title: Rethinking formative assessment through peer observation and reflection: A case study of Pakistani ESL lecturers’ cognition and practices

authors: Sarfraz, Shazre

subjects: peer observation

abstract: Peer observation can be applied to assess teachers’ performance. Despite an ever-growing corpus of literature on peer observation of teaching in education, very little research has been undertaken in tertiary level contexts where English is a second language (ESL), and no such study has been undertaken in a Pakistani context. 
Peer observation is commonly used to assess teachers in Pakistan. It is regarded as the first step towards quality assurance to provide evidence for reappointment or promotion decisions. Such summative peer observation done for evaluative purposes is generally seen by observed teachers as a threat to their professional autonomy, because it is often considered as a fault-finding tool. However, formative peer observation has the potential to play a pivotal role in teachers’ professional learning and growth. It can be an effective means of assessing teachers by identifying both areas of weakness and strength, thereby promoting teacher development. 

This qualitative case study was conducted from August 2016 to April 2017 in the context of a renowned private university in Pakistan. It followed an interpretive approach, wherein each individual was believed to have a unique perception and interpretation of the praxis of assessment by means of peer observation of teachers. The study focused on the cognition and practices of a group of six Pakistani ESL lecturers, the observer of their classes, and a member of the Quality Assurance Committee in the context. Data were collected from the lecturer participants through a combination of questionnaires, initial focus group discussions, auditing of post-observation meetings, stimulating the recall of participants of these sessions, individual interviews, and written narrative frames. All data were subjected to a process of grounded analysis. The application of this inductive and multi-method approach to the six lecturers, alongside the interviews with the management personnel, and the collection of pertinent documents have provided a detailed picture of peer observation. This was achieved by first identifying the institutional perspective, and then by presenting the practitioners’ cognitive development, discussed in light of Kolb’s (1984, 2015) Experiential Learning Theory.

In brief, findings revealed substantial diversity in views across the sources obtained within the institution. This study also provided a systematic structure for reflective practice to the lecturers and their repeated engagement in the research project facilitated their learning and enhanced their cognition, collectively and generally, and then individually and more specifically. This process enabled them to articulate their beliefs, which led to build on their understandings about peer observation more positively at the university context. Therefore, the idea and significance of reflective practice in peer observation to ensure that professional learning takes place are endorsed in the findings of this research. 
This research potentially contributes to the current corpus of literature theoretically, methodologically, and contextually. The findings of this study also offer practical implications for researchers, institutional leaders, and practitioners of peer observation.

text: Rethinking formative assessment through peer observation and reflection: A case study of Pakistani ESL lecturers’ cognition and practices Peer observation can be applied to assess teachers’ performance. Despite an ever-growing corpus of literature on peer observation of teaching in education, very little research has been undertaken in tertiary level contexts where English is a second language (ESL), and no such study has been undertaken in a Pakistani context. 
Peer observation is commonly used to assess teachers in Pakistan. It is regarded as the first step towards quality assurance to provide evidence for reappointment or promotion decisions. Such summative peer observation done for evaluative purposes is generally seen by observed teachers as a threat to their professional autonomy, because it is often considered as a fault-finding tool. However, formative peer observation has the potential to play a pivotal role in teachers’ professional learning and growth. It can be an effective means of assessing teachers by identifying both areas of weakness and strength, thereby promoting teacher development. 

This qualitative case study was conducted from August 2016 to April 2017 in the context of a renowned private university in Pakistan. It followed an interpretive approach, wherein each individual was believed to have a unique perception and interpretation of the praxis of assessment by means of peer observation of teachers. The study focused on the cognition and practices of a group of six Pakistani ESL lecturers, the observer of their classes, and a member of the Quality Assurance Committee in the context. Data were collected from the lecturer participants through a combination of questionnaires, initial focus group discussions, auditing of post-observation meetings, stimulating the recall of participants of these sessions, individual interviews, and written narrative frames. All data were subjected to a process of grounded analysis. The application of this inductive and multi-method approach to the six lecturers, alongside the interviews with the management personnel, and the collection of pertinent documents have provided a detailed picture of peer observation. This was achieved by first identifying the institutional perspective, and then by presenting the practitioners’ cognitive development, discussed in light of Kolb’s (1984, 2015) Experiential Learning Theory.

In brief, findings revealed substantial diversity in views across the sources obtained within the institution. This study also provided a systematic structure for reflective practice to the lecturers and their repeated engagement in the research project facilitated their learning and enhanced their cognition, collectively and generally, and then individually and more specifically. This process enabled them to articulate their beliefs, which led to build on their understandings about peer observation more positively at the university context. Therefore, the idea and significance of reflective practice in peer observation to ensure that professional learning takes place are endorsed in the findings of this research. 
This research potentially contributes to the current corpus of literature theoretically, methodologically, and contextually. The findings of this study also offer practical implications for researchers, institutional leaders, and practitioners of peer observation.

year: 2019

title: Clonal cell proliferation in the mammary gland

authors: Jacobson, Gregory M.

abstract: The primary aim of this thesis was to classify the nature of the clonal expansion of cells that gives rise to bovine and murine mammary epithelia. It is generally assumed that the mammary gland is derived from the outgrowth of mammary-determined stem cell progeny, and that this expansion produces a mixture of cellular clones throughout the gland. Molecular techniques that enable the 'visualization' of the size and distribution of these clones will lead to a better appreciation of mammary gland development and architecture. 
In female mammals, the simplest 'mark' of clonality is provided by the inactivation of one or the other of the two X chromosomes. This event occurs early in embryogenesis and gives rise to stem cells that propagate this mark in progeny cells throughout the life of the animal. Two approaches, that utilized X-inactivation as a mark of clonality, were investigated, 1) naturally occurring X-linked gene polymorphisms in cattle, and 2) artificially introduced X-linked transgenes in mice. 
The first part of this thesis deals with the isolation and utilization of polymorphic markers on the bovine X-chromosome as markers of clonality. Such expressed genetic markers are essential if one is to distinguish which of the two X-chromosomes is active in a given cell. Two X-linked bovine genes, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (g6pd) and the X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) were selected for sequencing and SNP detection. As no specific sequence data was available for these genes, a bovine lambda genomic DNA library was screened. The G6PD clone selected from a lambda library was shown to be a pseudogene and therefore not useful for the present study. Another clone, that hybridized with an Xist gene probe, was shown to actually represent a bovine Huntingtin Associated Protein 1 like (Hap1-like) pseudogene, making it of no utility in this study. However, screening of regions of exon 1 of the Xist gene by direct PCR and sequencing, led to the discovery of an informative G↔T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The variation, which was found in frequencies of 0.8 and 0.2 for 'G' and 'T' variants respectively (32% of females are heterozygous), was used in a number of different ways in order to assess the clonal profile of small 'blocks' of the gland (≤30 mm3). In these preliminary experiments, RT-PCR analysis of Xist expression patterns within each of the small blocks (each comprising around 3 X 107 cells) showed general heterogeneity but the experiments were not conclusive. Limitations of the experimental methods used are discussed and suggestions of alternative approaches, that will offer higher resolution, are presented. 
A second experimental approach, involving mice with a reporter transgene construct introduced into the X-chromosome (H253), was also used. The transgene consisted of 14 tandem repeats of a lacZ nuclear-localized reporter gene coupled with a mouse 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (hmgcr) promoter (Tam and Tan, 1992). A number of researchers had already utilized this transgenic model, and had confirmed that the cellular patterns of lacZ expression reflected actual X-inactivation patterns in a number of tissues. While carrying out initial investigations to ascertain the utility of this reporter system in investigations of the mammary gland it was discovered that the usual description of hmgcr as a 'house-keeping' gene is somewhat of a misnomer, as some tissues in the mouse show very strong patterns of lacZ expression while others gave minimal, or no, detectable expression. Furthermore, transgene expression was observed to increase during pregnancy and it was concluded that this effect was almost certainly a response to increased estrogen levels at this time. 
Whole mount analysis of five mouse mammary glands from transgenic animals revealed heterogeneous patterns of lacZ staining, indicating that mammary epithelia is generally polyclonal. In total, 42% of terminal buds and alveoli displayed a single lacZ staining pattern. Analysis of these staining patterns induct termini indicated that the majority of individual alveoli are derived from two or three division competent (stem) cells.

text: Clonal cell proliferation in the mammary gland The primary aim of this thesis was to classify the nature of the clonal expansion of cells that gives rise to bovine and murine mammary epithelia. It is generally assumed that the mammary gland is derived from the outgrowth of mammary-determined stem cell progeny, and that this expansion produces a mixture of cellular clones throughout the gland. Molecular techniques that enable the 'visualization' of the size and distribution of these clones will lead to a better appreciation of mammary gland development and architecture. 
In female mammals, the simplest 'mark' of clonality is provided by the inactivation of one or the other of the two X chromosomes. This event occurs early in embryogenesis and gives rise to stem cells that propagate this mark in progeny cells throughout the life of the animal. Two approaches, that utilized X-inactivation as a mark of clonality, were investigated, 1) naturally occurring X-linked gene polymorphisms in cattle, and 2) artificially introduced X-linked transgenes in mice. 
The first part of this thesis deals with the isolation and utilization of polymorphic markers on the bovine X-chromosome as markers of clonality. Such expressed genetic markers are essential if one is to distinguish which of the two X-chromosomes is active in a given cell. Two X-linked bovine genes, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (g6pd) and the X-inactive specific transcript (Xist) were selected for sequencing and SNP detection. As no specific sequence data was available for these genes, a bovine lambda genomic DNA library was screened. The G6PD clone selected from a lambda library was shown to be a pseudogene and therefore not useful for the present study. Another clone, that hybridized with an Xist gene probe, was shown to actually represent a bovine Huntingtin Associated Protein 1 like (Hap1-like) pseudogene, making it of no utility in this study. However, screening of regions of exon 1 of the Xist gene by direct PCR and sequencing, led to the discovery of an informative G↔T single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The variation, which was found in frequencies of 0.8 and 0.2 for 'G' and 'T' variants respectively (32% of females are heterozygous), was used in a number of different ways in order to assess the clonal profile of small 'blocks' of the gland (≤30 mm3). In these preliminary experiments, RT-PCR analysis of Xist expression patterns within each of the small blocks (each comprising around 3 X 107 cells) showed general heterogeneity but the experiments were not conclusive. Limitations of the experimental methods used are discussed and suggestions of alternative approaches, that will offer higher resolution, are presented. 
A second experimental approach, involving mice with a reporter transgene construct introduced into the X-chromosome (H253), was also used. The transgene consisted of 14 tandem repeats of a lacZ nuclear-localized reporter gene coupled with a mouse 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (hmgcr) promoter (Tam and Tan, 1992). A number of researchers had already utilized this transgenic model, and had confirmed that the cellular patterns of lacZ expression reflected actual X-inactivation patterns in a number of tissues. While carrying out initial investigations to ascertain the utility of this reporter system in investigations of the mammary gland it was discovered that the usual description of hmgcr as a 'house-keeping' gene is somewhat of a misnomer, as some tissues in the mouse show very strong patterns of lacZ expression while others gave minimal, or no, detectable expression. Furthermore, transgene expression was observed to increase during pregnancy and it was concluded that this effect was almost certainly a response to increased estrogen levels at this time. 
Whole mount analysis of five mouse mammary glands from transgenic animals revealed heterogeneous patterns of lacZ staining, indicating that mammary epithelia is generally polyclonal. In total, 42% of terminal buds and alveoli displayed a single lacZ staining pattern. Analysis of these staining patterns induct termini indicated that the majority of individual alveoli are derived from two or three division competent (stem) cells.

year: 2004

title: Rumours of gold at Te Aroha

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: From the time of the opening of the Thames goldfield, miners were tormented by the belief that the best gold would be found in Te Aroha mountain, on their southern horizon - so near and yet so far because of Maori resistance to prospecting that district. Some Maori claimed to have found gold there, and visiting Pakeha from at least the 1850s onwards detected gold in the vicinity. The first time gold in the Waiorongomai valley was noted was in 1868. Several prospectors claimed to have explored the district, illegally and, potentially, dangerously, especially after Ohinemuri was opened to mining in 1875. But not until Hone Werahiko found gold in 1880 and the field was officially opened on 25 November would it be possible to prove whether a payable goldfield existed.

text: Rumours of gold at Te Aroha From the time of the opening of the Thames goldfield, miners were tormented by the belief that the best gold would be found in Te Aroha mountain, on their southern horizon - so near and yet so far because of Maori resistance to prospecting that district. Some Maori claimed to have found gold there, and visiting Pakeha from at least the 1850s onwards detected gold in the vicinity. The first time gold in the Waiorongomai valley was noted was in 1868. Several prospectors claimed to have explored the district, illegally and, potentially, dangerously, especially after Ohinemuri was opened to mining in 1875. But not until Hone Werahiko found gold in 1880 and the field was officially opened on 25 November would it be possible to prove whether a payable goldfield existed.

year: 2016