title: Progressing the science of effluent treatment using Lasersizer diffraction analysis - a pilot study

authors: Burgess, Alison C.

abstract: Disinfection of waste water with ultraviolet (UV) light is a common procedure in many sewage treatment plants because it is used to inactivate coliform bacteria in the effluent. The number of coliform bacteria in a given sample is used as a proxy to indicate the presence of targeted pathogenic organisms. Typically the coliform bacteria exist in a particle-associated state which results in their being shielded from the UV light (Darby et al., 1999). Such particles are documented in the size range 20 to 80 μm, and therefore measurement of the size distribution in a sample could be used to indicate the degree of shielding. UV treatment is less effective for particles larger than about 40 μm in size (Table 1).
 Our pilot study used the laser diffraction technique to generate particle-size distributions of samples of effluent. By quantifying the amount of bacteria-shielding particles using this technique we were able to estimate the general efficacy of the UV sterilization process. The surface weighted mean diameter statistic was taken as a numerical measure of the bacteriashielding particle size distribution.

text: Progressing the science of effluent treatment using Lasersizer diffraction analysis - a pilot study Disinfection of waste water with ultraviolet (UV) light is a common procedure in many sewage treatment plants because it is used to inactivate coliform bacteria in the effluent. The number of coliform bacteria in a given sample is used as a proxy to indicate the presence of targeted pathogenic organisms. Typically the coliform bacteria exist in a particle-associated state which results in their being shielded from the UV light (Darby et al., 1999). Such particles are documented in the size range 20 to 80 μm, and therefore measurement of the size distribution in a sample could be used to indicate the degree of shielding. UV treatment is less effective for particles larger than about 40 μm in size (Table 1).
 Our pilot study used the laser diffraction technique to generate particle-size distributions of samples of effluent. By quantifying the amount of bacteria-shielding particles using this technique we were able to estimate the general efficacy of the UV sterilization process. The surface weighted mean diameter statistic was taken as a numerical measure of the bacteriashielding particle size distribution.

year: 2003-12-02

title: Effect of exposure on the erodibility of intertidal mudflats

authors: Nguyen, Hieu Manh

abstract: Sediments on intertidal flats are exposed during low tides. Under the effect of exposure, the water content of sediments decreases because of the evaporation process, which alters the erosive behaviour of cohesive sediments, and therefore changes the patterns of erosion/accretion on intertidal flats. Consequently, exposure indirectly affects the intertidal morphology. An understanding of how exposure alters the erodibility of sediment on intertidal flats is critical to predicting the resilience of intertidal zones into the future during which sea-level rise is believed to exacerbate erosion in low-lying areas. 

Sediments were collected from an intertidal mudflat in the Firth of Thames, New Zealand in different seasons from 2017 to 2019 for laboratory experiments. Two experiments (Exp. 1 and Exp. 2) were set up in order to explore the effect of exposure including air temperature and exposure duration on erodibility of cohesive sediments. The EROMES device was used to measure the erosion potential of sediment (erosion threshold, Ƭ𝒸ᵣ N m⁻² and erosion rate, ER g m⁻² s⁻¹). Exp. 1 investigated erodibility of sediments exposed to a wide range of temperatures (controlled at 0, 8, 25 and 40°C) for 6 h. Meanwhile, Exp. 2 was designed to examine the effect of exposure duration on erodibility. In this experiment, a systematically-changed exposure duration (6 h, 1, 4 and 10 d) was used to mimic a wide range of exposure that might happen on an intertidal flat during a year (set to mimic the Firth of Thames field site). Experimental results indicated that erosion resistance of sediments significantly increased (increased Ƭ𝒸ᵣ, and decreased ER) corresponding to decreased water content after exposure. The higher the air temperature and the longer the exposure duration, the more stable the sediments were. For instance, the water content of exposed sediments decreased by 1.01 to 1.78 times, a rate which was a function of increasing temperature. The Ƭ𝒸ᵣ of exposed experiments was 1.2 to 2.2 times higher, whereas ER decreased 1.2 to 6.2 times. After 10 d, exposure increased Ƭ𝒸ᵣ by 1.7 to 4.4 times and decreased ER by 11.6 to 21.5 times compared with 6 h of exposure. 

Semi-empirical models fitted datasets from Exp.1 and Exp. 2 were used to predict the variations of Ƭ𝒸ᵣ and ER as functions of air temperature, T (°C) and exposure duration, D (h). These semi-empirical models were used to extend a Delft3D numerical model to test the effect of exposure on intertidal mudflat profiles and development of tidal channel networks. Model results indicated that exposure enhanced the more flat-topped shape of intertidal mudflats. Higher air temperature resulted in stronger effects on bed level change. For example, for the case of 40°C, bed level built up by 0.039m after one year of model time. Regarding the development of channel networks on intertidal mudflats, the exposure effect tended to create denser and deeper channel networks compared to model runs without the exposure effect. Our findings, therefore, contribute to the prediction of the intertidal morphology development, which will help to understanding the resilience of tidal flats and salt marshes in future under the effect of sea-level rise and global warming.

text: Effect of exposure on the erodibility of intertidal mudflats Sediments on intertidal flats are exposed during low tides. Under the effect of exposure, the water content of sediments decreases because of the evaporation process, which alters the erosive behaviour of cohesive sediments, and therefore changes the patterns of erosion/accretion on intertidal flats. Consequently, exposure indirectly affects the intertidal morphology. An understanding of how exposure alters the erodibility of sediment on intertidal flats is critical to predicting the resilience of intertidal zones into the future during which sea-level rise is believed to exacerbate erosion in low-lying areas. 

Sediments were collected from an intertidal mudflat in the Firth of Thames, New Zealand in different seasons from 2017 to 2019 for laboratory experiments. Two experiments (Exp. 1 and Exp. 2) were set up in order to explore the effect of exposure including air temperature and exposure duration on erodibility of cohesive sediments. The EROMES device was used to measure the erosion potential of sediment (erosion threshold, Ƭ𝒸ᵣ N m⁻² and erosion rate, ER g m⁻² s⁻¹). Exp. 1 investigated erodibility of sediments exposed to a wide range of temperatures (controlled at 0, 8, 25 and 40°C) for 6 h. Meanwhile, Exp. 2 was designed to examine the effect of exposure duration on erodibility. In this experiment, a systematically-changed exposure duration (6 h, 1, 4 and 10 d) was used to mimic a wide range of exposure that might happen on an intertidal flat during a year (set to mimic the Firth of Thames field site). Experimental results indicated that erosion resistance of sediments significantly increased (increased Ƭ𝒸ᵣ, and decreased ER) corresponding to decreased water content after exposure. The higher the air temperature and the longer the exposure duration, the more stable the sediments were. For instance, the water content of exposed sediments decreased by 1.01 to 1.78 times, a rate which was a function of increasing temperature. The Ƭ𝒸ᵣ of exposed experiments was 1.2 to 2.2 times higher, whereas ER decreased 1.2 to 6.2 times. After 10 d, exposure increased Ƭ𝒸ᵣ by 1.7 to 4.4 times and decreased ER by 11.6 to 21.5 times compared with 6 h of exposure. 

Semi-empirical models fitted datasets from Exp.1 and Exp. 2 were used to predict the variations of Ƭ𝒸ᵣ and ER as functions of air temperature, T (°C) and exposure duration, D (h). These semi-empirical models were used to extend a Delft3D numerical model to test the effect of exposure on intertidal mudflat profiles and development of tidal channel networks. Model results indicated that exposure enhanced the more flat-topped shape of intertidal mudflats. Higher air temperature resulted in stronger effects on bed level change. For example, for the case of 40°C, bed level built up by 0.039m after one year of model time. Regarding the development of channel networks on intertidal mudflats, the exposure effect tended to create denser and deeper channel networks compared to model runs without the exposure effect. Our findings, therefore, contribute to the prediction of the intertidal morphology development, which will help to understanding the resilience of tidal flats and salt marshes in future under the effect of sea-level rise and global warming.

year: 2021

title: Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua

authors: Tempero, Grant Wayne

abstract: Lake Rotorua is one of 12 lakes jointly managed by the Rotorua Lakes Council, Te Arawa Lakes Trust and the Bay of Plenty Regional Council under the Rotorua Te Arawa Lakes Programme. The lake is currently classified as eutrophic and a Trophic Lake Index (TLI) value of 4.2 has been set as an integrated target for lake water quality. A number of catchment and lake management strategies have been implemented to achieve the targeted TLI including land use changes, wetland enhancement, lake weed harvesting, sediment detainment bunds, sewage reticulation and alum dosing. Alum (aluminium sulphate) is commonly applied to freshwater and wastewater systems to remove phosphorus, reducing its availability for phytoplankton growth. The initiation of alum dosing to the Utuhina Stream in 2006 and the Puarenga Stream in 2010 was associated with a significant decline in water column dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and improvements in water quality of Lake Rotorua. 
The use of alum to control external and internal phosphorus loading has been identified as key component in the restoration of Lake Rotorua and recently observed improvements in water quality suggest that the lake could be transitioning to a more phosphorus limited state. Determination of phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua was identified as a priority through the 2017 Plan Change 10 Science Review. An initial seasonal nutrient limitation study was carried out in 2019 with nutrient limitation assays conducted at 3-monthly intervals over the course of the year. Nitrogen limitation was indicated for the March assay and nutrient co-limitation for the December period, but results for the winter and spring periods were inconclusive. There has also been increasing recognition that nutrient availability in limnetic systems may vary in response to seasonal changes in external and external loading and even to isolated storm events. 
The University of Waikato was contracted to investigate potential changes in nutrient limitation within Lake Rotorua at sub-monthly time-scales, and to determine if alum dose rates could be optimised to take advantage of periods of phosphorus limitation. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation growth assays were conducted on a fortnightly basis from mid-October 2020 to May 2021. In addition to determination of lake surface nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, triplicate 1 L phytoplankton samples were spiked with either phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹), nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) or phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹) and nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) and incubated for 5-days under a single light intensity of 100 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ PAR at lake surface temperature and photoperiod. Phytoplankton growth responses were measured as comparative chlorophyll a, comparative biomass and net biomass growth. Summarised results from the 16 assays along with the predicted nutrient state from the stoichiometric mass ratio of TN:TP are presented in the table below. 
Under the test conditions nitrogen limitation was indicated for most of the summer months (December–March) and nutrient co-limitation during the spring and late autumn. Only short (~2 weeks) periods of P-limitation were observed, one of which was associated with an intensive storm event at the end of March. These seasonal fluctuations in nitrogen and phosphorus supply are similar to those observed in other temperate limnetic systems. In the spring, external nitrogen and phosphorus loading is high, then decline in the summer as rainfall and associated inflows wane. During the summer, internal loading becomes more important in polymictic lakes due to repeated internal nutrient cycling from stratification and mixing events. This results in phosphorus limitation in the spring, transitioning to nitrogen limitation or colimitation (primarily nitrogen) in the summer, and then returning to phosphorus/colimitation during the winter due to increased nitrogen-loading from the catchment from increased catchment discharge. 
Due to the modest periods of phosphorus limitation indicated by the assays, there appears to be little potential for optimisation of alum dose rates in order capitalise on natural periods of phosphorus limitation. Further, changes in phytoplankton community composition and abundance appear to be more strongly driven by physical environmental factors such as temperature, light and wind speed, than nutrient availability. Although alum dosing is effective in removing DRP from the Utuhina and Puarenga inflows, its assumed effectiveness in reducing internal phosphorus loading in Lake Rotorua requires further evaluation.

text: Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua Lake Rotorua is one of 12 lakes jointly managed by the Rotorua Lakes Council, Te Arawa Lakes Trust and the Bay of Plenty Regional Council under the Rotorua Te Arawa Lakes Programme. The lake is currently classified as eutrophic and a Trophic Lake Index (TLI) value of 4.2 has been set as an integrated target for lake water quality. A number of catchment and lake management strategies have been implemented to achieve the targeted TLI including land use changes, wetland enhancement, lake weed harvesting, sediment detainment bunds, sewage reticulation and alum dosing. Alum (aluminium sulphate) is commonly applied to freshwater and wastewater systems to remove phosphorus, reducing its availability for phytoplankton growth. The initiation of alum dosing to the Utuhina Stream in 2006 and the Puarenga Stream in 2010 was associated with a significant decline in water column dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and improvements in water quality of Lake Rotorua. 
The use of alum to control external and internal phosphorus loading has been identified as key component in the restoration of Lake Rotorua and recently observed improvements in water quality suggest that the lake could be transitioning to a more phosphorus limited state. Determination of phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua was identified as a priority through the 2017 Plan Change 10 Science Review. An initial seasonal nutrient limitation study was carried out in 2019 with nutrient limitation assays conducted at 3-monthly intervals over the course of the year. Nitrogen limitation was indicated for the March assay and nutrient co-limitation for the December period, but results for the winter and spring periods were inconclusive. There has also been increasing recognition that nutrient availability in limnetic systems may vary in response to seasonal changes in external and external loading and even to isolated storm events. 
The University of Waikato was contracted to investigate potential changes in nutrient limitation within Lake Rotorua at sub-monthly time-scales, and to determine if alum dose rates could be optimised to take advantage of periods of phosphorus limitation. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation growth assays were conducted on a fortnightly basis from mid-October 2020 to May 2021. In addition to determination of lake surface nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, triplicate 1 L phytoplankton samples were spiked with either phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹), nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) or phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹) and nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) and incubated for 5-days under a single light intensity of 100 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ PAR at lake surface temperature and photoperiod. Phytoplankton growth responses were measured as comparative chlorophyll a, comparative biomass and net biomass growth. Summarised results from the 16 assays along with the predicted nutrient state from the stoichiometric mass ratio of TN:TP are presented in the table below. 
Under the test conditions nitrogen limitation was indicated for most of the summer months (December–March) and nutrient co-limitation during the spring and late autumn. Only short (~2 weeks) periods of P-limitation were observed, one of which was associated with an intensive storm event at the end of March. These seasonal fluctuations in nitrogen and phosphorus supply are similar to those observed in other temperate limnetic systems. In the spring, external nitrogen and phosphorus loading is high, then decline in the summer as rainfall and associated inflows wane. During the summer, internal loading becomes more important in polymictic lakes due to repeated internal nutrient cycling from stratification and mixing events. This results in phosphorus limitation in the spring, transitioning to nitrogen limitation or colimitation (primarily nitrogen) in the summer, and then returning to phosphorus/colimitation during the winter due to increased nitrogen-loading from the catchment from increased catchment discharge. 
Due to the modest periods of phosphorus limitation indicated by the assays, there appears to be little potential for optimisation of alum dose rates in order capitalise on natural periods of phosphorus limitation. Further, changes in phytoplankton community composition and abundance appear to be more strongly driven by physical environmental factors such as temperature, light and wind speed, than nutrient availability. Although alum dosing is effective in removing DRP from the Utuhina and Puarenga inflows, its assumed effectiveness in reducing internal phosphorus loading in Lake Rotorua requires further evaluation.

year: 2022