title: Between World Views: Nascent Pacific Tourism Enterprise in New Zealand

authors: Cave, Jennifer Barbara Jane

subjects: societal marginality

abstract: This thesis considers the dynamics of entrepreneurship at the 'pre-tourism' stage of tourism development.  It is written from the point of view of potential tourism hosts, diasporan Pacific peoples resident in New Zealand. 

The central question is 'that societal marginality can be a positive position from which to develop tourism enterprise and cultural product'.  The author used a collaborative action approach (Lopez  Potter, 2001) to respond to a community, rather than an academic agenda.  The research question reflects the aspirations of the Waitakere Pacific Board (WPB), an organisation which advocates for and undertakes projects to move towards economic, social and cultural equality with the mainstream western population, on behalf of nine diasporan Pacific communities.  It tacitly assumes that the nine 'Pacific' communities share common views and values and are all at a similar stage of integration or hegemony and that the WPB speaks on their behalf.  It further assumes that Pacific ethnic communities in Waitakere are in fact marginalised and that they all wish to and are capable of initiating commercial enterprise and tourism product.  Also, there is an expectation that non-Pacific peoples consume products and services that are based upon Pacific cultural knowledge and resources.  But most importantly, assumes that tourism can be as viable in a diasporan New Zealand non-indigenous context as it is in the Islands today. 

The core thesis is underpinned by three other questions.  Specifically, what are the diasporan Pacific community's aspirations for tourism and cultural enterprise to support tourism?  What factors enable or inhibit interaction at the interface between diasporan Pacific communities and tourism product/cultural enterprise?  What happens at the interface between diasporan communities and consumers?  Contemporary non-instrument navigation is used as a metaphor for the research voyage, the structure of the thesis, and each community's journey in diasporan social worlds.

text: Between World Views: Nascent Pacific Tourism Enterprise in New Zealand This thesis considers the dynamics of entrepreneurship at the 'pre-tourism' stage of tourism development.  It is written from the point of view of potential tourism hosts, diasporan Pacific peoples resident in New Zealand. 

The central question is 'that societal marginality can be a positive position from which to develop tourism enterprise and cultural product'.  The author used a collaborative action approach (Lopez  Potter, 2001) to respond to a community, rather than an academic agenda.  The research question reflects the aspirations of the Waitakere Pacific Board (WPB), an organisation which advocates for and undertakes projects to move towards economic, social and cultural equality with the mainstream western population, on behalf of nine diasporan Pacific communities.  It tacitly assumes that the nine 'Pacific' communities share common views and values and are all at a similar stage of integration or hegemony and that the WPB speaks on their behalf.  It further assumes that Pacific ethnic communities in Waitakere are in fact marginalised and that they all wish to and are capable of initiating commercial enterprise and tourism product.  Also, there is an expectation that non-Pacific peoples consume products and services that are based upon Pacific cultural knowledge and resources.  But most importantly, assumes that tourism can be as viable in a diasporan New Zealand non-indigenous context as it is in the Islands today. 

The core thesis is underpinned by three other questions.  Specifically, what are the diasporan Pacific community's aspirations for tourism and cultural enterprise to support tourism?  What factors enable or inhibit interaction at the interface between diasporan Pacific communities and tourism product/cultural enterprise?  What happens at the interface between diasporan communities and consumers?  Contemporary non-instrument navigation is used as a metaphor for the research voyage, the structure of the thesis, and each community's journey in diasporan social worlds.

year: 2009

title: Nitrate removal from three different effluents using large-scale denitrification beds

authors: Schipper, Louis A.

subjects: denitrification

abstract: Simple technologies that remove nitrate from effluents and other point discharges need to be developed to reduce pollution of receiving waters. Denitrification beds are lined containers filled with organic carbon (typically wood chip or coarse sawdust) and are a technology that is proving promising. Water containing NO₃⁻ (treated effluent or agricultural drainage) is passed through the bed and the wood chips act as an energy source for denitrifying bacteria that convert NO₃⁻ to N gases. There are few data on the efficiency of NO₃ removal in large-scale beds. We report here NO₃⁻ removal results from three large denitrification beds with volumes of 83, 294, and 1320 m³ treating dairy shed effluent, treated domestic effluent and glasshouse effluent, respectively. Nitrate was nearly completely removed from the dairy shed effluent (annual load of 31 kg N) and domestic effluent (annual load 365 kg N). In these beds, NO₃ removal, presumably by denitrification, was limited by NO₃⁻ concentration. However, the bed treating glasshouse effluent was overwhelmed by very high NO₃⁻ concentration (about 250 g N m⁻³) and high flow rates (about 150 m³ d⁻¹) but still reduced NO₃⁻ concentration to about 150 g N m⁻³. For this bed, long-term NO₃⁻  removal was between 5 and 10 g N m⁻³ of bed material when NO₃⁻  was non-limiting and was similar to rates reported for other smaller denitrification beds. As expected, organic N, ammonium and phosphorus were not removed from any of the effluents following passage through the beds. Our results suggest that denitrification beds are a relatively inexpensive system to construct and operate, and are suitable for final treatment of a range of NO₃⁻-laden effluents.

text: Nitrate removal from three different effluents using large-scale denitrification beds Simple technologies that remove nitrate from effluents and other point discharges need to be developed to reduce pollution of receiving waters. Denitrification beds are lined containers filled with organic carbon (typically wood chip or coarse sawdust) and are a technology that is proving promising. Water containing NO₃⁻ (treated effluent or agricultural drainage) is passed through the bed and the wood chips act as an energy source for denitrifying bacteria that convert NO₃⁻ to N gases. There are few data on the efficiency of NO₃ removal in large-scale beds. We report here NO₃⁻ removal results from three large denitrification beds with volumes of 83, 294, and 1320 m³ treating dairy shed effluent, treated domestic effluent and glasshouse effluent, respectively. Nitrate was nearly completely removed from the dairy shed effluent (annual load of 31 kg N) and domestic effluent (annual load 365 kg N). In these beds, NO₃ removal, presumably by denitrification, was limited by NO₃⁻ concentration. However, the bed treating glasshouse effluent was overwhelmed by very high NO₃⁻ concentration (about 250 g N m⁻³) and high flow rates (about 150 m³ d⁻¹) but still reduced NO₃⁻ concentration to about 150 g N m⁻³. For this bed, long-term NO₃⁻  removal was between 5 and 10 g N m⁻³ of bed material when NO₃⁻  was non-limiting and was similar to rates reported for other smaller denitrification beds. As expected, organic N, ammonium and phosphorus were not removed from any of the effluents following passage through the beds. Our results suggest that denitrification beds are a relatively inexpensive system to construct and operate, and are suitable for final treatment of a range of NO₃⁻-laden effluents.

year: 2010

title: Waikato Taniwharau: Prioritising competing needs in the management of the Waikato River

authors: Morgan, Te Kipa Kepa Brian

subjects: Mauri

abstract: The Waikato River system is New Zealand’s longest river and has significant spiritual relevance for the Waikato-Tainui people and other river iwi, who regard it as an indicator of their mauri or well-being, and central to their identity. The Waikato has also been the focus of on-going tensions between Māori cultural and spiritual values and beliefs, and national engineering objectives. The Waikato River was the primary source of food, transportation and communications link for the region and of pivotal military significance in the New Zealand land wars of the 19th Century. The river system is also a strategic asset for power generation and the flow has been extensively modified with the engineering of dams, lakes, tunnels and canals used to generate one sixth of New Zealand's total electrical generating capacity via the Waikato and Tongariro Power schemes. 
Large scale deforestation in combination with altered hydrologic characteristics have resulted in siltation of the once navigable river. The Waikato is impacted upon by numerous sources of pollution including; Arsenic from a Geothermal Power Station; nutrient enrichment from fertilizer and effluent spreading practices in dairy farming; more than 80 point source discharges to the main stem; and 1,600 discharges to its tributaries. 
The river system contains numerous fish types and has an international reputation for fishing. More than twenty communities extract and treat its waters for potable use including Auckland City. Historic practices resulted in significant adverse impacts on water quality and the mauri of the Waikato. The river is now administered by a regional council. These attributes make the Waikato River a complex management challenge: a contemporary relevance of the widely known metaphor; Waikato Taniwharau (Waikato with hundreds of guardians). 
Aotearoa New Zealand is currently resolving policy issues for the effective management of its fresh water resource. A national survey of opinion in 2005 distilled public priorities for fresh water management. The Freshwater for a Sustainable Future consultation identified many concerns and that the management of these resources is not being carried out in a sustainable manner. The Land and Water forum acknowledged many of these issues in the National Policy on Fresh Water (2010). The New Zealand government is currently preparing to sell down its 100% control of the hydro generation assets on the river, through a sale of shares in the State owned Enterprises that manage these assets. 
During the initial public consultation, responses from Māori, the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand, indicated that there existed significant dissatisfaction with past management and a lack of confidence in future policy and water management decision making. The dissatisfaction manifested as broad opposition to and indifference towards participation in consultation. In subsequent years, some Māori groups have nevertheless chosen to engage in research processes seeking improvements on past practice. A Decision Making Framework (DMF) developed in 2004 has been adopted in several of these proposals due to its ability to balance the competing priorities of engineers representing the dominant western worldview and Māori, the Tangata Whenua (people of the land). 
The Mauri Model DMF is unique in its approach to the management of water resources as the framework offers a transparent and inclusive approach to considering the environmental, economic, social and cultural aspects of decisions being contemplated. The Mauri Model DMF is unique because it is capable of including multiple-worldviews and adopts mauri (intrinsic value or well-being) in the place of money based assessments of pseudo sustainability using Cost Benefit Analysis. 
The Mauri Model DMF does this using a two stage process that first identifies participants’ worldviews and inherent bias regarding water resource management, and then facilitates transparent assessment of selected sustainability performance indicators. The assessment can then be contemplated as the separate environmental, economic, social and cultural dimensions of the decision, collectively as an overall result; or the priorities associated with different worldviews can be applied to determine the sensitivity of the result to different cultural contexts or worldviews. 
A sustainability assessment for the Waikato River is presented within the context of new co-management aspirations that require decision making to reflect the values of both the Government and the Waikato-Tainui peoples. How might the Mauri Model contribute in the complex context of co-management of the Waikato River? Three existing resource uses are assessed to illustrate the contribution that alternative frameworks can make to an enhanced understanding of the challenges that the new co-management regime will need to overcome.

text: Waikato Taniwharau: Prioritising competing needs in the management of the Waikato River The Waikato River system is New Zealand’s longest river and has significant spiritual relevance for the Waikato-Tainui people and other river iwi, who regard it as an indicator of their mauri or well-being, and central to their identity. The Waikato has also been the focus of on-going tensions between Māori cultural and spiritual values and beliefs, and national engineering objectives. The Waikato River was the primary source of food, transportation and communications link for the region and of pivotal military significance in the New Zealand land wars of the 19th Century. The river system is also a strategic asset for power generation and the flow has been extensively modified with the engineering of dams, lakes, tunnels and canals used to generate one sixth of New Zealand's total electrical generating capacity via the Waikato and Tongariro Power schemes. 
Large scale deforestation in combination with altered hydrologic characteristics have resulted in siltation of the once navigable river. The Waikato is impacted upon by numerous sources of pollution including; Arsenic from a Geothermal Power Station; nutrient enrichment from fertilizer and effluent spreading practices in dairy farming; more than 80 point source discharges to the main stem; and 1,600 discharges to its tributaries. 
The river system contains numerous fish types and has an international reputation for fishing. More than twenty communities extract and treat its waters for potable use including Auckland City. Historic practices resulted in significant adverse impacts on water quality and the mauri of the Waikato. The river is now administered by a regional council. These attributes make the Waikato River a complex management challenge: a contemporary relevance of the widely known metaphor; Waikato Taniwharau (Waikato with hundreds of guardians). 
Aotearoa New Zealand is currently resolving policy issues for the effective management of its fresh water resource. A national survey of opinion in 2005 distilled public priorities for fresh water management. The Freshwater for a Sustainable Future consultation identified many concerns and that the management of these resources is not being carried out in a sustainable manner. The Land and Water forum acknowledged many of these issues in the National Policy on Fresh Water (2010). The New Zealand government is currently preparing to sell down its 100% control of the hydro generation assets on the river, through a sale of shares in the State owned Enterprises that manage these assets. 
During the initial public consultation, responses from Māori, the indigenous peoples of Aotearoa New Zealand, indicated that there existed significant dissatisfaction with past management and a lack of confidence in future policy and water management decision making. The dissatisfaction manifested as broad opposition to and indifference towards participation in consultation. In subsequent years, some Māori groups have nevertheless chosen to engage in research processes seeking improvements on past practice. A Decision Making Framework (DMF) developed in 2004 has been adopted in several of these proposals due to its ability to balance the competing priorities of engineers representing the dominant western worldview and Māori, the Tangata Whenua (people of the land). 
The Mauri Model DMF is unique in its approach to the management of water resources as the framework offers a transparent and inclusive approach to considering the environmental, economic, social and cultural aspects of decisions being contemplated. The Mauri Model DMF is unique because it is capable of including multiple-worldviews and adopts mauri (intrinsic value or well-being) in the place of money based assessments of pseudo sustainability using Cost Benefit Analysis. 
The Mauri Model DMF does this using a two stage process that first identifies participants’ worldviews and inherent bias regarding water resource management, and then facilitates transparent assessment of selected sustainability performance indicators. The assessment can then be contemplated as the separate environmental, economic, social and cultural dimensions of the decision, collectively as an overall result; or the priorities associated with different worldviews can be applied to determine the sensitivity of the result to different cultural contexts or worldviews. 
A sustainability assessment for the Waikato River is presented within the context of new co-management aspirations that require decision making to reflect the values of both the Government and the Waikato-Tainui peoples. How might the Mauri Model contribute in the complex context of co-management of the Waikato River? Three existing resource uses are assessed to illustrate the contribution that alternative frameworks can make to an enhanced understanding of the challenges that the new co-management regime will need to overcome.

year: 2013