title: To drive, or not to drive: Mode choice in daily commute

authors: Sivasubramaniyam, Rathee Dewi

subjects: Mode choice

abstract: Mode choice for daily commute refers to the process whereby commuters choose a travel mode for their daily trips to work. Despite its ordinary nature, it often involves a series of decisions and consideration of various factors and barriers. More research is needed to understand the various aspects of commuters’ mode choice for daily commute. This thesis comprises three studies that focus on four aspects of mode choice: mode motivating factors, mode commitment, mode decisions, and mode interventions. The thesis aims to present the research gaps that exist in current research related to the four aspects and address them appropriately in the three studies.
The first study sought to identify the motivating factors behind commuters’ mode choices. To address the limitations of investigating only one or two factors and recruiting only a particular type of commuter in a single study, the first study explored the influence of seven psychological factors on five types of commuters’ mode choices. An online survey was distributed to various types of commuters in New Zealand. The results showed that commuters have more than one motivating factor to use their usual modes and some commuters share similar motivating factors.
The first study also aimed to examine how committed commuters are towards their usual modes. To address the limitations of using the categorical measure of modality, the first study involved measuring commuters’ mode commitment using a continuous measure. A 1-week online travel diary was distributed to a subset of the commuters who completed the online questionnaire. The results revealed that the five types of commuters were all committed to their usual modes. However, some of them were more likely to use a combination of more than two modes while others were more likely to use a maximum of two modes for their weekly commutes.
The second study was developed based on the previous findings that all types of commuters were strongly committed towards their usual modes despite having different reasons to use their modes. Thus, the study sought to investigate how commuters decide to use their usual modes for daily commutes by focusing on bounded rationality’s concept of ‘satisficing’ as a decision-making strategy. A sample of New Zealand commuters was invited to complete an online questionnaire. The study found that commuters tend to satisfice when deciding to use their usual modes and commuters with high satisficing tendencies tend to be more positive and satisfied with their regular commutes. 
The third and final study was developed based on assumption that drivers tend to satisfice when deciding to use the car which may explain why current mode-shift interventions have mixed results in terms of their effectiveness. So, the study aimed to test an attitude change intervention known as self-persuasion (i.e., generating arguments to convince oneself) to encourage drivers to reduce their car use. A sample of New Zealand car drivers was invited to complete two online questionnaires and was randomly assigned into one of three conditions (i.e., self-persuasion, direct-persuasion, and control). The study did not find evidence of an effect of self-persuasion on drivers’ car use intentions, behaviours, and attitudes.
Overall, results from the three studies showed the various decisions and factors involved in commuters’ mode choice despite seeming ordinary. The novel approaches used in each study provided new and interesting insights into understanding commuters’ mode choices. The main implication of this thesis is that researchers and policymakers need to take into account these decisions and factors and use various approaches and methods to further understand commuters’ mode choices for their daily commutes and to develop long-lasting mode-shift interventions.

text: To drive, or not to drive: Mode choice in daily commute Mode choice for daily commute refers to the process whereby commuters choose a travel mode for their daily trips to work. Despite its ordinary nature, it often involves a series of decisions and consideration of various factors and barriers. More research is needed to understand the various aspects of commuters’ mode choice for daily commute. This thesis comprises three studies that focus on four aspects of mode choice: mode motivating factors, mode commitment, mode decisions, and mode interventions. The thesis aims to present the research gaps that exist in current research related to the four aspects and address them appropriately in the three studies.
The first study sought to identify the motivating factors behind commuters’ mode choices. To address the limitations of investigating only one or two factors and recruiting only a particular type of commuter in a single study, the first study explored the influence of seven psychological factors on five types of commuters’ mode choices. An online survey was distributed to various types of commuters in New Zealand. The results showed that commuters have more than one motivating factor to use their usual modes and some commuters share similar motivating factors.
The first study also aimed to examine how committed commuters are towards their usual modes. To address the limitations of using the categorical measure of modality, the first study involved measuring commuters’ mode commitment using a continuous measure. A 1-week online travel diary was distributed to a subset of the commuters who completed the online questionnaire. The results revealed that the five types of commuters were all committed to their usual modes. However, some of them were more likely to use a combination of more than two modes while others were more likely to use a maximum of two modes for their weekly commutes.
The second study was developed based on the previous findings that all types of commuters were strongly committed towards their usual modes despite having different reasons to use their modes. Thus, the study sought to investigate how commuters decide to use their usual modes for daily commutes by focusing on bounded rationality’s concept of ‘satisficing’ as a decision-making strategy. A sample of New Zealand commuters was invited to complete an online questionnaire. The study found that commuters tend to satisfice when deciding to use their usual modes and commuters with high satisficing tendencies tend to be more positive and satisfied with their regular commutes. 
The third and final study was developed based on assumption that drivers tend to satisfice when deciding to use the car which may explain why current mode-shift interventions have mixed results in terms of their effectiveness. So, the study aimed to test an attitude change intervention known as self-persuasion (i.e., generating arguments to convince oneself) to encourage drivers to reduce their car use. A sample of New Zealand car drivers was invited to complete two online questionnaires and was randomly assigned into one of three conditions (i.e., self-persuasion, direct-persuasion, and control). The study did not find evidence of an effect of self-persuasion on drivers’ car use intentions, behaviours, and attitudes.
Overall, results from the three studies showed the various decisions and factors involved in commuters’ mode choice despite seeming ordinary. The novel approaches used in each study provided new and interesting insights into understanding commuters’ mode choices. The main implication of this thesis is that researchers and policymakers need to take into account these decisions and factors and use various approaches and methods to further understand commuters’ mode choices for their daily commutes and to develop long-lasting mode-shift interventions.

year: 2021

title: Evolution of the genera Vitex (Lamiaceae) and Zygogynum (Winteraceae) on New Caledonia

authors: Pratt, Steven John

abstract: The New Caledonia archipelago is home to a richly diverse flora including a disproportionate number of lineages whose heritage can be traced to ancient Gondwana. Much of this species richness is owed to the complex geologic history, including an extensive period of submersion, of the region which actively shaped the flora over millennia. Given such complexity there is always unknowns both with regards to the circumscription of such a diverse flora and to understanding aspects of the archipelagos geologic past, which in many cases prove extremely difficult to resolve. This thesis investigates two aspects of this notion using modern day molecular techniques. 
The first aspect that we investigate is the question of species circumscription with regards to Vitex (Lamiaceae). Here we scrutinize the monophyly of the morphologically variable species Vitex collina, as described by Mabberley (1990), previously suggested by Mabberley to comprise a minimum of three distinct morphotypes. Additionally we consider the genetic uniqueness of a recently discovered species, tentatively named Vitex sp. “unifolia”, from currently accepted New Caledonian Vitex collina s.l. Maximum likelihood (ML) analyses using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genetic loci revealed that New Caledonian Vitex collina is paraphyletic with New Zealand V. lucens and Australian V. lignum-vitae nested within a well-supported V. collina s.l. clade. Our results suggest a minimum of two genetically distinct entities within V. collina, though the new species Vitex sp. “unifolia” was not distinguished genetically from Vitex cf. “collina”. The additional morphological analysis in light of our molecular analyses revealed further distinction of taxa within our sample group. This revealed a potential for three separate morphological entities within Vitex collina s.l. specimens, with Vitex sp. “unifolia” representing a fourth. Further research will result in the formal recognition of Vitex sp. “unifolia” upon publication, as well as further delimitation of the distinct entities within V. collina s.l. These revisions will have implications for the conservation status of these revised species, especially with regards to the rare Vitex sp. “unifolia”.
The second aspect investigated New Caledonian Winteraceae focussing on two research aims. The first aim scrutinised the New Caledonian Zygogynum s.l. in light of revisions made in Vink (1988; 1993; 2003), where four previously recognised genera (Belliolum, Bubbia, Exospermum, and Zygogynum) were dismantled into a single broadly circumscribed genus. The second aim was to assess any major morphological trends within Zygogynum s.l. and biogeographic patterns within the Winteraceae. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and psbA-trnH genetic loci confirmed the monophyly and position of Takhtajania, Tasmannia, Drimys, and Pseudowintera within the Winteraceae. New Caledonian Zygogynum s.l. was shown to be paraphyletic with Z. schlechteri nested within a distinct Australian Bubbia clade separate from remaining Zygogynum. Our analyses showed no support for the distinction of species previously belonging to Belliolum and Exospermum with all remaining Zygogynum forming a monophyletic clade.  The monophyly of species within the Zygogynum were for the most part resolved, with only few species left unresolved or paraphyletic relationships. Further investigation of biogeography within the Winteraceae revealed that Zealandic Winteraceae share their common ancestor with South American taxa, reflecting the Gondwanic roots of this family, with Australian Bubbia having originated from New Caledonian Zygogynum. From this we suggest, upon further investigation, that the retention of Bubbia within Zygogynum s.l. was supported and should be maintained. Alternately, if Bubbia is maintained as distinct from Zygogynum s.l., Z. schlechteri will be revised to Bubbia schlechteri. Further research including specimens of all described taxa will improve the resolution of our analyses, likely identifying further inconsistences that require revision or attention. Our investigation into morphological trends within the Zygogynum uncovered a trend of carpel evolution, in which a single well supported clade of Zygogynum exhibit fused carpels with all others within the family exhibiting unfused gynoecia. The significance of this is that it is a derived trait recognised as a reoccurring trend within the Angiosperm lineage, though this is the first instance where it has been identified occurring within a single genus.

text: Evolution of the genera Vitex (Lamiaceae) and Zygogynum (Winteraceae) on New Caledonia The New Caledonia archipelago is home to a richly diverse flora including a disproportionate number of lineages whose heritage can be traced to ancient Gondwana. Much of this species richness is owed to the complex geologic history, including an extensive period of submersion, of the region which actively shaped the flora over millennia. Given such complexity there is always unknowns both with regards to the circumscription of such a diverse flora and to understanding aspects of the archipelagos geologic past, which in many cases prove extremely difficult to resolve. This thesis investigates two aspects of this notion using modern day molecular techniques. 
The first aspect that we investigate is the question of species circumscription with regards to Vitex (Lamiaceae). Here we scrutinize the monophyly of the morphologically variable species Vitex collina, as described by Mabberley (1990), previously suggested by Mabberley to comprise a minimum of three distinct morphotypes. Additionally we consider the genetic uniqueness of a recently discovered species, tentatively named Vitex sp. “unifolia”, from currently accepted New Caledonian Vitex collina s.l. Maximum likelihood (ML) analyses using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genetic loci revealed that New Caledonian Vitex collina is paraphyletic with New Zealand V. lucens and Australian V. lignum-vitae nested within a well-supported V. collina s.l. clade. Our results suggest a minimum of two genetically distinct entities within V. collina, though the new species Vitex sp. “unifolia” was not distinguished genetically from Vitex cf. “collina”. The additional morphological analysis in light of our molecular analyses revealed further distinction of taxa within our sample group. This revealed a potential for three separate morphological entities within Vitex collina s.l. specimens, with Vitex sp. “unifolia” representing a fourth. Further research will result in the formal recognition of Vitex sp. “unifolia” upon publication, as well as further delimitation of the distinct entities within V. collina s.l. These revisions will have implications for the conservation status of these revised species, especially with regards to the rare Vitex sp. “unifolia”.
The second aspect investigated New Caledonian Winteraceae focussing on two research aims. The first aim scrutinised the New Caledonian Zygogynum s.l. in light of revisions made in Vink (1988; 1993; 2003), where four previously recognised genera (Belliolum, Bubbia, Exospermum, and Zygogynum) were dismantled into a single broadly circumscribed genus. The second aim was to assess any major morphological trends within Zygogynum s.l. and biogeographic patterns within the Winteraceae. Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian analyses using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and psbA-trnH genetic loci confirmed the monophyly and position of Takhtajania, Tasmannia, Drimys, and Pseudowintera within the Winteraceae. New Caledonian Zygogynum s.l. was shown to be paraphyletic with Z. schlechteri nested within a distinct Australian Bubbia clade separate from remaining Zygogynum. Our analyses showed no support for the distinction of species previously belonging to Belliolum and Exospermum with all remaining Zygogynum forming a monophyletic clade.  The monophyly of species within the Zygogynum were for the most part resolved, with only few species left unresolved or paraphyletic relationships. Further investigation of biogeography within the Winteraceae revealed that Zealandic Winteraceae share their common ancestor with South American taxa, reflecting the Gondwanic roots of this family, with Australian Bubbia having originated from New Caledonian Zygogynum. From this we suggest, upon further investigation, that the retention of Bubbia within Zygogynum s.l. was supported and should be maintained. Alternately, if Bubbia is maintained as distinct from Zygogynum s.l., Z. schlechteri will be revised to Bubbia schlechteri. Further research including specimens of all described taxa will improve the resolution of our analyses, likely identifying further inconsistences that require revision or attention. Our investigation into morphological trends within the Zygogynum uncovered a trend of carpel evolution, in which a single well supported clade of Zygogynum exhibit fused carpels with all others within the family exhibiting unfused gynoecia. The significance of this is that it is a derived trait recognised as a reoccurring trend within the Angiosperm lineage, though this is the first instance where it has been identified occurring within a single genus.

year: 2013

title: Maori perspectives of the environment: A review of Environment Waikato iwi environmental management plans.

authors: Whangapirita, Laura

subjects: Maori

abstract: The purpose of this report is to gather, summarise, analyse and distribute information held by Environment Waikato on Maori and the environment. To achieve this we evaluated and summarised the Ngaati Te Ata Iwi Policy Statement, Iwi Environmental management Plans and iwi contributions made toward the Proposed Waikato Regional Plan (1998) using a Maori values framework. This report has been prepared to contribute towards developing a resource for Environment Waikato’s Strategic Plan Review Teams. The report itself refers to values and beliefs sourced from iwi documents held by Environment waiakto and are presented using a Maori values framework providing the reader with an introduction to the environmental perspectives of tangat whenua in  the Waikato region.

text: Maori perspectives of the environment: A review of Environment Waikato iwi environmental management plans. The purpose of this report is to gather, summarise, analyse and distribute information held by Environment Waikato on Maori and the environment. To achieve this we evaluated and summarised the Ngaati Te Ata Iwi Policy Statement, Iwi Environmental management Plans and iwi contributions made toward the Proposed Waikato Regional Plan (1998) using a Maori values framework. This report has been prepared to contribute towards developing a resource for Environment Waikato’s Strategic Plan Review Teams. The report itself refers to values and beliefs sourced from iwi documents held by Environment waiakto and are presented using a Maori values framework providing the reader with an introduction to the environmental perspectives of tangat whenua in  the Waikato region.

year: 2003-09