title: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945

authors: Glen, Frank

abstract: This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

text: New Zealand army chaplains at war : 2 NZEF 1939 - 1945 This thesis investigates the motivations to engage in, and the pastoral and sacramental work of, the 1939-45 World War Two chaplains of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and it explores the theological framework, and theology in which such chaplaincy was carried out. It concludes by noting significant factors and issues of concern to chaplains and their churches in respect of the transition from war to peace.

Historical models of military chaplaincy are found in Constantine’s Roman Empire of 312-337CE, the Christian Crusades of 1096-1291, and the later British Empire. Features of these models provide a tool for understanding and interpreting many aspects of the work and role of the military chaplains of this study. The impact of Christian pacifism is considered, as it is one of the influences which came to bear upon the decision of some clergy who enlisted as chaplains.

Chaplains were recruited from eight denominations and they demonstrated a common pastoral concern for all who were engaged in the various theatres of war. Through the introduction of the concept of ecumenical unit chaplaincy, the battalion became the padre’s parish where he conducted worship, exercised pastoral skills, read the liturgies and preached the Gospel. This became the corner-stone of an ecumenical chaplaincy which developed throughout the war years. Despite the exigencies of war a Bible Class network, church parades - both voluntary and compulsory - and a wide range of religious activities contributed to a spiritual programme which met the needs of a largely nominal Christian 2NZEF.

There emerged from the experience of worship within the 2NZEF a pragmatic ecumenical approach to many aspects of chaplaincy, including in particular the practice, at least for Protestants, of inter-communion. Roman Catholic practice and theological understanding of the Eucharist was enriched by a particular New Zealand contribution. The isolation of the Pacific theatre, coupled with the maturing of the Chaplain’s Department through the Middle East experiences, resulted in a heightening of ecumenical development within the 3rd Division chaplaincy.

The chaplain’s skills in pastoral matters were required to maintain morale, cope with death, wounding and captivity. They are defined first from a military perspective and then examined from a biblical viewpoint. It is primarily in reference to chaplains’ skills associated with the battlefield context, although other situations are included, that issues of pastoral ministry are identified and discussed. The Maori chaplains’ task is discussed in reference to the tohunga of pre-Christian times. Unlike their Pakeha (European) associates. Maori chaplains had access to individuals of influence within New Zealand Maori politics, a factor which was of particular significance.

Almost all chaplains had a belief in the natural justice of World War Two and this thesis will suggest they believed that not to have embarked upon war would have led to infinitely more serious problems for both civilization and the Christian Church. Throughout the war years there was an identified and distinct implicit theological framework which underwrote their attitudes and actions. Their opinions, theological framework and ideology, regarding the war arose both from the ministerial duties they performed and their battlefield experience of war itself.

The model of New Zealand chaplaincy is defined and compared with the classical models noted at the beginning of the thesis. At the end of the war, the 2NZEF Chaplains’ Department held a series of Leadership Schools. These Schools, involving laymen of all denominations. addressed a series of transitional religious and social issues, the outcomes of which were to develop over the decades following WW2. The concluding chapter summarizes a Theology of Chaplaincy which has developed from the foregoing study.

year: 1996

title: A survey of psychologists’ opinions and behaviours on aspects of Maori mental health

authors: Sawrey, Richard

subjects: Maori

abstract: In the majority of settings where psychologists work, particularly in State health and justice settings, Maori people are substantially over represented relative to their numbers in the general population (Durie, 1987). This situation has raised serious questions about the adequacy of both mental health services and professionals in their provision of appropriate services for Maori people. (Hui Whakaoranga, 1984; Durie, 1985). Recommendations have been given to address these deficiencies. Te Hui Whakaoranga (l984) recommended a recruitment programme for Maori into health professions and training for health workers in Maori culture. The Committee of Inquiry into Procedures used in Psychiatric Hospitals (1988) pointed out that health professionals are rarely educated in taha Maori or the application of taha Maori to the service they provide. They stated that many current training programmes create a barrier to Maori people entering the health professions. They recommended that changes occur in both the in - service and basic training of health professionals.

text: A survey of psychologists’ opinions and behaviours on aspects of Maori mental health In the majority of settings where psychologists work, particularly in State health and justice settings, Maori people are substantially over represented relative to their numbers in the general population (Durie, 1987). This situation has raised serious questions about the adequacy of both mental health services and professionals in their provision of appropriate services for Maori people. (Hui Whakaoranga, 1984; Durie, 1985). Recommendations have been given to address these deficiencies. Te Hui Whakaoranga (l984) recommended a recruitment programme for Maori into health professions and training for health workers in Maori culture. The Committee of Inquiry into Procedures used in Psychiatric Hospitals (1988) pointed out that health professionals are rarely educated in taha Maori or the application of taha Maori to the service they provide. They stated that many current training programmes create a barrier to Maori people entering the health professions. They recommended that changes occur in both the in - service and basic training of health professionals.

year: 1993

title: Spectroscopic Investigations of Oligopeptides from Aquatic Cyanobacteria: Characterisation of New Oligopeptides, Development of Microcystin Quantification Tools and Investigations into Microcystin Production

authors: Puddick, Jonathan

subjects: Microcystins

abstract: Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are a group of ancient prokaryotic organisms which have become synonymous with water quality deterioration. An array of compounds is produced by aquatic cyanobacteria, the largest group being the oligopeptides. A major class of cyanobacterial oligopeptides are the microcystins; cyclic heptapeptides which contain the unique amino acid Adda (3 amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid). Due to their ability to inhibit protein phosphatases 1 and 2A and as they are concentrated in the liver, microcystins can be highly toxic to animals.

Anabaenopeptins are cyclic hexapeptides which contain a carbonyl-linked sidechain amino acid and a ring which is cyclised through the sidechain amine of the position two D-lysine. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI TOF MS) analysis of a cyanobacterial bloom sample from Lake Wiritoa (Manawatu, New Zealand) led to the identification of a new anabaenopeptin. The putative structure for anabaenopeptin 906 was constructed using tandem MS (MS/MS) data, in conjunction with the sequences of the known anabaenopeptins.

A Microcystis species (CYN06) isolated from Lake Hakanoa (Huntly, New Zealand) was investigated as it produced a large number of microcystin congeners. Liquid chromatography-MS/MS analysis was used to identify seventeen known microcystin congeners and to characterise ten new variants. Two of the new microcystins, MC-FA and MC-WA, were structurally characterised using amino acid analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The other new congeners included MC FAba, MC WAba, MC FL, MC-WL as well as [Asp³] analogues of MC FA, MC WA, and [Asp³] analogues of two known congeners; MC-RA and MC-RAba. A review of the number of microcystin congeners produced by reported cyanobacterial strains placed CYN06 in the upper ten percentile. However, CYN06 differed from the other strains as it showed relaxed substrate specificity at position two and four and simultaneously produced microcystin congeners which contained no arginine residues, one arginine residue and two arginine residues.

Microcystis CYN06 also contained an unidentified microcystin with a mass of 1014.5 Da. Structural characterisation by NMR spectroscopy indicated that it was an analogue of MC-WA which contained N-formylkynurenine at position two. As N-formylkynurenine is a known oxidation product of tryptophan it was proposed that further unidentified microcystins from CYN06 contained two other oxidation products of tryptophan; kynurenine and oxindolyalanine. This is the first report of the presence of oxidised tryptophan residues in microcystins.

Analysis of a cyanobacterial hydroterrestrial mat sample collected from Miers Valley in Eastern Antarctica indicated the presence of fourteen new oligopeptides. A combination of MS/MS and amino acid analysis was used to characterise eight new microcystins which each contained a position one glycine. A recently-developed thiol derivatisation technique indicated that the position seven amino acid in each of the microcystins was very likely dehydrobutyrine. Different combinations of variable modifications at positions two, four and five resulted in eight unique structures. These included four microcystins with Adda moieties which possessed an O-acetyl group (ADMAdda) instead of the conventional C9 methoxy. As well as being the first report of microcystins containing a position one glycine, this is the first report of ADMAdda-containing microcystins in the southern hemisphere. The putative structures of six new Antarctic linear peptides were determined through a combination of mass spectrometric techniques. The compounds contained an N terminus with the molecular formula C₉H₁₄NO₂ linked to isoleucine, two aromatic amino acids and an ester linked hydroxyphenyllactic acid. The hydroxyphenyllactic acid C terminus and the unidentified N terminus suggest that these new compounds are a novel class of cyanobacterial oligopeptide.

Seven different sample preparation techniques for the quantitative analysis of microcystins by MALDI-TOF MS were assessed for signal reproducibility and sensitivity using a cost-effective internal standard (angiotensin I). The sensitivity of six of the preparations was acceptable, as was the reproducibility for two thin layer preparations performed on a polished steel target. Both thin layer preparations could be used with a MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer which automatically acquires data. The thin-layer-spot preparation could also be used in an automated sample preparation work-flow. Further investigation using this preparation demonstrated that linear quantification of three different microcystin congeners ([Dha⁷] MC-LR, MC-RR and MC-YR) was possible. Use of this MALDI sample preparation will allow large numbers of microcystin-containing samples to be analysed rapidly and at low cost.

A batch culture experiment using Microcystis CYN06 exhibited a decreased abundance of arginine-containing microcystins as nitrate concentrations decreased. Linear regression of the relationship between log10 microcystin content and nitrate concentration revealed slopes which were dependent upon the number of arginine residues present in the compound. During this experiment the abundance of congeners with a single arginine residue at position two did not change (p > 0.05), whilst the abundance of the congeners with a position four arginine decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.001). This suggests that there could be an element of selectivity in regards to which arginine in the microcystin structure is modulated and could explain why congener modulation in response to nitrogen concentration has not been observed previously. Whilst it was not proven that nitrogen supply was the causative factor for the congener modulation, the results from this experiment warrant further study in this area.

This research has significantly expanded our knowledge of oligopeptide diversity, improved an existing method of quantifying microcystins and shed new light on the regulation of the abundance of microcystin congeners. The identification of eighteen new microcystins is a 16% increase upon the 111 presently characterised. Also reported was the identification of nine oxidised analogues of tryptophan-containing microcystins from Microcystis CYN06. The presence of oxidised Trp residues in microcystins has not been reported previously and will allow researchers working with samples of Trp-containing microcystins to now assign the oxidised analogues. Seven new cyanobacterial oligopeptides were characterised during this study, six of which may belong to a novel class of linear peptides. A sample preparation designed for the quantification of microcystins by MALDI TOF MS gave comparative performance to the previously reported method but was compatible with automated high-throughput sample preparation and data acquisition. For the first time, a culturing experiment showed a relationship between the abundance of arginine-containing microcystins and nitrogen supply.

text: Spectroscopic Investigations of Oligopeptides from Aquatic Cyanobacteria: Characterisation of New Oligopeptides, Development of Microcystin Quantification Tools and Investigations into Microcystin Production Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are a group of ancient prokaryotic organisms which have become synonymous with water quality deterioration. An array of compounds is produced by aquatic cyanobacteria, the largest group being the oligopeptides. A major class of cyanobacterial oligopeptides are the microcystins; cyclic heptapeptides which contain the unique amino acid Adda (3 amino-9-methoxy-2,6,8-trimethyl-10-phenyldeca-4,6-dienoic acid). Due to their ability to inhibit protein phosphatases 1 and 2A and as they are concentrated in the liver, microcystins can be highly toxic to animals.

Anabaenopeptins are cyclic hexapeptides which contain a carbonyl-linked sidechain amino acid and a ring which is cyclised through the sidechain amine of the position two D-lysine. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI TOF MS) analysis of a cyanobacterial bloom sample from Lake Wiritoa (Manawatu, New Zealand) led to the identification of a new anabaenopeptin. The putative structure for anabaenopeptin 906 was constructed using tandem MS (MS/MS) data, in conjunction with the sequences of the known anabaenopeptins.

A Microcystis species (CYN06) isolated from Lake Hakanoa (Huntly, New Zealand) was investigated as it produced a large number of microcystin congeners. Liquid chromatography-MS/MS analysis was used to identify seventeen known microcystin congeners and to characterise ten new variants. Two of the new microcystins, MC-FA and MC-WA, were structurally characterised using amino acid analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The other new congeners included MC FAba, MC WAba, MC FL, MC-WL as well as [Asp³] analogues of MC FA, MC WA, and [Asp³] analogues of two known congeners; MC-RA and MC-RAba. A review of the number of microcystin congeners produced by reported cyanobacterial strains placed CYN06 in the upper ten percentile. However, CYN06 differed from the other strains as it showed relaxed substrate specificity at position two and four and simultaneously produced microcystin congeners which contained no arginine residues, one arginine residue and two arginine residues.

Microcystis CYN06 also contained an unidentified microcystin with a mass of 1014.5 Da. Structural characterisation by NMR spectroscopy indicated that it was an analogue of MC-WA which contained N-formylkynurenine at position two. As N-formylkynurenine is a known oxidation product of tryptophan it was proposed that further unidentified microcystins from CYN06 contained two other oxidation products of tryptophan; kynurenine and oxindolyalanine. This is the first report of the presence of oxidised tryptophan residues in microcystins.

Analysis of a cyanobacterial hydroterrestrial mat sample collected from Miers Valley in Eastern Antarctica indicated the presence of fourteen new oligopeptides. A combination of MS/MS and amino acid analysis was used to characterise eight new microcystins which each contained a position one glycine. A recently-developed thiol derivatisation technique indicated that the position seven amino acid in each of the microcystins was very likely dehydrobutyrine. Different combinations of variable modifications at positions two, four and five resulted in eight unique structures. These included four microcystins with Adda moieties which possessed an O-acetyl group (ADMAdda) instead of the conventional C9 methoxy. As well as being the first report of microcystins containing a position one glycine, this is the first report of ADMAdda-containing microcystins in the southern hemisphere. The putative structures of six new Antarctic linear peptides were determined through a combination of mass spectrometric techniques. The compounds contained an N terminus with the molecular formula C₉H₁₄NO₂ linked to isoleucine, two aromatic amino acids and an ester linked hydroxyphenyllactic acid. The hydroxyphenyllactic acid C terminus and the unidentified N terminus suggest that these new compounds are a novel class of cyanobacterial oligopeptide.

Seven different sample preparation techniques for the quantitative analysis of microcystins by MALDI-TOF MS were assessed for signal reproducibility and sensitivity using a cost-effective internal standard (angiotensin I). The sensitivity of six of the preparations was acceptable, as was the reproducibility for two thin layer preparations performed on a polished steel target. Both thin layer preparations could be used with a MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer which automatically acquires data. The thin-layer-spot preparation could also be used in an automated sample preparation work-flow. Further investigation using this preparation demonstrated that linear quantification of three different microcystin congeners ([Dha⁷] MC-LR, MC-RR and MC-YR) was possible. Use of this MALDI sample preparation will allow large numbers of microcystin-containing samples to be analysed rapidly and at low cost.

A batch culture experiment using Microcystis CYN06 exhibited a decreased abundance of arginine-containing microcystins as nitrate concentrations decreased. Linear regression of the relationship between log10 microcystin content and nitrate concentration revealed slopes which were dependent upon the number of arginine residues present in the compound. During this experiment the abundance of congeners with a single arginine residue at position two did not change (p > 0.05), whilst the abundance of the congeners with a position four arginine decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.001). This suggests that there could be an element of selectivity in regards to which arginine in the microcystin structure is modulated and could explain why congener modulation in response to nitrogen concentration has not been observed previously. Whilst it was not proven that nitrogen supply was the causative factor for the congener modulation, the results from this experiment warrant further study in this area.

This research has significantly expanded our knowledge of oligopeptide diversity, improved an existing method of quantifying microcystins and shed new light on the regulation of the abundance of microcystin congeners. The identification of eighteen new microcystins is a 16% increase upon the 111 presently characterised. Also reported was the identification of nine oxidised analogues of tryptophan-containing microcystins from Microcystis CYN06. The presence of oxidised Trp residues in microcystins has not been reported previously and will allow researchers working with samples of Trp-containing microcystins to now assign the oxidised analogues. Seven new cyanobacterial oligopeptides were characterised during this study, six of which may belong to a novel class of linear peptides. A sample preparation designed for the quantification of microcystins by MALDI TOF MS gave comparative performance to the previously reported method but was compatible with automated high-throughput sample preparation and data acquisition. For the first time, a culturing experiment showed a relationship between the abundance of arginine-containing microcystins and nitrogen supply.

year: 2013