title: The Determinants of Tribal Population Growth in the New Zealand Census

authors: Rarere, Moana

subjects: tribal population growth

abstract: By the early twentieth century the notion that ethnic populations would dissipate was a commonly held belief.  However, after World War II, the modern world has seen an incredible resurgence in ethnic identities.  Ethnic conflicts, mobilisations, and the political movements of the 1950s and 1960s served as a major catalyst in the diffusion of indigenous identities and rights.  Consequently, indigenous groups in settler states, especially in North America, experienced population growth beyond the levels of natural demographic factors, that is, fertility, mortality and migration.  Researchers attributed a significant proportion of this growth to changing patterns of ethnic identification, also referred to as ethnic mobility .  Although this phenomenon is well documented in North America, it is only just beginning to be understood in relation to the New Zealand context. 

During the 1970s and 1980s, the indigenous Māori population of New Zealand gained substantial progress in political, social and economic spheres, following the same patterns of ethnic identity growth as in North America.  Despite these gains, the average individual socio-economic outcomes for Māori remain poor, especially in comparison to New Zealand Europeans/Pākehā.  Through key legislation, iwi (tribal) organisations became the core mechanism in which to address Māori socio-economic issues, achieve Māori aspirations and to manage Treaty of Waitangi settlement monies.  Subsequently, the need for iwi statistics for policy and planning purposes saw the reinstatement of iwi data in the New Zealand census in 1991.  Surprisingly, however, very little attention has been given to contemporary patterns of iwi demography.

Since the 1991 census, observations of total iwi population growth patterns indicate these patterns cannot solely be explained by natural demographic factors.  Furthermore, the growth trajectories of individual iwi were markedly different, and in some cases erratic.  These initial observations have raised the following key research questions: What do patterns of iwi growth look like?  What is the role of ethnic mobility?  What factors drive ethnic mobility?  Who changes iwi identification?  Why should we care?  

This thesis examines patterns of iwi identification in the New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings from 1991 to 2006.  It uses statistical methods to not only document iwi population changes but to also identify the key determinants driving these trajectories.  In addition, this thesis considers ethnic mobility as an important driver of population growth but, situates this within the broader macro-political environment.  Along with the analysis of aggregate iwi population changes, this thesis also provides an in-depth analysis of four iwi groups – Ngāi Tahu, Waikato, Ngāti Awa and Tūhoe, in order to observe individual iwi dynamics that are not clearly visible at the aggregate level.

The findings of this thesis raise important implications for theories of ethnicity and the demographic study of ethnic populations.  For example, this thesis argues that the category of ethnic mobility is mainly contextual, that is, decisions to change ethnic responses are influenced by the broader political, social and economic contexts.  Furthermore this thesis contends that individual ethnic identification decisions are for the most part defined by ethnic categories imposed by the State.  While traditional views suggest ethnicity is fixed, intrinsic and kinship based, this thesis finds significant support for contemporary views that argue ethnicity is fluid, extrinsic and socially constructed.  Rather than reject traditional views of Maori identity, this study recognises that ethnic identities are complex, and that shifts in iwi identification is about connecting and reconnecting with whakapapa.  Thus this thesis argues that in order to understand individual iwi dynamics both points of view need to be considered.

text: The Determinants of Tribal Population Growth in the New Zealand Census By the early twentieth century the notion that ethnic populations would dissipate was a commonly held belief.  However, after World War II, the modern world has seen an incredible resurgence in ethnic identities.  Ethnic conflicts, mobilisations, and the political movements of the 1950s and 1960s served as a major catalyst in the diffusion of indigenous identities and rights.  Consequently, indigenous groups in settler states, especially in North America, experienced population growth beyond the levels of natural demographic factors, that is, fertility, mortality and migration.  Researchers attributed a significant proportion of this growth to changing patterns of ethnic identification, also referred to as ethnic mobility .  Although this phenomenon is well documented in North America, it is only just beginning to be understood in relation to the New Zealand context. 

During the 1970s and 1980s, the indigenous Māori population of New Zealand gained substantial progress in political, social and economic spheres, following the same patterns of ethnic identity growth as in North America.  Despite these gains, the average individual socio-economic outcomes for Māori remain poor, especially in comparison to New Zealand Europeans/Pākehā.  Through key legislation, iwi (tribal) organisations became the core mechanism in which to address Māori socio-economic issues, achieve Māori aspirations and to manage Treaty of Waitangi settlement monies.  Subsequently, the need for iwi statistics for policy and planning purposes saw the reinstatement of iwi data in the New Zealand census in 1991.  Surprisingly, however, very little attention has been given to contemporary patterns of iwi demography.

Since the 1991 census, observations of total iwi population growth patterns indicate these patterns cannot solely be explained by natural demographic factors.  Furthermore, the growth trajectories of individual iwi were markedly different, and in some cases erratic.  These initial observations have raised the following key research questions: What do patterns of iwi growth look like?  What is the role of ethnic mobility?  What factors drive ethnic mobility?  Who changes iwi identification?  Why should we care?  

This thesis examines patterns of iwi identification in the New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings from 1991 to 2006.  It uses statistical methods to not only document iwi population changes but to also identify the key determinants driving these trajectories.  In addition, this thesis considers ethnic mobility as an important driver of population growth but, situates this within the broader macro-political environment.  Along with the analysis of aggregate iwi population changes, this thesis also provides an in-depth analysis of four iwi groups – Ngāi Tahu, Waikato, Ngāti Awa and Tūhoe, in order to observe individual iwi dynamics that are not clearly visible at the aggregate level.

The findings of this thesis raise important implications for theories of ethnicity and the demographic study of ethnic populations.  For example, this thesis argues that the category of ethnic mobility is mainly contextual, that is, decisions to change ethnic responses are influenced by the broader political, social and economic contexts.  Furthermore this thesis contends that individual ethnic identification decisions are for the most part defined by ethnic categories imposed by the State.  While traditional views suggest ethnicity is fixed, intrinsic and kinship based, this thesis finds significant support for contemporary views that argue ethnicity is fluid, extrinsic and socially constructed.  Rather than reject traditional views of Maori identity, this study recognises that ethnic identities are complex, and that shifts in iwi identification is about connecting and reconnecting with whakapapa.  Thus this thesis argues that in order to understand individual iwi dynamics both points of view need to be considered.

year: 2012

title: A trans-national analysis of equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm under environmental laws at international, federal and national levels

authors: Hasan, Qaraman

subjects: International Environmental Law

abstract: Due to increasing demand for various human needs and climate change issues, rivers are now under enormous pressure. With increasing pressure on these valuable natural resources, responses among state and non-state actors are insufficient in the Anthropocene. To fill the gap, International Environmental Law (IEL) provides several principles for better management of these resources. Equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm are among the most important principles of the IEL. From a theoretical perspective, these principles should lead to the sustainability of these resources and promote cooperation among relevant actors.

However, many river basins are still not allocated equitably and suffer from environmental damage. By using comparative, doctrinal, and empirical research methods, this thesis evaluates the two principles at the international level in Tigris and Euphrates River Basin, the federal level in Murray Darling Basin and at the local level in the Waikato River catchment. The research discovered major challenges for implementing the two principles. One major challenge is sovereignty, another is a lack or weakness of local voices and transparency. As the nature and status of all basins are different, the challenges are not exactly the same. For example, hearing local voices and better information transparency have significantly improved in the Waikato River.

As the challenges for implementing the two principles are not purely legal, the responses should blend legal solutions with political and socio-economic solutions. Therefore, this thesis strongly supports shared sovereignty among states at the international level as well as shared sovereignty with indigenous and minority groups at the national level. Cooperation among national and international actors in the river basins is also crucial for implementing the two principles effectively. Finally, there is the opportunity to establish basin institutions or organisations to manage river basins integrated and sustainable. This is vital in the case of TE-RB because the basin still lacks an institution. Furthermore, the basin institution in the MDB requires more robust compliance and monitoring power because the provisions of the Water Act 2007 and the basin plan still have not been implemented effectively.

Finally, the thesis concludes with two common lessons in comparing these cases. The first lesson is that equitable utilisation cannot be implemented effectively if it is not accepted by the local community in a broad and deep meaning. It means that the equitable allocation should be extended from only the riparian states to equitable allocation among the people within each state. The second lesson is that the minimisation of environmental harm cannot be implemented without determining the minimum flow of rivers, particularly transboundary rivers. Determining an environmental impact assessment for water projects and taking advantage of available solutions of nature contributes significantly in implementing the two principles and sustainable management of our rivers.

text: A trans-national analysis of equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm under environmental laws at international, federal and national levels Due to increasing demand for various human needs and climate change issues, rivers are now under enormous pressure. With increasing pressure on these valuable natural resources, responses among state and non-state actors are insufficient in the Anthropocene. To fill the gap, International Environmental Law (IEL) provides several principles for better management of these resources. Equitable utilisation and minimisation of environmental harm are among the most important principles of the IEL. From a theoretical perspective, these principles should lead to the sustainability of these resources and promote cooperation among relevant actors.

However, many river basins are still not allocated equitably and suffer from environmental damage. By using comparative, doctrinal, and empirical research methods, this thesis evaluates the two principles at the international level in Tigris and Euphrates River Basin, the federal level in Murray Darling Basin and at the local level in the Waikato River catchment. The research discovered major challenges for implementing the two principles. One major challenge is sovereignty, another is a lack or weakness of local voices and transparency. As the nature and status of all basins are different, the challenges are not exactly the same. For example, hearing local voices and better information transparency have significantly improved in the Waikato River.

As the challenges for implementing the two principles are not purely legal, the responses should blend legal solutions with political and socio-economic solutions. Therefore, this thesis strongly supports shared sovereignty among states at the international level as well as shared sovereignty with indigenous and minority groups at the national level. Cooperation among national and international actors in the river basins is also crucial for implementing the two principles effectively. Finally, there is the opportunity to establish basin institutions or organisations to manage river basins integrated and sustainable. This is vital in the case of TE-RB because the basin still lacks an institution. Furthermore, the basin institution in the MDB requires more robust compliance and monitoring power because the provisions of the Water Act 2007 and the basin plan still have not been implemented effectively.

Finally, the thesis concludes with two common lessons in comparing these cases. The first lesson is that equitable utilisation cannot be implemented effectively if it is not accepted by the local community in a broad and deep meaning. It means that the equitable allocation should be extended from only the riparian states to equitable allocation among the people within each state. The second lesson is that the minimisation of environmental harm cannot be implemented without determining the minimum flow of rivers, particularly transboundary rivers. Determining an environmental impact assessment for water projects and taking advantage of available solutions of nature contributes significantly in implementing the two principles and sustainable management of our rivers.

year: 2023

title: Effects of macrofauna diversity on porewater nutrient concentrations following enrichment

authors: Hines, Laura Veronica

subjects: Macrofauna diversity

abstract: Macrofauna play a key role in the functioning of soft sediment intertidal ecosystems via bioturbation and feeding habits which modify sediment biogeochemistry and influence nutrient cycling. Eutrophication is a naturally occurring phenomenon; however, enrichment due to anthropogenic inputs has increased in frequency with largely unknown consequences to benthic macrofaunal assemblages. A decline in infaunal biodiversity is thought to result in the loss of ecosystem function due to increased disturbance in the form of enhanced nutrient addition. This is increasingly important to estuarine habitats, as benthic macrofauna play an important role in controlling sediment porewater nutrient concentrations, nutrient flux to the overlying water column and ultimately ecosystem function. Sediment modification by macrofauna behaviours (e.g. bioturbation) stimulate nutrient regeneration and influence denitrification rate. Thus understanding the responses of macrofauna to enhanced nutrient levels is vital for the understanding and subsequent management of benthic assemblages to estuarine eutrophication. The aim of this thesis was to stress the intertidal sediment of the Kaipara Harbour by the addition of slow-release fertiliser in order to identify key macrofaunal diversity responses and the influence this has in the overall nutrient processing ability. I also examined whether fertiliser addition influenced primary producers, microphytobenthos biomass and the percent coverage of seagrass. 

To gain a better understanding of porewater nutrient elevation and subsequent impacts to macrofaunal diversity, 28 site locations were selected based on high and low functional macrofaunal diversity and abundance characteristics previously identified within Tapora Bank, Kaipara Harbour (Greenfield 2013). Known amounts (1400g m⁻² (high treatment) and 600g m⁻² (medium treatment)) of 70-day slow-release fertiliser (42 % N) was added to the intertidal sediment across a gradient in macrofaunal diversity. Porewater and sediment properties were measured 28 and 47 days after enrichment, with macrofaunal diversity determined on day 47.

The fertiliser enriched plots significantly elevated porewater ammonium concentrations in both treatments in upper (0-2 cm) and lower (5-7 cm) sediment depths. Lower sampling depths had greater concentrations of porewater ammonium than the upper sediments. This elevation resulted a decline in the overall macrofaunal abundance in both addition treatments however, only the decline in key functional species Macomona liliana was significant. The number of functional individuals and number of M. liliana were identified as significant factors controlling the variation in porewater ammonium concentration in ambient sediments. A switch was observed after fertiliser elevation where mud become the sole driver of porewater ammonium concentration in plots of high fertiliser addition. Normalisation treatment porewater ammonium concentration by the control plot values identified both the number of species and number of functional species as important drivers of porewater ammonium processing. No effect of fertiliser enrichment to seagrass percent coverage was observed. 

These results demonstrate that the elevation of porewater ammonium within intertidal sediments may have implications to the diversity and the subsequent functioning of intertidal benthic communities. In particularly, our study highlights the potential loss of functioning related to the decline of key species such as M. liliana; given their role as ecosystem engineers, their loss could reinforce the effects of eutrophication stress on the system and lead to further degradation.

text: Effects of macrofauna diversity on porewater nutrient concentrations following enrichment Macrofauna play a key role in the functioning of soft sediment intertidal ecosystems via bioturbation and feeding habits which modify sediment biogeochemistry and influence nutrient cycling. Eutrophication is a naturally occurring phenomenon; however, enrichment due to anthropogenic inputs has increased in frequency with largely unknown consequences to benthic macrofaunal assemblages. A decline in infaunal biodiversity is thought to result in the loss of ecosystem function due to increased disturbance in the form of enhanced nutrient addition. This is increasingly important to estuarine habitats, as benthic macrofauna play an important role in controlling sediment porewater nutrient concentrations, nutrient flux to the overlying water column and ultimately ecosystem function. Sediment modification by macrofauna behaviours (e.g. bioturbation) stimulate nutrient regeneration and influence denitrification rate. Thus understanding the responses of macrofauna to enhanced nutrient levels is vital for the understanding and subsequent management of benthic assemblages to estuarine eutrophication. The aim of this thesis was to stress the intertidal sediment of the Kaipara Harbour by the addition of slow-release fertiliser in order to identify key macrofaunal diversity responses and the influence this has in the overall nutrient processing ability. I also examined whether fertiliser addition influenced primary producers, microphytobenthos biomass and the percent coverage of seagrass. 

To gain a better understanding of porewater nutrient elevation and subsequent impacts to macrofaunal diversity, 28 site locations were selected based on high and low functional macrofaunal diversity and abundance characteristics previously identified within Tapora Bank, Kaipara Harbour (Greenfield 2013). Known amounts (1400g m⁻² (high treatment) and 600g m⁻² (medium treatment)) of 70-day slow-release fertiliser (42 % N) was added to the intertidal sediment across a gradient in macrofaunal diversity. Porewater and sediment properties were measured 28 and 47 days after enrichment, with macrofaunal diversity determined on day 47.

The fertiliser enriched plots significantly elevated porewater ammonium concentrations in both treatments in upper (0-2 cm) and lower (5-7 cm) sediment depths. Lower sampling depths had greater concentrations of porewater ammonium than the upper sediments. This elevation resulted a decline in the overall macrofaunal abundance in both addition treatments however, only the decline in key functional species Macomona liliana was significant. The number of functional individuals and number of M. liliana were identified as significant factors controlling the variation in porewater ammonium concentration in ambient sediments. A switch was observed after fertiliser elevation where mud become the sole driver of porewater ammonium concentration in plots of high fertiliser addition. Normalisation treatment porewater ammonium concentration by the control plot values identified both the number of species and number of functional species as important drivers of porewater ammonium processing. No effect of fertiliser enrichment to seagrass percent coverage was observed. 

These results demonstrate that the elevation of porewater ammonium within intertidal sediments may have implications to the diversity and the subsequent functioning of intertidal benthic communities. In particularly, our study highlights the potential loss of functioning related to the decline of key species such as M. liliana; given their role as ecosystem engineers, their loss could reinforce the effects of eutrophication stress on the system and lead to further degradation.

year: 2015