title: Behavioural antecedents of altruism: a comparative analysis

authors: Wood, Mark Thornton

abstract: Altruism has two main aspects; the one philosophical and the other scientific. After a discussion of the main issues raised by the concept, two definitions having similar criteria were developed. Flight calls in male pheasants were then studied in order to place them either in one of the two altruistic categories or to relegate them to the egoistic category.

The establishment and maintenance of altruism in animal populations was examined in light of the dilemma presented by the classical genetic model for natural selection. A formula which will assist in the separation and delineation of the concept altruism from reciprocity and egoism was developed. The meaning of “others” was considered with respect to genetic coefficients of relationship. Modifications of a model for altruism were made which incorporated a factor covering the potential genetic contribution to future offspring by the altruist over that by the recipient(s). A further factor gave indications of possible values for the cost facet of altruism. These modifications help explain the preponderance of parental care in the animal world as opposed to geriatric care and suggest that older parents may be more altruistically disposed toward offspring than younger parents.

Based on a theory for the establishment and increase of altruistic genes in animal populations, a relationship was hypothesized to exist in the avian order Passeriformes between clutch averages (which were considered to be an index of “genetic investment”) and prosocial behaviour. The positive correlations found supported this hypothesis.

Social grooming in dairy cows were then investigated. The reduced stimulus world of the domestic cow decreases the number of modalities by which rewards may be returned to benefactors and the formula developed to delineate altruism from reciprocity and egoism could thus be more accurately applied. As little is known about social grooming in cows, herd parameters were recorded and several variables were correlated with the giving and/or receiving of grooming actions. Use of an identical twin herd furthered investigation into the meaning of “others” and it was found that grooming preferences fell into a five-point ordinal scale: self, twin, own age group, next nearest age group, and furthest away age group. Age proved to be the most pervasive variable correlated with non-twin social grooming, whereas within twin pairs grooming was consistently correlated with milking order. The altruism found was also shown to be twin-linked (i.e. if one member of a twin pair was altruistic, its twin tended to be altruistic also).

Altruism is here considered almost coeval with egoism, that is almost as old as life itself. It is therefore reasonable to think of altruism as either a primary reinforcer of as being intrinsically motivating.

text: Behavioural antecedents of altruism: a comparative analysis Altruism has two main aspects; the one philosophical and the other scientific. After a discussion of the main issues raised by the concept, two definitions having similar criteria were developed. Flight calls in male pheasants were then studied in order to place them either in one of the two altruistic categories or to relegate them to the egoistic category.

The establishment and maintenance of altruism in animal populations was examined in light of the dilemma presented by the classical genetic model for natural selection. A formula which will assist in the separation and delineation of the concept altruism from reciprocity and egoism was developed. The meaning of “others” was considered with respect to genetic coefficients of relationship. Modifications of a model for altruism were made which incorporated a factor covering the potential genetic contribution to future offspring by the altruist over that by the recipient(s). A further factor gave indications of possible values for the cost facet of altruism. These modifications help explain the preponderance of parental care in the animal world as opposed to geriatric care and suggest that older parents may be more altruistically disposed toward offspring than younger parents.

Based on a theory for the establishment and increase of altruistic genes in animal populations, a relationship was hypothesized to exist in the avian order Passeriformes between clutch averages (which were considered to be an index of “genetic investment”) and prosocial behaviour. The positive correlations found supported this hypothesis.

Social grooming in dairy cows were then investigated. The reduced stimulus world of the domestic cow decreases the number of modalities by which rewards may be returned to benefactors and the formula developed to delineate altruism from reciprocity and egoism could thus be more accurately applied. As little is known about social grooming in cows, herd parameters were recorded and several variables were correlated with the giving and/or receiving of grooming actions. Use of an identical twin herd furthered investigation into the meaning of “others” and it was found that grooming preferences fell into a five-point ordinal scale: self, twin, own age group, next nearest age group, and furthest away age group. Age proved to be the most pervasive variable correlated with non-twin social grooming, whereas within twin pairs grooming was consistently correlated with milking order. The altruism found was also shown to be twin-linked (i.e. if one member of a twin pair was altruistic, its twin tended to be altruistic also).

Altruism is here considered almost coeval with egoism, that is almost as old as life itself. It is therefore reasonable to think of altruism as either a primary reinforcer of as being intrinsically motivating.

year: 1975

title: Evaluation of granular media to wastewater treatment; advanced primary treatment utilising modified pumice, titanomagnetite and ceramic nozzles.

authors: Blättler, Anna

abstract: The treatment of wastewater to higher standards is becoming increasingly important as legislation and public perception demand reduced impact of human activity on the environment. Filtration of primary treated effluent (PTE) and secondary treated effluent (STE) offers a possible sustainable technology for meeting or partially meeting these demands.

Granular media filtration, if used at all, is typically incorporated in wastewater treatment as a polishing step following secondary biological treatment and flocculation. The use of filtration following primary sedimentation has not been practised widely. The objective of this research was to investigate the feasibility of filtering PTE using New Zealand’s indigenous volcanic deposits as filter media in a recently developed dual media filtration system incorporating porous ceramic nozzles. The two media types studied included titanomagnetite (TM) and Silicon Sponge (SS). Titanomagnetite is an ironsand concentrate with a very fine grain size (0.07 to 0.18mm). Silicon Sponge is abraded river pumice and was available in two sizes: SS 14/24 (0.6 to 1 mm) and SS 7 /14 (0.4 to 2 mm). The surface of TM grains is smooth and that of SS is highly porous due to the vesiculated structure of pumice, while maintaining a low abrasive factor.

In order to test filtration behaviour of TM and SS media, bench-scale experiments, using glass columns were performed. A model effluent was prepared from reconstituted dairy farm manure. Suspended particle sizes in farm dairy effluent (FDE) were similar to those measured for PTE. Most of the bench trials used FDE. Filtration trends were easy monitored by turbidity reduction. About 50% of FDE turbidity was removed by 100 mm TM columns. TM performance was improved by the addition of TM fines but flows were reduced. Unmodified TM retained most particles larger than 5 µm. This would likely to remove protozoa such as giardia and cryptosporidium. The effect of pH on turbidity removal by TM beds was significant. Turbidity removal increased from 40 to 80% upon the lowering of the effluent pH from 6.5 to 3.5. Raising the pH above 6.5 had no effect. No pH-induced change in particle size distribution of the effluent was observed. A pH of 3.5 is below the isoelectric point of TM and it is likely that the enhanced turbidity removal was due to electrostatic effects.

In bench-scale filtration of PTE at pH 6.5, a 100 mm depth of TM removed 30% of the turbidity. Increasing the bed depth for TM did not lead to significant further improvement in filter performance. In the case of filtration by a fine SS (14/24), 25% turbidity removal was achieved using a 500 mm bed. Increasing the bed depth to 1800 mm increased turbidity removal to 50%. In glass column experiments, a 1000 mm deep bed of coarse SS (7 /14) removed 30% of the turbidity. An increase to 35% occurred when the bed depth, using this medium was increased to 1600 mm. The same media when used in larger pilot plant filters removed 50% of the turbidity. A particular feature of the TM medium was its ease of fluidisation at flowrates < 10 m/h. This characteristics make it a suitable medium for pulsed bed operation. A feature of the SS medium was its large hydraulic conductivity and high solids holding capacity.

On the basis of the results obtained from the bench trials, evaluation filter units incorporating the essential features of the porous ceramic dual media (PCDM) system were constructed. The evaluation systems were equipped with under drains that incorporated a variety of purpose designed titanomagnetite ceramic (TMC) nozzles held in place by a tube bolt that also delivered air and water during filtration and backwashing. Investigation of the flow characteristics of the TMC nozzles showed that the major flow-regulating factor in the nozzle system was the water orifice in the bolt stem. Resistance in up-flow was consistently larger than resistance in down-flow. This was attributed to differences in the hydrodynamics of flow in each direction. Re-designing the bolt could lead to a 30% reduced flow-restriction during backwashing.

Biofilm growth on the TM and SS filtration media and the TMC used to manufacture the ceramic nozzles was studied by prolonged immersion in partially digested effluent. SS media showed a high degree of vesicular space and under aerobic conditions, affinity for loose attachment of organic material. TM showed most anaerobic film growth, accompanied by formation of a red iron oxide deposit. Significantly little biofilm growth on the ceramic material was observed. Such growth, if it occurred, could block the nozzles.
Pilot plant evaluation trials using PTE showed that for SS, filtration efficiency increased steeply with bed depth up to a bed depth of 500 mm, irrespective of the grade of SS used. At depths greater than 500 mm, filtration efficiency increased more slowly with depth. Run times were typically of 50 h duration by which time flow rates under a constant head of 2700 mm had decreased from 12 m/h to 1 m/h. Bed loadings were as high as 100 kg/m³ at the top of the bed with a mean of 22 kg/m³. In the case of TM, a minimum bed depth of 100 mm was required in order to accommodate the TMC tube nozzles. Deeper beds blocked after very short run times. Flowrates of 1 m/h or less and run times of 1 h or less were observed.

For both types of media, solids were easily dislodged during backwashing.

Pulsed backwashing greatly reduced backwash water requirements and in the case of SS beds yielded sludge with solids content suitable for anaerobic digestion. 

Flow-dynamics through PCDM filter nozzles showed increased resistance in upflow being caused by designs in the nozzle-bolt. Vena contracta effects provide an explanation. 

PCDM filtration using SS as the major medium offers a viable technology for the continuous removal of much of the TSS from PTE. A potential energy saving can be envisaged from the reduced aeration required for reduced BOD loadings going to secondary biological treatment. In addition, the concentrated backwash water from bed backwashing, can be transferred directly to anaerobic digesters. Reduced CO₂ generation and an increase in methane production would off-set installation and running costs of the filter in about 15 years.

text: Evaluation of granular media to wastewater treatment; advanced primary treatment utilising modified pumice, titanomagnetite and ceramic nozzles. The treatment of wastewater to higher standards is becoming increasingly important as legislation and public perception demand reduced impact of human activity on the environment. Filtration of primary treated effluent (PTE) and secondary treated effluent (STE) offers a possible sustainable technology for meeting or partially meeting these demands.

Granular media filtration, if used at all, is typically incorporated in wastewater treatment as a polishing step following secondary biological treatment and flocculation. The use of filtration following primary sedimentation has not been practised widely. The objective of this research was to investigate the feasibility of filtering PTE using New Zealand’s indigenous volcanic deposits as filter media in a recently developed dual media filtration system incorporating porous ceramic nozzles. The two media types studied included titanomagnetite (TM) and Silicon Sponge (SS). Titanomagnetite is an ironsand concentrate with a very fine grain size (0.07 to 0.18mm). Silicon Sponge is abraded river pumice and was available in two sizes: SS 14/24 (0.6 to 1 mm) and SS 7 /14 (0.4 to 2 mm). The surface of TM grains is smooth and that of SS is highly porous due to the vesiculated structure of pumice, while maintaining a low abrasive factor.

In order to test filtration behaviour of TM and SS media, bench-scale experiments, using glass columns were performed. A model effluent was prepared from reconstituted dairy farm manure. Suspended particle sizes in farm dairy effluent (FDE) were similar to those measured for PTE. Most of the bench trials used FDE. Filtration trends were easy monitored by turbidity reduction. About 50% of FDE turbidity was removed by 100 mm TM columns. TM performance was improved by the addition of TM fines but flows were reduced. Unmodified TM retained most particles larger than 5 µm. This would likely to remove protozoa such as giardia and cryptosporidium. The effect of pH on turbidity removal by TM beds was significant. Turbidity removal increased from 40 to 80% upon the lowering of the effluent pH from 6.5 to 3.5. Raising the pH above 6.5 had no effect. No pH-induced change in particle size distribution of the effluent was observed. A pH of 3.5 is below the isoelectric point of TM and it is likely that the enhanced turbidity removal was due to electrostatic effects.

In bench-scale filtration of PTE at pH 6.5, a 100 mm depth of TM removed 30% of the turbidity. Increasing the bed depth for TM did not lead to significant further improvement in filter performance. In the case of filtration by a fine SS (14/24), 25% turbidity removal was achieved using a 500 mm bed. Increasing the bed depth to 1800 mm increased turbidity removal to 50%. In glass column experiments, a 1000 mm deep bed of coarse SS (7 /14) removed 30% of the turbidity. An increase to 35% occurred when the bed depth, using this medium was increased to 1600 mm. The same media when used in larger pilot plant filters removed 50% of the turbidity. A particular feature of the TM medium was its ease of fluidisation at flowrates < 10 m/h. This characteristics make it a suitable medium for pulsed bed operation. A feature of the SS medium was its large hydraulic conductivity and high solids holding capacity.

On the basis of the results obtained from the bench trials, evaluation filter units incorporating the essential features of the porous ceramic dual media (PCDM) system were constructed. The evaluation systems were equipped with under drains that incorporated a variety of purpose designed titanomagnetite ceramic (TMC) nozzles held in place by a tube bolt that also delivered air and water during filtration and backwashing. Investigation of the flow characteristics of the TMC nozzles showed that the major flow-regulating factor in the nozzle system was the water orifice in the bolt stem. Resistance in up-flow was consistently larger than resistance in down-flow. This was attributed to differences in the hydrodynamics of flow in each direction. Re-designing the bolt could lead to a 30% reduced flow-restriction during backwashing.

Biofilm growth on the TM and SS filtration media and the TMC used to manufacture the ceramic nozzles was studied by prolonged immersion in partially digested effluent. SS media showed a high degree of vesicular space and under aerobic conditions, affinity for loose attachment of organic material. TM showed most anaerobic film growth, accompanied by formation of a red iron oxide deposit. Significantly little biofilm growth on the ceramic material was observed. Such growth, if it occurred, could block the nozzles.
Pilot plant evaluation trials using PTE showed that for SS, filtration efficiency increased steeply with bed depth up to a bed depth of 500 mm, irrespective of the grade of SS used. At depths greater than 500 mm, filtration efficiency increased more slowly with depth. Run times were typically of 50 h duration by which time flow rates under a constant head of 2700 mm had decreased from 12 m/h to 1 m/h. Bed loadings were as high as 100 kg/m³ at the top of the bed with a mean of 22 kg/m³. In the case of TM, a minimum bed depth of 100 mm was required in order to accommodate the TMC tube nozzles. Deeper beds blocked after very short run times. Flowrates of 1 m/h or less and run times of 1 h or less were observed.

For both types of media, solids were easily dislodged during backwashing.

Pulsed backwashing greatly reduced backwash water requirements and in the case of SS beds yielded sludge with solids content suitable for anaerobic digestion. 

Flow-dynamics through PCDM filter nozzles showed increased resistance in upflow being caused by designs in the nozzle-bolt. Vena contracta effects provide an explanation. 

PCDM filtration using SS as the major medium offers a viable technology for the continuous removal of much of the TSS from PTE. A potential energy saving can be envisaged from the reduced aeration required for reduced BOD loadings going to secondary biological treatment. In addition, the concentrated backwash water from bed backwashing, can be transferred directly to anaerobic digesters. Reduced CO₂ generation and an increase in methane production would off-set installation and running costs of the filter in about 15 years.

year: 2002

title: Hā Ora: secondary care barriers and enablers to early diagnosis of lung cancer for Māori communities.

authors: Kidd, Jacquie

subjects: Barriers

abstract: BACKGROUND: Lung Cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in Aotearoa New Zealand. Māori communities in particular have higher incidence and mortality rates from Lung Cancer. Diagnosis of lung cancer at an early stage can allow for curative treatment. This project aimed to document the barriers to early diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer in secondary care for Māori communities. 
METHODS: This project used a kaupapa Māori approach. Nine community hui (focus groups) and nine primary healthcare provider hui were carried out in five rural localities in the Midland region. Community hui included cancer patients, whānau (families), and other community members. Healthcare provider hui comprised staff members at the local primary healthcare centre, including General Practitioners and nurses. Hui data were thematically analysed. 
RESULTS: Barriers and enablers to early diagnosis of lung cancer were categorised into two broad themes: Specialist services and treatment, and whānau journey. The barriers and enablers that participants experienced in specialist services and treatment related to access to care, engagement with specialists, communication with specialist services and cultural values and respect, whereas barriers and enablers relating to the whānau journey focused on agency and the impact on whānau. 
CONCLUSIONS: The study highlighted the need to improve communication within and across healthcare services, the importance of understanding the cultural needs of patients and whānau and a health system strategy that meets these needs. Findings also demonstrated the resilience of Māori and the active efforts of whānau as carers to foster health literacy in future generations.

text: Hā Ora: secondary care barriers and enablers to early diagnosis of lung cancer for Māori communities. BACKGROUND: Lung Cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in Aotearoa New Zealand. Māori communities in particular have higher incidence and mortality rates from Lung Cancer. Diagnosis of lung cancer at an early stage can allow for curative treatment. This project aimed to document the barriers to early diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer in secondary care for Māori communities. 
METHODS: This project used a kaupapa Māori approach. Nine community hui (focus groups) and nine primary healthcare provider hui were carried out in five rural localities in the Midland region. Community hui included cancer patients, whānau (families), and other community members. Healthcare provider hui comprised staff members at the local primary healthcare centre, including General Practitioners and nurses. Hui data were thematically analysed. 
RESULTS: Barriers and enablers to early diagnosis of lung cancer were categorised into two broad themes: Specialist services and treatment, and whānau journey. The barriers and enablers that participants experienced in specialist services and treatment related to access to care, engagement with specialists, communication with specialist services and cultural values and respect, whereas barriers and enablers relating to the whānau journey focused on agency and the impact on whānau. 
CONCLUSIONS: The study highlighted the need to improve communication within and across healthcare services, the importance of understanding the cultural needs of patients and whānau and a health system strategy that meets these needs. Findings also demonstrated the resilience of Māori and the active efforts of whānau as carers to foster health literacy in future generations.

year: 2021