title: Playing right: Some virtual wrongs are real wrongs

authors: Munn, Nicholas

abstract: Many computer games ask us to act in ways which would be morally unconscionable, were we to so act in the physical world. Within the game world, these actions are seen as unproblematic. As such, simple translations of concepts such as assault and murder from the physical to the virtual fail. Killing an opponent in World of Warcraft is not morally equivalent to killing someone in the physical world. However, this does not mean that virtual murder is impossible. Rather, the social reality of particular game-worlds is distinct from, but connected to, the social reality in which we operate in the physical world. In this paper, I examine the ways in which immoral conduct can occur in virtual environments. I discuss the particular problems of the ‘magic circle’ model of gaming in the context of online, massively interactive computer gaming as popularised by World of Warcraft, Rift, Aion. (Castronova 2005, Zimmerman 2012) The most important of these problems is perhaps the lack of distinction many participants in these worlds make between their avatars and themselves. (Lehdonvirta, 2010) This connection between the virtual and physical worlds enables us to generate a moral framework for guiding action within virtual worlds. With this background established, I argue that it is the subversion of game mechanics and intentions which generates the wrongness of particular types of action within virtual worlds.

text: Playing right: Some virtual wrongs are real wrongs Many computer games ask us to act in ways which would be morally unconscionable, were we to so act in the physical world. Within the game world, these actions are seen as unproblematic. As such, simple translations of concepts such as assault and murder from the physical to the virtual fail. Killing an opponent in World of Warcraft is not morally equivalent to killing someone in the physical world. However, this does not mean that virtual murder is impossible. Rather, the social reality of particular game-worlds is distinct from, but connected to, the social reality in which we operate in the physical world. In this paper, I examine the ways in which immoral conduct can occur in virtual environments. I discuss the particular problems of the ‘magic circle’ model of gaming in the context of online, massively interactive computer gaming as popularised by World of Warcraft, Rift, Aion. (Castronova 2005, Zimmerman 2012) The most important of these problems is perhaps the lack of distinction many participants in these worlds make between their avatars and themselves. (Lehdonvirta, 2010) This connection between the virtual and physical worlds enables us to generate a moral framework for guiding action within virtual worlds. With this background established, I argue that it is the subversion of game mechanics and intentions which generates the wrongness of particular types of action within virtual worlds.

year: 2019

title: Determining the risk of phosphite tolerance in Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United States: a case study on the implications of long-term use of  phosphite to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in avocado (Persea americana)

authors: Hunter, Shannon Renee

subjects: Phytophthora

abstract: Phytophthora species cause many major plant disease epidemics worldwide, impacting horticulture, plant trade and production planting industries through the loss of plants and the costs arising from disease management. Phytophthora species have specialised structures which enhance their dispersal, survival and infection. These include motile swimming spores, caducous sporangia and resting spores. Nurseries and orchards use integrated management to control phytophthora diseases, including cultural practises, biological control, resistant host plants and chemical control. The use of fungicides is a very effective control method; however, Phytophthora species can develop resistance to fungicides after prolonged exposure. For example, phosphite tolerant isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi have been found in avocado orchards in Australia and South Africa.
Phosphite is widely used in nurseries and orchards in New Zealand as a preventative and control treatment. The avocado industry largely relies on it for the control of avocado root rot caused by P. cinnamomi. Phosphite is most commonly applied to avocado trees using passive trunk injections but can also be applied as foliar sprays, soil drenches, high-pressure injections and capsule implants.
To assess phosphite tolerance of P. cinnamomi isolates from New Zealand avocado orchards, a high-throughput optical density (OD) assay was developed to measure mycelial growth inhibition in the presence of phosphite. The OD assay was used to screen 24 P. cinnamomi isolates from four orchards never treated with phosphite and 32 isolates from eight orchards treated with phosphite for 15 – 37 years. Four isolates had increased tolerance to phosphite and two were intermediately tolerant. These six isolates were from phosphite managed orchards and five were isolated from unhealthy trees.
To test if in vitro tolerance would be expressed in planta, three tolerant and three sensitive isolates were tested for their ability to colonise phosphite treated lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) roots. The tolerant isolates were more extensive colonisers of lupins treated with 5 and 10 g/L phosphite. In the presence of phosphite the tolerant isolates were able to produce more sporangia and release viable swimming zoospores more often.
Internationally important Phytophthora species from culture collections in New Zealand and the United States were assessed for sensitivity to phosphite and a subset of 32 isolates from the Berkeley collection was tested for mefenoxam sensitivity. The causal agent of kauri (Agathis australis) dieback, P. agathidicida, was found to be highly sensitive to phosphite while the possibly New Zealand native P. kernoviae, was found to be relatively tolerant. Intraspecific variation was found in lineages of P. ramorum, the causal agent of sudden oak death in the United States and the United Kingdom, NA2 was more tolerant than NA1. One P. megasperma isolate was more tolerant to mefenoxam compared to the other isolates tested. Of nine P. cinnamomi isolates from avocado orchards in southern California, one was relatively more tolerant to phosphite.
This study has shown phosphite tolerant isolates of P. cinnamomi have developed in phosphite managed avocado orchards in New Zealand and interspecific variation in sensitivity to fungicides is present across Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United states.

text: Determining the risk of phosphite tolerance in Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United States: a case study on the implications of long-term use of  phosphite to control Phytophthora cinnamomi in avocado (Persea americana) Phytophthora species cause many major plant disease epidemics worldwide, impacting horticulture, plant trade and production planting industries through the loss of plants and the costs arising from disease management. Phytophthora species have specialised structures which enhance their dispersal, survival and infection. These include motile swimming spores, caducous sporangia and resting spores. Nurseries and orchards use integrated management to control phytophthora diseases, including cultural practises, biological control, resistant host plants and chemical control. The use of fungicides is a very effective control method; however, Phytophthora species can develop resistance to fungicides after prolonged exposure. For example, phosphite tolerant isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi have been found in avocado orchards in Australia and South Africa.
Phosphite is widely used in nurseries and orchards in New Zealand as a preventative and control treatment. The avocado industry largely relies on it for the control of avocado root rot caused by P. cinnamomi. Phosphite is most commonly applied to avocado trees using passive trunk injections but can also be applied as foliar sprays, soil drenches, high-pressure injections and capsule implants.
To assess phosphite tolerance of P. cinnamomi isolates from New Zealand avocado orchards, a high-throughput optical density (OD) assay was developed to measure mycelial growth inhibition in the presence of phosphite. The OD assay was used to screen 24 P. cinnamomi isolates from four orchards never treated with phosphite and 32 isolates from eight orchards treated with phosphite for 15 – 37 years. Four isolates had increased tolerance to phosphite and two were intermediately tolerant. These six isolates were from phosphite managed orchards and five were isolated from unhealthy trees.
To test if in vitro tolerance would be expressed in planta, three tolerant and three sensitive isolates were tested for their ability to colonise phosphite treated lupin (Lupinus angustifolius) roots. The tolerant isolates were more extensive colonisers of lupins treated with 5 and 10 g/L phosphite. In the presence of phosphite the tolerant isolates were able to produce more sporangia and release viable swimming zoospores more often.
Internationally important Phytophthora species from culture collections in New Zealand and the United States were assessed for sensitivity to phosphite and a subset of 32 isolates from the Berkeley collection was tested for mefenoxam sensitivity. The causal agent of kauri (Agathis australis) dieback, P. agathidicida, was found to be highly sensitive to phosphite while the possibly New Zealand native P. kernoviae, was found to be relatively tolerant. Intraspecific variation was found in lineages of P. ramorum, the causal agent of sudden oak death in the United States and the United Kingdom, NA2 was more tolerant than NA1. One P. megasperma isolate was more tolerant to mefenoxam compared to the other isolates tested. Of nine P. cinnamomi isolates from avocado orchards in southern California, one was relatively more tolerant to phosphite.
This study has shown phosphite tolerant isolates of P. cinnamomi have developed in phosphite managed avocado orchards in New Zealand and interspecific variation in sensitivity to fungicides is present across Phytophthora species in New Zealand and the United states.

year: 2018

title: District plan implementation under the RMA: Confessions of a resource consent

authors: Day, Maxine

subjects: New Zealand

abstract: This report focuses on results from Phase 2 of PUCM - the quality of plan
implementation in six district councils selected for their range of plan quality and
capacity to plan. Only those results considered to be important for assisting the six
councils (and others) to improve implementation of their plans are included in this
report. The findings and recommendations, both specific and general, ought to be
instructive for other councils, thereby helping to improve their plans and
implementation processes. Since hapu/iwi interests formed a key component of the
research, the outcomes will help enhance their case for better consideration of their
interests when dealing with local government. As well, many of the findings and
recommendations relate to matters of governance and capacity building that require
Government action, which until done will make it difficult for councils to achieve
quality plans and implementation processes.

text: District plan implementation under the RMA: Confessions of a resource consent This report focuses on results from Phase 2 of PUCM - the quality of plan
implementation in six district councils selected for their range of plan quality and
capacity to plan. Only those results considered to be important for assisting the six
councils (and others) to improve implementation of their plans are included in this
report. The findings and recommendations, both specific and general, ought to be
instructive for other councils, thereby helping to improve their plans and
implementation processes. Since hapu/iwi interests formed a key component of the
research, the outcomes will help enhance their case for better consideration of their
interests when dealing with local government. As well, many of the findings and
recommendations relate to matters of governance and capacity building that require
Government action, which until done will make it difficult for councils to achieve
quality plans and implementation processes.

year: 2003-04-15