title: From Al-Qaida to ISIL: The decisions and practices of the UN Security Council related to the right to self-defense against non-state actors from 2002–2014: A deafening silence after Resolutions 1368 and 1373 (2001)

authors: Alvarez-Jimenez, Alberto

abstract: Security Council Resolution 1373, adopted in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and “recognizing the inherent right of individual … self-defense,” was regarded as having expanded the scope of Article 51 to cover armed attacks by autonomous non-state actors. However, the ICJ refused to recognize such expansion in its Wall Opinion. The ICJ’s conclusion cannot be regarded as the last word. As Bruno Simma has highlighted: “The rules of treaty interpretation … of international law do not exclude the possibility that Art. 51 is reinterpreted … on the basis of subsequent practice.” The question is whether or not the SC practice from 2002 to 2014 has expanded the scope of Article 51. This project has reviewed 34 resolutions, 44 presidential statements by the SC, and 115 press statements by its members dealing with threats to peace and security caused by terrorism. The conclusions of this research are that the SC has devised and strengthened only multilateral instruments to face the challenge posed by terrorism from 2002 to 2014; that there has been no explicit subsequent practice related to the right to self-defense against terrorist groups by the Council in its 78 decisions during this period; that there have been some subsequent decisions going in the opposite direction to Resolution 1373 from 2007 to 2014; that the SC has halted this emerging trend as a result of ISIL; and that there seems to be some implicit subsequent practices, fully identified in the paper, that, nonetheless, have been insufficient to expand the scope of Art. 51.

text: From Al-Qaida to ISIL: The decisions and practices of the UN Security Council related to the right to self-defense against non-state actors from 2002–2014: A deafening silence after Resolutions 1368 and 1373 (2001) Security Council Resolution 1373, adopted in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks and “recognizing the inherent right of individual … self-defense,” was regarded as having expanded the scope of Article 51 to cover armed attacks by autonomous non-state actors. However, the ICJ refused to recognize such expansion in its Wall Opinion. The ICJ’s conclusion cannot be regarded as the last word. As Bruno Simma has highlighted: “The rules of treaty interpretation … of international law do not exclude the possibility that Art. 51 is reinterpreted … on the basis of subsequent practice.” The question is whether or not the SC practice from 2002 to 2014 has expanded the scope of Article 51. This project has reviewed 34 resolutions, 44 presidential statements by the SC, and 115 press statements by its members dealing with threats to peace and security caused by terrorism. The conclusions of this research are that the SC has devised and strengthened only multilateral instruments to face the challenge posed by terrorism from 2002 to 2014; that there has been no explicit subsequent practice related to the right to self-defense against terrorist groups by the Council in its 78 decisions during this period; that there have been some subsequent decisions going in the opposite direction to Resolution 1373 from 2007 to 2014; that the SC has halted this emerging trend as a result of ISIL; and that there seems to be some implicit subsequent practices, fully identified in the paper, that, nonetheless, have been insufficient to expand the scope of Art. 51.

year: 2014

title: Anthropogenic phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua

authors: Tempero, Grant Wayne

abstract: Past wastewater disposal practices and ongoing catchment land-use intensification have resulted in the eutrophication of Lake Rotorua. These changes have been associated with elevated nutrient loads to the lake from point and diffuse sources. Phosphorus and nitrogen are important macronutrients limiting phytoplankton growth. Bioassay studies in Lake Rotorua have shown temporal and spatial variability of phytoplankton growth limitation by either or both of these nutrients, hence the importance of controlling both phosphorus and nitrogen loads to the lake. This report was commissioned by the Bay of Plenty Regional Council to quantify sources of anthropogenic (i.e., associated with human activity) phosphorus in the catchment, so that these sources can be managed with the aim of reducing phytoplankton biomass in Lake Rotorua. This will form part of an integrated framework of catchment management which also aims to reduce the nitrogen load to the lake.
Determination of anthropogenic and natural (baseline) sources of phosphorus is essential for managing lake eutrophication. Natural concentrations (indicative of baseline or reference levels) of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and total phosphorus (TP) can be modelled from observed concentrations in undisturbed catchments. This model can then be used to estimate anthropogenic phosphorus in other catchments as the difference between natural and observed concentrations.
Mean annual discharge (MAD) was estimated individually for nine major stream sub-catchments of Lake Rotorua, and a combined MAD was estimated for other minor and ungauged stream sub-catchments. Natural stream phosphorus concentrations were derived from published values based on the River Environment Classification (REC) land classes within the lake catchment. Natural groundwater phosphorus concentrations were derived from published relationships between groundwater age and phosphorus concentrations in the Rotorua sub-catchments. Total phosphorus and DRP loads were calculated for each inflow for the period 2007-2014 (‘contemporary loads’) using the daily discharge estimates and time series of estimated daily mean concentrations of each nutrient species (TP, DRP) for each inflow. Daily loads were then summed to calculate annual loads. Natural loads for each inflow were subtracted from contemporary loads to estimate anthropogenic loads. Anthropogenic phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua were estimated to be 22% (expressed as a catchment areal rate of 0.12 kg DRP ha-1 y-1) of the total DRP load and 48% (0.47 kg P ha-1 y-1) of the TP load. Relative to other New Zealand catchments, anthropogenic phosphorus was a relatively low proportion of the total load, given that the Rotorua catchment is highly developed. This can be attributed to the large volume of groundwater discharge to the lake, which is DRP-enriched due to gradual dissolution of phosphorus in the rhyolitic pumice bedrock. In sub-catchments where groundwater discharge to the lake was volumetrically dominant, e.g., Hamurana (89.3%) and Awahou (79.6%), the natural contribution to DRP loads was high, despite extensive agricultural land-use. By contrast, sub-catchments dominated by surface water discharges, e.g., Ngongotaha (34% groundwater) and Waiteti (14.5% groundwater), had comparatively high anthropogenic TP loads and elevated concentrations of particulate phosphorus. The minor and ungauged catchments, representing drains, small streams, overland flow, groundwater discharge to the bed of the lake, discharge below gauged stream sites and a residual term, were estimated to contribute the largest percentage (33%) of anthropogenic particulate phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua despite being groundwater dominated.

text: Anthropogenic phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua Past wastewater disposal practices and ongoing catchment land-use intensification have resulted in the eutrophication of Lake Rotorua. These changes have been associated with elevated nutrient loads to the lake from point and diffuse sources. Phosphorus and nitrogen are important macronutrients limiting phytoplankton growth. Bioassay studies in Lake Rotorua have shown temporal and spatial variability of phytoplankton growth limitation by either or both of these nutrients, hence the importance of controlling both phosphorus and nitrogen loads to the lake. This report was commissioned by the Bay of Plenty Regional Council to quantify sources of anthropogenic (i.e., associated with human activity) phosphorus in the catchment, so that these sources can be managed with the aim of reducing phytoplankton biomass in Lake Rotorua. This will form part of an integrated framework of catchment management which also aims to reduce the nitrogen load to the lake.
Determination of anthropogenic and natural (baseline) sources of phosphorus is essential for managing lake eutrophication. Natural concentrations (indicative of baseline or reference levels) of dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and total phosphorus (TP) can be modelled from observed concentrations in undisturbed catchments. This model can then be used to estimate anthropogenic phosphorus in other catchments as the difference between natural and observed concentrations.
Mean annual discharge (MAD) was estimated individually for nine major stream sub-catchments of Lake Rotorua, and a combined MAD was estimated for other minor and ungauged stream sub-catchments. Natural stream phosphorus concentrations were derived from published values based on the River Environment Classification (REC) land classes within the lake catchment. Natural groundwater phosphorus concentrations were derived from published relationships between groundwater age and phosphorus concentrations in the Rotorua sub-catchments. Total phosphorus and DRP loads were calculated for each inflow for the period 2007-2014 (‘contemporary loads’) using the daily discharge estimates and time series of estimated daily mean concentrations of each nutrient species (TP, DRP) for each inflow. Daily loads were then summed to calculate annual loads. Natural loads for each inflow were subtracted from contemporary loads to estimate anthropogenic loads. Anthropogenic phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua were estimated to be 22% (expressed as a catchment areal rate of 0.12 kg DRP ha-1 y-1) of the total DRP load and 48% (0.47 kg P ha-1 y-1) of the TP load. Relative to other New Zealand catchments, anthropogenic phosphorus was a relatively low proportion of the total load, given that the Rotorua catchment is highly developed. This can be attributed to the large volume of groundwater discharge to the lake, which is DRP-enriched due to gradual dissolution of phosphorus in the rhyolitic pumice bedrock. In sub-catchments where groundwater discharge to the lake was volumetrically dominant, e.g., Hamurana (89.3%) and Awahou (79.6%), the natural contribution to DRP loads was high, despite extensive agricultural land-use. By contrast, sub-catchments dominated by surface water discharges, e.g., Ngongotaha (34% groundwater) and Waiteti (14.5% groundwater), had comparatively high anthropogenic TP loads and elevated concentrations of particulate phosphorus. The minor and ungauged catchments, representing drains, small streams, overland flow, groundwater discharge to the bed of the lake, discharge below gauged stream sites and a residual term, were estimated to contribute the largest percentage (33%) of anthropogenic particulate phosphorus loads to Lake Rotorua despite being groundwater dominated.

year: 2015

title: 'Te Kawau Mārō' The Role of Media in Revitalising Te Reo Māori

authors: Hill, Jessie Lee Anahira

subjects: Media

abstract: The intent of this thesis is to investigate the role media plays in relation to the revitalisation of te reo Māori in Aotearoa/New Zealand society. This is essential as the media's latent potential is often underestimated and therefore underutilised. 

For Māori and inevitably te reo Māori, media has been a topic of heated contestation for over a century. It is postulated that throughout this troubled history, media's influence has contributed to an erosion of te reo Māori and then conversely, since the late 20th century, its attempted revival. The journey of te reo Māori from past to present may be likened to a voyage of a traditional 'waka hourua' (voyaging or double hulled canoe). 'Nga ngaru e toru' ('three waves') illustrates the three stages that I have defined as catalysts significantly impacting te reo Māori. 

Grounded firmly in a Kaupapa Māori methodological and theoretical framework based on careful research and intimate cultural knowledge, my innovative approaches to language revitalisation entitled the Tapatoru (triangle) Model 1 and Tapatoru Model 2 will be introduced and explained. These distinct language revitalisation paradigms illustrate the core ingredients needed in effective language revival and illustrate the positioning and function of the media within these strategic models.

text: 'Te Kawau Mārō' The Role of Media in Revitalising Te Reo Māori The intent of this thesis is to investigate the role media plays in relation to the revitalisation of te reo Māori in Aotearoa/New Zealand society. This is essential as the media's latent potential is often underestimated and therefore underutilised. 

For Māori and inevitably te reo Māori, media has been a topic of heated contestation for over a century. It is postulated that throughout this troubled history, media's influence has contributed to an erosion of te reo Māori and then conversely, since the late 20th century, its attempted revival. The journey of te reo Māori from past to present may be likened to a voyage of a traditional 'waka hourua' (voyaging or double hulled canoe). 'Nga ngaru e toru' ('three waves') illustrates the three stages that I have defined as catalysts significantly impacting te reo Māori. 

Grounded firmly in a Kaupapa Māori methodological and theoretical framework based on careful research and intimate cultural knowledge, my innovative approaches to language revitalisation entitled the Tapatoru (triangle) Model 1 and Tapatoru Model 2 will be introduced and explained. These distinct language revitalisation paradigms illustrate the core ingredients needed in effective language revival and illustrate the positioning and function of the media within these strategic models.

year: 2010