title: Promoting mental model-building in astronomy education

authors: Taylor, Ian

abstract: The difficulties in learning and teaching astronomy, including the use of models, have been well documented. Models, when used by teachers, are usually utilised in a transmissive way to impart content to pupils. The process of constructing mental models, an essential aspect of the development of astronomy knowledge (both historically and today) is usually overlooked.

This research explored how models can promote mental model building in classrooms. Mental models are defined as human cognitive constructions which are used to describe and
explain phenomena which cannot be experienced directly. They are used both to understand the world and to articulate understandings to others. Models may be scaled miniatures or scaled enlargements or working models, each of which represents a mental model in some, but not all, its properties. An example is an orrery, which is a representation of part of the solar system.

This study investigated how pupils can be helped to construct the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system. It used an approach suggested by Hesse (1966) in which a model is repeatedly critiqued with respect to the extent that it both represents and fails to represent the structure and properties of a mental model. The study proposed that the process of repeated critiques would assist learners to construct and consolidate the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system.

A research programme was designed to investigate whether pupils could be assisted to construct the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system within the constraints of an ordinary classroom by using the process of critiquing a model of the scientists’ mental model. A 12-lesson teaching intervention, conducted over a period of three weeks, was designed for that purpose. The teaching strategy, which was developed from well-trialled constructivist research, consisted of four phases: Focus on the Mental Model; Mental Model Building and Critiquing; Using the Mental Model to Solve Problems; and Reflection. 

The study reported interviews with twelve intermediate school teachers to ascertain their views about the challenges of teaching astronomy. This was followed by an initial classroom pilot intervention and then a formal classroom trial intervention with Year 7-8 pupils in the same intermediate school in New Zealand. Both classes were similar and both were taught by teachers in their second year of teaching. An orrery was used as the model of the mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system in both the pilot and trial interventions.

Insights learned from the pilot intervention were used to modify the format of the trial intervention, which took place one year later. Both the pilot intervention and the trial intervention were monitored by: pre- and post-interviews with Year 7-8 pupils; interviews with the intervention teacher after most of the lessons; pre-, post- and post-post written surveys of all members of the class; and audio-tapes of the lessons.

The pre-interviews and pre-surveys showed that the pupils began both interventions with a range of mental models of the Sun-Earth-Moon system. Furthermore, their other concepts (about tides, phases of the Moon, spatial relationships, etc.) were often apparently unrelated to the Sun-Earth-Moon system or to each other.

The findings showed that most of these Year 7-8 pupils were enabled to build the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system and that the use of models is effective in promoting mental model building. As well as acquiring these understandings about processes in astronomy, the pupils also achieved the traditional goals in astronomy knowledge and concepts (although concepts associated with the Moon still proved difficult for these pupils, as did an understanding of Earth’s axis of rotation). The pupils responded positively to the approach, they did not tire of the repeated critiquing of the model and they developed their ideas about models in science at large.

The study demonstrated that all four phases of the modified teaching strategy were necessary for the mental model to be both constructed and consolidated. It is also clear that pupil interactions, both in small groups and in the whole class, were important factors in the mental model building process. In addition, the study further indicated that, contrary to some other research, Year 7-8 may be an appropriate age to begin teaching about models in science in general.

text: Promoting mental model-building in astronomy education The difficulties in learning and teaching astronomy, including the use of models, have been well documented. Models, when used by teachers, are usually utilised in a transmissive way to impart content to pupils. The process of constructing mental models, an essential aspect of the development of astronomy knowledge (both historically and today) is usually overlooked.

This research explored how models can promote mental model building in classrooms. Mental models are defined as human cognitive constructions which are used to describe and
explain phenomena which cannot be experienced directly. They are used both to understand the world and to articulate understandings to others. Models may be scaled miniatures or scaled enlargements or working models, each of which represents a mental model in some, but not all, its properties. An example is an orrery, which is a representation of part of the solar system.

This study investigated how pupils can be helped to construct the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system. It used an approach suggested by Hesse (1966) in which a model is repeatedly critiqued with respect to the extent that it both represents and fails to represent the structure and properties of a mental model. The study proposed that the process of repeated critiques would assist learners to construct and consolidate the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system.

A research programme was designed to investigate whether pupils could be assisted to construct the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system within the constraints of an ordinary classroom by using the process of critiquing a model of the scientists’ mental model. A 12-lesson teaching intervention, conducted over a period of three weeks, was designed for that purpose. The teaching strategy, which was developed from well-trialled constructivist research, consisted of four phases: Focus on the Mental Model; Mental Model Building and Critiquing; Using the Mental Model to Solve Problems; and Reflection. 

The study reported interviews with twelve intermediate school teachers to ascertain their views about the challenges of teaching astronomy. This was followed by an initial classroom pilot intervention and then a formal classroom trial intervention with Year 7-8 pupils in the same intermediate school in New Zealand. Both classes were similar and both were taught by teachers in their second year of teaching. An orrery was used as the model of the mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system in both the pilot and trial interventions.

Insights learned from the pilot intervention were used to modify the format of the trial intervention, which took place one year later. Both the pilot intervention and the trial intervention were monitored by: pre- and post-interviews with Year 7-8 pupils; interviews with the intervention teacher after most of the lessons; pre-, post- and post-post written surveys of all members of the class; and audio-tapes of the lessons.

The pre-interviews and pre-surveys showed that the pupils began both interventions with a range of mental models of the Sun-Earth-Moon system. Furthermore, their other concepts (about tides, phases of the Moon, spatial relationships, etc.) were often apparently unrelated to the Sun-Earth-Moon system or to each other.

The findings showed that most of these Year 7-8 pupils were enabled to build the scientists’ mental model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system and that the use of models is effective in promoting mental model building. As well as acquiring these understandings about processes in astronomy, the pupils also achieved the traditional goals in astronomy knowledge and concepts (although concepts associated with the Moon still proved difficult for these pupils, as did an understanding of Earth’s axis of rotation). The pupils responded positively to the approach, they did not tire of the repeated critiquing of the model and they developed their ideas about models in science at large.

The study demonstrated that all four phases of the modified teaching strategy were necessary for the mental model to be both constructed and consolidated. It is also clear that pupil interactions, both in small groups and in the whole class, were important factors in the mental model building process. In addition, the study further indicated that, contrary to some other research, Year 7-8 may be an appropriate age to begin teaching about models in science in general.

year: 2000

title: Early childhood assessment in Aotearoa New Zealand: Critical perspectives and fresh openings

authors: Arndt, Sonja Kathrina

abstract: This paper engages with assessment practices in Aotearoa New Zealand. Te Whāriki, the internationally recognized early childhood curriculum framework, lies at the root of contemporary narrative assessment practices, and the concept of learning stories. We outline historical and societal underpinnings of these practices, and elevate the essence of assessment through learning stories and their particu- lar ontological and epistemological aims and purposes. The paper emphasizes early childhood teaching and learning as a complex relational, inter-subjective, material, moral and political practice. It adopts a critical lens and begins from the premise that early childhood teachers are in the best position to make decisions about teach- ing and learning in their localized, contextualized settings, with and for the children with whom they share it. We examine the notion of effectiveness and ‘what works’ in assessment, with an emphasis on the importance of allowing for uncertainty, and for the invisible elements in children’s learning. Te Whāriki and learning stories are positioned as strong underpinnings of culturally and morally open, rich and complex assessment, to be constantly renegotiated within each local context, in Aotearoa New Zealand and beyond.

text: Early childhood assessment in Aotearoa New Zealand: Critical perspectives and fresh openings This paper engages with assessment practices in Aotearoa New Zealand. Te Whāriki, the internationally recognized early childhood curriculum framework, lies at the root of contemporary narrative assessment practices, and the concept of learning stories. We outline historical and societal underpinnings of these practices, and elevate the essence of assessment through learning stories and their particu- lar ontological and epistemological aims and purposes. The paper emphasizes early childhood teaching and learning as a complex relational, inter-subjective, material, moral and political practice. It adopts a critical lens and begins from the premise that early childhood teachers are in the best position to make decisions about teach- ing and learning in their localized, contextualized settings, with and for the children with whom they share it. We examine the notion of effectiveness and ‘what works’ in assessment, with an emphasis on the importance of allowing for uncertainty, and for the invisible elements in children’s learning. Te Whāriki and learning stories are positioned as strong underpinnings of culturally and morally open, rich and complex assessment, to be constantly renegotiated within each local context, in Aotearoa New Zealand and beyond.

year: 2015

title: Mai uta ki tai: Cyclone-driven suspended sediment effects on early benthic juvenile kōura (Jasus edwardsii), Te Ākau o Tokomaru, Aotearoa

authors: Karaha-Paki, Vijuan

abstract: Kōura (Jasus edwardsii) are ecologically, culturally, and economically significant taonga species central to mahinga kai systems throughout Aotearoa New Zealand. In Te Tairāwhiti, particularly Te Ākau o Tokomaru, Cyclone Gabrielle (February 2023) resulted in unprecedented sediment loads being delivered to coastal waters, smothering inshore rocky reefs that serve as critical nursery habitats for settling puerulus and juvenile kōura. This research investigated how repeated suspended sediment exposure affects the body condition, survival, and physiological condition of early benthic juvenile kōura, integrating Western scientific methods with mātauranga Māori perspectives to support kaitiakitanga and ecosystem recovery. 

A 52-day pulse-based laboratory experiment exposed 81 early benthic juvenile kōura to three treatment levels: Control (0 mg/L), Tobserved (1,000 mg/L), and Tmaximised (5,000 mg/L) suspended sediment concentrations, alternating between exposure phases and recovery periods to simulate natural post-storm sedimentation dynamics. Sediment was sourced from the Mangahauini River mouth to reflect local conditions. Kōura were initially housed communally (Days 1-19), and then separated into individual tāruke following observed cannibalism. Across the experiment, body weight to carapace length (BW:CL) ratios, survival, blood refractive index, gill condition, and moult stage were assessed. 

All treatment groups began with statistically equivalent body condition (p = 0.135), but cumulative effects emerged over time. During communal housing, mortality was highest in the Tobserved treatment (51.9%) compared with Control and Tmaximised treatments (both 18.5%). After separation, Tmaximised individuals showed the greatest losses (45.5%), mostly during the recovery rather than exposure phases. Overall mortality reached 45.7%, with sediment-exposed treatments experiencing 55% (Tmaximised) to 59% (Tobserved) losses compared with 22.2% in the Controls (p = 0.001). 

By Day 52, sediment exposure significantly reduced body condition (p = 0.016), with the Controls maintaining higher BW:CL ratios than Tmaximised (p = 0.013). Gill assessments indicated universal and severe damage in sediment-exposed kōura (100%) but none in the Controls (0%). Quantitative image analysis confirmed strong sediment concentration- dependent effects across all damage metrics – particle lodgement, filament integrity, surface discolouration, and composite scores (all p < 0.001) – with structural deformities in 66.7% of Tobserved and 100% of Tmaximised individuals. Blood refractive index showed no treatment differences, and 84.1% of kōura remained in intermoult stage at Day 52, with no significant difference in moult stage distribution between treatments (p = 0.328). However, moult frequency during the individual phase was lower in sediment-exposed groups compared to the Controls (Control: n = 11, Tobserved: n = 4, Tmaximised: n = 5). 

These findings show that suspended sediment exposure poses population-level threats to kōura recruitment through irreversible gill damage and delayed mortality. Elevated cannibalism during communal holding, particularly observed in the Tobserved treatment, likely resulted from temporal clustering of moult events rather than sediment-induced behaviour. For Te Ākau o Tokomaru and the wider CRA 3 fishery, this highlights the need for integrated catchment-to- coast management addressing land-derived sediment inputs and protecting coastal nursery habitats. From a Te Ao Māori perspective, sedimentation represents a disruption to whakapapa relationships with Tangaroa and a weakening of mauri in coastal ecosystems. Restoring these connections requires co-governance frameworks that embed mātauranga Māori, empower kaitiaki-led monitoring and rāhui, and address the cumulative impacts of land-use intensification and repeated cyclone events on ecosystem resilience in Te Tairāwhiti.

text: Mai uta ki tai: Cyclone-driven suspended sediment effects on early benthic juvenile kōura (Jasus edwardsii), Te Ākau o Tokomaru, Aotearoa Kōura (Jasus edwardsii) are ecologically, culturally, and economically significant taonga species central to mahinga kai systems throughout Aotearoa New Zealand. In Te Tairāwhiti, particularly Te Ākau o Tokomaru, Cyclone Gabrielle (February 2023) resulted in unprecedented sediment loads being delivered to coastal waters, smothering inshore rocky reefs that serve as critical nursery habitats for settling puerulus and juvenile kōura. This research investigated how repeated suspended sediment exposure affects the body condition, survival, and physiological condition of early benthic juvenile kōura, integrating Western scientific methods with mātauranga Māori perspectives to support kaitiakitanga and ecosystem recovery. 

A 52-day pulse-based laboratory experiment exposed 81 early benthic juvenile kōura to three treatment levels: Control (0 mg/L), Tobserved (1,000 mg/L), and Tmaximised (5,000 mg/L) suspended sediment concentrations, alternating between exposure phases and recovery periods to simulate natural post-storm sedimentation dynamics. Sediment was sourced from the Mangahauini River mouth to reflect local conditions. Kōura were initially housed communally (Days 1-19), and then separated into individual tāruke following observed cannibalism. Across the experiment, body weight to carapace length (BW:CL) ratios, survival, blood refractive index, gill condition, and moult stage were assessed. 

All treatment groups began with statistically equivalent body condition (p = 0.135), but cumulative effects emerged over time. During communal housing, mortality was highest in the Tobserved treatment (51.9%) compared with Control and Tmaximised treatments (both 18.5%). After separation, Tmaximised individuals showed the greatest losses (45.5%), mostly during the recovery rather than exposure phases. Overall mortality reached 45.7%, with sediment-exposed treatments experiencing 55% (Tmaximised) to 59% (Tobserved) losses compared with 22.2% in the Controls (p = 0.001). 

By Day 52, sediment exposure significantly reduced body condition (p = 0.016), with the Controls maintaining higher BW:CL ratios than Tmaximised (p = 0.013). Gill assessments indicated universal and severe damage in sediment-exposed kōura (100%) but none in the Controls (0%). Quantitative image analysis confirmed strong sediment concentration- dependent effects across all damage metrics – particle lodgement, filament integrity, surface discolouration, and composite scores (all p < 0.001) – with structural deformities in 66.7% of Tobserved and 100% of Tmaximised individuals. Blood refractive index showed no treatment differences, and 84.1% of kōura remained in intermoult stage at Day 52, with no significant difference in moult stage distribution between treatments (p = 0.328). However, moult frequency during the individual phase was lower in sediment-exposed groups compared to the Controls (Control: n = 11, Tobserved: n = 4, Tmaximised: n = 5). 

These findings show that suspended sediment exposure poses population-level threats to kōura recruitment through irreversible gill damage and delayed mortality. Elevated cannibalism during communal holding, particularly observed in the Tobserved treatment, likely resulted from temporal clustering of moult events rather than sediment-induced behaviour. For Te Ākau o Tokomaru and the wider CRA 3 fishery, this highlights the need for integrated catchment-to- coast management addressing land-derived sediment inputs and protecting coastal nursery habitats. From a Te Ao Māori perspective, sedimentation represents a disruption to whakapapa relationships with Tangaroa and a weakening of mauri in coastal ecosystems. Restoring these connections requires co-governance frameworks that embed mātauranga Māori, empower kaitiaki-led monitoring and rāhui, and address the cumulative impacts of land-use intensification and repeated cyclone events on ecosystem resilience in Te Tairāwhiti.

year: 2025