title: 'Armed with power for preventing the spread of infectious disease': The making of the Public Health Act 1872 and its implementation in Auckland Province, 1870-1876

authors: Anderson, Duncan Graham

abstract: This dissertation examines the first piece of comprehensive public health legislation in New Zealand, the 1872 Public Health Act. Previous historians of New Zealand public health have downplayed the significance of the Act, and nineteenth century public health measures in general, suggesting the Act was poorly implemented by Health Boards who had little interest in their duties. This dissertation tests these claims by examining the implementation of the Act in Auckland Province, focusing on Auckland City and its suburbs, where most of the Local Boards of Health were. To fully understand this topic, a number of aspects of public health at the time and of the Act itself are investigated. Wider aspects of public health covered include health conditions in Auckland during the period, and how far they changed, and beliefs and ideas about public health that were held. This dissertation also discusses how the Act was formed in the context of such ideas and conditions, which aspects of it were actively pursued, which were neglected, and by whom, and how far there was a will to act that was limited by factors such as lack of funding, resources and knowledge. These subjects are examined through the use of a range of sources, including official government records, Board of Health records, statistics and newspapers, paying attention to both the substantive information that can be gained from such sources, as well as their discursive elements. This dissertation examines the different levels of power and responsibility set up by the section of the Act which created the Boards of Health, recognising that while there were not always tangible results, there was often an expressed will to act by public health authorities. This dissertation concludes that the Act was an important development in New Zealand's public health history, providing the first legislative expression of the 'sanitary idea' and setting up structures of responsibility that placed much more power to define sanitary conditions with public health authorities than hitherto existed, reducing the ability of individuals to do so and creating a 'new politics of health' that represented a new era.

text: 'Armed with power for preventing the spread of infectious disease': The making of the Public Health Act 1872 and its implementation in Auckland Province, 1870-1876 This dissertation examines the first piece of comprehensive public health legislation in New Zealand, the 1872 Public Health Act. Previous historians of New Zealand public health have downplayed the significance of the Act, and nineteenth century public health measures in general, suggesting the Act was poorly implemented by Health Boards who had little interest in their duties. This dissertation tests these claims by examining the implementation of the Act in Auckland Province, focusing on Auckland City and its suburbs, where most of the Local Boards of Health were. To fully understand this topic, a number of aspects of public health at the time and of the Act itself are investigated. Wider aspects of public health covered include health conditions in Auckland during the period, and how far they changed, and beliefs and ideas about public health that were held. This dissertation also discusses how the Act was formed in the context of such ideas and conditions, which aspects of it were actively pursued, which were neglected, and by whom, and how far there was a will to act that was limited by factors such as lack of funding, resources and knowledge. These subjects are examined through the use of a range of sources, including official government records, Board of Health records, statistics and newspapers, paying attention to both the substantive information that can be gained from such sources, as well as their discursive elements. This dissertation examines the different levels of power and responsibility set up by the section of the Act which created the Boards of Health, recognising that while there were not always tangible results, there was often an expressed will to act by public health authorities. This dissertation concludes that the Act was an important development in New Zealand's public health history, providing the first legislative expression of the 'sanitary idea' and setting up structures of responsibility that placed much more power to define sanitary conditions with public health authorities than hitherto existed, reducing the ability of individuals to do so and creating a 'new politics of health' that represented a new era.

year: 2002

title: Final report: Reducing burglary through Secured by Design: a meta-analysis

authors: Armitage, Rachel

abstract: Secured by Design (SBD) is a UK-based crime prevention initiative that sets security standards for the built environment. Buildings that meet prescribed security standards are awarded SBD status and, all things being equal, are assumed to be at lower risk of crime. SBD draws heavily on the principles of situational crime prevention and crime prevention through environmental design.

This study reviewed the evidence on whether properties that meet SBD standards experience less crime than properties that do not. Following a comprehensive search of the literature, nine UK studies were included in our review. Eligibility was limited to studies that (1) measured levels of crime in SBD developments compared to matched non-SBD developments or (2) reported changes in crime before and after SBD accreditation in a treatment and control group. This sample included studies of new dwellings built to SBD standards (n = 7) and existing dwellings refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2).

Our analysis found that eight of the nine included studies reported that SBD accreditation was associated with lower levels of burglary. In only three of these studies was the observed effect statistically significant, however. Synthesising data across all nine studies, our results indicate that overall, burglary in SBD properties was 53% lower than in non-SBD properties. The impact on burglary was greater still when focussing only on new properties built to SBD standards. For this sample of studies, we found a 65% relative reduction in burglary compared to matched non-SBD properties. No statistically significant effect was observed for other forms of crime and disorder. Insufficient data meant that we could not measure the impact of SBD specifically in refurbished properties nor could we test for crime displacement or diffusion of crime control benefits. Importantly, there was no evidence of SBD leading to an increase in crime and disorder.

The findings from this review support the general hypothesis that more secure households experience less burglary. They also lend further support for the basic idea that crime can be reduced by removing opportunities to commit it. From a policy perspective, our results re-emphasise the importance of engaging with manufacturers and design professionals to ensure that crime prevention is considered at the design and planning stage of urban developments. More specifically, our findings indicate that upgrading and/or maintaining effective SBD standards is a sensible strategy to reduce burglary. Simply put, properties which met SBD standards were significantly less likely to be burgled.
Although the results of this study are generally positive, there are some notes of caution. Only a small number of studies met the inclusion criteria for this review (n = 9). This was most pronounced for studies of existing properties refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2). Of those studies that were included in the review, weaknesses were identified concerning study design and limited data were provided on factors such as the quality of SBD measures and crime displacement. Moreover, three of nine included studies are now over twenty years old and relate to SBD standards that have been superseded. Relatedly, the quality of security in non-SBD properties has, in general, improved over time, influenced by a combination of technological developments, policy changes and, potentially, the growth and influence of SBD itself. One consequence of these general improvements is that the difference in security between SBD and non-SBD developments may, on average, be less pronounced today than it was thirty years ago. This raises concerns about the equivalence of SBD vs non-SBD evaluation sites; some properties might meet SBD standards despite not being SBD accredited, thereby muddying SBD vs non-SBD comparisons. Newer high quality evaluation studies are therefore needed to determine whether the positive effects reported here hold in contemporary urban environments, with greater attention paid to the quality of household security being compared across SBD and non-SBD developments. Furthermore, to advance the evidence base for SBD, we recommend that future evaluation studies include a wider range of outcome measures (including displacement) and put data collection measures in place better to understand what specific aspects of SBD affect crime, through what mechanisms and under what conditions.

text: Final report: Reducing burglary through Secured by Design: a meta-analysis Secured by Design (SBD) is a UK-based crime prevention initiative that sets security standards for the built environment. Buildings that meet prescribed security standards are awarded SBD status and, all things being equal, are assumed to be at lower risk of crime. SBD draws heavily on the principles of situational crime prevention and crime prevention through environmental design.

This study reviewed the evidence on whether properties that meet SBD standards experience less crime than properties that do not. Following a comprehensive search of the literature, nine UK studies were included in our review. Eligibility was limited to studies that (1) measured levels of crime in SBD developments compared to matched non-SBD developments or (2) reported changes in crime before and after SBD accreditation in a treatment and control group. This sample included studies of new dwellings built to SBD standards (n = 7) and existing dwellings refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2).

Our analysis found that eight of the nine included studies reported that SBD accreditation was associated with lower levels of burglary. In only three of these studies was the observed effect statistically significant, however. Synthesising data across all nine studies, our results indicate that overall, burglary in SBD properties was 53% lower than in non-SBD properties. The impact on burglary was greater still when focussing only on new properties built to SBD standards. For this sample of studies, we found a 65% relative reduction in burglary compared to matched non-SBD properties. No statistically significant effect was observed for other forms of crime and disorder. Insufficient data meant that we could not measure the impact of SBD specifically in refurbished properties nor could we test for crime displacement or diffusion of crime control benefits. Importantly, there was no evidence of SBD leading to an increase in crime and disorder.

The findings from this review support the general hypothesis that more secure households experience less burglary. They also lend further support for the basic idea that crime can be reduced by removing opportunities to commit it. From a policy perspective, our results re-emphasise the importance of engaging with manufacturers and design professionals to ensure that crime prevention is considered at the design and planning stage of urban developments. More specifically, our findings indicate that upgrading and/or maintaining effective SBD standards is a sensible strategy to reduce burglary. Simply put, properties which met SBD standards were significantly less likely to be burgled.
Although the results of this study are generally positive, there are some notes of caution. Only a small number of studies met the inclusion criteria for this review (n = 9). This was most pronounced for studies of existing properties refurbished to SBD standards (n = 2). Of those studies that were included in the review, weaknesses were identified concerning study design and limited data were provided on factors such as the quality of SBD measures and crime displacement. Moreover, three of nine included studies are now over twenty years old and relate to SBD standards that have been superseded. Relatedly, the quality of security in non-SBD properties has, in general, improved over time, influenced by a combination of technological developments, policy changes and, potentially, the growth and influence of SBD itself. One consequence of these general improvements is that the difference in security between SBD and non-SBD developments may, on average, be less pronounced today than it was thirty years ago. This raises concerns about the equivalence of SBD vs non-SBD evaluation sites; some properties might meet SBD standards despite not being SBD accredited, thereby muddying SBD vs non-SBD comparisons. Newer high quality evaluation studies are therefore needed to determine whether the positive effects reported here hold in contemporary urban environments, with greater attention paid to the quality of household security being compared across SBD and non-SBD developments. Furthermore, to advance the evidence base for SBD, we recommend that future evaluation studies include a wider range of outcome measures (including displacement) and put data collection measures in place better to understand what specific aspects of SBD affect crime, through what mechanisms and under what conditions.

year: 2024-09

title: Bite

authors: Mitchell, Tori

subjects: poetry

abstract: Bite is a collection of blunt confessional poetry draped in honesty, identity, and 21st century feminism, examined through lived experience with eating disorders, sexuality, trauma, disconnect from family and culture, love and loss, and what it means to be a girl growing up. The collection explores these raw concepts with vulnerability, through the eyes of ‘wolf girl’, in hopes that talking loudly about these topics will force the public to challenge the silence and stigma around them.  

This thesis was inspired by Maori Mythology, and all of the Polynesian poets who showed me how important it is for women of colour to share their stories and experiences. It was also influenced by feminist artists Jenny Holzer, Tracey Emin, and Barbara Kruger, whose art embodies the content of these poems in a literal way: freedom of expression, stripped bare and unflinching. The poetry in this collection is confronting, visceral, and filled with bite.

text: Bite Bite is a collection of blunt confessional poetry draped in honesty, identity, and 21st century feminism, examined through lived experience with eating disorders, sexuality, trauma, disconnect from family and culture, love and loss, and what it means to be a girl growing up. The collection explores these raw concepts with vulnerability, through the eyes of ‘wolf girl’, in hopes that talking loudly about these topics will force the public to challenge the silence and stigma around them.  

This thesis was inspired by Maori Mythology, and all of the Polynesian poets who showed me how important it is for women of colour to share their stories and experiences. It was also influenced by feminist artists Jenny Holzer, Tracey Emin, and Barbara Kruger, whose art embodies the content of these poems in a literal way: freedom of expression, stripped bare and unflinching. The poetry in this collection is confronting, visceral, and filled with bite.

year: 2020