title: The Impact of Early Childhood Traumatic Brain Injury on the Transition to School

authors: Hannah, Jessica Shirley

subjects: childhood TBI

abstract: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common cause of pervasive and long lasting disability and injury. The outcomes of TBI in young children can be particularly detrimental, due to the impact on both current functioning and the ability to acquire new skills. Preschool children are at heightened risk of sustaining TBI. The impact of TBI can cause difficulties across a many domains including: cognitive and intellectual ability; academic achievement; executive function (EF); adaptive and behavioural functioning; and social competence. Deficits in any of these areas can place a child at increased risk of difficulties across their transition to formal schooling, which can subsequently lead to problems in later school performance. The first aim of this study was to examine the impact of TBI on cognitive and behavioural functioning in preschool children, at 12 and 24 months post-TBI. A second aim was to compare functional outcomes for children 24 months post-TBI, compared to a control group. 
	A population-based sample of 15 children, who sustained TBI at the age of 4 years old, were followed up over 24 months post-injury. The vast proportion of these children had sustained mild TBI. Parent ratings of behaviour, along with child performance measures of cognitive functioning were explored at 12 and 24 months post-TBI. The children with TBI were then compared to a community recruited, age-matched group of children (n = 15) at 24 months post-TBI. Parent and teacher reports of behavioural and adaptive functioning, EF, and social competence were examined, along with the children’s self-report of behavioural functioning. Child performance measures of cognitive, intellectual and academic performance were also compared across the two groups.
	The results showed that both behavioural and adaptive difficulties decreased from 12 to 24 months after TBI, with internalising problems showing the greatest decline. Cognitive functioning remained stable and within the average range over this time. Comparisons between the TBI and Control group at 24 months post-TBI found comparable mean scores across nearly all measures and domains. The TBI group obtained lower scores (marginally significant) on measures of estimated IQ compared to the control group. While not statistically significant, a high proportion of the TBI group had elevated scores for externalising behaviours, peer problems and overall social difficulties. This highlights the need to screen for behavioural and social difficulties, with early intervention where necessary, to reduce the risk of difficulties during the school transition. Further longitudinal research on early TBI is recommended to explore these areas further.

text: The Impact of Early Childhood Traumatic Brain Injury on the Transition to School Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common cause of pervasive and long lasting disability and injury. The outcomes of TBI in young children can be particularly detrimental, due to the impact on both current functioning and the ability to acquire new skills. Preschool children are at heightened risk of sustaining TBI. The impact of TBI can cause difficulties across a many domains including: cognitive and intellectual ability; academic achievement; executive function (EF); adaptive and behavioural functioning; and social competence. Deficits in any of these areas can place a child at increased risk of difficulties across their transition to formal schooling, which can subsequently lead to problems in later school performance. The first aim of this study was to examine the impact of TBI on cognitive and behavioural functioning in preschool children, at 12 and 24 months post-TBI. A second aim was to compare functional outcomes for children 24 months post-TBI, compared to a control group. 
	A population-based sample of 15 children, who sustained TBI at the age of 4 years old, were followed up over 24 months post-injury. The vast proportion of these children had sustained mild TBI. Parent ratings of behaviour, along with child performance measures of cognitive functioning were explored at 12 and 24 months post-TBI. The children with TBI were then compared to a community recruited, age-matched group of children (n = 15) at 24 months post-TBI. Parent and teacher reports of behavioural and adaptive functioning, EF, and social competence were examined, along with the children’s self-report of behavioural functioning. Child performance measures of cognitive, intellectual and academic performance were also compared across the two groups.
	The results showed that both behavioural and adaptive difficulties decreased from 12 to 24 months after TBI, with internalising problems showing the greatest decline. Cognitive functioning remained stable and within the average range over this time. Comparisons between the TBI and Control group at 24 months post-TBI found comparable mean scores across nearly all measures and domains. The TBI group obtained lower scores (marginally significant) on measures of estimated IQ compared to the control group. While not statistically significant, a high proportion of the TBI group had elevated scores for externalising behaviours, peer problems and overall social difficulties. This highlights the need to screen for behavioural and social difficulties, with early intervention where necessary, to reduce the risk of difficulties during the school transition. Further longitudinal research on early TBI is recommended to explore these areas further.

year: 2014

title: Institutions

authors: Sharma, Umesh Prasad

abstract: This section of the Encyclopedia outlines the necessary "institutions" linked to international accounting practices, including the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB), World Trade Organization (WTO), and World’s Largest Public Accounting Firms (Big 4).

text: Institutions This section of the Encyclopedia outlines the necessary "institutions" linked to international accounting practices, including the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO), International Sustainability Standards Board (ISSB), World Trade Organization (WTO), and World’s Largest Public Accounting Firms (Big 4).

year: 2024-06-20

title: Boat electrofishing survey of fish abundance in the Ohau Channel, Rotorua, in 2013

authors: Hicks, Brendan J.

abstract: The aim of this survey was to provide on-going monitoring of the fish communities and abundance in the Ohau Channel, especially fish species that are taonga to Maori (eels, goldfish, and koura). In the current study we present the findings from the seventh year of sampling (2013) in view of previous surveys using boat electrofishing in the Ohau Channel. 
We used the University of Waikato's 4.5 m-long, aluminium-hulled electrofishing boat to catch a total of 1,025 fish (20.3 kg) from 11 sites comprising 2,817 lineal m and 11,484 m² in area on 27 November 2013. Common bully were the most abundant fish species (57% of the catch) followed by common smelt (36% of the catch).
Goldfish had their highest biomasses in the lower channel, especially at site 10 near Lake Rotoiti (up to 7.25 g m⁻²). Catch per unit effort (CPUE) for common bullies exceeded smelt CPUE at all sites except site 1, reflecting their greater densities. CPUE for rainbow trout was variable between the sites, and greatest at site 3. 
The abundance of common bullies in 2013 reversed the apparent trend of reducing abundance since these surveys started in 2007. The cause of fluctuating bully abundance is not known, and was not accounted for by water clarity expressed as black disc distance (BDD) or water conductivity. Poor water clarity can reduce the efficiency of electrofishing, but BDD was greater in 2012 than in 2011 when common bully densities were lower. In 2013, the apparent decline in smelt abundance was also reversed, but the relatively inefficient sampling resulting from boat electrofishing for these two species should be considered. 
The increased goldfish biomass in 2011-2013 arose because of targeted fishing in the excavated side branch, which clearly offers good habitat for goldfish. Removal of goldfish in the previous years may have reduced the density in the excavated side channel (site 11) compared to previous years. In 2013, a shortfin eel was caught, following the first shortfin eel encountered in the Ohau Channel in 2012.

text: Boat electrofishing survey of fish abundance in the Ohau Channel, Rotorua, in 2013 The aim of this survey was to provide on-going monitoring of the fish communities and abundance in the Ohau Channel, especially fish species that are taonga to Maori (eels, goldfish, and koura). In the current study we present the findings from the seventh year of sampling (2013) in view of previous surveys using boat electrofishing in the Ohau Channel. 
We used the University of Waikato's 4.5 m-long, aluminium-hulled electrofishing boat to catch a total of 1,025 fish (20.3 kg) from 11 sites comprising 2,817 lineal m and 11,484 m² in area on 27 November 2013. Common bully were the most abundant fish species (57% of the catch) followed by common smelt (36% of the catch).
Goldfish had their highest biomasses in the lower channel, especially at site 10 near Lake Rotoiti (up to 7.25 g m⁻²). Catch per unit effort (CPUE) for common bullies exceeded smelt CPUE at all sites except site 1, reflecting their greater densities. CPUE for rainbow trout was variable between the sites, and greatest at site 3. 
The abundance of common bullies in 2013 reversed the apparent trend of reducing abundance since these surveys started in 2007. The cause of fluctuating bully abundance is not known, and was not accounted for by water clarity expressed as black disc distance (BDD) or water conductivity. Poor water clarity can reduce the efficiency of electrofishing, but BDD was greater in 2012 than in 2011 when common bully densities were lower. In 2013, the apparent decline in smelt abundance was also reversed, but the relatively inefficient sampling resulting from boat electrofishing for these two species should be considered. 
The increased goldfish biomass in 2011-2013 arose because of targeted fishing in the excavated side branch, which clearly offers good habitat for goldfish. Removal of goldfish in the previous years may have reduced the density in the excavated side channel (site 11) compared to previous years. In 2013, a shortfin eel was caught, following the first shortfin eel encountered in the Ohau Channel in 2012.

year: 2014