title: Anxiolytic and anxiogenic drug effects on male and female gerbils in the black-white box

authors: Bradley, Belinda Fay

subjects: mongolian gerbil

abstract: Neurokinin-1, (NK1) receptor antagonists offer strong potential as anxiolytic drugs with few side effects. The use of the Mongolian gerbil for anxiety research offers advantages because gerbil NK1 receptors share a greater homology with human NK1 receptors than those of other rodents. Studies are needed to validate existing tests of anxiety for use with this species. This study examined the effects of two anxiolytics (buspirone and diazepam) and two anxiogenics (caffeine and FG142) on male and female gerbil behaviour in the black-white box (BWB). Diazepam was anxiolytic in males but not females. The anxiolytic effects of buspirone were apparent at the lower doses in both males and females. Higher doses resulted in sedative effects in both sexes. Caffeine produced mild anxiogenesis in females at the lowest dose, and in males at the highest dose. FG7142 was mildly anxiogenic in males and not at all in females. Findings are discussed in light of previous research. The gerbil BWB should not be used as a valid test of anxiety in its current form.

text: Anxiolytic and anxiogenic drug effects on male and female gerbils in the black-white box Neurokinin-1, (NK1) receptor antagonists offer strong potential as anxiolytic drugs with few side effects. The use of the Mongolian gerbil for anxiety research offers advantages because gerbil NK1 receptors share a greater homology with human NK1 receptors than those of other rodents. Studies are needed to validate existing tests of anxiety for use with this species. This study examined the effects of two anxiolytics (buspirone and diazepam) and two anxiogenics (caffeine and FG142) on male and female gerbil behaviour in the black-white box (BWB). Diazepam was anxiolytic in males but not females. The anxiolytic effects of buspirone were apparent at the lower doses in both males and females. Higher doses resulted in sedative effects in both sexes. Caffeine produced mild anxiogenesis in females at the lowest dose, and in males at the highest dose. FG7142 was mildly anxiogenic in males and not at all in females. Findings are discussed in light of previous research. The gerbil BWB should not be used as a valid test of anxiety in its current form.

year: 2010

title: Variables controlling the resurgence of previously reinforced behaviour in hens

authors: Cleland, Bryce Steven

abstract: Resurgence is defined as the occurrence of previously reinforced behaviours when reinforcer delivery ceases for a recently reinforced behaviour. In five experiments, variables suggested to control the degree of occurrence of a first-trained behaviour during the extinction of a second-trained behaviour (resurgence) were investigated. All experiments used hens and behaviours were selected from door push, key peck, and head bob. In Experiment 1, using 6 naive hens, Behaviour 1 was reinforced on a random-interval (RI) 60-s schedule followed by two sessions of extinction. Each occurrence of Behaviour 2 was then reinforced followed by another period of extinction. The degree of occurrence of Behaviour 1 during the final extinction was less than that which occurred during the period of Behaviour 1 extinction, suggesting that the extinction of Behaviour 2 did not increase the occurrence of Behaviour 1. This result failed to support the idea that resurgence is induced by the extinction of Behaviour 2. In Experiment 2, using the same hens and an additional hen, Experiment 1 was repeated five times and then there were either 0 or 9 sessions of Behaviour 1 extinction in a further five conditions. The degree of resurgence was generally less when there were 9 sessions than when there were no sessions but not consistently different from either when there were 2 sessions. Experiment 3 used six naive hens. Two first-trained behaviours were initially reinforced on RI 45-s schedules under a multiple schedule. One first behaviour then received a period of extinction and then each occurrence of two second behaviours was reinforced under the multiple schedule followed by extinction. The sequence from training of the first behaviours to the extinction of the second behaviours was repeated 10 times with the number of occurrences of the component for which extinction was in effect for the first behaviour varying across conditions from 12 to 0. The degree of resurgence was an inverse function of the amount of Behaviour 1 extinction. Experiment 4 used six naive hens. In a multiple schedule two first behaviours were reinforced on RI 20-s schedules and then two second behaviours were reinforced followed by extinction. This was repeated 8 times with the RI schedule in effect for one of the second behaviours varying from 80 s to 10 s across conditions while the other remained at 40 s. The degree of occurrence of Behaviour 1 when Behaviour 2 was reinforced was a direct function of the varied RI schedule of Behaviour 2. The degree of resurgence of Behaviour 1 in extinction was an inverse function of the varied RI schedule of Behaviour 2. The degree of resurgence was also inversely related to the degree of occurrence of this Behaviour 1 when Behaviour 2 was reinforced. Experiment 5 used five naive hens and one hen from Experiment 3 in a multiple-schedule design where the length of training of the second behaviours varied from 124 to O occurrences of a component over three conditions. No effect of this was found on the degree of resurgence. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that resurgence is the result of the prevention of extinction of Behaviour 1 by the reinforcement of Behaviour 2, but they are not definitive proof that this hypothesis is correct. Models derived from the Generalised Matching Law and Behavioural Momentum are also proposed as descriptions of resurgence.

text: Variables controlling the resurgence of previously reinforced behaviour in hens Resurgence is defined as the occurrence of previously reinforced behaviours when reinforcer delivery ceases for a recently reinforced behaviour. In five experiments, variables suggested to control the degree of occurrence of a first-trained behaviour during the extinction of a second-trained behaviour (resurgence) were investigated. All experiments used hens and behaviours were selected from door push, key peck, and head bob. In Experiment 1, using 6 naive hens, Behaviour 1 was reinforced on a random-interval (RI) 60-s schedule followed by two sessions of extinction. Each occurrence of Behaviour 2 was then reinforced followed by another period of extinction. The degree of occurrence of Behaviour 1 during the final extinction was less than that which occurred during the period of Behaviour 1 extinction, suggesting that the extinction of Behaviour 2 did not increase the occurrence of Behaviour 1. This result failed to support the idea that resurgence is induced by the extinction of Behaviour 2. In Experiment 2, using the same hens and an additional hen, Experiment 1 was repeated five times and then there were either 0 or 9 sessions of Behaviour 1 extinction in a further five conditions. The degree of resurgence was generally less when there were 9 sessions than when there were no sessions but not consistently different from either when there were 2 sessions. Experiment 3 used six naive hens. Two first-trained behaviours were initially reinforced on RI 45-s schedules under a multiple schedule. One first behaviour then received a period of extinction and then each occurrence of two second behaviours was reinforced under the multiple schedule followed by extinction. The sequence from training of the first behaviours to the extinction of the second behaviours was repeated 10 times with the number of occurrences of the component for which extinction was in effect for the first behaviour varying across conditions from 12 to 0. The degree of resurgence was an inverse function of the amount of Behaviour 1 extinction. Experiment 4 used six naive hens. In a multiple schedule two first behaviours were reinforced on RI 20-s schedules and then two second behaviours were reinforced followed by extinction. This was repeated 8 times with the RI schedule in effect for one of the second behaviours varying from 80 s to 10 s across conditions while the other remained at 40 s. The degree of occurrence of Behaviour 1 when Behaviour 2 was reinforced was a direct function of the varied RI schedule of Behaviour 2. The degree of resurgence of Behaviour 1 in extinction was an inverse function of the varied RI schedule of Behaviour 2. The degree of resurgence was also inversely related to the degree of occurrence of this Behaviour 1 when Behaviour 2 was reinforced. Experiment 5 used five naive hens and one hen from Experiment 3 in a multiple-schedule design where the length of training of the second behaviours varied from 124 to O occurrences of a component over three conditions. No effect of this was found on the degree of resurgence. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that resurgence is the result of the prevention of extinction of Behaviour 1 by the reinforcement of Behaviour 2, but they are not definitive proof that this hypothesis is correct. Models derived from the Generalised Matching Law and Behavioural Momentum are also proposed as descriptions of resurgence.

year: 2000

title: ‘Inside Out’: The politics of enumerating the nation by ethnicity

authors: Kukutai, Tahu

abstract: Since the 1990s, state practices of counting and classifying populations by ethnicity have come under increased scrutiny within the social sciences (Arel 2002 ; Kertzer and Arel 2002 ; Nobles 2000 ; Perlmann and Waters 2002 ; Petersen 1997 ; Statistics Canada and U.S. Census Bureau 1993 ). A number of excellent case studies have provided critical insights into how and why ethnic enumeration is pursued in particular times and places. ¹ However, with some notable exceptions (Morning 2008 ; Rallu
et al. 2006 ), little attention has been given to theorizing or empirically testing a global
model of ethnic classifi cation and counting. Consequently, there is a limited understanding
about the general conditions that impede or encourage state recognition of ethnicity in the national census and the forms that such recognition takes.

text: ‘Inside Out’: The politics of enumerating the nation by ethnicity Since the 1990s, state practices of counting and classifying populations by ethnicity have come under increased scrutiny within the social sciences (Arel 2002 ; Kertzer and Arel 2002 ; Nobles 2000 ; Perlmann and Waters 2002 ; Petersen 1997 ; Statistics Canada and U.S. Census Bureau 1993 ). A number of excellent case studies have provided critical insights into how and why ethnic enumeration is pursued in particular times and places. ¹ However, with some notable exceptions (Morning 2008 ; Rallu
et al. 2006 ), little attention has been given to theorizing or empirically testing a global
model of ethnic classifi cation and counting. Consequently, there is a limited understanding
about the general conditions that impede or encourage state recognition of ethnicity in the national census and the forms that such recognition takes.

year: 2015