title: The nutritional content of supermarket beverages: a cross-sectional analysis of New Zealand, Australia, Canada and the UK – CORRIGENDUM

authors: Chepulis, Lynne Merran

abstract: Objective
To compare the nutritional content, serving size and taxation potential of supermarket beverages from four different Western countries.

Design
Cross-sectional analysis. Multivariate regression analysis and χ2 comparisons were used to detect differences between countries.

Setting
Supermarkets in New Zealand (NZ), Australia, Canada and the UK.

Subjects
Supermarket beverages in the following categories: fruit juices, fruit-based drinks, carbonated soda, waters and sports/energy drinks.

Results
A total of 4157 products were analysed, including 749 from NZ, 1738 from Australia, 740 from Canada and 930 from the UK. NZ had the highest percentage of beverages with sugar added to them (52 %), while the UK had the lowest (9 %, P<0·001). Differences in energy, carbohydrate and sugar content were observed between countries and within categories, with UK products generally having the lowest energy and sugar content. Up to half of all products across categories/countries exceeded the US Food and Drug Administration’s reference single serving sizes, with fruit juices contributing the greatest number. Between 47 and 83 % of beverages in the different countries were eligible for sugar taxation, the UK having the lowest proportion of products in both the low tax (5–8 % sugar) and high tax (>8 % sugar) categories.

Conclusions
There is substantial difference between countries in the mean energy, serving size and proportion of products eligible for fiscal sugar taxation. Current self-regulatory approaches used in these countries may not be effective to reduce the availability, marketing and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and subsequent intake of free sugars.

text: The nutritional content of supermarket beverages: a cross-sectional analysis of New Zealand, Australia, Canada and the UK – CORRIGENDUM Objective
To compare the nutritional content, serving size and taxation potential of supermarket beverages from four different Western countries.

Design
Cross-sectional analysis. Multivariate regression analysis and χ2 comparisons were used to detect differences between countries.

Setting
Supermarkets in New Zealand (NZ), Australia, Canada and the UK.

Subjects
Supermarket beverages in the following categories: fruit juices, fruit-based drinks, carbonated soda, waters and sports/energy drinks.

Results
A total of 4157 products were analysed, including 749 from NZ, 1738 from Australia, 740 from Canada and 930 from the UK. NZ had the highest percentage of beverages with sugar added to them (52 %), while the UK had the lowest (9 %, P<0·001). Differences in energy, carbohydrate and sugar content were observed between countries and within categories, with UK products generally having the lowest energy and sugar content. Up to half of all products across categories/countries exceeded the US Food and Drug Administration’s reference single serving sizes, with fruit juices contributing the greatest number. Between 47 and 83 % of beverages in the different countries were eligible for sugar taxation, the UK having the lowest proportion of products in both the low tax (5–8 % sugar) and high tax (>8 % sugar) categories.

Conclusions
There is substantial difference between countries in the mean energy, serving size and proportion of products eligible for fiscal sugar taxation. Current self-regulatory approaches used in these countries may not be effective to reduce the availability, marketing and consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages and subsequent intake of free sugars.

year: 2018

title: Decay Fungi from New Zealand Leaky Buildings: Isolation, Identification and Preservative Resistance

authors: Stahlhut, Dirk

subjects: Leaky Buildings

abstract: Leaky buildings are those that show elevated moisture contents of the framing timber, which can subsequently lead to the establishment of fungal and bacterial decay. Prior to this study, the causative agents of the decay in these leaky buildings were unknown, though it was suspected to be one or more species of decay fungi. Therefore, the overall goal of this multi-disciplinary PhD thesis research was to determine the causative agents of decay in leaky buildings of New Zealand in an effort to develop solutions for both their remediation and future prevention.

Use of molecular biology methodology and classical mycological techniques based on morphology enabled identification of decay fungi from framing timber and air samples of leaky New Zealand buildings and provided insight into relative importance based on isolation frequency. In most cases, fungi colonising Pinus radiata D. Don were isolated to produce pure cultures. Mycelia from these cultures on agar media were collected to extract DNA. To identify the fungi to the species level, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with fungal specific DNA primer pairs were performed followed by DNA sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Identification was by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) search on sequences in known GenBanks. In total, 421 samples from leaky buildings were processed, predominately untreated P. radiata decayed framing timber and also fibre cement boards and building paper. From these, sixty-eight fungal identifications were made. The only taxa that were isolated with significant frequency were identified as 4 basidiomycete species, as follows, along with the number of times they were isolated from the 421 samples:

•	Gloeophyllum sepiarium (Wulf.: Fr.) Karst.			13x
•	Oligoporus placenta (Fries 1865) Gilb. In Ryv.1985		11x
•	Antrodia sinuosa (Fr.) Karst.			  		  8x
•	Gloeophyllum trabeum (Fr.) Murr.		  		  4x
Although these species were identified repeatedly, in total they represent less than 10% of the total samples and, therefore, it is concluded that the leaky building decay samples represent high fungal biodiversity.

An aerial spore study of internal air, wall cavity air and exterior air of leaky buildings was carried out using a Merck MAS-100 instrument which collects spores directly onto selective media plates. Viable fungal aerial spores were detected at every sampling location tested at the leaky buildings, by the criteria of culturing, with a highest mean of 3714 colony-forming units (CFU) per cubic metre found in the cavities of water-damaged walls. This aerial spore study in conjunction with isolation from decayed wood samples from the same leaky buildings enabled identification of G. sepiarium and A. sinuosa at the same test site. The use of carboxymethylcellulose medium further demonstrated the presence of potential cellulose-degrading fungi within and around the location. Overall, the combination of direct sampling of timber and air sampling proved useful for detection of fungal species variability at a multi-unit building.

Four decay fungi isolated from New Zealand leaky buildings and two standard control decay fungi (Coniophora puteana and Serpula lacrymans) were submitted to laboratory wood block testing to determine the effectiveness of currently used wood framing preservatives under laboratory conditions before and after a standard leaching regime. P. radiata blocks were treated with water based boron  copper azole and solvent based IPBC  propiconazole plus tebuconazole (1:1) preservatives and exposed to the basidiomycetes for 12 weeks. Mass loss for the fungal decay-infected samples was recorded of up to 55% for preservative-treated samples, up to 62% mass loss for leached samples and up to 58% mass loss for un-preservative treated samples. Additionally, well defined dosage responses and approximate toxic thresholds were obtained for all preservatives tested. Results suggested that the minimum IPBC retention specified by Hazard Class 1.2 of NZS3640:2003 (0.025% m/m) is on the low side, and demonstrated after the 2 week leaching regime complete loss of efficacy of boron at 0.4% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE). 

This PhD research gave a first overview of fungi occurring in New Zealand leaky buildings, and it demonstrated the following key aspects of wood preservation:

1.	The isolated test fungus Antrodia sinuosa was more difficult to control with propiconazole plus tebuconazole at retention 0.007% m/m than the known tolerant fungus Oligoporus placenta;
2.	Boron at Hazard Class 1.2 retention of 0.4% m/m BAE was not toxic to Oligoporus placenta;
3.	Serpula lacrymans exhibited tolerance to the highest retention of 0.06 %m/m tebuconazole plus propiconazole; and
4.	Gloeophyllum species appeared susceptible to all wood preservatives.

In order to correlate fungal colonisation and wood decay, colonised wood blocks were studied using light microscopy (LM) and field- emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Microscopic observations of P. radiata wood blocks following a standard wood decay test of twelve weeks of fungal colonisation by Serpula lacrymans, Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium revealed that the two microscopic techniques employed were complementary by allowing features such as pit membranes, chlamydospores or S3/S2 compound middle lamella interface to be photographed in greater detail, allowing for more precise analyses and interpretation of key findings, as follows:

1.	Brown rot fungi directly target their apical growth towards degraded pit apetures;
2.	Reliance on light microscopy and observed birefringence as a tool to record changes in cell wall crystallinity associated with brown rot decay alone could be misleading;
3.	Presence of fine (≤ 1 m) to wide (≥ 3.5  m) bore-hole and hyphal size ranges, and nearly unchanged cell wall thickness of all wood/test fungal combinations, confirmed active decay at moderate to late stages;
4.	Some ray parenchyma cells for Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium colonised blocks were intact throughout late stages of decay, outlining that they were not preferentially degraded early in the brown rot decay process, and
5.	Presence of bore-holes, clamp and medallion clamp formation and resting spores (chlamydospores and arthrospores) are fungal specific, can aid in their differentiation and identification, and should be recorded during wood decay studies, as especially resting spores are an important factor when planning remediation strategies.

In summary, this PhD thesis research provided the first comprehensive investigation into the biodiversity of fungi from leaky New Zealand buildings, identified the dominant species and presented details about their micromorphology and their decay patterns. It also demonstrated substantial differences in efficacy of preservative formulations currently (December 2008) approved for framing treatments in New Zealand and possible deficiencies where framing may be subjected to severe leaching. This study also provided the first comparative analyses of viable fungal aerial spores between leaky wall cavities and the surrounding air environment. Subsequently, this research added to the knowledge of the decay fungal species diversity in and around New Zealand leaky buildings, outlined their capabilities to degrade treated and un-treated P. radiata framing timber and illustrated the efficacy of New Zealand approved wood preservatives for their potential as remedial treatment and future prevention.

text: Decay Fungi from New Zealand Leaky Buildings: Isolation, Identification and Preservative Resistance Leaky buildings are those that show elevated moisture contents of the framing timber, which can subsequently lead to the establishment of fungal and bacterial decay. Prior to this study, the causative agents of the decay in these leaky buildings were unknown, though it was suspected to be one or more species of decay fungi. Therefore, the overall goal of this multi-disciplinary PhD thesis research was to determine the causative agents of decay in leaky buildings of New Zealand in an effort to develop solutions for both their remediation and future prevention.

Use of molecular biology methodology and classical mycological techniques based on morphology enabled identification of decay fungi from framing timber and air samples of leaky New Zealand buildings and provided insight into relative importance based on isolation frequency. In most cases, fungi colonising Pinus radiata D. Don were isolated to produce pure cultures. Mycelia from these cultures on agar media were collected to extract DNA. To identify the fungi to the species level, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with fungal specific DNA primer pairs were performed followed by DNA sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Identification was by BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) search on sequences in known GenBanks. In total, 421 samples from leaky buildings were processed, predominately untreated P. radiata decayed framing timber and also fibre cement boards and building paper. From these, sixty-eight fungal identifications were made. The only taxa that were isolated with significant frequency were identified as 4 basidiomycete species, as follows, along with the number of times they were isolated from the 421 samples:

•	Gloeophyllum sepiarium (Wulf.: Fr.) Karst.			13x
•	Oligoporus placenta (Fries 1865) Gilb. In Ryv.1985		11x
•	Antrodia sinuosa (Fr.) Karst.			  		  8x
•	Gloeophyllum trabeum (Fr.) Murr.		  		  4x
Although these species were identified repeatedly, in total they represent less than 10% of the total samples and, therefore, it is concluded that the leaky building decay samples represent high fungal biodiversity.

An aerial spore study of internal air, wall cavity air and exterior air of leaky buildings was carried out using a Merck MAS-100 instrument which collects spores directly onto selective media plates. Viable fungal aerial spores were detected at every sampling location tested at the leaky buildings, by the criteria of culturing, with a highest mean of 3714 colony-forming units (CFU) per cubic metre found in the cavities of water-damaged walls. This aerial spore study in conjunction with isolation from decayed wood samples from the same leaky buildings enabled identification of G. sepiarium and A. sinuosa at the same test site. The use of carboxymethylcellulose medium further demonstrated the presence of potential cellulose-degrading fungi within and around the location. Overall, the combination of direct sampling of timber and air sampling proved useful for detection of fungal species variability at a multi-unit building.

Four decay fungi isolated from New Zealand leaky buildings and two standard control decay fungi (Coniophora puteana and Serpula lacrymans) were submitted to laboratory wood block testing to determine the effectiveness of currently used wood framing preservatives under laboratory conditions before and after a standard leaching regime. P. radiata blocks were treated with water based boron  copper azole and solvent based IPBC  propiconazole plus tebuconazole (1:1) preservatives and exposed to the basidiomycetes for 12 weeks. Mass loss for the fungal decay-infected samples was recorded of up to 55% for preservative-treated samples, up to 62% mass loss for leached samples and up to 58% mass loss for un-preservative treated samples. Additionally, well defined dosage responses and approximate toxic thresholds were obtained for all preservatives tested. Results suggested that the minimum IPBC retention specified by Hazard Class 1.2 of NZS3640:2003 (0.025% m/m) is on the low side, and demonstrated after the 2 week leaching regime complete loss of efficacy of boron at 0.4% m/m boric acid equivalent (BAE). 

This PhD research gave a first overview of fungi occurring in New Zealand leaky buildings, and it demonstrated the following key aspects of wood preservation:

1.	The isolated test fungus Antrodia sinuosa was more difficult to control with propiconazole plus tebuconazole at retention 0.007% m/m than the known tolerant fungus Oligoporus placenta;
2.	Boron at Hazard Class 1.2 retention of 0.4% m/m BAE was not toxic to Oligoporus placenta;
3.	Serpula lacrymans exhibited tolerance to the highest retention of 0.06 %m/m tebuconazole plus propiconazole; and
4.	Gloeophyllum species appeared susceptible to all wood preservatives.

In order to correlate fungal colonisation and wood decay, colonised wood blocks were studied using light microscopy (LM) and field- emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Microscopic observations of P. radiata wood blocks following a standard wood decay test of twelve weeks of fungal colonisation by Serpula lacrymans, Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium revealed that the two microscopic techniques employed were complementary by allowing features such as pit membranes, chlamydospores or S3/S2 compound middle lamella interface to be photographed in greater detail, allowing for more precise analyses and interpretation of key findings, as follows:

1.	Brown rot fungi directly target their apical growth towards degraded pit apetures;
2.	Reliance on light microscopy and observed birefringence as a tool to record changes in cell wall crystallinity associated with brown rot decay alone could be misleading;
3.	Presence of fine (≤ 1 m) to wide (≥ 3.5  m) bore-hole and hyphal size ranges, and nearly unchanged cell wall thickness of all wood/test fungal combinations, confirmed active decay at moderate to late stages;
4.	Some ray parenchyma cells for Antrodia sinuosa, Oligoporus placenta and Gloeophyllum sepiarium colonised blocks were intact throughout late stages of decay, outlining that they were not preferentially degraded early in the brown rot decay process, and
5.	Presence of bore-holes, clamp and medallion clamp formation and resting spores (chlamydospores and arthrospores) are fungal specific, can aid in their differentiation and identification, and should be recorded during wood decay studies, as especially resting spores are an important factor when planning remediation strategies.

In summary, this PhD thesis research provided the first comprehensive investigation into the biodiversity of fungi from leaky New Zealand buildings, identified the dominant species and presented details about their micromorphology and their decay patterns. It also demonstrated substantial differences in efficacy of preservative formulations currently (December 2008) approved for framing treatments in New Zealand and possible deficiencies where framing may be subjected to severe leaching. This study also provided the first comparative analyses of viable fungal aerial spores between leaky wall cavities and the surrounding air environment. Subsequently, this research added to the knowledge of the decay fungal species diversity in and around New Zealand leaky buildings, outlined their capabilities to degrade treated and un-treated P. radiata framing timber and illustrated the efficacy of New Zealand approved wood preservatives for their potential as remedial treatment and future prevention.

year: 2008

title: Exploring Inclusion, Support and Culture in the Workplace: A Study of Māori and European Employees

authors: Brougham, David M.

subjects: Inclusion

abstract: New Zealand boasts a wide range of vibrant and contrasting cultures within the workplace. This level of cultural diversity within New Zealand is set to increase substantially over the next 15 years. This increase has already created a need for researchers and human resource managers to understand the importance and benefits of diversity within the workplace. However, recent research has found that the ‘apparent benefits’ of traditional diversity management cannot be fulfilled unless individuals feel included within the organisation. 
Inclusion is defined as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness” (Shore, Randel, Chung, Dean, Ehrhart & Singh, 2011, p. 1265). Despite a realisation that inclusion may be the future of managing diverse workplaces, the literature on inclusion is under developed and lacks empirical testing. The main contribution and focus of this thesis centres on cultural inclusion in the workplace. A secondary focus is on the benefits of other types of support, from various sources (e.g., organisation, supervisor, and family), within New Zealand’s rich cultural context. 
This PhD has been undertaken by publication. Thus, the majority of its chapters are stand-alone (although related) journal articles. Many of the journal articles within this thesis are either under review, or published/in press, and this is signalled at the start of each chapter. Chapters one and two overview the thesis and discuss the research methods used within this PhD by publication. The first journal article (chapter three) details the cultural context of New Zealand and the importance of managing diversity and including all employees. The second journal article (chapter four) focuses on the importance that Māori culture, collectivism and language has in the workplace for Māori well-being. Findings were based on a sample of Māori employees, with the results highlighting the importance of collectivism and cultural identity for Māori employees towards achieving greater well-being. These two published articles build the foundation for the next three journal articles, which discuss the importance of cultural inclusion in the workplace. 
In an endeavour to test the inclusiveness of organisations’ support for cultural values and beliefs, this thesis offers a new measure of perceived cultural inclusion (PCI). The PCI measure is based on perceived organisational support (POS) owing to the parallels between inclusion and POS. POS is also a strong and reliable predictor of employee outcomes. Data was collected from two culturally distinct groups (i.e., Māori n=349 and New Zealand Europeans n=144) within New Zealand. Findings showed that PCI predicted POS, which in turn predicted job outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organisational commitment, turnover intentions) and mental health outcomes (anxiety and depression) for both Māori and New Zealand Europeans (refer to chapters five and six). This thesis also investigated the effects of PCI to POS to work-family related outcomes on the sample of Māori employees, and findings suggested that PCI would predict POS, which would in turn predict work-family related outcomes in the expected direction (refer to chapter seven). These three chapters provide strong empirical evidence for POS mediating the influence of PCI on numerous employee outcomes. 
The literature has also highlighted the importance of supervisor and family support when predicting job and well-being outcomes. The effects that supervisor support for work-family issues and whānau (extended family) support have on job outcomes (chapter eight) and well-being outcomes (chapter nine) for Māori employees were also investigated. Findings from two Māori samples (N=260 and N=466) emphasised the importance that both supervisor and whānau support have on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, life satisfaction, cultural identity, health and well-being (see chapters eight and nine for more details). 
Overall, this thesis draws findings from both New Zealand European and Māori employee samples to provide evidence that supporting and understanding cultural values is highly important for job and well-being outcomes. These findings have many theoretical and managerial implications. The following chapters discuss in-depth, relevant theories, literature, methods and conclusions that form this thesis.

text: Exploring Inclusion, Support and Culture in the Workplace: A Study of Māori and European Employees New Zealand boasts a wide range of vibrant and contrasting cultures within the workplace. This level of cultural diversity within New Zealand is set to increase substantially over the next 15 years. This increase has already created a need for researchers and human resource managers to understand the importance and benefits of diversity within the workplace. However, recent research has found that the ‘apparent benefits’ of traditional diversity management cannot be fulfilled unless individuals feel included within the organisation. 
Inclusion is defined as “the degree to which an employee perceives that he or she is an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that satisfies his or her needs for belongingness and uniqueness” (Shore, Randel, Chung, Dean, Ehrhart & Singh, 2011, p. 1265). Despite a realisation that inclusion may be the future of managing diverse workplaces, the literature on inclusion is under developed and lacks empirical testing. The main contribution and focus of this thesis centres on cultural inclusion in the workplace. A secondary focus is on the benefits of other types of support, from various sources (e.g., organisation, supervisor, and family), within New Zealand’s rich cultural context. 
This PhD has been undertaken by publication. Thus, the majority of its chapters are stand-alone (although related) journal articles. Many of the journal articles within this thesis are either under review, or published/in press, and this is signalled at the start of each chapter. Chapters one and two overview the thesis and discuss the research methods used within this PhD by publication. The first journal article (chapter three) details the cultural context of New Zealand and the importance of managing diversity and including all employees. The second journal article (chapter four) focuses on the importance that Māori culture, collectivism and language has in the workplace for Māori well-being. Findings were based on a sample of Māori employees, with the results highlighting the importance of collectivism and cultural identity for Māori employees towards achieving greater well-being. These two published articles build the foundation for the next three journal articles, which discuss the importance of cultural inclusion in the workplace. 
In an endeavour to test the inclusiveness of organisations’ support for cultural values and beliefs, this thesis offers a new measure of perceived cultural inclusion (PCI). The PCI measure is based on perceived organisational support (POS) owing to the parallels between inclusion and POS. POS is also a strong and reliable predictor of employee outcomes. Data was collected from two culturally distinct groups (i.e., Māori n=349 and New Zealand Europeans n=144) within New Zealand. Findings showed that PCI predicted POS, which in turn predicted job outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organisational commitment, turnover intentions) and mental health outcomes (anxiety and depression) for both Māori and New Zealand Europeans (refer to chapters five and six). This thesis also investigated the effects of PCI to POS to work-family related outcomes on the sample of Māori employees, and findings suggested that PCI would predict POS, which would in turn predict work-family related outcomes in the expected direction (refer to chapter seven). These three chapters provide strong empirical evidence for POS mediating the influence of PCI on numerous employee outcomes. 
The literature has also highlighted the importance of supervisor and family support when predicting job and well-being outcomes. The effects that supervisor support for work-family issues and whānau (extended family) support have on job outcomes (chapter eight) and well-being outcomes (chapter nine) for Māori employees were also investigated. Findings from two Māori samples (N=260 and N=466) emphasised the importance that both supervisor and whānau support have on job satisfaction, turnover intentions, life satisfaction, cultural identity, health and well-being (see chapters eight and nine for more details). 
Overall, this thesis draws findings from both New Zealand European and Māori employee samples to provide evidence that supporting and understanding cultural values is highly important for job and well-being outcomes. These findings have many theoretical and managerial implications. The following chapters discuss in-depth, relevant theories, literature, methods and conclusions that form this thesis.

year: 2013