title: High exposure of global tree diversity to human pressure.

authors: Guo, Wen-Yong

subjects: biodiversity

abstract: Safeguarding Earth's tree diversity is a conservation priority due to the importance of trees for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services such as carbon sequestration. Here, we improve the foundation for effective conservation of global tree diversity by analyzing a recently developed database of tree species covering 46,752 species. We quantify range protection and anthropogenic pressures for each species and develop conservation priorities across taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity dimensions. We also assess the effectiveness of several influential proposed conservation prioritization frameworks to protect the top 17% and top 50% of tree priority areas. We find that an average of 50.2% of a tree species' range occurs in 110-km grid cells without any protected areas (PAs), with 6,377 small-range tree species fully unprotected, and that 83% of tree species experience nonnegligible human pressure across their range on average. Protecting high-priority areas for the top 17% and 50% priority thresholds would increase the average protected proportion of each tree species' range to 65.5% and 82.6%, respectively, leaving many fewer species (2,151 and 2,010) completely unprotected. The priority areas identified for trees match well to the Global 200 Ecoregions framework, revealing that priority areas for trees would in large part also optimize protection for terrestrial biodiversity overall. Based on range estimates for >46,000 tree species, our findings show that a large proportion of tree species receive limited protection by current PAs and are under substantial human pressure. Improved protection of biodiversity overall would also strongly benefit global tree diversity.

text: High exposure of global tree diversity to human pressure. Safeguarding Earth's tree diversity is a conservation priority due to the importance of trees for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services such as carbon sequestration. Here, we improve the foundation for effective conservation of global tree diversity by analyzing a recently developed database of tree species covering 46,752 species. We quantify range protection and anthropogenic pressures for each species and develop conservation priorities across taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity dimensions. We also assess the effectiveness of several influential proposed conservation prioritization frameworks to protect the top 17% and top 50% of tree priority areas. We find that an average of 50.2% of a tree species' range occurs in 110-km grid cells without any protected areas (PAs), with 6,377 small-range tree species fully unprotected, and that 83% of tree species experience nonnegligible human pressure across their range on average. Protecting high-priority areas for the top 17% and 50% priority thresholds would increase the average protected proportion of each tree species' range to 65.5% and 82.6%, respectively, leaving many fewer species (2,151 and 2,010) completely unprotected. The priority areas identified for trees match well to the Global 200 Ecoregions framework, revealing that priority areas for trees would in large part also optimize protection for terrestrial biodiversity overall. Based on range estimates for >46,000 tree species, our findings show that a large proportion of tree species receive limited protection by current PAs and are under substantial human pressure. Improved protection of biodiversity overall would also strongly benefit global tree diversity.

year: 2022-06-21

title: Coastal erosion and sedimentation of Pukehina Beach and Waihi Estuary

authors: Easton, Hayden Russell

subjects: Pukehina Beach

abstract: The Pukehina coastal sector is subject to severe frontal dune erosion. This has led to concern from local residents who reside in frontal houses. Accordingly, this investigation was initiated to assess the sedimentary and physical processes within the Pukehina coastal sector, with the aim of identifying causes of enhanced frontal dune erosion.
To investigate this problem the following processes were investigated: wave focusing from offshore bathymetric lenses, sediment lost due to the Waihi Estuary acting as a sediment sink, and/or a change in sediment volume or sediment transport processes within the Pukehina coastal sector. Methods to investigate these processes included: collection and analysis of surficial sediment samples from Pukehina Beach and Waihi Estuary, construction of a digital terrain model, side scan sonar surveying, calculation of offshore suspended sediment concentrations, numerical modelling of wave refraction and sediment transport processes, and collection and analysis of wave and estuarine current, depth, and direction data.
Wave data were collected at eastern and western ends of the study location, during two separate deployments during July 2000 and March 2001. Outcomes depict differing incoming wave directions at each site, due to offshore undulations in bathymetry. Wave energy focusing was observed along the Pukehina coastal sector (specifically at benchmarks 30, 29, 27 and 26a) during average wave conditions recorded, and enhanced as wave period and wave height increased (approximately 0.2-2.0 m in each simulation, respectively). Wave focusing is significantly influenced by the ebb tidal delta offshore from Waihi Estuary, leading to larger wave heights present in eroding regions of Pukehina Beach.
Potential sediment transport rates were investigated, utilising collected wave data. Outcomes illustrate a potential sediment transport to the east. A negative littoral drift gradient, was observed between a) Okurei Point and Waihi Estuary inlet, and a positive littoral drift gradient between b) benchmark 29 and 26. This implies a potential accumulation of sediments near Waihi Estuary inlet (some of which, would be lost to infilling of Waihi Estuary). However, a long-term deficit (-12 m3/m per year) of sediment is lost along Pukehina Beach, due to the apparent positive littoral drift gradient. This outcome is identified as a major component of the long-term 'erosion' problem at Pukehina Beach.
Tidal and current gauges were deployed within Waihi Estuary. Data revealed strong evidence that the estuary is acting as a sediment sink. Tidal asymmetry, attenuation of the tidal signal and a dominance of sediment transport into the estuary, depict that Waihi Estuary is an influential component of the erosion occurring at Pukehina Beach. The Waihi Estuary is calculated by geomorphic and hydraulic analysis to be tending towards deposition in the inlet, leading to a general instability of the Waihi Estuary inlet.
Nearshore sediment transport rates within the region are significantly influenced by localised wind patterns within the Pukehina coastal sector. The Pukehina coastal sector was identified as having a net deficit of sediment, approximately 4,500 m³/year or -0.5 m³/m per year. However, due to errors involved in estimate calculations, this value may be larger.
Sediment textural distributions have altered since previous surveys conducted in 1993 by PHIZACKLEA. Particularly, an influx of sediment to the Okurei Point region, reducing the area of exposed bedrock, suggests a change of sediment transport patterns within this region. Texturally, offshore sediments vary from fine sand sized sediments to very coarse sand, while beach sediments are predominantly medium sand sized particles, with a decrease in sediment size towards Okurei Point (fine sand sized particles), indicating a sediment transport direction to the west.
Causes of significant long-term erosion to the Pukehina coastal sector, have been identified as: a) beach-nearshore sediment being lost or 'sucked out' of the coastal sector, due to the combination of a positive littoral drift gradient along Pukehina Beach, and wave energy focusing; and b) infilling of the Waihi Estuary. Other processes, such as aeolian transport etc., do reduce the volume of available sediment to Pukehina Beach, but are not implicated to the long-term 'erosion' problem occurring.
Possible remedial solutions, influenced by data observations, are suggested to reduce current frontal dune erosion. However, further research is recommended to identify what coastal management options are required for the Pukehina Beach shoreline.

text: Coastal erosion and sedimentation of Pukehina Beach and Waihi Estuary The Pukehina coastal sector is subject to severe frontal dune erosion. This has led to concern from local residents who reside in frontal houses. Accordingly, this investigation was initiated to assess the sedimentary and physical processes within the Pukehina coastal sector, with the aim of identifying causes of enhanced frontal dune erosion.
To investigate this problem the following processes were investigated: wave focusing from offshore bathymetric lenses, sediment lost due to the Waihi Estuary acting as a sediment sink, and/or a change in sediment volume or sediment transport processes within the Pukehina coastal sector. Methods to investigate these processes included: collection and analysis of surficial sediment samples from Pukehina Beach and Waihi Estuary, construction of a digital terrain model, side scan sonar surveying, calculation of offshore suspended sediment concentrations, numerical modelling of wave refraction and sediment transport processes, and collection and analysis of wave and estuarine current, depth, and direction data.
Wave data were collected at eastern and western ends of the study location, during two separate deployments during July 2000 and March 2001. Outcomes depict differing incoming wave directions at each site, due to offshore undulations in bathymetry. Wave energy focusing was observed along the Pukehina coastal sector (specifically at benchmarks 30, 29, 27 and 26a) during average wave conditions recorded, and enhanced as wave period and wave height increased (approximately 0.2-2.0 m in each simulation, respectively). Wave focusing is significantly influenced by the ebb tidal delta offshore from Waihi Estuary, leading to larger wave heights present in eroding regions of Pukehina Beach.
Potential sediment transport rates were investigated, utilising collected wave data. Outcomes illustrate a potential sediment transport to the east. A negative littoral drift gradient, was observed between a) Okurei Point and Waihi Estuary inlet, and a positive littoral drift gradient between b) benchmark 29 and 26. This implies a potential accumulation of sediments near Waihi Estuary inlet (some of which, would be lost to infilling of Waihi Estuary). However, a long-term deficit (-12 m3/m per year) of sediment is lost along Pukehina Beach, due to the apparent positive littoral drift gradient. This outcome is identified as a major component of the long-term 'erosion' problem at Pukehina Beach.
Tidal and current gauges were deployed within Waihi Estuary. Data revealed strong evidence that the estuary is acting as a sediment sink. Tidal asymmetry, attenuation of the tidal signal and a dominance of sediment transport into the estuary, depict that Waihi Estuary is an influential component of the erosion occurring at Pukehina Beach. The Waihi Estuary is calculated by geomorphic and hydraulic analysis to be tending towards deposition in the inlet, leading to a general instability of the Waihi Estuary inlet.
Nearshore sediment transport rates within the region are significantly influenced by localised wind patterns within the Pukehina coastal sector. The Pukehina coastal sector was identified as having a net deficit of sediment, approximately 4,500 m³/year or -0.5 m³/m per year. However, due to errors involved in estimate calculations, this value may be larger.
Sediment textural distributions have altered since previous surveys conducted in 1993 by PHIZACKLEA. Particularly, an influx of sediment to the Okurei Point region, reducing the area of exposed bedrock, suggests a change of sediment transport patterns within this region. Texturally, offshore sediments vary from fine sand sized sediments to very coarse sand, while beach sediments are predominantly medium sand sized particles, with a decrease in sediment size towards Okurei Point (fine sand sized particles), indicating a sediment transport direction to the west.
Causes of significant long-term erosion to the Pukehina coastal sector, have been identified as: a) beach-nearshore sediment being lost or 'sucked out' of the coastal sector, due to the combination of a positive littoral drift gradient along Pukehina Beach, and wave energy focusing; and b) infilling of the Waihi Estuary. Other processes, such as aeolian transport etc., do reduce the volume of available sediment to Pukehina Beach, but are not implicated to the long-term 'erosion' problem occurring.
Possible remedial solutions, influenced by data observations, are suggested to reduce current frontal dune erosion. However, further research is recommended to identify what coastal management options are required for the Pukehina Beach shoreline.

year: 2002

title: Effective implementation science processes for Māori and Indigenous health interventions

authors: Harding, Truely Janine

subjects: Implementation science

abstract: Background
This thesis considers the implications implementation science has for Indigenous communities, specifically in reducing health inequities for the Māori community of New Zealand. Implementation science has been discussed among many Western health interventions and this thesis adds to that body of literature while highlighting the impact implementation has for Indigenous communities. 
Implementation science is a growing body of literature that can identify the most effective processes for health organisations and governments to best engage with Indigenous communities facing health inequities. An important aspect of that is ensuring the Indigenous voices and perspectives are represented just as much as the academics and scholars in those fields. The purpose of this thesis is to highlight the facilitators and barriers of implementing health interventions with Māori communities in Aotearoa New Zealand. This thesis aims to contribute to the conversation about reducing health inequities Māori communities’ face in New Zealand by enhancing implementation effectiveness. Therefore, it is an effort to illuminate the importance of the inclusion of community voice and perspectives when implementing health interventions with Indigenous communities. The thesis is with publications and includes four distinct studies.
Methodology & Methods
The key methodologies used in this study were Kaupapa Māori methodology and the He Pikinga Waiora (HPW) Implementation framework. Kaupapa Māori has been used as both a form of resistance and a methodological strategy, where research is created, developed, and carried within a Māori worldview with the aim to have positive outcomes that are beneficial for Māori. The HPW framework provided a holistic approach to guide this research through its key elements of: culture-centered approach, community engagement, systems thinking, and integrated knowledge translation. It is a forward-thinking approach as it is flexible in its design, which allows the framework to be tailored to a variety of implementation situations. The framework is centred in Kaupapa Māori methodology. Each principle of Kaupapa Māori and each element of HPW provide a holistic approach to implementation science.
Given this thesis includes four publications, a range of methods were employed for data collection. The first study was a systematic review of studies that was completed using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. This involved a stringent search strategy and inclusion criteria where studies included went through data extraction and methodological appraisal followed by an analysis through a qualitative synthesis of findings. Studies two and three employed semi-structured interviews that were analysed through thematic analysis. Study two included 19 participants who were either health professionals or researchers, and study three included 17 participants who were health professionals. The fourth study included an online cross-sectional survey of 200 health professionals and used statistical modelling to identify factors important for implementation effectiveness.
Results 
The first study included a systematic literature review to examine the implementation of a non-communicable disease health intervention for Indigenous communities using HPW as an evaluation tool. Twenty-one studies were included. Two thirds of these studies demonstrated high levels of community engagement and community voice/ agency, while 40% had individual-level outcomes with some systems thinking, and 33% included individual-level outcomes and limited systems thinking. Finally, almost 40% of studies included high levels of end-user engagement reflective of integrated knowledge translation, but nearly half had limited end-user engagement with the remaining neither high or low. This study found that the HPW Implementation Framework is a comprehensive model for understanding implementation effectiveness in Indigenous communities and highlighted the high levels of community engagement and community voice. It also brings to light that the long-term sustainability and translation of evidence to practice may be inhibited because of lower levels of systems thinking and integrated knowledge translation. 
The second study researched the perceptions health professionals have on co-designing health-promotion interventions with Indigenous communities in New Zealand. Co-designing health-promotion interventions with Indigenous communities presents many benefits and challenges. This study identified that the facilitators for co-designing health-promotion interventions with Māori communities were collaboration and community voice. Furthermore, the two key barriers identified were mismanaged expectations between the researcher and community and the research constraints placed by funding agencies. The findings support the development of more effective co-design health-promotion interventions within Māori communities which may address health inequities. 
The third study endeavoured to identify the facilitators and barriers in disseminating and adopting a health intervention developed by a community-academic partnership. This study explored general perceptions of the implementation process and also included a case study of an innovative intervention. The facilitators included community engagement, programme structure, programme adaptability and creators’ experience. The barriers consisted of funding access, funding constraints and organisational constraints. This study also highlights the importance of community engagement and adaptability suggesting a need for translation as well as diffusion. Additionally, this study identified nuanced aspects of funding and resources for organisations that constrain organisations in employing health interventions designed by others.
The final study identified factors that New Zealand health professionals rate as important for implementation effectiveness for health interventions with Māori communities. This study provided a unique perspective of health professionals on implementation effectiveness when working with Māori/Indigenous communities. Paired sample t-tests revealed four levels of importance for implementation effectiveness with organisational teamwork and community autonomy as most important. Only 24% of participants had prior experience with a previous health intervention with Māori communities. The two key overall factors that were associated with participants’ rating of implementation effectiveness in these previous interventions were process and community. This study identified the key areas of implementation effectiveness as community engagement and participatory process. Furthermore, the final study contributes to the body of literature that challenges traditional top-down approaches of implementation.
Conclusion
This research aimed to identify the facilitators and barriers to disseminating and implementing health interventions with Māori communities in New Zealand. A synthesis of the four studies provided four key themes for this thesis. This thesis reinforces the position that Indigenous and Māori implementation science should be focused on the process and community engagement. In doing so, community engagement ensures a cultural-centred approach that prioritises Indigenous knowledge and autonomy in the process of implementation. Furthermore, the barriers identified in this thesis recognise the challenges that remain in limited funding for translating research into implementation practice and managing expectations amongst the implementation team. This thesis has implications for New Zealand district health boards and health organisations who are wanting to increase the effectiveness of the health interventions they are implementing with Māori communities, particularly when trying to address health inequities. Overall, this study is an attempt to bridge the gap between translating research and the processes of putting it into practice.

text: Effective implementation science processes for Māori and Indigenous health interventions Background
This thesis considers the implications implementation science has for Indigenous communities, specifically in reducing health inequities for the Māori community of New Zealand. Implementation science has been discussed among many Western health interventions and this thesis adds to that body of literature while highlighting the impact implementation has for Indigenous communities. 
Implementation science is a growing body of literature that can identify the most effective processes for health organisations and governments to best engage with Indigenous communities facing health inequities. An important aspect of that is ensuring the Indigenous voices and perspectives are represented just as much as the academics and scholars in those fields. The purpose of this thesis is to highlight the facilitators and barriers of implementing health interventions with Māori communities in Aotearoa New Zealand. This thesis aims to contribute to the conversation about reducing health inequities Māori communities’ face in New Zealand by enhancing implementation effectiveness. Therefore, it is an effort to illuminate the importance of the inclusion of community voice and perspectives when implementing health interventions with Indigenous communities. The thesis is with publications and includes four distinct studies.
Methodology & Methods
The key methodologies used in this study were Kaupapa Māori methodology and the He Pikinga Waiora (HPW) Implementation framework. Kaupapa Māori has been used as both a form of resistance and a methodological strategy, where research is created, developed, and carried within a Māori worldview with the aim to have positive outcomes that are beneficial for Māori. The HPW framework provided a holistic approach to guide this research through its key elements of: culture-centered approach, community engagement, systems thinking, and integrated knowledge translation. It is a forward-thinking approach as it is flexible in its design, which allows the framework to be tailored to a variety of implementation situations. The framework is centred in Kaupapa Māori methodology. Each principle of Kaupapa Māori and each element of HPW provide a holistic approach to implementation science.
Given this thesis includes four publications, a range of methods were employed for data collection. The first study was a systematic review of studies that was completed using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. This involved a stringent search strategy and inclusion criteria where studies included went through data extraction and methodological appraisal followed by an analysis through a qualitative synthesis of findings. Studies two and three employed semi-structured interviews that were analysed through thematic analysis. Study two included 19 participants who were either health professionals or researchers, and study three included 17 participants who were health professionals. The fourth study included an online cross-sectional survey of 200 health professionals and used statistical modelling to identify factors important for implementation effectiveness.
Results 
The first study included a systematic literature review to examine the implementation of a non-communicable disease health intervention for Indigenous communities using HPW as an evaluation tool. Twenty-one studies were included. Two thirds of these studies demonstrated high levels of community engagement and community voice/ agency, while 40% had individual-level outcomes with some systems thinking, and 33% included individual-level outcomes and limited systems thinking. Finally, almost 40% of studies included high levels of end-user engagement reflective of integrated knowledge translation, but nearly half had limited end-user engagement with the remaining neither high or low. This study found that the HPW Implementation Framework is a comprehensive model for understanding implementation effectiveness in Indigenous communities and highlighted the high levels of community engagement and community voice. It also brings to light that the long-term sustainability and translation of evidence to practice may be inhibited because of lower levels of systems thinking and integrated knowledge translation. 
The second study researched the perceptions health professionals have on co-designing health-promotion interventions with Indigenous communities in New Zealand. Co-designing health-promotion interventions with Indigenous communities presents many benefits and challenges. This study identified that the facilitators for co-designing health-promotion interventions with Māori communities were collaboration and community voice. Furthermore, the two key barriers identified were mismanaged expectations between the researcher and community and the research constraints placed by funding agencies. The findings support the development of more effective co-design health-promotion interventions within Māori communities which may address health inequities. 
The third study endeavoured to identify the facilitators and barriers in disseminating and adopting a health intervention developed by a community-academic partnership. This study explored general perceptions of the implementation process and also included a case study of an innovative intervention. The facilitators included community engagement, programme structure, programme adaptability and creators’ experience. The barriers consisted of funding access, funding constraints and organisational constraints. This study also highlights the importance of community engagement and adaptability suggesting a need for translation as well as diffusion. Additionally, this study identified nuanced aspects of funding and resources for organisations that constrain organisations in employing health interventions designed by others.
The final study identified factors that New Zealand health professionals rate as important for implementation effectiveness for health interventions with Māori communities. This study provided a unique perspective of health professionals on implementation effectiveness when working with Māori/Indigenous communities. Paired sample t-tests revealed four levels of importance for implementation effectiveness with organisational teamwork and community autonomy as most important. Only 24% of participants had prior experience with a previous health intervention with Māori communities. The two key overall factors that were associated with participants’ rating of implementation effectiveness in these previous interventions were process and community. This study identified the key areas of implementation effectiveness as community engagement and participatory process. Furthermore, the final study contributes to the body of literature that challenges traditional top-down approaches of implementation.
Conclusion
This research aimed to identify the facilitators and barriers to disseminating and implementing health interventions with Māori communities in New Zealand. A synthesis of the four studies provided four key themes for this thesis. This thesis reinforces the position that Indigenous and Māori implementation science should be focused on the process and community engagement. In doing so, community engagement ensures a cultural-centred approach that prioritises Indigenous knowledge and autonomy in the process of implementation. Furthermore, the barriers identified in this thesis recognise the challenges that remain in limited funding for translating research into implementation practice and managing expectations amongst the implementation team. This thesis has implications for New Zealand district health boards and health organisations who are wanting to increase the effectiveness of the health interventions they are implementing with Māori communities, particularly when trying to address health inequities. Overall, this study is an attempt to bridge the gap between translating research and the processes of putting it into practice.

year: 2021