title: The development of guidelines for indigenous research ethics in Aotearoa/New Zealand.

authors: Hudson, Maui

abstract: The development of Indigenous frameworks for research ethics has been a key component of progressing Indigenous aspirations for research around the world. They have provided a focal point for challenging approaches to research that prioritise non-Indigenous methods and values, and allow non-Indigenous researchers to claim expert status over Indigenous peoples, places and knowledges. The theme of self-determination underpins contemporary approaches to Indigenous development and the repositioning of state-Indigenous nation relationships. This paper describes the background, development, and implementation by Māori communities and researchers of an Indigenous ethical framework in Aotearoa/New Zealand.

text: The development of guidelines for indigenous research ethics in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The development of Indigenous frameworks for research ethics has been a key component of progressing Indigenous aspirations for research around the world. They have provided a focal point for challenging approaches to research that prioritise non-Indigenous methods and values, and allow non-Indigenous researchers to claim expert status over Indigenous peoples, places and knowledges. The theme of self-determination underpins contemporary approaches to Indigenous development and the repositioning of state-Indigenous nation relationships. This paper describes the background, development, and implementation by Māori communities and researchers of an Indigenous ethical framework in Aotearoa/New Zealand.

year: 2016

title: Cultural diversity and identity discourses in the design and implementation of the New Zealand curriculum key competencies: a Bernsteinian analysis

authors: Glogowski, Sonia Theresa

subjects: Culture

abstract: The key competencies as a curriculum construct have appeared in several national curricula from the early 2000s. Many have their origins in the Definition and Selection of Key Competencies Project (DeSeCo), commissioned by the supra-national Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A number of international critiques have highlighted tensions between neoliberal ideologies that underpin the key competencies, and broader socio-cultural and social justice issues within their respective countries (e.g., Crick, 2008; Sjøberg, 2016; Takayama, 2013).
This research investigated who and what influenced the design and implementation of the key competencies in the 2007 New Zealand Curriculum, and how students’ cultural diversity and identities were considered as part of this. Data for this case study were collected from three sources: interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants six years after the launch of the official curriculum; analysis of policy documents and discussion papers from government archives, and focus group interviews with teachers from two schools seven years into implementation. Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device, was used to focus analysis on the agents, influences, debates and events that impacted on the design and implementation of the curriculum. Fraser’s (1989) needs’ discourse theory was used to examine interpretations of cultural diversity and identity, and the implications of implicit valued attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies.
Findings indicated that in the New Zealand educational policy context, the roles and interactions between agents and processes in the fields of production and reproduction were more ‘fluid’ and consultative than Bernstein’s (2000) structuralist model would suggest. This may be reflective of New Zealand’s small population and more informal collaboration between agents in different fields. The development of this curriculum prioritised the ‘process’ of understanding curriculum through consultation and feedback, compared to previous curricula which were more focussed on curriculum as a ‘product’.
New Zealand’s socio-political climate, and its bicultural Treaty of Waitangi, appeared to impact on how the key competencies were conceived, and how student diversity and identity were interpreted at different points in the curriculum design and implementation process. Interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants revealed that cultural diversity was largely associated with ethnicity, and in particular, differences between indigenous Māori and Pākehā (New Zealand European). Less attention was given to the concept of multiple identities and intersections between ethnicity, socio economic class, gender and so on, and how these might influence interpretations of the key competencies. This was despite evidence of early discussion papers highlighting these complexities.
At the curriculum implementation level, Bernstein (2000) argues that schools and teachers can often ‘reproduce’ middle class values and expected behaviours through ‘invisible’ pedagogical practices, with little awareness of potential disjuncts for disadvantaged groups. Yet he also states that this is not necessarily deterministic, and the finding for the two school focus groups demonstrated this. Despite no evidence that student diversity was a specific aspect of their professional development on key competencies, the teachers discussed some complexities of student diversity in their schools and how the key competencies might be interpreted in different ways. However, given the case study schools were considered to be particularly ‘diverse’, this type of discussion and consideration may not be typical of other New Zealand schools.
The findings support the notion that the New Zealand curriculum key competencies were ‘weakly classified’ and ‘strongly framed’ (Bernstein, 2000). This means a high level of interpretation was located with school leaders and teachers, within the context of a permissive curriculum and thus presents both opportunities and risks.
This case study highlights the importance of agents in every field understanding the complexities and implications of diversity in education. In addition, if the key competencies genuinely seek to enhance both vocational and social justice outcomes for a more cohesive and equitable society, then education for diversity would seem to be important.
This research contributes new knowledge in relation to the process of curriculum design, highlighting the impact of a unique socio-political context on the interpretation of a curriculum construct, and the implications of ‘valued’ attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies on diverse students. It provides an example of how Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device can be used to identify important influences and processes that impact on the different stages of a curriculum design and implementation process. It also illustrates how the device can be usefully complemented by another theory, in this case Fraser’s (1989) needs discourse theory, to examine more closely the discourse that relates to a particular lens of the research.

text: Cultural diversity and identity discourses in the design and implementation of the New Zealand curriculum key competencies: a Bernsteinian analysis The key competencies as a curriculum construct have appeared in several national curricula from the early 2000s. Many have their origins in the Definition and Selection of Key Competencies Project (DeSeCo), commissioned by the supra-national Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). A number of international critiques have highlighted tensions between neoliberal ideologies that underpin the key competencies, and broader socio-cultural and social justice issues within their respective countries (e.g., Crick, 2008; Sjøberg, 2016; Takayama, 2013).
This research investigated who and what influenced the design and implementation of the key competencies in the 2007 New Zealand Curriculum, and how students’ cultural diversity and identities were considered as part of this. Data for this case study were collected from three sources: interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants six years after the launch of the official curriculum; analysis of policy documents and discussion papers from government archives, and focus group interviews with teachers from two schools seven years into implementation. Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device, was used to focus analysis on the agents, influences, debates and events that impacted on the design and implementation of the curriculum. Fraser’s (1989) needs’ discourse theory was used to examine interpretations of cultural diversity and identity, and the implications of implicit valued attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies.
Findings indicated that in the New Zealand educational policy context, the roles and interactions between agents and processes in the fields of production and reproduction were more ‘fluid’ and consultative than Bernstein’s (2000) structuralist model would suggest. This may be reflective of New Zealand’s small population and more informal collaboration between agents in different fields. The development of this curriculum prioritised the ‘process’ of understanding curriculum through consultation and feedback, compared to previous curricula which were more focussed on curriculum as a ‘product’.
New Zealand’s socio-political climate, and its bicultural Treaty of Waitangi, appeared to impact on how the key competencies were conceived, and how student diversity and identity were interpreted at different points in the curriculum design and implementation process. Interviews with key policy officials and academic consultants revealed that cultural diversity was largely associated with ethnicity, and in particular, differences between indigenous Māori and Pākehā (New Zealand European). Less attention was given to the concept of multiple identities and intersections between ethnicity, socio economic class, gender and so on, and how these might influence interpretations of the key competencies. This was despite evidence of early discussion papers highlighting these complexities.
At the curriculum implementation level, Bernstein (2000) argues that schools and teachers can often ‘reproduce’ middle class values and expected behaviours through ‘invisible’ pedagogical practices, with little awareness of potential disjuncts for disadvantaged groups. Yet he also states that this is not necessarily deterministic, and the finding for the two school focus groups demonstrated this. Despite no evidence that student diversity was a specific aspect of their professional development on key competencies, the teachers discussed some complexities of student diversity in their schools and how the key competencies might be interpreted in different ways. However, given the case study schools were considered to be particularly ‘diverse’, this type of discussion and consideration may not be typical of other New Zealand schools.
The findings support the notion that the New Zealand curriculum key competencies were ‘weakly classified’ and ‘strongly framed’ (Bernstein, 2000). This means a high level of interpretation was located with school leaders and teachers, within the context of a permissive curriculum and thus presents both opportunities and risks.
This case study highlights the importance of agents in every field understanding the complexities and implications of diversity in education. In addition, if the key competencies genuinely seek to enhance both vocational and social justice outcomes for a more cohesive and equitable society, then education for diversity would seem to be important.
This research contributes new knowledge in relation to the process of curriculum design, highlighting the impact of a unique socio-political context on the interpretation of a curriculum construct, and the implications of ‘valued’ attitudes and behaviours of the key competencies on diverse students. It provides an example of how Bernstein’s (2000) theory of the pedagogical device can be used to identify important influences and processes that impact on the different stages of a curriculum design and implementation process. It also illustrates how the device can be usefully complemented by another theory, in this case Fraser’s (1989) needs discourse theory, to examine more closely the discourse that relates to a particular lens of the research.

year: 2020

title: The germination of seeds

authors: Irwin, Gail Patricia

abstract: Literature Reviews of seed dormancy, the germination of seeds (restricted as closely as possible to the period actually preceding radicle protrusion) and the effects of gamma radiation are included in this thesis.
Tritiated water studies of heavily irradiated Sinapis alba seeds showed that these seeds can carry out active metabolism, leading to the formation of tritiated gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), alanine, malic acid and citric acid. The compounds which were not labelled by tritiated water in heavily irradiated seeds but which were labelled in non-irradiated seeds were the following: lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and sugar phosphates.
Difficulty was experienced in enabling sufficient C-14 substrate to enter the seeds for studying the metabolism of these compounds. The seeds were therefore ground in liquid air prior to the C14-tracer studies. The metabolism of this powder was examined using tritiated water. Over short time intervals this metabolism was similar to that of whole seeds except for the heavy labelling of lipid material which was shown to be ninhydrin positive. At longer time intervals this powder did not develop the complex patterns typical of whole seeds. The metabolites lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose and sugar phosphates were not labelled during 24 hours imbibition in tritiated water, of the Liquid Air Powder (LAP) but were labelled on imbibition of whole seeds.
Imbibition of the LAP of both irradiated and non-irradiated seeds with the C-14 substrates gave similar distributions of radioactivity. Aspartate-U-C14 was not rapidly metabolised within 4 hours. In non-irradiated seeds traces of a ninhydrin positive compound (U1) postulated to be succinylarginine were found after 4 hours. Incubation with GABA-1-C14 led to labelled flavonoids within one hour and to labelled alanine and an unknown (U2) within 4 hours. The metabolism of glutamate-U-C14 rapidly led to the formation of GABA at short time intervals and at longer time intervals (4 hours) to labelled GABA, alanine, and two unknowns called “YPN” and U3. In the irradiated seeds labelled lipid was also formed. The unknowns U2 and U3 are postulated to be the same ninhydrin positive compound, possibly a peptide. 
The transaminases, glutamate-oxaloacetate and glutamate-pyruvate were found to be active in enzyme extractions of dry seeds. Evidence showing a reduction in the activity of transaminases with time of imbibition is also reported. Paper chromatographic analyses of seed metabolism, including a novel method developed for a rapid enzyme assay are included. These results were similar to those obtained using C-14 substrates. In addition conversion of GABA and glutamate to an unknown called UVGB was found. The metabolism of aspartate led to alanine and of alanine, to GABA. 
The limited metabolism displayed by heavily irradiated seeds immediately after irradiation did not lead to the formation of a seedling for those Sinapis alba seeds which had received a dose of 2.98 Mrep or more. The germination of a very large range of seed species was examined after receiving chronic doses of irradiation. Only parsnip seeds would not germinate after receiving a dose of 0.5 Mrads. Most seeds showed similar responses to that for mustard seeds. 
One group of irradiated mustard seeds were left in a drawer in the laboratory. These seeds showed complete recovery in both the ability to germinate and in their labelling patterns when imbibed with tritiated water after less than 6 months storage. A similar set of seeds stored over silica gel did not display any recovery. A large experiment was undertaken in which seeds of many species were examined after various periods of storage at fixed or room humidities. Some recovery was observed although not of the same order as that found earlier. Storage at very high humidities led to loss of the ability to germinate. The effects of various solutions were also examined and once again a limited amount of recovery was observed. It is therefore postulated that some other factor, not a fixed relative humidity, was responsible for the dramatic recovery of the first group of mustard seeds. This could be a short period at high relative humidities followed by a longer period at low humidities or possibly some gas in the atmosphere of the laboratory at that time. 
Plants were grown from the fully recovered mustard seeds. The greater weight and height of these plants compared to those from non-irradiated seeds were shown to be statistically significant.

text: The germination of seeds Literature Reviews of seed dormancy, the germination of seeds (restricted as closely as possible to the period actually preceding radicle protrusion) and the effects of gamma radiation are included in this thesis.
Tritiated water studies of heavily irradiated Sinapis alba seeds showed that these seeds can carry out active metabolism, leading to the formation of tritiated gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), alanine, malic acid and citric acid. The compounds which were not labelled by tritiated water in heavily irradiated seeds but which were labelled in non-irradiated seeds were the following: lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and sugar phosphates.
Difficulty was experienced in enabling sufficient C-14 substrate to enter the seeds for studying the metabolism of these compounds. The seeds were therefore ground in liquid air prior to the C14-tracer studies. The metabolism of this powder was examined using tritiated water. Over short time intervals this metabolism was similar to that of whole seeds except for the heavy labelling of lipid material which was shown to be ninhydrin positive. At longer time intervals this powder did not develop the complex patterns typical of whole seeds. The metabolites lactic acid, glutamine, sucrose and sugar phosphates were not labelled during 24 hours imbibition in tritiated water, of the Liquid Air Powder (LAP) but were labelled on imbibition of whole seeds.
Imbibition of the LAP of both irradiated and non-irradiated seeds with the C-14 substrates gave similar distributions of radioactivity. Aspartate-U-C14 was not rapidly metabolised within 4 hours. In non-irradiated seeds traces of a ninhydrin positive compound (U1) postulated to be succinylarginine were found after 4 hours. Incubation with GABA-1-C14 led to labelled flavonoids within one hour and to labelled alanine and an unknown (U2) within 4 hours. The metabolism of glutamate-U-C14 rapidly led to the formation of GABA at short time intervals and at longer time intervals (4 hours) to labelled GABA, alanine, and two unknowns called “YPN” and U3. In the irradiated seeds labelled lipid was also formed. The unknowns U2 and U3 are postulated to be the same ninhydrin positive compound, possibly a peptide. 
The transaminases, glutamate-oxaloacetate and glutamate-pyruvate were found to be active in enzyme extractions of dry seeds. Evidence showing a reduction in the activity of transaminases with time of imbibition is also reported. Paper chromatographic analyses of seed metabolism, including a novel method developed for a rapid enzyme assay are included. These results were similar to those obtained using C-14 substrates. In addition conversion of GABA and glutamate to an unknown called UVGB was found. The metabolism of aspartate led to alanine and of alanine, to GABA. 
The limited metabolism displayed by heavily irradiated seeds immediately after irradiation did not lead to the formation of a seedling for those Sinapis alba seeds which had received a dose of 2.98 Mrep or more. The germination of a very large range of seed species was examined after receiving chronic doses of irradiation. Only parsnip seeds would not germinate after receiving a dose of 0.5 Mrads. Most seeds showed similar responses to that for mustard seeds. 
One group of irradiated mustard seeds were left in a drawer in the laboratory. These seeds showed complete recovery in both the ability to germinate and in their labelling patterns when imbibed with tritiated water after less than 6 months storage. A similar set of seeds stored over silica gel did not display any recovery. A large experiment was undertaken in which seeds of many species were examined after various periods of storage at fixed or room humidities. Some recovery was observed although not of the same order as that found earlier. Storage at very high humidities led to loss of the ability to germinate. The effects of various solutions were also examined and once again a limited amount of recovery was observed. It is therefore postulated that some other factor, not a fixed relative humidity, was responsible for the dramatic recovery of the first group of mustard seeds. This could be a short period at high relative humidities followed by a longer period at low humidities or possibly some gas in the atmosphere of the laboratory at that time. 
Plants were grown from the fully recovered mustard seeds. The greater weight and height of these plants compared to those from non-irradiated seeds were shown to be statistically significant.

year: 1971