title: Colonisation of Remote Oceania: New dates for the Bapot-1 site in the Mariana Islands

authors: Petchey, Fiona

subjects: colonisation

abstract: The colonisation of the Mariana Islands in Western Micronesia is likely to represent a long-distance ocean dispersal of more than 2000 km, and establishing the date of human arrival in the archipelago is important for modelling Neolithic expansion in Island South-East Asia and the Pacific. In 2010, Clark et al. published a paper discussing a number of radiocarbon dates from the Bapot-1 site on Saipan Island, but a disparity between charcoal and marine shell (Anadara sp.) results prevented the calculation of a definitive age for the site and left open the possibility that Bapot-1 was first settled as early as 3500 calBP. Here, we present new research using a combination of stable isotope (δ13C and δ18O) and 14C information to demonstrate that A. antiquata from the lowest layers of Bapot-1 is affected by hardwaters. These new results indicate human arrival at Bapot-1 occurred around 3200-3080 calBP (1250-1130 BC). We recommend a similar isotopic evaluation for other sites in the Marianas that are dated by marine shell.

text: Colonisation of Remote Oceania: New dates for the Bapot-1 site in the Mariana Islands The colonisation of the Mariana Islands in Western Micronesia is likely to represent a long-distance ocean dispersal of more than 2000 km, and establishing the date of human arrival in the archipelago is important for modelling Neolithic expansion in Island South-East Asia and the Pacific. In 2010, Clark et al. published a paper discussing a number of radiocarbon dates from the Bapot-1 site on Saipan Island, but a disparity between charcoal and marine shell (Anadara sp.) results prevented the calculation of a definitive age for the site and left open the possibility that Bapot-1 was first settled as early as 3500 calBP. Here, we present new research using a combination of stable isotope (δ13C and δ18O) and 14C information to demonstrate that A. antiquata from the lowest layers of Bapot-1 is affected by hardwaters. These new results indicate human arrival at Bapot-1 occurred around 3200-3080 calBP (1250-1130 BC). We recommend a similar isotopic evaluation for other sites in the Marianas that are dated by marine shell.

year: 2016

title: Enhancement of "flavours" through enzymatic release of glutamate

authors: Juwono, Joshua

abstract: The sensory characteristics of food, in particular the flavours of food, play a very crucial role in the food industry. It is often what consumers associate most from food, and it is therefore crucial for food manufacturers like The Tatua Co-operative Dairy Company to produce flavour ingredients that are unique and of the highest quality.  
The Dairy Flavour Ingredients Business Unit at Tatua produces a range of dairy flavour ingredients including Butter, Cream and Milk, and Cheese Flavours. Tatua exports most of their flavour products worldwide to various food manufacturers, enhancing the flavour of the products that such manufacturers produce. Umami or savouriness is one of the five primary tastes. It is one of the most important flavour characteristic in dairy flavourings. In particular, umami is most needed in many of the different cheese flavourings produced by Tatua.  
This project focuses on optimising the release of glutamate from casein. Liberated glutamate with a commercial name HCP337 is used as a flavour enhancer, increasing the umami of the dairy flavourings that Tatua makes. Alternatively, the addition of monosodium glutamate (MSG) can also increase the umami of the flavours that Tatua makes, however this is not possible due to a couple of reasons: MSG has a negative reputation in the consumers’ mind, as many believe consumption of MSG can cause negative health effects; another reason is that addition of MSG would prevent Tatua from labelling their products as “natural”. Thus, the glutamate used for Tatua’s flavour ingredients is derived from the proteolysis of casein.  
Currently, the problem is that very little free glutamate is present in the HCP337 product even after a very long proteolysis. Therefore, the purpose of this project is to comprehensively examine the biochemistry of glutamate release in order to find the optimum proteolysis condition and use this knowledge to optimise the current process, increasing glutamate release. 
Three techniques were developed over the initial part of the study to quantify glutamate, glutamine, and pyroglutamic acid. A thorough set of samples from the HCP337 production process were then characterised. We found that indeed there was low glutamate content in the HCP337 product, and there was pyroglutamic acid in significant amounts. Stability tests of both glutamate and glutamine showed that glutamate is stable and not affected by the processing conditions. On the other hand, glutamine is very unstable and converted into pyroglutamic acid spontaneously under the processing conditions.  
With this information, various tests were performed with the focus of maximising glutamate yield from casein. These tests included: testing the proteolytic capacity of new and different enzymes at differing pH values with the hope of finding a better and more suitable enzyme at liberating glutamate from casein, the use of different acidifying agents in the HCP337 production process, and the screening of glutaminase activity within the new enzymes. The presence of glutaminase may further increase the glutamate yield, as glutaminase will convert the free glutamine released into glutamate instead of it spontaneously forming pyroglutamic acid. 
In summary, this study demonstrated that the current HCP337 production process is not designed to optimally release glutamate from casein. Altering the pH and enzyme combinations during hydrolysis did not appear to be effective strategies to increase glutamate release from casein. More tests on more enzyme should be conducted in the future in order to find enzymes that are most effective at releasing glutamate under the appropriate production process.

text: Enhancement of "flavours" through enzymatic release of glutamate The sensory characteristics of food, in particular the flavours of food, play a very crucial role in the food industry. It is often what consumers associate most from food, and it is therefore crucial for food manufacturers like The Tatua Co-operative Dairy Company to produce flavour ingredients that are unique and of the highest quality.  
The Dairy Flavour Ingredients Business Unit at Tatua produces a range of dairy flavour ingredients including Butter, Cream and Milk, and Cheese Flavours. Tatua exports most of their flavour products worldwide to various food manufacturers, enhancing the flavour of the products that such manufacturers produce. Umami or savouriness is one of the five primary tastes. It is one of the most important flavour characteristic in dairy flavourings. In particular, umami is most needed in many of the different cheese flavourings produced by Tatua.  
This project focuses on optimising the release of glutamate from casein. Liberated glutamate with a commercial name HCP337 is used as a flavour enhancer, increasing the umami of the dairy flavourings that Tatua makes. Alternatively, the addition of monosodium glutamate (MSG) can also increase the umami of the flavours that Tatua makes, however this is not possible due to a couple of reasons: MSG has a negative reputation in the consumers’ mind, as many believe consumption of MSG can cause negative health effects; another reason is that addition of MSG would prevent Tatua from labelling their products as “natural”. Thus, the glutamate used for Tatua’s flavour ingredients is derived from the proteolysis of casein.  
Currently, the problem is that very little free glutamate is present in the HCP337 product even after a very long proteolysis. Therefore, the purpose of this project is to comprehensively examine the biochemistry of glutamate release in order to find the optimum proteolysis condition and use this knowledge to optimise the current process, increasing glutamate release. 
Three techniques were developed over the initial part of the study to quantify glutamate, glutamine, and pyroglutamic acid. A thorough set of samples from the HCP337 production process were then characterised. We found that indeed there was low glutamate content in the HCP337 product, and there was pyroglutamic acid in significant amounts. Stability tests of both glutamate and glutamine showed that glutamate is stable and not affected by the processing conditions. On the other hand, glutamine is very unstable and converted into pyroglutamic acid spontaneously under the processing conditions.  
With this information, various tests were performed with the focus of maximising glutamate yield from casein. These tests included: testing the proteolytic capacity of new and different enzymes at differing pH values with the hope of finding a better and more suitable enzyme at liberating glutamate from casein, the use of different acidifying agents in the HCP337 production process, and the screening of glutaminase activity within the new enzymes. The presence of glutaminase may further increase the glutamate yield, as glutaminase will convert the free glutamine released into glutamate instead of it spontaneously forming pyroglutamic acid. 
In summary, this study demonstrated that the current HCP337 production process is not designed to optimally release glutamate from casein. Altering the pH and enzyme combinations during hydrolysis did not appear to be effective strategies to increase glutamate release from casein. More tests on more enzyme should be conducted in the future in order to find enzymes that are most effective at releasing glutamate under the appropriate production process.

year: 2016

title: Investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism : Planning for the Future Benefit of Waikato-Tainui along the Waikato River, Case Studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae

authors: Cooper, Mei Te Werawera Te Reokaha

abstract: “Tērā ōkū hoa kei ngā tōpito e whā o te ao - My friends will come from all parts of the world” – Kīngi Tāwhiao 1822-1894

This doctorate is guided by the visions of the second Māori king, Kīngi Tāwhiao, which reflect the importance of global connections, relationships (Turongo House, 2000:109) and investment to achieve the ultimate goal of authentic or ‘true’ sustainability throughout the world.  The strategic process will require a balance between humans and the natural environment to ensure long-term growth and survival.  This research will investigate whether investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism (ASCT) will provide long-term and sustainable benefits for tribes throughout New Zealand, using a study of Waikato-Tainui.  ASCT, if practiced correctly, must be driven by whānau of marae, hapū and iwi alongside ideal long-term partners to ultimately achieve indigenous autonomy. ASCT prioritises the wellbeing of indigenous and local communities, cultural preservation and environmental sustainability while providing secure economic returns to key stakeholders. 

Today, tourism is New Zealand’s largest and fastest growing industry; total tourism expenditure is forecast to increase from $34.7b in 2016, an increase of 12.2% from the previous year, to $41b by 2025.  The natural landscape is the main reason why international travellers visit New Zealand, followed by an interest in Māori culture (Tourism Industry Association, 2015).  Unfortunately, there is sparse funding for Māori tourism development (New Zealand Māori Tourism, 2015; Goulter, 2015) compared to mainstream tourism and Māori are the most impoverished people in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2011).  Cultural tourism has existed in New Zealand for more than 150 years and has a vital role in New Zealand’s tourism industry.  Te Kīngitanga and the Waikato River are the main aspects that make Waikato unique in New Zealand, however, there is very little cultural tourism in the region.  As a descendant of Waikato-Tainui, I work with my people at the marae level to inform tribal governance about the significant opportunities available to whānau compared to current mainstream investments by the tribe. 

Using Kaupapa Māori and critical realism, the methods used in this research include an investigation of government tourism organisations, interviews with Waikato-Tainui governance groups, case studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae, case studies at fourteen successful Māori tourism providers throughout New Zealand, and an international comparison of best practices in indigenous tourism.

text: Investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism : Planning for the Future Benefit of Waikato-Tainui along the Waikato River, Case Studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae “Tērā ōkū hoa kei ngā tōpito e whā o te ao - My friends will come from all parts of the world” – Kīngi Tāwhiao 1822-1894

This doctorate is guided by the visions of the second Māori king, Kīngi Tāwhiao, which reflect the importance of global connections, relationships (Turongo House, 2000:109) and investment to achieve the ultimate goal of authentic or ‘true’ sustainability throughout the world.  The strategic process will require a balance between humans and the natural environment to ensure long-term growth and survival.  This research will investigate whether investment in Authentic Sustainable Cultural Tourism (ASCT) will provide long-term and sustainable benefits for tribes throughout New Zealand, using a study of Waikato-Tainui.  ASCT, if practiced correctly, must be driven by whānau of marae, hapū and iwi alongside ideal long-term partners to ultimately achieve indigenous autonomy. ASCT prioritises the wellbeing of indigenous and local communities, cultural preservation and environmental sustainability while providing secure economic returns to key stakeholders. 

Today, tourism is New Zealand’s largest and fastest growing industry; total tourism expenditure is forecast to increase from $34.7b in 2016, an increase of 12.2% from the previous year, to $41b by 2025.  The natural landscape is the main reason why international travellers visit New Zealand, followed by an interest in Māori culture (Tourism Industry Association, 2015).  Unfortunately, there is sparse funding for Māori tourism development (New Zealand Māori Tourism, 2015; Goulter, 2015) compared to mainstream tourism and Māori are the most impoverished people in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2011).  Cultural tourism has existed in New Zealand for more than 150 years and has a vital role in New Zealand’s tourism industry.  Te Kīngitanga and the Waikato River are the main aspects that make Waikato unique in New Zealand, however, there is very little cultural tourism in the region.  As a descendant of Waikato-Tainui, I work with my people at the marae level to inform tribal governance about the significant opportunities available to whānau compared to current mainstream investments by the tribe. 

Using Kaupapa Māori and critical realism, the methods used in this research include an investigation of government tourism organisations, interviews with Waikato-Tainui governance groups, case studies at Tūrangawaewae and Te Awamārahi Marae, case studies at fourteen successful Māori tourism providers throughout New Zealand, and an international comparison of best practices in indigenous tourism.

year: 2018