title: De-mythologizing and re-branding of kava as the new ‘world drug’ of choice

authors: Aporosa, S. 'Apo'

abstract: What seemed impossible 50 years ago is today becoming a reality as ‘soft drugs’ such as cannabis are being decriminalized and accepted for their calming effects as well as their legitimate medicinal properties. Several countries have now made the possession of cannabis legal, with others considering this, while the coffee shops in the Netherlands have been supplying cannabis in different forms for many years. It is now the turn of kava to be re-evaluated, to see whether there are properties in this plant that might be readily substituted for more conventional and harmful drugs, for instance tobacco and alcohol. However, as highlighted by Norton and Ruze (1994), kava like cannabis, has an enduring reputation that still makes it difficult for many to accept. Kava has been mythologized as an illicit alcohol, highly addictive, and causing physical harm. When examining the history of kava use in traditional contexts and considering the evidence now available, it is possible to demythologize this characterization. Looking at the potential benefits, it is time to re-brand kava, not only on the grounds as a relaxant, but in possessing life enhancing medicinal properties and as an alternative to alcohol, understanding that will be beneficial to policy makers, doctors and pharmacists.

text: De-mythologizing and re-branding of kava as the new ‘world drug’ of choice What seemed impossible 50 years ago is today becoming a reality as ‘soft drugs’ such as cannabis are being decriminalized and accepted for their calming effects as well as their legitimate medicinal properties. Several countries have now made the possession of cannabis legal, with others considering this, while the coffee shops in the Netherlands have been supplying cannabis in different forms for many years. It is now the turn of kava to be re-evaluated, to see whether there are properties in this plant that might be readily substituted for more conventional and harmful drugs, for instance tobacco and alcohol. However, as highlighted by Norton and Ruze (1994), kava like cannabis, has an enduring reputation that still makes it difficult for many to accept. Kava has been mythologized as an illicit alcohol, highly addictive, and causing physical harm. When examining the history of kava use in traditional contexts and considering the evidence now available, it is possible to demythologize this characterization. Looking at the potential benefits, it is time to re-brand kava, not only on the grounds as a relaxant, but in possessing life enhancing medicinal properties and as an alternative to alcohol, understanding that will be beneficial to policy makers, doctors and pharmacists.

year: 2019

title: Carbohydrate storage and remobilisation: The mechanisms involved in woody stem tissue of apple trees

authors: McQueen, Joanna C.

abstract: This thesis investigated the storage and remobilisation of carbohydrate reserves in perennial woody stem tissue, using one-year-old apple stems. In this study, the theories developed in herbaceous annual species were applied to woody perennial plants. Perennial plants are more complicated to study as they need reserves over a longer temporal scale and the woody tissue makes experimental manipulation difficult. In addition, apple is a multiple carbohydrate transporter and sorbitol (a sugar alcohol) is a major translocation product. These complications were overcome in this thesis, allowing hypotheses, developed from knowledge of carbohydrate movement in herbaceous plants, to be tested. The hypotheses were tested by manipulating sink conditions, 14C and 11C tracer experiments, use of inhibitors and enzyme extractions. 
The findings allowed models of carbohydrate storage and remobilisation in stem tissue of apple to be made. The sieve elements of apple are leaky pipes and assimilates are lost through passive leakage or active unloading during their journey from source to terminal sink. During remobilisation of carbohydrate in spring, retrieval of this leaked assimilate back into the phloem stream is up-regulated. This retrieval is likely to be directly into the sieve elements and involves carriers similar to those found in herbaceous annuals. Buffering also occurs along the stem length to prevent interruption to flow from short-term changes in photoassimilate supply. Buffering, leakage and retrieval probably occur into the apoplast. Starch is initially remobilised from storage cells closest to the phloem region in the spring. Sorbitol in the stem probably cannot be metabolised, which allows sorbitol to exist in high concentrations in the stem where it could act as a temporary (days to weeks) storage pool and could play a buffering role, maintaining a constant flow of sorbitol to sink tissue. 
During storage in autumn, when terminal sink tissue is either removed or saturated, assimilates continue to be lost from the leaky sieve tubes. However, retrieval is down-regulated so high concentrations of sugars build up in the stem apoplast. This results in storage of carbohydrate as starch, initially into the cells surrounding the phloem. Storage in the stem is given the lowest priority in terms of accumulating available carbohydrate and only occurs when there is an excess of photoassimilate, such as when higher priority sinks like fruit are removed or saturated. Eventually starch storage will saturate (at a concentration of 50mg g-1 in trees growing in the Hawkes Bay). Saturation of storage is likely to reduce concentration gradients between sieve elements and the apoplast, leading to a build up of sugars in the sieve elements and reduced assimilate flow. This is likely to result in a reduction or stoppage of photosynthesis, followed by leaf senescence. 
The results of this thesis show that most of the processes of carbohydrate storage and remobilisation in herbaceous plants also occur in woody perennial plants and this has increased our knowledge of basic plant processes. In order to manipulate source-sink relationships in plants to increase crop yields, we need to understand the physiological processes involving the movement of carbohydrates. The retrieval and release of sugars along the transport phloem is important, as there is a balance between supplying terminal sinks with photosynthate and retention of photosynthate along the pathway. In addition, physiological studies into apple trees are sparse. It was important to go to the next stage of carbohydrate studies in apple trees, beyond orchard management, and understand the physiological processes involved in carbohydrate movement and remobilisation. Apple is a high yielding crop and knowledge of the carbohydrate processes in this plant could help to increase yields in other commercially important tree species.

text: Carbohydrate storage and remobilisation: The mechanisms involved in woody stem tissue of apple trees This thesis investigated the storage and remobilisation of carbohydrate reserves in perennial woody stem tissue, using one-year-old apple stems. In this study, the theories developed in herbaceous annual species were applied to woody perennial plants. Perennial plants are more complicated to study as they need reserves over a longer temporal scale and the woody tissue makes experimental manipulation difficult. In addition, apple is a multiple carbohydrate transporter and sorbitol (a sugar alcohol) is a major translocation product. These complications were overcome in this thesis, allowing hypotheses, developed from knowledge of carbohydrate movement in herbaceous plants, to be tested. The hypotheses were tested by manipulating sink conditions, 14C and 11C tracer experiments, use of inhibitors and enzyme extractions. 
The findings allowed models of carbohydrate storage and remobilisation in stem tissue of apple to be made. The sieve elements of apple are leaky pipes and assimilates are lost through passive leakage or active unloading during their journey from source to terminal sink. During remobilisation of carbohydrate in spring, retrieval of this leaked assimilate back into the phloem stream is up-regulated. This retrieval is likely to be directly into the sieve elements and involves carriers similar to those found in herbaceous annuals. Buffering also occurs along the stem length to prevent interruption to flow from short-term changes in photoassimilate supply. Buffering, leakage and retrieval probably occur into the apoplast. Starch is initially remobilised from storage cells closest to the phloem region in the spring. Sorbitol in the stem probably cannot be metabolised, which allows sorbitol to exist in high concentrations in the stem where it could act as a temporary (days to weeks) storage pool and could play a buffering role, maintaining a constant flow of sorbitol to sink tissue. 
During storage in autumn, when terminal sink tissue is either removed or saturated, assimilates continue to be lost from the leaky sieve tubes. However, retrieval is down-regulated so high concentrations of sugars build up in the stem apoplast. This results in storage of carbohydrate as starch, initially into the cells surrounding the phloem. Storage in the stem is given the lowest priority in terms of accumulating available carbohydrate and only occurs when there is an excess of photoassimilate, such as when higher priority sinks like fruit are removed or saturated. Eventually starch storage will saturate (at a concentration of 50mg g-1 in trees growing in the Hawkes Bay). Saturation of storage is likely to reduce concentration gradients between sieve elements and the apoplast, leading to a build up of sugars in the sieve elements and reduced assimilate flow. This is likely to result in a reduction or stoppage of photosynthesis, followed by leaf senescence. 
The results of this thesis show that most of the processes of carbohydrate storage and remobilisation in herbaceous plants also occur in woody perennial plants and this has increased our knowledge of basic plant processes. In order to manipulate source-sink relationships in plants to increase crop yields, we need to understand the physiological processes involving the movement of carbohydrates. The retrieval and release of sugars along the transport phloem is important, as there is a balance between supplying terminal sinks with photosynthate and retention of photosynthate along the pathway. In addition, physiological studies into apple trees are sparse. It was important to go to the next stage of carbohydrate studies in apple trees, beyond orchard management, and understand the physiological processes involved in carbohydrate movement and remobilisation. Apple is a high yielding crop and knowledge of the carbohydrate processes in this plant could help to increase yields in other commercially important tree species.

year: 2003

title: The "false generosity" of treaty settlements: innovation and contortion

authors: Te Aho, Linda

abstract: In Aotearoa New Zealand the ways in which indigenous claims to lands and waters are addressed are often looked to as good, or even best, practice by indigenous peoples around the world. While things are far from perfect, in recent decades Maori have succeeded in changing perceptions about the Treaty of Waitangi as the foundation of the nation, and work steadily continues on settling outstanding Treaty claims. The resulting Treaty of Waitangi settlements are negotiated arrangements which aim to remove a sense of historical grievance and achieve significant rebuilding of the Maori economy. They are seen by some as dynamic and powerful steps towards economic independence, as a means of recognising special relationships to lands and waters, and a necessary prerequisite to improved relationships between the state and the indigenous Maori in the future. ¹ Critics see the settlements and the processes followed to reach them as too heavily weighted in the government's favour. ² They argue that the settlements do not sufficiently compensate for actual losses. They are said to pit Maori against Maori. Diverse claimant groups are effectively forced to negotiate within standardised and fixed parameters. For these and other reasons, the settlement agreements, policies and processes have been labelled as divisive and compromising self-determination. ³

text: The "false generosity" of treaty settlements: innovation and contortion In Aotearoa New Zealand the ways in which indigenous claims to lands and waters are addressed are often looked to as good, or even best, practice by indigenous peoples around the world. While things are far from perfect, in recent decades Maori have succeeded in changing perceptions about the Treaty of Waitangi as the foundation of the nation, and work steadily continues on settling outstanding Treaty claims. The resulting Treaty of Waitangi settlements are negotiated arrangements which aim to remove a sense of historical grievance and achieve significant rebuilding of the Maori economy. They are seen by some as dynamic and powerful steps towards economic independence, as a means of recognising special relationships to lands and waters, and a necessary prerequisite to improved relationships between the state and the indigenous Maori in the future. ¹ Critics see the settlements and the processes followed to reach them as too heavily weighted in the government's favour. ² They argue that the settlements do not sufficiently compensate for actual losses. They are said to pit Maori against Maori. Diverse claimant groups are effectively forced to negotiate within standardised and fixed parameters. For these and other reasons, the settlement agreements, policies and processes have been labelled as divisive and compromising self-determination. ³

year: 2017