title: The role that experiential learning plays in intercultural awareness development: A case study of South Korean students sojourning in New Zealand

authors: Donald, Steven John

subjects: experiential learning

abstract: Research has shown that study abroad does help international students improve their language studies (Kinginger, 2011) and their understanding of another culture. Furthermore, the experience has often led to changes in the student’s belief systems as well as increases in their confidence and outlook on life (Amuzie & Winke, 2009). However, some researchers have argued that more needs to be done than merely immersing a student in another culture and language. In particular, attention has been paid to the importance that homestay contexts in study abroad programmes provide for international students with their language and cultural understanding (Silvio, Donovan, & Malone, 2014) as well as with socialisation, social networks and the development of intercultural competence (Shiri, 2015). 

What has not been investigated in-depth are the perceptions that the sojourning students’ perceptions of the quality of experience that homestays and other informal activities they undergo, and the overall impact these experiences have on a sojourn. Moreover, little research has investigated the dynamic relationship among individuals in their cohorts and the degree of intercultural competence that each has achieved while on study abroad.

The focus of this study was a group of Korean undergraduate students sent for three months to New Zealand under the aegis of a provincial polytechnic. To investigate the nature of intercultural development, the present case study used a multi-method ethnographic approach to collect data. It made use of paired interviews, focus group interviews, informal observations, field notes, and the researcher’s reflective journal. The data were subjected to a grounded analysis, and this led to a situated interpretation of the distinction between intercultural awareness and intercultural competence, and the various levels of individual achievement.

The findings suggest that these planned and unplanned activities impacted the degree of intercultural awareness developed by international students. A modified version of Byram’s (1997) model was designed to assist in mapping the trajectory that a sojourner undertakes. This is particularly so when Kolb’s (2015) experiential learning model is linked to the development of intercultural awareness.  It was also found that in such circumstances, the growing competence and/or awareness of the sojourning students could be effectively scaffolded by an informal facilitator, rather than an educational expert as recommended in the 2015 model.

The implications suggest that the theoretical constructs of intercultural awareness and competence need to be differentiated, and that further research will facilitate this; specific suggestions are made. On a practical level, despatching and hosting institutions can apply the revised model provided in this thesis to plot the intercultural awareness development of individual students and groups. Another implication is that experiential development of intercultural awareness in a study abroad programme can usefully be monitored and facilitated by an impartial mediator, who can enable international students to better understand the positive and negative experiences they have undergone and articulate their reactions and responses to what has happened, and in this way make the overall study abroad experience more meaningful.

text: The role that experiential learning plays in intercultural awareness development: A case study of South Korean students sojourning in New Zealand Research has shown that study abroad does help international students improve their language studies (Kinginger, 2011) and their understanding of another culture. Furthermore, the experience has often led to changes in the student’s belief systems as well as increases in their confidence and outlook on life (Amuzie & Winke, 2009). However, some researchers have argued that more needs to be done than merely immersing a student in another culture and language. In particular, attention has been paid to the importance that homestay contexts in study abroad programmes provide for international students with their language and cultural understanding (Silvio, Donovan, & Malone, 2014) as well as with socialisation, social networks and the development of intercultural competence (Shiri, 2015). 

What has not been investigated in-depth are the perceptions that the sojourning students’ perceptions of the quality of experience that homestays and other informal activities they undergo, and the overall impact these experiences have on a sojourn. Moreover, little research has investigated the dynamic relationship among individuals in their cohorts and the degree of intercultural competence that each has achieved while on study abroad.

The focus of this study was a group of Korean undergraduate students sent for three months to New Zealand under the aegis of a provincial polytechnic. To investigate the nature of intercultural development, the present case study used a multi-method ethnographic approach to collect data. It made use of paired interviews, focus group interviews, informal observations, field notes, and the researcher’s reflective journal. The data were subjected to a grounded analysis, and this led to a situated interpretation of the distinction between intercultural awareness and intercultural competence, and the various levels of individual achievement.

The findings suggest that these planned and unplanned activities impacted the degree of intercultural awareness developed by international students. A modified version of Byram’s (1997) model was designed to assist in mapping the trajectory that a sojourner undertakes. This is particularly so when Kolb’s (2015) experiential learning model is linked to the development of intercultural awareness.  It was also found that in such circumstances, the growing competence and/or awareness of the sojourning students could be effectively scaffolded by an informal facilitator, rather than an educational expert as recommended in the 2015 model.

The implications suggest that the theoretical constructs of intercultural awareness and competence need to be differentiated, and that further research will facilitate this; specific suggestions are made. On a practical level, despatching and hosting institutions can apply the revised model provided in this thesis to plot the intercultural awareness development of individual students and groups. Another implication is that experiential development of intercultural awareness in a study abroad programme can usefully be monitored and facilitated by an impartial mediator, who can enable international students to better understand the positive and negative experiences they have undergone and articulate their reactions and responses to what has happened, and in this way make the overall study abroad experience more meaningful.

year: 2019

title: Federalism and resource conflict: Assessing the impact of federalism in curbing conflict over petroleum resource revenues - A case study of Nigeria and Canada

authors: Kalu, John Otisi

subjects: Federalism

abstract: This thesis focuses on lingering conflict over natural resource revenues which has ravaged many countries. The problem has no doubt attracted the attention of researchers who have approached it, mostly, from the angle of how natural resources lead to violent and armed conflict; impact of natural resource conflict on economic growth; causes and the factors that increase the intensity of the conflict. Regrettably, the preoccupation of researches on those other aspects of resource conflict as mentioned, results in the unfortunate dearth of research that focus on charting out the means to bring about solutions to the problem. This study therefore argues that genuine solution to resource conflict can come from a specific design of the political institution of government—precisely, the institutionalization of federalism in the given country. 
However, the case of the Nigerian federation suggests the contrary, with conflict over resource revenues getting increasingly strident. It was therefore deemed vital to undertake a comparative case study of the problem in Nigeria and another federal country – Canada, in order to ascertain the extent to which federalism can contribute to resolve resource conflict. In-depth interviews were conducted with selected respondents in Nigeria and Canada to complement the secondary data from extant literature. The ‘method of difference’ was employed in the analysis of data which aided the identification of significant differences that account for variations in the manifestation of conflict over resource revenues across the countries. 
After the analysis, this study makes two major discoveries that contribute to the existing scholarship on the subject as follows. Firstly, findings from the case of Nigeria reveal that factors inhibiting federalism in mitigating resource conflict are linked primarily to a huge influence of oil and gas on the economy, or over dependence on the resource to drive the economy. The research illustrates clearly how this factor leads to excessive fiscal centralization, which undermines subnational fiscal autonomy, heightens poverty, enables ambiguous design of the fiscal constitution, and facilitates widespread corruption and non-adherence to the rule of law; all of which enhances the severity of resource conflict. Secondly, findings from the Canadian case illustrate how the reinforcement of sub-national fiscal autonomy, which is the hallmark of federalism, counteracts the above mentioned effects of over dependence on petroleum resources. This consequently reduces the violent manifestation of resource conflict. 
With some illustrative diagrams built to support arguments, the study concludes that the institution of federalism provides an effective means through which resource conflict can be addressed. This study provides lessons that would no doubt be useful to, not only Nigeria and Canada but also, many other natural resource endowed countries that are still battling problems of resource revenue dispositions. More so, the analysis in this thesis should be of interest to scholars of conflict and resource governance in deeply divided societies, students of federalism and multilevel governance, as well as policy makers and analysts interested in the facilitation of unity through diversity in their respective countries of focus.

text: Federalism and resource conflict: Assessing the impact of federalism in curbing conflict over petroleum resource revenues - A case study of Nigeria and Canada This thesis focuses on lingering conflict over natural resource revenues which has ravaged many countries. The problem has no doubt attracted the attention of researchers who have approached it, mostly, from the angle of how natural resources lead to violent and armed conflict; impact of natural resource conflict on economic growth; causes and the factors that increase the intensity of the conflict. Regrettably, the preoccupation of researches on those other aspects of resource conflict as mentioned, results in the unfortunate dearth of research that focus on charting out the means to bring about solutions to the problem. This study therefore argues that genuine solution to resource conflict can come from a specific design of the political institution of government—precisely, the institutionalization of federalism in the given country. 
However, the case of the Nigerian federation suggests the contrary, with conflict over resource revenues getting increasingly strident. It was therefore deemed vital to undertake a comparative case study of the problem in Nigeria and another federal country – Canada, in order to ascertain the extent to which federalism can contribute to resolve resource conflict. In-depth interviews were conducted with selected respondents in Nigeria and Canada to complement the secondary data from extant literature. The ‘method of difference’ was employed in the analysis of data which aided the identification of significant differences that account for variations in the manifestation of conflict over resource revenues across the countries. 
After the analysis, this study makes two major discoveries that contribute to the existing scholarship on the subject as follows. Firstly, findings from the case of Nigeria reveal that factors inhibiting federalism in mitigating resource conflict are linked primarily to a huge influence of oil and gas on the economy, or over dependence on the resource to drive the economy. The research illustrates clearly how this factor leads to excessive fiscal centralization, which undermines subnational fiscal autonomy, heightens poverty, enables ambiguous design of the fiscal constitution, and facilitates widespread corruption and non-adherence to the rule of law; all of which enhances the severity of resource conflict. Secondly, findings from the Canadian case illustrate how the reinforcement of sub-national fiscal autonomy, which is the hallmark of federalism, counteracts the above mentioned effects of over dependence on petroleum resources. This consequently reduces the violent manifestation of resource conflict. 
With some illustrative diagrams built to support arguments, the study concludes that the institution of federalism provides an effective means through which resource conflict can be addressed. This study provides lessons that would no doubt be useful to, not only Nigeria and Canada but also, many other natural resource endowed countries that are still battling problems of resource revenue dispositions. More so, the analysis in this thesis should be of interest to scholars of conflict and resource governance in deeply divided societies, students of federalism and multilevel governance, as well as policy makers and analysts interested in the facilitation of unity through diversity in their respective countries of focus.

year: 2016

title: Introduction and dedication to Matiu Dickson

authors: Te Aho, Linda

subjects: Dickson, Matiu

abstract: This edition of the Waikato Law Review is dedicated to our dear friend and colleague, Matiu Dickson, and we thank Judge Craig Coxhead for his wonderful tribute to Matiu. The morning of the 7th of April 2016 will forever be imprinted in our minds and hearts. Matiu passed away that morning having just delivered the final speech in the opening ceremony for our new Law Building here at Waikato University. It was said at his tangi that this was a high price to be paid for such a building. A price that we would never have chosen to pay. That price brings an obligation to honour and respect the legacy that Matiu has left us, his commitment to the Faculty’s founding goals and, in particular, the promotion of a bicultural legal education for Māori and non-Māori alike; that tikanga is recognised as the first law of Aotearoa New Zealand and continues to form a central part of our curriculum. Matiu personified the bicultural mission of Te Piringa Faculty of Law; that, through its curriculum, research activities and its structures, the Faculty would be the forefront of the development of a bicultural legal philosophy. Matiu worked hard to ensure this mission remained a stated goal of the Faculty and to give it meaning over his 20 year tenure. He constantly worked to infuse it into the structures and processes of this Law Faculty. He worked and campaigned for years, and successfully so, to make sure the name gifted to the Faculty by Dame Te Atairangikaahu at its founding, “Te Piringa”, became our Faculty’s officially recognised name. He was passionate about the use of te reo Māori in assessment. He encouraged and facilitated the use of te reo Māori mooting. It was our colleague, Ani Mikaere, who, during her time here as a legal academic, first publicly articulated tikanga Māori as the first law of Aotearoa. Through the years, Matiu and our academic colleagues, including Stephanie Milroy, Craig Coxhead, Caren Fox (all now Māori Land Court judges), Leah Whiu, Harata Paterson, Nan Seuffert, Ruth Bush, Wayne Rumbles, Robert Joseph, Valmaine Toki and ourselves, reaffirmed tikanga as the first law of Aotearoa in our teaching and research. Years later, the article “Lex Aotearoa: An Heroic Attempt to Map the Māori Dimension in Modern New Zealand Law” by Justice Joseph Williams2 developed the idea further and is currently the leading piece on the weaving of tikanga and Anglo-New Zealand law.3 Matiu Dickson was an expert in tikanga, the first law of Aotearoa. He lived it every day. He created and taught courses on it and made sure it was integrated throughout the curriculum. In Matiu’s honour, it is entirely appropriate that there are a number of contributions in this Review that have a Māori or Indigenous theme, and we hope future issues will likewise assure such a balance.

text: Introduction and dedication to Matiu Dickson This edition of the Waikato Law Review is dedicated to our dear friend and colleague, Matiu Dickson, and we thank Judge Craig Coxhead for his wonderful tribute to Matiu. The morning of the 7th of April 2016 will forever be imprinted in our minds and hearts. Matiu passed away that morning having just delivered the final speech in the opening ceremony for our new Law Building here at Waikato University. It was said at his tangi that this was a high price to be paid for such a building. A price that we would never have chosen to pay. That price brings an obligation to honour and respect the legacy that Matiu has left us, his commitment to the Faculty’s founding goals and, in particular, the promotion of a bicultural legal education for Māori and non-Māori alike; that tikanga is recognised as the first law of Aotearoa New Zealand and continues to form a central part of our curriculum. Matiu personified the bicultural mission of Te Piringa Faculty of Law; that, through its curriculum, research activities and its structures, the Faculty would be the forefront of the development of a bicultural legal philosophy. Matiu worked hard to ensure this mission remained a stated goal of the Faculty and to give it meaning over his 20 year tenure. He constantly worked to infuse it into the structures and processes of this Law Faculty. He worked and campaigned for years, and successfully so, to make sure the name gifted to the Faculty by Dame Te Atairangikaahu at its founding, “Te Piringa”, became our Faculty’s officially recognised name. He was passionate about the use of te reo Māori in assessment. He encouraged and facilitated the use of te reo Māori mooting. It was our colleague, Ani Mikaere, who, during her time here as a legal academic, first publicly articulated tikanga Māori as the first law of Aotearoa. Through the years, Matiu and our academic colleagues, including Stephanie Milroy, Craig Coxhead, Caren Fox (all now Māori Land Court judges), Leah Whiu, Harata Paterson, Nan Seuffert, Ruth Bush, Wayne Rumbles, Robert Joseph, Valmaine Toki and ourselves, reaffirmed tikanga as the first law of Aotearoa in our teaching and research. Years later, the article “Lex Aotearoa: An Heroic Attempt to Map the Māori Dimension in Modern New Zealand Law” by Justice Joseph Williams2 developed the idea further and is currently the leading piece on the weaving of tikanga and Anglo-New Zealand law.3 Matiu Dickson was an expert in tikanga, the first law of Aotearoa. He lived it every day. He created and taught courses on it and made sure it was integrated throughout the curriculum. In Matiu’s honour, it is entirely appropriate that there are a number of contributions in this Review that have a Māori or Indigenous theme, and we hope future issues will likewise assure such a balance.

year: 2016