title: Counting Errors: How Misunderstanding of China's Local Population and Employment Counts Affects Economic Analysis

authors: Li, Chao

subjects: China

abstract: A confusion over local population counts and employment counts in China persists throughout the economic literature. The existing studies within many branches of economics related to China commonly use the count of people with local hukou registration, the GDP per capita using the hukou count as the population denominator, and incomplete employment counts reported in various Chinese statistical yearbooks as if they were appropriate measures of local population, local employment and local per capita income. This misunderstanding of China’s local population and employment counts may lead researchers astray and could contribute to wrong conclusions and mistaken policy implications. An analogous error would be to study the economic geography of, say, the United States using local population and employment counts that were only for citizens rather than for all residents; the resulting statistical pictures are likely to be biased since cities such as New York or Los Angeles have a much higher share of non-citizens than do other areas. Yet there is no similar criticism of the large and growing literature that relies on sub-national population counts for China, despite the equally egregious errors that are likely to have resulted from using the wrong population and employment counts.
	Five economic issues that are pertinent to modern China are studied in this thesis using the most reliable estimates of local resident population and employment from China’s 2010 population census. These issues are regional inequality, optimal city size, the city size distribution, the nature, location and size of urbanization economies, and the determinants of urban land area expansion. Each issue is studied in a single, self-contained, paper that in some cases has already appeared in a peer-reviewed journal, and in other cases is under review at such journals. In general, the findings based on the most reliable local resident population counts and employment counts from the 2010 census extensively challenge the existing evidence in the literature. In some cases the policy implications from this new research are the opposite of what was previously suggested from research that was potentially distorted by the counting errors described here.

text: Counting Errors: How Misunderstanding of China's Local Population and Employment Counts Affects Economic Analysis A confusion over local population counts and employment counts in China persists throughout the economic literature. The existing studies within many branches of economics related to China commonly use the count of people with local hukou registration, the GDP per capita using the hukou count as the population denominator, and incomplete employment counts reported in various Chinese statistical yearbooks as if they were appropriate measures of local population, local employment and local per capita income. This misunderstanding of China’s local population and employment counts may lead researchers astray and could contribute to wrong conclusions and mistaken policy implications. An analogous error would be to study the economic geography of, say, the United States using local population and employment counts that were only for citizens rather than for all residents; the resulting statistical pictures are likely to be biased since cities such as New York or Los Angeles have a much higher share of non-citizens than do other areas. Yet there is no similar criticism of the large and growing literature that relies on sub-national population counts for China, despite the equally egregious errors that are likely to have resulted from using the wrong population and employment counts.
	Five economic issues that are pertinent to modern China are studied in this thesis using the most reliable estimates of local resident population and employment from China’s 2010 population census. These issues are regional inequality, optimal city size, the city size distribution, the nature, location and size of urbanization economies, and the determinants of urban land area expansion. Each issue is studied in a single, self-contained, paper that in some cases has already appeared in a peer-reviewed journal, and in other cases is under review at such journals. In general, the findings based on the most reliable local resident population counts and employment counts from the 2010 census extensively challenge the existing evidence in the literature. In some cases the policy implications from this new research are the opposite of what was previously suggested from research that was potentially distorted by the counting errors described here.

year: 2015

title: ‘Immune from the germ-laden things’: Immunity and Irish newspaper advertising, 1890–1940

authors: Long, Maebh

subjects: immunity

abstract: From 1890, as advertising in Irish newspapers grew in quantity and sophistication, a discourse of immunity began to circulate. Advertisers drew on advancements in bacteriology and immunology to present their goods as defensive strategies against a range of threats, from major infectious diseases to everyday coughs and colds. Consumers were urged to supplement their bodies’ vulnerabilities by purchasing pills and tonics, with medical products joined by immunity-assuring underwear, coats, cosmetics and cars. From a dataset of every immunity-focused advertisement in the Irish Newspaper Archives and The Irish Times archives between 1890 and 1940, I unpack the ways immunity was presented to the Irish public outside of medical institutions. I show how discourses of immunity intersected with influenza outbreaks, consider the implication of the non-national origins of many advertisements, and trace their rhetoric of protection and resistance across a range of product types.

text: ‘Immune from the germ-laden things’: Immunity and Irish newspaper advertising, 1890–1940 From 1890, as advertising in Irish newspapers grew in quantity and sophistication, a discourse of immunity began to circulate. Advertisers drew on advancements in bacteriology and immunology to present their goods as defensive strategies against a range of threats, from major infectious diseases to everyday coughs and colds. Consumers were urged to supplement their bodies’ vulnerabilities by purchasing pills and tonics, with medical products joined by immunity-assuring underwear, coats, cosmetics and cars. From a dataset of every immunity-focused advertisement in the Irish Newspaper Archives and The Irish Times archives between 1890 and 1940, I unpack the ways immunity was presented to the Irish public outside of medical institutions. I show how discourses of immunity intersected with influenza outbreaks, consider the implication of the non-national origins of many advertisements, and trace their rhetoric of protection and resistance across a range of product types.

year: 2024

title: Community Based Coastal Monitoring: Developing Tools For Sustainable Management

authors: Rickard, Darcel

subjects: Science

abstract: Burgeoning coastal development, recreational use, and the future affects of climate change are placing increasing strain on regulators to manage risk associated with coastal hazards.  Low-lying coastal communities in particular are vulnerable to a range of natural hazards including coastal erosion, storm surge inundation, tsunami and water safety that come with varying levels of risk to life and property. New Zealand's coastal hazard monitoring network is patchy and resources are limited. As a consequence there is considerable potential for coastal communities are going to need to take a more active role in monitoring their environment and building data bases and knowledge that can be used to better manage their coast. This paper describes simple methodologies based on the needs of various community groups and sound science principles that can be used to monitor beaches and the coastal environment. By employing these tools councils, technical experts and community groups will be able to make better-informed decisions for managing activities in the coastal environment. 
One of the keys to the successful uptake of a monitoring programme by a community group is its relevance to the group. The programme and the tools provided must fit the interests, needs, capability and resources of the group. This project develops tools for coastal monitoring and targets coastal community groups such as Coast Care, Coastal Hapu, Secondary Schools, and Surf Life Saving Clubs. The monitoring methodologies have been developed in consultation with Tainui ki Whaingaroa hapu, Raglan Area School, and the Waikato Beach Care and Coast Care Bay of Plenty.
Successful methodologies for measuring changes on the coast are also those that are matched to the type of beach, use appropriate equipment, collect structured data, provide data to which analysis can be applied, incorporate local knowledge of the environment, and feed results back to the community and other interested parties such as councils and science organisations. This project provides the target groups with simple monitoring methodologies, field forms/checklists, and appropriate survey and measurement equipment (which have undergone field trials) to carry out coastal monitoring.  A web-based facility has been developed to input, check and store data; and provide immediate feedback using graphs and images. It also provides background information on coastal processes relevant to monitoring programmes.  In this manner, a scientifically robust data set is collected and stored within a secure and future proofed archive, providing valuable information to coastal groups for years to come.
Although the primary objective of this research is to develop a means for coastal communities to monitor changes in their environment, there are additional benefits associated with engaging communities in the study of their environment. These benefits include increasing awareness of coastal hazards, capacity building, providing valuable educational resources, and improving the temporal and spatial data coverage of information for the New Zealand coastline.

text: Community Based Coastal Monitoring: Developing Tools For Sustainable Management Burgeoning coastal development, recreational use, and the future affects of climate change are placing increasing strain on regulators to manage risk associated with coastal hazards.  Low-lying coastal communities in particular are vulnerable to a range of natural hazards including coastal erosion, storm surge inundation, tsunami and water safety that come with varying levels of risk to life and property. New Zealand's coastal hazard monitoring network is patchy and resources are limited. As a consequence there is considerable potential for coastal communities are going to need to take a more active role in monitoring their environment and building data bases and knowledge that can be used to better manage their coast. This paper describes simple methodologies based on the needs of various community groups and sound science principles that can be used to monitor beaches and the coastal environment. By employing these tools councils, technical experts and community groups will be able to make better-informed decisions for managing activities in the coastal environment. 
One of the keys to the successful uptake of a monitoring programme by a community group is its relevance to the group. The programme and the tools provided must fit the interests, needs, capability and resources of the group. This project develops tools for coastal monitoring and targets coastal community groups such as Coast Care, Coastal Hapu, Secondary Schools, and Surf Life Saving Clubs. The monitoring methodologies have been developed in consultation with Tainui ki Whaingaroa hapu, Raglan Area School, and the Waikato Beach Care and Coast Care Bay of Plenty.
Successful methodologies for measuring changes on the coast are also those that are matched to the type of beach, use appropriate equipment, collect structured data, provide data to which analysis can be applied, incorporate local knowledge of the environment, and feed results back to the community and other interested parties such as councils and science organisations. This project provides the target groups with simple monitoring methodologies, field forms/checklists, and appropriate survey and measurement equipment (which have undergone field trials) to carry out coastal monitoring.  A web-based facility has been developed to input, check and store data; and provide immediate feedback using graphs and images. It also provides background information on coastal processes relevant to monitoring programmes.  In this manner, a scientifically robust data set is collected and stored within a secure and future proofed archive, providing valuable information to coastal groups for years to come.
Although the primary objective of this research is to develop a means for coastal communities to monitor changes in their environment, there are additional benefits associated with engaging communities in the study of their environment. These benefits include increasing awareness of coastal hazards, capacity building, providing valuable educational resources, and improving the temporal and spatial data coverage of information for the New Zealand coastline.

year: 2008