title: Economic Issues in the Fisheries Sector of Tonga

authors: Rohorua, Halahingano Tu'akolo Siufanga

subjects: Fisheries

abstract: There are certain characteristics of island economies that are considered hindrances to their development. For example, island economies often lack the economies of scale necessary for enhanced economic development and are too remotely located from the worlds major international financial and trading centres to fully exploit the marketing and trading opportunities that are available. However, for island economies in the South Pacific, the sea also offers great opportunities for sustained economic development. The relative abundance and accessibility of fisheries resources means that if these resources are properly managed and exploited, island economies have much potential for social and economic development. At the same time, the sea provides a significant means of basic livelihood for many rural communities in these Island countries. A major and enduring challenge is therefore to ensure that island economies in the South Pacific utilise their sea resources for social and economic development without jeopardising their communities basic livelihoods.

text: Economic Issues in the Fisheries Sector of Tonga There are certain characteristics of island economies that are considered hindrances to their development. For example, island economies often lack the economies of scale necessary for enhanced economic development and are too remotely located from the worlds major international financial and trading centres to fully exploit the marketing and trading opportunities that are available. However, for island economies in the South Pacific, the sea also offers great opportunities for sustained economic development. The relative abundance and accessibility of fisheries resources means that if these resources are properly managed and exploited, island economies have much potential for social and economic development. At the same time, the sea provides a significant means of basic livelihood for many rural communities in these Island countries. A major and enduring challenge is therefore to ensure that island economies in the South Pacific utilise their sea resources for social and economic development without jeopardising their communities basic livelihoods.

year: 2009

title: Stronger together: Holistic learning through Education for Sustainability

authors: Wood, Benjamin Alexander

subjects: Education for Sustainability

abstract: Students in New Zealand secondary schools are more stressed and anxious about assessments than any other nation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). There is also low engagement and enjoyment in learning leading to negative repercussions on behaviour, health and achievement. In previous studies, Education for Sustainability (EfS) has shown strong potential as an engaging and enjoyable education system, in ways that align with the values of the New Zealand Curriculum. It is possible that EfS could also have potential to reduce stress in secondary assessment and yet engage students to achieve. 

This piece of action research explored the student experience of learning through EfS using a theoretical framework drawn from Outdoor Learning, Place Responsive Education and Issues Based Education. The framework puts emphasis on student wellbeing, embedding confidence in students, engaging students in democracy and providing avenues for them to participate within their culture, society, environment and economy in a positive way. 

The framework was manifest in an intervention: a 10-day ‘Sustainability camp’ in the context of a local mining issue within the Kaimai-Mamaku Forest Park, New Zealand. On the camp were 13 Year 10 students (14-15 years old) and three teachers. An interpretive methodology was engaged to explore the student experiences and outcomes of the camp. The forms of data collection used were: pre-post questionnaires, a post focus group interview and participant observations. Data analysis consisted of collating, averaging and graphing data from the questionnaire and coding data from focus group interviews and observations into seven categories (Sustainability values, Sustainability intentions, Knowledge, Connection to place, Social connections, Engagement & Enjoyment of learning).

Findings indicated that the intervention resulted in a stress free, enjoyable and engaging learning experience for students. An ethic of care for the area was indicated by many students, as was a connection to the place itself. Strong friendships were cultivated due to the breaking down of social barriers and the communal nature of camp living. Student knowledge of the context increased and achievement was retained at a high level. Sustainability Literacy increased in a number of areas and there was a marginal increase in Action Competence indicators. A worrying finding was that students commented on their low confidence in democracy within society. Ways to improve the student experience, student achievement, Sustainability Literacy and Action Competence via modifications to the intervention are put forth for the consideration of EfS practitioners.

text: Stronger together: Holistic learning through Education for Sustainability Students in New Zealand secondary schools are more stressed and anxious about assessments than any other nation in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). There is also low engagement and enjoyment in learning leading to negative repercussions on behaviour, health and achievement. In previous studies, Education for Sustainability (EfS) has shown strong potential as an engaging and enjoyable education system, in ways that align with the values of the New Zealand Curriculum. It is possible that EfS could also have potential to reduce stress in secondary assessment and yet engage students to achieve. 

This piece of action research explored the student experience of learning through EfS using a theoretical framework drawn from Outdoor Learning, Place Responsive Education and Issues Based Education. The framework puts emphasis on student wellbeing, embedding confidence in students, engaging students in democracy and providing avenues for them to participate within their culture, society, environment and economy in a positive way. 

The framework was manifest in an intervention: a 10-day ‘Sustainability camp’ in the context of a local mining issue within the Kaimai-Mamaku Forest Park, New Zealand. On the camp were 13 Year 10 students (14-15 years old) and three teachers. An interpretive methodology was engaged to explore the student experiences and outcomes of the camp. The forms of data collection used were: pre-post questionnaires, a post focus group interview and participant observations. Data analysis consisted of collating, averaging and graphing data from the questionnaire and coding data from focus group interviews and observations into seven categories (Sustainability values, Sustainability intentions, Knowledge, Connection to place, Social connections, Engagement & Enjoyment of learning).

Findings indicated that the intervention resulted in a stress free, enjoyable and engaging learning experience for students. An ethic of care for the area was indicated by many students, as was a connection to the place itself. Strong friendships were cultivated due to the breaking down of social barriers and the communal nature of camp living. Student knowledge of the context increased and achievement was retained at a high level. Sustainability Literacy increased in a number of areas and there was a marginal increase in Action Competence indicators. A worrying finding was that students commented on their low confidence in democracy within society. Ways to improve the student experience, student achievement, Sustainability Literacy and Action Competence via modifications to the intervention are put forth for the consideration of EfS practitioners.

year: 2019

title: 2016 Subtidal Ecological Survey of Tauranga Harbour and development of benthic health models

authors: Clark, Dana

abstract: This report summarises the results of biological and physical data collected from a broad-scale subtidal survey of Tauranga Harbour conducted between March and May 2016. The survey was designed to understand more fully the role of various anthropogenic stressors on ecosystem health and feed into management of the harbour. Community-based models of ecosystem health called Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed to assess ecosystem health in response to mud and metal loading. This is the first comprehensive quantitative survey of Tauranga Harbour’s subtidal environment since 1990/91. 
The research was conducted as part of the Oranga Taiao Oranga Tangata (OTOT) programme. The wider research project aims to provide knowledge and toolsets to support co-management of estuaries. The three phases of this programme include 1) gathering Mātauranga Māori (a body of knowledge of Māori experience in the area) from local iwi/hapū, 2) consolidating the ecological knowledge of the Tauranga Harbour and providing modelling and indicators of estuarine ecosystem health, resilience and functioning, and 3) creating an Integrative Spatial Planning Tool (ISPT) that can help inform decision making in the harbour. The subtidal survey fits into the latter two research objectives, as the information collected will be used to develop indicators of ecosystem health, which will be used as components of the ISPT. 
Water, sediment and benthic macrofauna samples were collected from 45 subtidal sites across the harbour. Subtidal sediments were predominantly sandy with low levels of nutrients and metal loading. Upper reaches of channels tended to have higher mud, organic content and nutrient concentrations than sites closer to the main channels. Maximum subtidal sediment metal concentrations were well below guideline values and all metals, except lead, were less than median national values for intertidal estuarine sites. Highest metal concentrations were in the urbanised southern harbour or in areas of high mud deposition. 
Many of the numerically dominant macrofaunal taxa were present in both the 1990/91 and 2016 subtidal surveys, with pipi the most abundant bivalve in both surveys. Although the 2016 survey was not designed to quantitatively measure large bivalves, compared with the 1990/91 survey, fewer scallops and horse mussels were observed. The apparent decline in these species is concerning as large bivalves stabilise the sediment and provide complex physical structure to soft sediment habitats, providing predation refuges and settlement substrate for epifauna. The invasive Asian date mussel, on the other hand, has also become common in the harbour. 
Mud and metals were identified as key variables affecting the ecology of the harbour. To determine how environmental gradients in these variables affected ecosystem health, two Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed based on variability in community structure, one for each environmental gradient. The BHM approach is a useful management tool that can be used to determine the relative health of benthic communities at a single point in time, or track sites over time to assess whether communities are moving towards a more healthy or unhealthy state. It has been found to be more sensitive to changing ecosystem health than simple univariate community measures because it preserves more information about the community. 
Most sites were ranked in the lower BHM groups, suggesting Tauranga Harbour had fairly healthy subtidal communities with regard to mud and metal impacts. This was supported by values from other biotic indices, which indicated that all subtidal sites in Tauranga would be classified as having ‘good’ ecological status. Sites identified as most impacted by elevated mud and metals were generally located in the upper reaches of estuaries or near the urbanised southern portion of the harbour. In terms of mud, this to some extent reflects the natural progression of an estuary from land to sea; however, the rates of accumulation of sediments have been accelerated because of anthropogenic land-based activities. Although currents and mud were highly coupled in Tauranga’s subtidal environment, the Mud BHM could draw out community responses that were only associated with mud.

text: 2016 Subtidal Ecological Survey of Tauranga Harbour and development of benthic health models This report summarises the results of biological and physical data collected from a broad-scale subtidal survey of Tauranga Harbour conducted between March and May 2016. The survey was designed to understand more fully the role of various anthropogenic stressors on ecosystem health and feed into management of the harbour. Community-based models of ecosystem health called Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed to assess ecosystem health in response to mud and metal loading. This is the first comprehensive quantitative survey of Tauranga Harbour’s subtidal environment since 1990/91. 
The research was conducted as part of the Oranga Taiao Oranga Tangata (OTOT) programme. The wider research project aims to provide knowledge and toolsets to support co-management of estuaries. The three phases of this programme include 1) gathering Mātauranga Māori (a body of knowledge of Māori experience in the area) from local iwi/hapū, 2) consolidating the ecological knowledge of the Tauranga Harbour and providing modelling and indicators of estuarine ecosystem health, resilience and functioning, and 3) creating an Integrative Spatial Planning Tool (ISPT) that can help inform decision making in the harbour. The subtidal survey fits into the latter two research objectives, as the information collected will be used to develop indicators of ecosystem health, which will be used as components of the ISPT. 
Water, sediment and benthic macrofauna samples were collected from 45 subtidal sites across the harbour. Subtidal sediments were predominantly sandy with low levels of nutrients and metal loading. Upper reaches of channels tended to have higher mud, organic content and nutrient concentrations than sites closer to the main channels. Maximum subtidal sediment metal concentrations were well below guideline values and all metals, except lead, were less than median national values for intertidal estuarine sites. Highest metal concentrations were in the urbanised southern harbour or in areas of high mud deposition. 
Many of the numerically dominant macrofaunal taxa were present in both the 1990/91 and 2016 subtidal surveys, with pipi the most abundant bivalve in both surveys. Although the 2016 survey was not designed to quantitatively measure large bivalves, compared with the 1990/91 survey, fewer scallops and horse mussels were observed. The apparent decline in these species is concerning as large bivalves stabilise the sediment and provide complex physical structure to soft sediment habitats, providing predation refuges and settlement substrate for epifauna. The invasive Asian date mussel, on the other hand, has also become common in the harbour. 
Mud and metals were identified as key variables affecting the ecology of the harbour. To determine how environmental gradients in these variables affected ecosystem health, two Benthic Health Models (BHMs) were developed based on variability in community structure, one for each environmental gradient. The BHM approach is a useful management tool that can be used to determine the relative health of benthic communities at a single point in time, or track sites over time to assess whether communities are moving towards a more healthy or unhealthy state. It has been found to be more sensitive to changing ecosystem health than simple univariate community measures because it preserves more information about the community. 
Most sites were ranked in the lower BHM groups, suggesting Tauranga Harbour had fairly healthy subtidal communities with regard to mud and metal impacts. This was supported by values from other biotic indices, which indicated that all subtidal sites in Tauranga would be classified as having ‘good’ ecological status. Sites identified as most impacted by elevated mud and metals were generally located in the upper reaches of estuaries or near the urbanised southern portion of the harbour. In terms of mud, this to some extent reflects the natural progression of an estuary from land to sea; however, the rates of accumulation of sediments have been accelerated because of anthropogenic land-based activities. Although currents and mud were highly coupled in Tauranga’s subtidal environment, the Mud BHM could draw out community responses that were only associated with mud.

year: 2018