title: The Piako County tramway at Waiorongomai

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: This tramway, the main engineering feature of the goldfield, as difficult and expensive both to construct and to maintain, but without it mining was impossible. Involving three inclines and three levels, with a short trestle joining it to the battery, it served most of the mines, most of which were above it and linked by chutes or short tramways. It was neither cheap nor easy to operate, partly because of the topography and the weather.
To construct it required much more financial assistance from the county council and the government than originally envisaged. Surveying the route took five months, and construction was prolonged as the cost escalated. Once in use it was found to need modifications and over the years many repairs were required. Miners claimed its charges were exorbitant, and because of the high cost of running it some wanted it leased, which did happen for a time. Whatever form of ownership and whoever was the tramway manager, it was never cheap to run and complaints about costs continued; and government financial assistance was obtained periodically, and reluctantly.
After the First World War, the county was convinced to retain the rails and even to make more repairs, but the latter ceased after 1924 and the line was abandoned and became unusable. Not even the minor revival of mining during the Depression convinced local or central government to repair it, and in the early 1940s many rails were stolen.
There were many accidents during its operation, but only one fatality.

text: The Piako County tramway at Waiorongomai This tramway, the main engineering feature of the goldfield, as difficult and expensive both to construct and to maintain, but without it mining was impossible. Involving three inclines and three levels, with a short trestle joining it to the battery, it served most of the mines, most of which were above it and linked by chutes or short tramways. It was neither cheap nor easy to operate, partly because of the topography and the weather.
To construct it required much more financial assistance from the county council and the government than originally envisaged. Surveying the route took five months, and construction was prolonged as the cost escalated. Once in use it was found to need modifications and over the years many repairs were required. Miners claimed its charges were exorbitant, and because of the high cost of running it some wanted it leased, which did happen for a time. Whatever form of ownership and whoever was the tramway manager, it was never cheap to run and complaints about costs continued; and government financial assistance was obtained periodically, and reluctantly.
After the First World War, the county was convinced to retain the rails and even to make more repairs, but the latter ceased after 1924 and the line was abandoned and became unusable. Not even the minor revival of mining during the Depression convinced local or central government to repair it, and in the early 1940s many rails were stolen.
There were many accidents during its operation, but only one fatality.

year: 2016

title: How can genomic data inform biological invasions?

authors: Matheson, Paige

subjects: Genomics

abstract: Rates of biological invasions are increasing, with global trade and climate change causing significant damage to biodiversity, human well-being, primary industries, and economies around the world. However, our ability to predict and prevent future invasions is limited by significant gaps in our mechanistic understanding of the invasion process. Advances in next generation sequencing technologies and bioinformatics make it possible to investigate potential genomic factors that drive invasion success with much higher resolution and accuracy than prior research based on a small number of genetic loci. My thesis argues for the value of population genomic data in invasion biology, first examining the uptake of genomics in invasion research and then providing a case study for using genomic data to understand invasion patterns of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella).

The first analysis (Chapter 2) compares the extent to which population genetic data versus population genomic data, including reference genomes, have been used or are publicly available to study globally invasive species from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) “100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species” (WAS) list. In this chapter, I demonstrate that ‘invasion genomics’ is still in its infancy with respect to research uptake: while 82% of species on the WAS list have been studied using some form of population genetic data, just 32% have been studied using population genomic data. Further, 55% of the WAS list species lack a reference genome, however 18% of these were sequenced in the last three years, indicating a growing investment in genomic resources that looks promising for future invasion genomics research.

The second analysis (Chapter 3) showcases population genomic data being used as a tool to inform a biological invasion. Pink bollworm is one of the most destructive global pests of cotton, costing farmers millions of dollars each year in productivity losses and management efforts. A small population of pink bollworm is currently established in North West Australia, where it poses a significant threat to the expanding cotton industry there. In this chapter, I analysed genomic data in the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) – obtained through a reduced representation, genotyping-by- sequencing technique (DArTseq) – for global populations of pink bollworm to elucidate the population structure and connectivity patterns of the pest. My results show that pink bollworm populations in my dataset have low genetic diversity and strong differentiation between populations from different continents. Importantly, the high genetic differentiation between Australia and other continents reduces concerns about gene flow to North West Australia, particularly from populations in India and Pakistan that have evolved resistance to transgenic insecticidal cotton.

As species continue to move globally beyond their natural ranges, understanding how genome-driven processes facilitate invasion is critical. Genomic data can enhance our mechanistic understanding of the invasion process and inform proactive management of invasive species. Yet, despite progress in this space, there remain limitations to the breadth and depth of such studies that are highlighted throughout my thesis. These represent valuable research opportunities. With the cost of generating genomic data constantly decreasing and long-read sequencing bridging the gap for many taxon-specific challenges, genomic data is starting to address many previously intractable research questions and has the potential to improve overall biosecurity outcomes worldwide.

text: How can genomic data inform biological invasions? Rates of biological invasions are increasing, with global trade and climate change causing significant damage to biodiversity, human well-being, primary industries, and economies around the world. However, our ability to predict and prevent future invasions is limited by significant gaps in our mechanistic understanding of the invasion process. Advances in next generation sequencing technologies and bioinformatics make it possible to investigate potential genomic factors that drive invasion success with much higher resolution and accuracy than prior research based on a small number of genetic loci. My thesis argues for the value of population genomic data in invasion biology, first examining the uptake of genomics in invasion research and then providing a case study for using genomic data to understand invasion patterns of pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella).

The first analysis (Chapter 2) compares the extent to which population genetic data versus population genomic data, including reference genomes, have been used or are publicly available to study globally invasive species from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) “100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species” (WAS) list. In this chapter, I demonstrate that ‘invasion genomics’ is still in its infancy with respect to research uptake: while 82% of species on the WAS list have been studied using some form of population genetic data, just 32% have been studied using population genomic data. Further, 55% of the WAS list species lack a reference genome, however 18% of these were sequenced in the last three years, indicating a growing investment in genomic resources that looks promising for future invasion genomics research.

The second analysis (Chapter 3) showcases population genomic data being used as a tool to inform a biological invasion. Pink bollworm is one of the most destructive global pests of cotton, costing farmers millions of dollars each year in productivity losses and management efforts. A small population of pink bollworm is currently established in North West Australia, where it poses a significant threat to the expanding cotton industry there. In this chapter, I analysed genomic data in the form of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) – obtained through a reduced representation, genotyping-by- sequencing technique (DArTseq) – for global populations of pink bollworm to elucidate the population structure and connectivity patterns of the pest. My results show that pink bollworm populations in my dataset have low genetic diversity and strong differentiation between populations from different continents. Importantly, the high genetic differentiation between Australia and other continents reduces concerns about gene flow to North West Australia, particularly from populations in India and Pakistan that have evolved resistance to transgenic insecticidal cotton.

As species continue to move globally beyond their natural ranges, understanding how genome-driven processes facilitate invasion is critical. Genomic data can enhance our mechanistic understanding of the invasion process and inform proactive management of invasive species. Yet, despite progress in this space, there remain limitations to the breadth and depth of such studies that are highlighted throughout my thesis. These represent valuable research opportunities. With the cost of generating genomic data constantly decreasing and long-read sequencing bridging the gap for many taxon-specific challenges, genomic data is starting to address many previously intractable research questions and has the potential to improve overall biosecurity outcomes worldwide.

year: 2022

title: River Co-management and Planning in the Waikato: An Analysis of Regional and District Plans and Regional Policy Statement Compliance, and a New Approach to Plan Preparation

authors: den Ouden, Hester

subjects: co-management

abstract: The Waikato River is one of New Zealand most significant rivers.  It is an ancestor to one Iwi, significant to four other Iwi generates most of the country’s hydroelectricity and provides large amount of potable water to municipalities.
In 2010 and 2012 three Acts of parliament established the framework for the restoration and protection of the Waikato River Catchment.  It did so in three ways.  The River Co-Management Legislation (RCML) has significantly added to the policy framework under the Resource Management Act 1991 for the Waikato Regional and six Districts.  It introduced the requirement for co-management of decision-making at policy and regulatory approvals, and established the Waikato River Authority which manages a $270 million Clean-Up fund.
This research outlines the provisions of the three statutes that comprise the RCML, how legislation changed the hierarchy of the planning framework, and identifies areas where improvements could be made.  
The RCML introduces a ‘Vision and Strategy’ as a National Policy Statement for the area of the region within the Waikato River Catchment.  The ‘Vision and Strategy’ comprises 13 statements that are the Vision and 12 statements that are the strategy, collectively referred to as stratagems.  The research assesses each plan and policy statement within the Waikato River catchment to determine the nature and level of incorporation of the 25 stratagems of ‘Vision and Strategy’.
A new approach in planning is the requirement for the use of Maatauranga Maaori along with western science, the Māori and western science worldviews.  These worldviews are discussed.  Three Models that use Maatauranga Maaori principles are described.  The purpose of this has been to begin a discussion on the basis of another perspective in future plan and policy making that included better provisions based on the Maatauranga Maaori worldview.
The Planning Under a Co-operative Mandate (PUCM) project assisted in identify criteria against which to assess the regional and district plans and regional policy statement, their quality, comprehensiveness of inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ stratagems, and the required cascading nature of Objective policies and methods that are contain in the plans and regional policy statement.   
Key findings were that the provisions or inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems was mixed, high in the case of scientifically quantifiable matters and poor and non-existent where matters to be included were less able to be quantified and qualified in a western science worldview.  The strengths and weakness of including the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems varied and the strength of that inclusion was identified.
A consequential finding was the overall quality of the plans themselves.  The first PUCM report to government in 2001 on plan quality, scored all six districts and regional plans below 50%.  Using PUCM project criteria to assess the degree to which the Stratagems were included in the plans in 2016 showed a similar result.  The consequential findings also found confusion over the nature of good objective, policy and method drafting.  It also found significant lack of cascading from objectives through policies to methods.

text: River Co-management and Planning in the Waikato: An Analysis of Regional and District Plans and Regional Policy Statement Compliance, and a New Approach to Plan Preparation The Waikato River is one of New Zealand most significant rivers.  It is an ancestor to one Iwi, significant to four other Iwi generates most of the country’s hydroelectricity and provides large amount of potable water to municipalities.
In 2010 and 2012 three Acts of parliament established the framework for the restoration and protection of the Waikato River Catchment.  It did so in three ways.  The River Co-Management Legislation (RCML) has significantly added to the policy framework under the Resource Management Act 1991 for the Waikato Regional and six Districts.  It introduced the requirement for co-management of decision-making at policy and regulatory approvals, and established the Waikato River Authority which manages a $270 million Clean-Up fund.
This research outlines the provisions of the three statutes that comprise the RCML, how legislation changed the hierarchy of the planning framework, and identifies areas where improvements could be made.  
The RCML introduces a ‘Vision and Strategy’ as a National Policy Statement for the area of the region within the Waikato River Catchment.  The ‘Vision and Strategy’ comprises 13 statements that are the Vision and 12 statements that are the strategy, collectively referred to as stratagems.  The research assesses each plan and policy statement within the Waikato River catchment to determine the nature and level of incorporation of the 25 stratagems of ‘Vision and Strategy’.
A new approach in planning is the requirement for the use of Maatauranga Maaori along with western science, the Māori and western science worldviews.  These worldviews are discussed.  Three Models that use Maatauranga Maaori principles are described.  The purpose of this has been to begin a discussion on the basis of another perspective in future plan and policy making that included better provisions based on the Maatauranga Maaori worldview.
The Planning Under a Co-operative Mandate (PUCM) project assisted in identify criteria against which to assess the regional and district plans and regional policy statement, their quality, comprehensiveness of inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ stratagems, and the required cascading nature of Objective policies and methods that are contain in the plans and regional policy statement.   
Key findings were that the provisions or inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems was mixed, high in the case of scientifically quantifiable matters and poor and non-existent where matters to be included were less able to be quantified and qualified in a western science worldview.  The strengths and weakness of including the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems varied and the strength of that inclusion was identified.
A consequential finding was the overall quality of the plans themselves.  The first PUCM report to government in 2001 on plan quality, scored all six districts and regional plans below 50%.  Using PUCM project criteria to assess the degree to which the Stratagems were included in the plans in 2016 showed a similar result.  The consequential findings also found confusion over the nature of good objective, policy and method drafting.  It also found significant lack of cascading from objectives through policies to methods.

year: 2017