title: International Engagement and Performance of New Zealand Firms

authors: Sanderson, Lynda Margaret

subjects: exports

abstract: This thesis examines the determinants and consequences of international engagement by New Zealand firms, with a particular focus on the relationship between international activities and firm performance.  The thesis is based around two central questions:

1.  How do characteristics of the firm and the economic environment influence the ability and incentives of New Zealand firms to become internationally engaged?

2.  What effect does international engagement have on firm performance? 

In order to examine the causal relationships between firm performance and international activities, four analyses are conducted using longitudinal firm-level data from the prototype Longitudinal Business Database.  This database provides detailed information on the performance and behaviour of New Zealand firms from a wide range of administrative and survey data sources.

The four empirical chapters of the thesis investigate the relationships amongst firm performance, merchandise exporting and inward foreign direct investment.  In Chapters 3 and 4, firm-level comparisons identify the types of firms that export and the factors driving those firms to expand into additional export markets and relationships.  A range of determinants are considered including firm characteristics, destination market characteristics and localised spillovers.  Having identified and controlled for the key firm-level factors which predict export market entry, subsequent performance outcomes are considered in Chapter 4.  Chapter 5 examines the impact of new port infrastructure on the export behaviour and performance of local firms, while Chapter 6 turns attention to inward foreign direct investment, examining the pre-acquisition characteristics of foreign acquisition targets and their post-acquisition performance outcomes. 

The analysis in Chapters 3 and 4 suggests that firm characteristics both influence, and are influenced by, initial entry into exporting and subsequent expansion into new export relationships.  While self-selection into exporting by high performing firms explains much of the performance differential between exporters and non-exporters in New Zealand, entry into exporting and subsequent expansion into new markets lead to increases in scale and capital intensity, with attendant effects on both firm-level and aggregate labour productivity.  In turn, the choices that firms make regarding expansion into new export relationships are characterised by substantial path dependence.  Firms tend to expand their export horizons sequentially, building on their existing experience and networks.  Moreover, there is evidence of path dependence across firms, with entry into new export relationships reflecting demonstration effects from the export activities of other firms in the local area.  

Analysis of the uptake of new port infrastructure in Auckland in Chapter 5 suggests that the main determinants of uptake are product- and firm-related, rather than location specific.  Firms use the new inland port in conjunction with the existing port in order to mitigate capacity constraints and/or access a greater range of transport options.  However, there is no evidence that uptake of the new infrastructure is associated with improved export performance.

Finally, the analysis in Chapter 6 suggests that foreign acquisition targets tend to be positively selected.  Unlike export market entry, there is no strong evidence for firm-level performance improvements following from foreign acquisition.  However, there is suggestive evidence that outcomes of foreign acquisition may differ according to the initial characteristics of the acquired firm, with initially weak performers being more likely to experience positive effects from acquisition.

text: International Engagement and Performance of New Zealand Firms This thesis examines the determinants and consequences of international engagement by New Zealand firms, with a particular focus on the relationship between international activities and firm performance.  The thesis is based around two central questions:

1.  How do characteristics of the firm and the economic environment influence the ability and incentives of New Zealand firms to become internationally engaged?

2.  What effect does international engagement have on firm performance? 

In order to examine the causal relationships between firm performance and international activities, four analyses are conducted using longitudinal firm-level data from the prototype Longitudinal Business Database.  This database provides detailed information on the performance and behaviour of New Zealand firms from a wide range of administrative and survey data sources.

The four empirical chapters of the thesis investigate the relationships amongst firm performance, merchandise exporting and inward foreign direct investment.  In Chapters 3 and 4, firm-level comparisons identify the types of firms that export and the factors driving those firms to expand into additional export markets and relationships.  A range of determinants are considered including firm characteristics, destination market characteristics and localised spillovers.  Having identified and controlled for the key firm-level factors which predict export market entry, subsequent performance outcomes are considered in Chapter 4.  Chapter 5 examines the impact of new port infrastructure on the export behaviour and performance of local firms, while Chapter 6 turns attention to inward foreign direct investment, examining the pre-acquisition characteristics of foreign acquisition targets and their post-acquisition performance outcomes. 

The analysis in Chapters 3 and 4 suggests that firm characteristics both influence, and are influenced by, initial entry into exporting and subsequent expansion into new export relationships.  While self-selection into exporting by high performing firms explains much of the performance differential between exporters and non-exporters in New Zealand, entry into exporting and subsequent expansion into new markets lead to increases in scale and capital intensity, with attendant effects on both firm-level and aggregate labour productivity.  In turn, the choices that firms make regarding expansion into new export relationships are characterised by substantial path dependence.  Firms tend to expand their export horizons sequentially, building on their existing experience and networks.  Moreover, there is evidence of path dependence across firms, with entry into new export relationships reflecting demonstration effects from the export activities of other firms in the local area.  

Analysis of the uptake of new port infrastructure in Auckland in Chapter 5 suggests that the main determinants of uptake are product- and firm-related, rather than location specific.  Firms use the new inland port in conjunction with the existing port in order to mitigate capacity constraints and/or access a greater range of transport options.  However, there is no evidence that uptake of the new infrastructure is associated with improved export performance.

Finally, the analysis in Chapter 6 suggests that foreign acquisition targets tend to be positively selected.  Unlike export market entry, there is no strong evidence for firm-level performance improvements following from foreign acquisition.  However, there is suggestive evidence that outcomes of foreign acquisition may differ according to the initial characteristics of the acquired firm, with initially weak performers being more likely to experience positive effects from acquisition.

year: 2011

title: Native New Zealand fish: lethal and sublethal effects of pentachlorophenol on early and adult life stages

authors: Hannus, Ingegerd Maria

abstract: The sensitivity of four New Zealand freshwater fish species to 99.5% pure pentachlorophenol was studied. For one part of the study, four early life stages of smelt (Retropinna retropinna), inanga (Galaxias maculatus), koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis), and common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus) were exposed to pentachlorophenol, and the acute and sublethal responses were compared to those of the reference species rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Analysis of the acute exposures enabled the determination of 25 LC50 values for the various life stages and fish species examined. In addition, an in depth examination of post-exposure mortality allowed the determination of an additional 16 LC50 values. The acute sensitivities of early life stages of native fish to pentachlorophenol did not differ appreciably when compared to those of rainbow trout. In fact, there was a larger variation between the different life stages within a species, than there was between species. The 48 hour LC50 for pentachlorophenol varied between 31 and 389 ppb (smelt), 30 and 1034 ppb (inanga), 78 and 1043 ppb (koaro), 92 and 191 ppb (common bully), and 77 and 910 ppb (rainbow trout). The larval stages of all fish species examined were more sensitive to acute pentachlorophenol exposure than embryonic stages.

The sublethal parameters of the early life stages that were studied included: growth, the induction of cranial, axial, eye and other deformities, swimming performance, successful hatching rate, time-to-hatch, post-exposure mortality and heart rate. Sublethal effects that were consistently and negatively affected by pentachlorophenol were: post-exposure survival and hatch success, growth, teratology, cranial malformations, swimming performance and heart rates. The parameter time-to-hatch was not consistently altered in either direction, i.e. time-to-hatch after exposure to pentachlorophenol was just as likely to be either shorter than that observed for the controls or longer.

For the remainder of the study, the adults of two species, inanga and common bully were studied for their sublethal responses to pentachlorophenol. The sublethal responses that were studied included: haematological parameters (lactate, glucose, total red blood cell count, total white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count), liver detoxification enzymes (including ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase and uridine 5’ - phosphoglucuronyl transferase) and the induction of 70 kiloDalton heat shock (stress) protein. These parameters were measured at 25, 50 and 75% of the LD50 values for inanga and common bully, which were 0.30 and 0.23 mM, respectively. 

Adult inanga and common bully showed surprisingly few physiological changes in response to sublethal doses of pentachlorophenol. Pentachlorophenol-exposed inanga were characterised by a significant decrease in both blood glucose contents and in uridine 5’-diphosphoglucuronic acid transferase activities. Common bully showed no significant changes in any of the experimental parameters examined, although the increase in the level of 70 kiloDalton heat shock protein was comparable to that of the positive heat-shocked controls.

Very little of this type of research with these species had been undertaken previously, and an important aspect of this study was to investigate the feasibility and efficacy of native fish species for toxicology research. The two main technical difficulties encountered were: one, obtaining fertilised eggs for studying the early life stages of the native fish, and two, obtaining sufficient sample for biochemical and haematological analyses of the adult fish. Despite these shortcomings native fish species have been shown to be a valuable new addition for both early and adult life stage toxicity testing and in measuring both acute and sublethal responses to pentachlorophenol.

text: Native New Zealand fish: lethal and sublethal effects of pentachlorophenol on early and adult life stages The sensitivity of four New Zealand freshwater fish species to 99.5% pure pentachlorophenol was studied. For one part of the study, four early life stages of smelt (Retropinna retropinna), inanga (Galaxias maculatus), koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis), and common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus) were exposed to pentachlorophenol, and the acute and sublethal responses were compared to those of the reference species rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Analysis of the acute exposures enabled the determination of 25 LC50 values for the various life stages and fish species examined. In addition, an in depth examination of post-exposure mortality allowed the determination of an additional 16 LC50 values. The acute sensitivities of early life stages of native fish to pentachlorophenol did not differ appreciably when compared to those of rainbow trout. In fact, there was a larger variation between the different life stages within a species, than there was between species. The 48 hour LC50 for pentachlorophenol varied between 31 and 389 ppb (smelt), 30 and 1034 ppb (inanga), 78 and 1043 ppb (koaro), 92 and 191 ppb (common bully), and 77 and 910 ppb (rainbow trout). The larval stages of all fish species examined were more sensitive to acute pentachlorophenol exposure than embryonic stages.

The sublethal parameters of the early life stages that were studied included: growth, the induction of cranial, axial, eye and other deformities, swimming performance, successful hatching rate, time-to-hatch, post-exposure mortality and heart rate. Sublethal effects that were consistently and negatively affected by pentachlorophenol were: post-exposure survival and hatch success, growth, teratology, cranial malformations, swimming performance and heart rates. The parameter time-to-hatch was not consistently altered in either direction, i.e. time-to-hatch after exposure to pentachlorophenol was just as likely to be either shorter than that observed for the controls or longer.

For the remainder of the study, the adults of two species, inanga and common bully were studied for their sublethal responses to pentachlorophenol. The sublethal responses that were studied included: haematological parameters (lactate, glucose, total red blood cell count, total white blood cell count, differential white blood cell count), liver detoxification enzymes (including ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase and uridine 5’ - phosphoglucuronyl transferase) and the induction of 70 kiloDalton heat shock (stress) protein. These parameters were measured at 25, 50 and 75% of the LD50 values for inanga and common bully, which were 0.30 and 0.23 mM, respectively. 

Adult inanga and common bully showed surprisingly few physiological changes in response to sublethal doses of pentachlorophenol. Pentachlorophenol-exposed inanga were characterised by a significant decrease in both blood glucose contents and in uridine 5’-diphosphoglucuronic acid transferase activities. Common bully showed no significant changes in any of the experimental parameters examined, although the increase in the level of 70 kiloDalton heat shock protein was comparable to that of the positive heat-shocked controls.

Very little of this type of research with these species had been undertaken previously, and an important aspect of this study was to investigate the feasibility and efficacy of native fish species for toxicology research. The two main technical difficulties encountered were: one, obtaining fertilised eggs for studying the early life stages of the native fish, and two, obtaining sufficient sample for biochemical and haematological analyses of the adult fish. Despite these shortcomings native fish species have been shown to be a valuable new addition for both early and adult life stage toxicity testing and in measuring both acute and sublethal responses to pentachlorophenol.

year: 1998

title: New Zealand history is Maori history: Tikanga as the ethical foundation of historical scholarship In Aotearoa New Zealand

authors: Mahuika, Nepia

subjects: Arts & Humanities

abstract: IT SHOULD COME AS NO SURPRISE TO FIND that New Zealand history is Māori history. In 1987 when Tipene O’Regan stated that the ‘the past belongs to all New Zealanders, but first it is ours’, he was drawing attention to New Zealand history’s foundation in Māori history.1 Thinking about New Zealand history as Māori history does not mean denying the histories of European, Asian and Pasifika immigrants, but draws attention to the notion that ‘settler’ aspirations to claim ‘Aotearoa’ as home occur within a much broader narrative of indigenous occupation and struggle.2 Indeed, how can New Zealand history be the story of ‘here’ when it has ‘othered’ indigenous narratives that speak to the heart of what it is to belong in the land of the long white cloud? Yes, New Zealand history is Māori history – and that presents a problem for tangata whenua self-determination. Likewise, for Pākehā, it is an issue because until New Zealand history recognizes and enables the centrality of Māori history it will always fail to articulate the collective ‘us’ that is so often assumed in the discourse of ‘full and final settlement’.3 In its current form it will never be able to ethically or adequately account for the shaping of a New Zealand identity that finds ‘composure’ in the story of how Pākehā became ‘native’ New Zealanders.4 For Māori, these issues are keenly felt, because while New Zealand history has always been about us, it has predominantly been articulated on the colonizers’ terms. In the ‘discursive constructions’ that are New Zealand histories, the indigenous have regularly been culturally appropriated, dislocated and misrepresented.5 Even when Māori have turned their back on the writing of New Zealand history it has been, and will still be, a history of being or becoming ‘native’. Yes, New Zealand history is Māori history – so why does it feel like the story of Pākehā settlers?

text: New Zealand history is Maori history: Tikanga as the ethical foundation of historical scholarship In Aotearoa New Zealand IT SHOULD COME AS NO SURPRISE TO FIND that New Zealand history is Māori history. In 1987 when Tipene O’Regan stated that the ‘the past belongs to all New Zealanders, but first it is ours’, he was drawing attention to New Zealand history’s foundation in Māori history.1 Thinking about New Zealand history as Māori history does not mean denying the histories of European, Asian and Pasifika immigrants, but draws attention to the notion that ‘settler’ aspirations to claim ‘Aotearoa’ as home occur within a much broader narrative of indigenous occupation and struggle.2 Indeed, how can New Zealand history be the story of ‘here’ when it has ‘othered’ indigenous narratives that speak to the heart of what it is to belong in the land of the long white cloud? Yes, New Zealand history is Māori history – and that presents a problem for tangata whenua self-determination. Likewise, for Pākehā, it is an issue because until New Zealand history recognizes and enables the centrality of Māori history it will always fail to articulate the collective ‘us’ that is so often assumed in the discourse of ‘full and final settlement’.3 In its current form it will never be able to ethically or adequately account for the shaping of a New Zealand identity that finds ‘composure’ in the story of how Pākehā became ‘native’ New Zealanders.4 For Māori, these issues are keenly felt, because while New Zealand history has always been about us, it has predominantly been articulated on the colonizers’ terms. In the ‘discursive constructions’ that are New Zealand histories, the indigenous have regularly been culturally appropriated, dislocated and misrepresented.5 Even when Māori have turned their back on the writing of New Zealand history it has been, and will still be, a history of being or becoming ‘native’. Yes, New Zealand history is Māori history – so why does it feel like the story of Pākehā settlers?

year: 2015