title: The Effect of Powder Characteristics and Processing Conditions on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys Made by Powder Forging

authors: Jia, Mingtu

subjects: Titanium

abstract: Powder compact forging was used to produce Ti and Ti-6Al-4V rocker arms using pre-alloyed and blended elemental powders. Green powder compacts with high relative density were manufactured by warm compaction. Due to the characteristics of raw powders, interlocking and cold welding are the main mechanisms for HDH powder compaction, while warm welding is the main mechanism for GA powder compaction. During induction heating of the powder compact, it was found that necks formed extensively in as-sintered HDH Ti powder compact, leading to an average elongation to fracture of 7.5%, whereas necks did not form so extensively in as-sintered HDH Ti-6Al-4V and GA Ti-6Al-4V powder compacts, which make them brittle due to their low relative density.

As a rapid consolidation process, the densification rate was enhanced by powder compact forging due to pore collapsing caused by material flow driven by a large amount of localized plastic deformation. The degree of powder consolidation of powder compact forging using HDH Ti, HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V powders were studied by characterising their porosity distributions, microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture behaviour. Due to the positive effect of shear deformation on the powder consolidation of powder compact forging, the powder compact in the centre of forged parts were consolidated completely with full density and had better mechanical properties than those from ingot metallurgy.

The effects of heat treatments on microstructure and mechanical properties of as-forged HDH Ti part, HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts were investigated, and the ductility of forged HDH Ti part was improved significantly by annealing treatment. Recrystallization annealing was regarded as one of the best heat treatments to achieve the high ductility of as-forged HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts, which can open the applications of forged HDH Ti-6Al-4V part with high oxygen content (~0.5%). The mechanical properties of forged HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts after solution and aging treatment and recrystallization annealing were much better than those from both the ones from reported pre-alloyed approaches and wrought parts, which were caused by the enhancement of powder consolidation during recrystallization process.

Blended elemental approach and mechanical alloying method were applied to produce Ti-6Al-4V rocker arm by powder compact forging at 1350 oC. The effect of holding time at forging temperature on the samples produced by forging the compact of HDH Ti/Al-V master alloy powder mixture was studied, and it was found that a holding time of 5-10 minutes at forging temperature is required to get the as-forged part with good mechanical properties and homogeneous microstructure of free undissolved master alloy powders. Also, in order to reduce the holding time for achieving composition homogeneity, the powder mixture of Ti and Al-V master alloy powders was milled to produce Ti/Al-40wt%V composite powder. With such composite powder, the master alloy layers/particles were dissolved rapidly into Ti matrix, but the oxygen pick up during milling and powder passivation make the mechanical properties of the forged samples inferior to those of the parts made by powder compact forging of the powder mixture or pre-alloyed powder.

text: The Effect of Powder Characteristics and Processing Conditions on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys Made by Powder Forging Powder compact forging was used to produce Ti and Ti-6Al-4V rocker arms using pre-alloyed and blended elemental powders. Green powder compacts with high relative density were manufactured by warm compaction. Due to the characteristics of raw powders, interlocking and cold welding are the main mechanisms for HDH powder compaction, while warm welding is the main mechanism for GA powder compaction. During induction heating of the powder compact, it was found that necks formed extensively in as-sintered HDH Ti powder compact, leading to an average elongation to fracture of 7.5%, whereas necks did not form so extensively in as-sintered HDH Ti-6Al-4V and GA Ti-6Al-4V powder compacts, which make them brittle due to their low relative density.

As a rapid consolidation process, the densification rate was enhanced by powder compact forging due to pore collapsing caused by material flow driven by a large amount of localized plastic deformation. The degree of powder consolidation of powder compact forging using HDH Ti, HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V powders were studied by characterising their porosity distributions, microstructure, mechanical properties and fracture behaviour. Due to the positive effect of shear deformation on the powder consolidation of powder compact forging, the powder compact in the centre of forged parts were consolidated completely with full density and had better mechanical properties than those from ingot metallurgy.

The effects of heat treatments on microstructure and mechanical properties of as-forged HDH Ti part, HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts were investigated, and the ductility of forged HDH Ti part was improved significantly by annealing treatment. Recrystallization annealing was regarded as one of the best heat treatments to achieve the high ductility of as-forged HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts, which can open the applications of forged HDH Ti-6Al-4V part with high oxygen content (~0.5%). The mechanical properties of forged HDH and GA Ti-6Al-4V parts after solution and aging treatment and recrystallization annealing were much better than those from both the ones from reported pre-alloyed approaches and wrought parts, which were caused by the enhancement of powder consolidation during recrystallization process.

Blended elemental approach and mechanical alloying method were applied to produce Ti-6Al-4V rocker arm by powder compact forging at 1350 oC. The effect of holding time at forging temperature on the samples produced by forging the compact of HDH Ti/Al-V master alloy powder mixture was studied, and it was found that a holding time of 5-10 minutes at forging temperature is required to get the as-forged part with good mechanical properties and homogeneous microstructure of free undissolved master alloy powders. Also, in order to reduce the holding time for achieving composition homogeneity, the powder mixture of Ti and Al-V master alloy powders was milled to produce Ti/Al-40wt%V composite powder. With such composite powder, the master alloy layers/particles were dissolved rapidly into Ti matrix, but the oxygen pick up during milling and powder passivation make the mechanical properties of the forged samples inferior to those of the parts made by powder compact forging of the powder mixture or pre-alloyed powder.

year: 2013

title: Soil crusting in Western Samoa. Part I - Some examples of crusting and methods of control

authors: Reynolds, S.G.

abstract: The problems and effects of soil crusting in Western Samoa are discussed. Illustrations of typical crust features include the glazed or 'frosted' surface of certain crusts, and dispersion mosaics. Surface mulches and fine wire mesh frames were investigated as control measures to dissipate the considerable kinetic energy of falling raindrops before they reach the soil surface. Soil crusting was much reduced by these control methods. Mulching increased the germination percentage of dwarf beans, and frames the germinating percentage of lettuce and cabbage over untreated plots; the yield of dwarf beans was increased by 80 per cent using a mulch of coconut fronds.

text: Soil crusting in Western Samoa. Part I - Some examples of crusting and methods of control The problems and effects of soil crusting in Western Samoa are discussed. Illustrations of typical crust features include the glazed or 'frosted' surface of certain crusts, and dispersion mosaics. Surface mulches and fine wire mesh frames were investigated as control measures to dissipate the considerable kinetic energy of falling raindrops before they reach the soil surface. Soil crusting was much reduced by these control methods. Mulching increased the germination percentage of dwarf beans, and frames the germinating percentage of lettuce and cabbage over untreated plots; the yield of dwarf beans was increased by 80 per cent using a mulch of coconut fronds.

year: 1971

title: No explanation required: Entrenchment and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic newspaper corpus of New Zealand English

authors: Levendis, Katharine Joy

subjects: New Zealand English

abstract: Māori loanwords are uncontestably the most notable feature of New Zealand English (Gordon, 2005; Macalister, 2006b). Although frequencies of Māori loanwords are reported to be increasing in recent years (Macalister, 2006b), and analyses strongly indicate a skew in loanwords across certain topics (Davies & Maclagan, 2006; de Bres, 2006), no studies have yet addressed whether Māori loanword behaviour differs in a corpus restricted to a single topic (with the exception of Calude, Miller, Harper, & Whaanga, Forthcoming). Nor has a thorough diachronic analysis been made on the subject since Davies and Maclagan (2006) and Macalister (2006b). This thesis is concerned with frequency of use and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic corpus restricted to a singular theme: te Wiki o te Reo Māori, Māori Language Week. Using a quantitative methodology in a corpus constructed from New Zealand regional and national newspaper articles spanning 2008-2017, average Māori loanword frequencies are found to be almost 5 times that of the most recent comparable diachronic study (Macalister, 2006b), and demonstrate a statistically significant diachronic increase in use. In contrast, the markedness (or translation) of Māori loanwords shows a statistically significant decreasing diachronic trend over the 10-year period. However, practice of marking appears to be affected by user perceptions and intention to educate, and therefore cannot be relied upon as a gauge of loanword entrenchment. Other conventional measures of loanword entrenchment such as frequency, listedness and morphological assimilation are also shown to be unreliable when considered independently from one another, and in cases such as that of New Zealand English where a change from above influenced by social and cultural factors (Māori loanwords functioning as an expression of political attitude and stance) appears to be interfering in loanword use. Measurement of Māori loanword entrenchment cannot be made using the same criteria as loanwords from non-threatened languages, and suggestions are made for the revised criteria for studying loanword entrenchment which takes into account the sociolinguistic context in which the loanwords are used.

text: No explanation required: Entrenchment and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic newspaper corpus of New Zealand English Māori loanwords are uncontestably the most notable feature of New Zealand English (Gordon, 2005; Macalister, 2006b). Although frequencies of Māori loanwords are reported to be increasing in recent years (Macalister, 2006b), and analyses strongly indicate a skew in loanwords across certain topics (Davies & Maclagan, 2006; de Bres, 2006), no studies have yet addressed whether Māori loanword behaviour differs in a corpus restricted to a single topic (with the exception of Calude, Miller, Harper, & Whaanga, Forthcoming). Nor has a thorough diachronic analysis been made on the subject since Davies and Maclagan (2006) and Macalister (2006b). This thesis is concerned with frequency of use and perception of Māori loanwords in a diachronic corpus restricted to a singular theme: te Wiki o te Reo Māori, Māori Language Week. Using a quantitative methodology in a corpus constructed from New Zealand regional and national newspaper articles spanning 2008-2017, average Māori loanword frequencies are found to be almost 5 times that of the most recent comparable diachronic study (Macalister, 2006b), and demonstrate a statistically significant diachronic increase in use. In contrast, the markedness (or translation) of Māori loanwords shows a statistically significant decreasing diachronic trend over the 10-year period. However, practice of marking appears to be affected by user perceptions and intention to educate, and therefore cannot be relied upon as a gauge of loanword entrenchment. Other conventional measures of loanword entrenchment such as frequency, listedness and morphological assimilation are also shown to be unreliable when considered independently from one another, and in cases such as that of New Zealand English where a change from above influenced by social and cultural factors (Māori loanwords functioning as an expression of political attitude and stance) appears to be interfering in loanword use. Measurement of Māori loanword entrenchment cannot be made using the same criteria as loanwords from non-threatened languages, and suggestions are made for the revised criteria for studying loanword entrenchment which takes into account the sociolinguistic context in which the loanwords are used.

year: 2018