeared to have little direct impact on students' enrolment intentions, however, they had some indirect effect with students who had associates in a science related field more likely to enrol in second-year chemistry than those that did not. 
The findings from this research suggest that academic staff need to modify their teaching practice, especially in laboratory classes. Students need to be taught study skills and skills for coping at university in order to reduce the drop-out rate from university entirely. Additionally the relationship between self-efficacy and enrolment intentions suggests that tasks designed to improve students' self-efficacy should be incorporated into the curriculum. Another potential method of improving student retention is to introduce a mentoring scheme so that students have positive social reinforcement encouraging them to study chemistry.

text: The influence of first-year chemistry students' learning experiences on their educational choices The research presented in this thesis examined the influence students' learning experiences in their first year chemistry classes had on their enrolment choices. Students enrolled in first-year chemistry were surveyed three times throughout their academic year using a purpose designed questionnaire – at the start of the year (n=l26), the end of the first semester (n=l09) and the end of the second semester (n=84). Additionally, a cohort of 19 students were interviewed at the same stages throughout the year. The research involved investigating students' learning experiences, attitude-towards-chemistry and chemistry self-efficacy. Additionally, students attitude-towards-enrolling in chemistry, perceived control over enrolling in chemistry and normative beliefs (perception of associates' beliefs) about enrolling in chemistry were examined. Finally, all of these aspects were related to students' enrolment intentions. 
The structure of the research was guided by the Modified Theory of Planned Behaviour (MTPB), which relates behaviour directly to intention to carry out the behaviour (Ajzen, 1989). The MTPB suggests that students' enrolment in second-year chemistry is directly related to their intention to enrol in second-year chemistry. Furthermore, the MTPB suggests that students' enrolment intentions are influenced by their attitude-towards-enrolling in second-year chemistry, their perceived control over enrolling in second-year chemistry and subjective norm about enrolling in second-year chemistry. The MTPB also suggests that attitude-towards-enrolling in second-year chemistry is influenced by students' attitude-towards-chemistry, chemistry self-efficacy and first-year chemistry learning experiences. 
The MTPB was used to inform the methodology of the inquiry. The research involved following students throughout their first-year of chemistry study. Students were interviewed at key stages using a semi-structured interview protocol developed to include questions on all key areas of the MTPB. Furthermore, students were surveyed at three stages using the Chemistry Attitudes and Experiences Questionnaire (CAEQ). 
The CAEQ was developed to examine chemistry learning experiences, attitude-towards-chemistry and chemistry self-efficacy - using the MTPB as a guiding framework. The instrument was designed in a manner that maximised construct validity and piloted with a cohort of science and technology students (n=129) at the end of their first-year. Based on statistical analysis the instrument was modified and subsequently administered on two occasions at two tertiary institutions (n = 669). Statistical data along with additional data gathered from interviews suggests that the CAEQ possess good construct validity and will prove a useful tool for tertiary level educators who wish to gain an understanding of factors that influence student choice of chemistry enrolment. 
The findings from this research suggest that learning experiences have some impact on students' enrolment intentions. Students who drop out of chemistry at some stage of their first-year cited experiences in their classes as a reason for this. There is also a cohort of students' who drop out of university entirely during their first semester of study. Chemistry self-efficacy also impacted upon students' enrolment choices with students who had perceived they had achieved in their first-year of chemistry study likely to intend to continue to on and study chemistry at second-year level. 
Other factors that influenced students' enrolment intentions included a desire to have a broad spectrum of courses in their degree, and an interest in the subject from secondary schooling. A number of students enrolled in first-year chemistry as a compulsory part of another degree programme, consequently their decisions to study second-year chemistry were dependent on whether a course was compulsory or not. 
Students perceived their associates to have a wide range of beliefs about chemistry including stereotypical images such as mad scientists and laboratory-based images. Additionally, students thought their peers would think chemists did not consider society when designing research, whereas their parents and mentors - typically employed in a science related field – would hold more positive conceptions. 
It appears that reduced number of enrolments at the second-year level are contributed to by students' dropping chemistry at some stage throughout their first-year. Additionally there were no corresponding cohort of students that choose to pick-up a chemistry course courses. The salient beliefs that directly influenced students' enrolment intentions were negative learning experiences in laboratory classes and students' chemistry self-efficacy beliefs. Additionally, students who enrolled in first-year chemistry as a compulsory paper often made their decision about enrolling in second-year chemistry based whether they had any compulsory second-year chemistry courses. Normative beliefs appeared to have little direct impact on students' enrolment intentions, however, they had some indirect effect with students who had associates in a science related field more likely to enrol in second-year chemistry than those that did not. 
The findings from this research suggest that academic staff need to modify their teaching practice, especially in laboratory classes. Students need to be taught study skills and skills for coping at university in order to reduce the drop-out rate from university entirely. Additionally the relationship between self-efficacy and enrolment intentions suggests that tasks designed to improve students' self-efficacy should be incorporated into the curriculum. Another potential method of improving student retention is to introduce a mentoring scheme so that students have positive social reinforcement encouraging them to study chemistry.

year: 2003

title: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites

authors: Petchey, Fiona

abstract: This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

text: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

year: 1998