title: Restrictive practices in Aotearoa New Zealand: Current prevalence and barriers to least restrictive practice

authors: Cairns, Mitchell

subjects: Restrictive practices

abstract: Restrictive practices refer to a group of practices whereby an individual's freedom of movement is prevented or partially restricted. This could be done by the use of physical force, harness or straps, or with medications and sedatives. There are several risks associated with the use of restrictive practices, such as physical injury, trauma, post-traumatic stress, and even death for both those subjected to and those implementing restraints. This study aims to determine the frequency and type of restrictive practices used in New Zealand, views of behaviour of concern, and the barriers and enablers to the reduction of restrictive practices, and examine differing views in the population using mixed-method analysis. Survey data was collected and followed up with a focus group to provide additional qualitative data. Data analysis indicated that the use of restrictive practice in New Zealand disability care was high, with 48.61%-77.0% of clients with intellectual or developmental disabilities being subjected to at least one form of restrictive practice. A high level of consensus on the definition of behaviours of concern and their most effective interventions being proactive and function-based was also reflected in the data. Identified barriers to restraint reduction were similar to existing research and included attitudes toward restraint, organisational constraints, caregiver capacity, resource limitations, and limitations in support planning. Identified enablers to restraint reduction included ongoing training and development, behaviour support plans, interdisciplinary reviews, organisational leadership, and caregiver/whānau involvement. Recommendations for future research to examine specific factors resulting in the high use of restrictive practices in New Zealand are provided.

text: Restrictive practices in Aotearoa New Zealand: Current prevalence and barriers to least restrictive practice Restrictive practices refer to a group of practices whereby an individual's freedom of movement is prevented or partially restricted. This could be done by the use of physical force, harness or straps, or with medications and sedatives. There are several risks associated with the use of restrictive practices, such as physical injury, trauma, post-traumatic stress, and even death for both those subjected to and those implementing restraints. This study aims to determine the frequency and type of restrictive practices used in New Zealand, views of behaviour of concern, and the barriers and enablers to the reduction of restrictive practices, and examine differing views in the population using mixed-method analysis. Survey data was collected and followed up with a focus group to provide additional qualitative data. Data analysis indicated that the use of restrictive practice in New Zealand disability care was high, with 48.61%-77.0% of clients with intellectual or developmental disabilities being subjected to at least one form of restrictive practice. A high level of consensus on the definition of behaviours of concern and their most effective interventions being proactive and function-based was also reflected in the data. Identified barriers to restraint reduction were similar to existing research and included attitudes toward restraint, organisational constraints, caregiver capacity, resource limitations, and limitations in support planning. Identified enablers to restraint reduction included ongoing training and development, behaviour support plans, interdisciplinary reviews, organisational leadership, and caregiver/whānau involvement. Recommendations for future research to examine specific factors resulting in the high use of restrictive practices in New Zealand are provided.

year: 2026

title: Simulating discharge and pollutants from the Waipa Stream catchment under different irrigation scenarios using the SAWT model

authors: Me, Wang

abstract: The water quality of Lake Rotorua has declined over several decades due to increasing inputs of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Prior to 1991, the Rotorua City wastewater treatment plant was a significant contributor to this decline through direct discharge of treated municipal wastewater to the lake. In 1991 the Rotorua Lakes Council (RLC) halted wastewater discharge to Lake Rotorua and commenced land disposal of treated wastewater by spay irrigation to 193 ha of the Whakarewarewa Forest. It was intended that plant uptake and microbial denitrification would reduce N levels, and P would be removed through absorption and retention to clay soil particles. The aim was to reduce wastewater nutrient loads to the point that wastewater runoff entering the Waipa Stream, and ultimately Lake Rotorua, would have a minimal impact on the trophic state of Lake Rotorua.
Resource consent conditions for wastewater disposal to the Whakarewarewa Forest restricted total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) wastewater losses to the Waipa Stream to 30 tonnes yr⁻¹ and 3 tonnes yr⁻¹, respectively. Previous assessments of nutrient losses have indicated some non-compliance with the TN consent limit, there has also been an increase in TP loading to the Waipa Stream since 2002. These increases may be caused by a number of factors including the application rate of wastewater, increases in the nutrient load from non-irrigated areas within the catchment, forest operations not associated with wastewater irrigation and altered rainfall patterns. The Rotorua Lakes Council contracted the University of Waikato to provide an assessment of possible causes for the increased nutrient loading, and to investigate how varying the timing of wastewater irrigation regimes could affect nutrient loading to the Waipa Stream.
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a GIS based catchment model used to simulate water fluxes and contaminant transport. The model was parameterised using hydrological and water quality values from relevant literature, and values derived from model auto-calibration within fixed ranges using a Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) procedure followed by manual adjustment. Model results showed a high correspondence (r > 0.8; p < 0.001) between measurements and simulations of discharge. However, the model underestimated several peaks of weekly mean TSS load during high rainfall events which were found to be related to harvesting of forest blocks. Underestimates of weekly mean TP peaks were also observed and appeared to be either a lagged response to high rainfall, high TP concentrations in the irrigated wastewater or harvesting of several forest blocks concurrently. Most peaks in hourly routing of NO₃-N and TN loads averaged to weekly time scale also corresponded to high rainfall as well as to high TN concentrations in the wastewater.
The effects of various wastewater irrigation scenarios on downstream water quality were also simulated using SWAT. Daily wastewater irrigation was the most effective scenario for reducing nutrient leaching and avoiding soil nutrient saturation when compared to weekly irrigation (i.e., identical total volume on a weekly basis). Cessation of irrigation on high rainfall days, with reassignment of the irrigation to the first subsequent low-rainfall day, produced unexpected small increases in annual TP (+5%) and TN loading (+2.5%). Simulations of increased area of irrigation or ceasing irrigation resulted in reductions of nutrient loads to the Waipa Stream.
These results indicate that harvesting of plantation forest blocks in the Waipa sub-catchment and wastewater irrigation during high rainfall were contributing to higher than estimated TSS and TP loading to the Waipa Stream. Modelling of variations in wastewater irrigation frequency showed that reductions in TP and TN loadings to the Waipa Stream could be achieved by switching to a programme of daily rather than weekly irrigation and avoidance of irrigation during or the day following heavy rainfall. These findings support the decision to switch irrigation frequency from weekly to daily and are likely to assist in reducing the impact of anthropogenic nutrient loading on Lake Rotorua.

text: Simulating discharge and pollutants from the Waipa Stream catchment under different irrigation scenarios using the SAWT model The water quality of Lake Rotorua has declined over several decades due to increasing inputs of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Prior to 1991, the Rotorua City wastewater treatment plant was a significant contributor to this decline through direct discharge of treated municipal wastewater to the lake. In 1991 the Rotorua Lakes Council (RLC) halted wastewater discharge to Lake Rotorua and commenced land disposal of treated wastewater by spay irrigation to 193 ha of the Whakarewarewa Forest. It was intended that plant uptake and microbial denitrification would reduce N levels, and P would be removed through absorption and retention to clay soil particles. The aim was to reduce wastewater nutrient loads to the point that wastewater runoff entering the Waipa Stream, and ultimately Lake Rotorua, would have a minimal impact on the trophic state of Lake Rotorua.
Resource consent conditions for wastewater disposal to the Whakarewarewa Forest restricted total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) wastewater losses to the Waipa Stream to 30 tonnes yr⁻¹ and 3 tonnes yr⁻¹, respectively. Previous assessments of nutrient losses have indicated some non-compliance with the TN consent limit, there has also been an increase in TP loading to the Waipa Stream since 2002. These increases may be caused by a number of factors including the application rate of wastewater, increases in the nutrient load from non-irrigated areas within the catchment, forest operations not associated with wastewater irrigation and altered rainfall patterns. The Rotorua Lakes Council contracted the University of Waikato to provide an assessment of possible causes for the increased nutrient loading, and to investigate how varying the timing of wastewater irrigation regimes could affect nutrient loading to the Waipa Stream.
The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is a GIS based catchment model used to simulate water fluxes and contaminant transport. The model was parameterised using hydrological and water quality values from relevant literature, and values derived from model auto-calibration within fixed ranges using a Sequential Uncertainty Fitting (SUFI-2) procedure followed by manual adjustment. Model results showed a high correspondence (r > 0.8; p < 0.001) between measurements and simulations of discharge. However, the model underestimated several peaks of weekly mean TSS load during high rainfall events which were found to be related to harvesting of forest blocks. Underestimates of weekly mean TP peaks were also observed and appeared to be either a lagged response to high rainfall, high TP concentrations in the irrigated wastewater or harvesting of several forest blocks concurrently. Most peaks in hourly routing of NO₃-N and TN loads averaged to weekly time scale also corresponded to high rainfall as well as to high TN concentrations in the wastewater.
The effects of various wastewater irrigation scenarios on downstream water quality were also simulated using SWAT. Daily wastewater irrigation was the most effective scenario for reducing nutrient leaching and avoiding soil nutrient saturation when compared to weekly irrigation (i.e., identical total volume on a weekly basis). Cessation of irrigation on high rainfall days, with reassignment of the irrigation to the first subsequent low-rainfall day, produced unexpected small increases in annual TP (+5%) and TN loading (+2.5%). Simulations of increased area of irrigation or ceasing irrigation resulted in reductions of nutrient loads to the Waipa Stream.
These results indicate that harvesting of plantation forest blocks in the Waipa sub-catchment and wastewater irrigation during high rainfall were contributing to higher than estimated TSS and TP loading to the Waipa Stream. Modelling of variations in wastewater irrigation frequency showed that reductions in TP and TN loadings to the Waipa Stream could be achieved by switching to a programme of daily rather than weekly irrigation and avoidance of irrigation during or the day following heavy rainfall. These findings support the decision to switch irrigation frequency from weekly to daily and are likely to assist in reducing the impact of anthropogenic nutrient loading on Lake Rotorua.

year: 2017

title: Equity, inclusivity and shared humanity:  Addressing intergenerational failure of schooling for Māori

authors: Egan, Margaret

subjects: Equity of Māori learners

abstract: Despite decades of education reform aimed at Māori students succeeding in schooling, the New Zealand education system’s failure to engage effectively with Māori is persistent with Māori underachievement remaining chronic and seemingly intractable.
This thesis examines the interface between leadership and professional learning in a single sex secondary school during their engagement with Te Kotahitanga (Unity of Purpose). The school’s leaders were focused on closing the achievement gap between Māori and non-Māori students and asserted that if students remained engaged at school into the senior year levels, they were more likely to “achieve success”. Te Kotahitanga’s initial focus on teaching and learning in the junior years 9 and 10 presented a potential solution. As this school began to engage with Te Kotahitanga, Ka Hikitia (to step up), a strategy aimed at Māori students achieving educational success as Māori, was launched. Thus, a mandate for school reform focused on Māori potential supported the professional learning provided by Te Kotahitanga.
The findings, presented as quantitative and qualitative evidence, show that school leaders focused on their teachers implementing a more culturally responsive and relational pedagogy at Years 9 and 10 in order to close the achievement gap between Māori and their non-Māori peers. They believed that this would prepare Māori students for the more formal and traditional learning experience required in the senior school, aimed at getting through important national qualifications. While teachers and leaders who were fully engaged in Te Kotahitanga transformed the classroom experiences for their junior and senior learners, not all teachers and leaders engaged, therefore not all learners experienced the change in pedagogy throughout their time at this school. The findings also uncover layers of bias within the school and its community which prevented Māori families from contributing to their children’s education on their own terms. The two key foci, closing the achievement gap between Māori and non-Māori and retaining Māori students into the senior school obfuscated a focus on shared humanity, equity, belonging and better engagement for all.
While this research took place in New Zealand with Māori students these findings can contribute to those involved with school reform especially those in other colonised countries where indigenous students and their families face similar issues.

text: Equity, inclusivity and shared humanity:  Addressing intergenerational failure of schooling for Māori Despite decades of education reform aimed at Māori students succeeding in schooling, the New Zealand education system’s failure to engage effectively with Māori is persistent with Māori underachievement remaining chronic and seemingly intractable.
This thesis examines the interface between leadership and professional learning in a single sex secondary school during their engagement with Te Kotahitanga (Unity of Purpose). The school’s leaders were focused on closing the achievement gap between Māori and non-Māori students and asserted that if students remained engaged at school into the senior year levels, they were more likely to “achieve success”. Te Kotahitanga’s initial focus on teaching and learning in the junior years 9 and 10 presented a potential solution. As this school began to engage with Te Kotahitanga, Ka Hikitia (to step up), a strategy aimed at Māori students achieving educational success as Māori, was launched. Thus, a mandate for school reform focused on Māori potential supported the professional learning provided by Te Kotahitanga.
The findings, presented as quantitative and qualitative evidence, show that school leaders focused on their teachers implementing a more culturally responsive and relational pedagogy at Years 9 and 10 in order to close the achievement gap between Māori and their non-Māori peers. They believed that this would prepare Māori students for the more formal and traditional learning experience required in the senior school, aimed at getting through important national qualifications. While teachers and leaders who were fully engaged in Te Kotahitanga transformed the classroom experiences for their junior and senior learners, not all teachers and leaders engaged, therefore not all learners experienced the change in pedagogy throughout their time at this school. The findings also uncover layers of bias within the school and its community which prevented Māori families from contributing to their children’s education on their own terms. The two key foci, closing the achievement gap between Māori and non-Māori and retaining Māori students into the senior school obfuscated a focus on shared humanity, equity, belonging and better engagement for all.
While this research took place in New Zealand with Māori students these findings can contribute to those involved with school reform especially those in other colonised countries where indigenous students and their families face similar issues.

year: 2022