title: The effects of foreign direct investment on domestic firms: The case of Vietnam

authors: Ha, Van Thi Cam

subjects: Foreign direct investment

abstract: Thanks to the economic reform after the launch of “Doi moi” in 1986, Vietnam has made significant gains and has transformed from an economically poor country in the 1980-90s towards a middle-income country by the 2010s. A dynamic market deeply integrated into the global economy has helped pave the way for foreign investment inflows to Vietnam. While it is clear that foreign direct investment plays a crucial role in the economy as a whole, the debate continues on whether foreign direct investment has positive or negative effects on domestic firms. In developing countries, foreign investment can be supportive to local enterprises where the former provides technological advantages that are beneficial. However, there are examples of where foreign presence negatively impacts on the development of local firms if they do not have adequate resources to absorb spillovers. This thesis examines whether the presence of foreign direct investment contributes to the development of Vietnamese firms from different angles including productivity, export activity, R&D and innovation and investment during the 2010-15 period. The thesis comprises four papers.
The first paper examines the impacts of foreign presence on domestic enterprise productivity within and between industries through horizontal and vertical channels. Panel data models are employed to investigate the linkage between foreign investment and local firm total factor productivity. The results indicate the presence of positive spillovers from foreign investment in downstream sectors to domestic firm productivity in upstream sectors through backward linkages, while a negative impact is found in the same sectors through horizontal linkages.
In the second paper, Heckman selection estimation is employed to investigate whether foreign investment has any influence on the exporting activity of domestic firms. The results suggest that while foreign investment in downstream sectors is found to encourage the export decision of local firms in the same and upstream sectors through horizontal and backward linkages, the export intensity of local firms only benefits from backward linkages. The linkages between exporting activity of local firms and the presence of foreign investment appears to be different when comparing low- and high-tech firms. 
While it is argued that foreign investment in a host country can encourage domestic firms to invest in R&D and innovation, there are few studies that consider the case of Vietnam. The third paper of the thesis fills this gap. The results suggest that there is a weak positive association between foreign investment and local firms R&D activity and innovation through forward linkages, while there is no significant evidence to support the view that multinational enterprises help improve local firms R&D behaviour through horizontal and backward linkages. 
The final paper in this thesis investigates the possibility of crowding-effects from foreign investment to local investment. System General Method of Moments estimation is employed to a sector-level balanced panel dataset to account for dynamic effects.  The results indicate that foreign investment significantly encourages domestic investment, and export-oriented sectors appear to be more sensitive to the impact from multinational investment.

text: The effects of foreign direct investment on domestic firms: The case of Vietnam Thanks to the economic reform after the launch of “Doi moi” in 1986, Vietnam has made significant gains and has transformed from an economically poor country in the 1980-90s towards a middle-income country by the 2010s. A dynamic market deeply integrated into the global economy has helped pave the way for foreign investment inflows to Vietnam. While it is clear that foreign direct investment plays a crucial role in the economy as a whole, the debate continues on whether foreign direct investment has positive or negative effects on domestic firms. In developing countries, foreign investment can be supportive to local enterprises where the former provides technological advantages that are beneficial. However, there are examples of where foreign presence negatively impacts on the development of local firms if they do not have adequate resources to absorb spillovers. This thesis examines whether the presence of foreign direct investment contributes to the development of Vietnamese firms from different angles including productivity, export activity, R&D and innovation and investment during the 2010-15 period. The thesis comprises four papers.
The first paper examines the impacts of foreign presence on domestic enterprise productivity within and between industries through horizontal and vertical channels. Panel data models are employed to investigate the linkage between foreign investment and local firm total factor productivity. The results indicate the presence of positive spillovers from foreign investment in downstream sectors to domestic firm productivity in upstream sectors through backward linkages, while a negative impact is found in the same sectors through horizontal linkages.
In the second paper, Heckman selection estimation is employed to investigate whether foreign investment has any influence on the exporting activity of domestic firms. The results suggest that while foreign investment in downstream sectors is found to encourage the export decision of local firms in the same and upstream sectors through horizontal and backward linkages, the export intensity of local firms only benefits from backward linkages. The linkages between exporting activity of local firms and the presence of foreign investment appears to be different when comparing low- and high-tech firms. 
While it is argued that foreign investment in a host country can encourage domestic firms to invest in R&D and innovation, there are few studies that consider the case of Vietnam. The third paper of the thesis fills this gap. The results suggest that there is a weak positive association between foreign investment and local firms R&D activity and innovation through forward linkages, while there is no significant evidence to support the view that multinational enterprises help improve local firms R&D behaviour through horizontal and backward linkages. 
The final paper in this thesis investigates the possibility of crowding-effects from foreign investment to local investment. System General Method of Moments estimation is employed to a sector-level balanced panel dataset to account for dynamic effects.  The results indicate that foreign investment significantly encourages domestic investment, and export-oriented sectors appear to be more sensitive to the impact from multinational investment.

year: 2021

title: Genetic diversity and phylogeography of New Zealand and Antarctic arthropods

authors: McGaughran, Angela

abstract: Historical climatic and geological changes and ecological factors ( e.g. population size, dispersal abilities) are conducive to shaping genetic differentiation among natural populations. This thesis examines these issues in a phylogeographic context by looking at patterns of genetic diversity and dispersal of arthropods in two geographic regions. 
In southern New Zealand and its outlying islands, regional genetic divergence was revealed using mtDNA (COi) analysis for populations of idoteid isopods. Divergence within Austridotea benhami was < 2.0%. However, divergence within A. lacustris reached up to 10% with four main groupings: 1) Chatham Islands; 2) Campbell Island; 3) Fiordland; and 4) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. Similarly, A. annectens showed two main groups (4.4% diverg~nt): 1) Chatham Islands; and 2) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. These patterns are likely to be the result of geographical isolation, with some populations showing divergence corresponding to the availability of habitat (e.g. the divergence of A. lacustris and A. annectens on Chatham Islands may relate to the availability of this habitat - 4 Mya). Additionally, divergence of A. lacustris on Campbell Island and Fiordland may indicate a rare founder event or environmental change that resulted in population isolation. Overall, genetic data and geological history indicated that rare dispersal / events (or range expansion and population extinction), particularly during the Pliocene, may have played an important role in shaping the present-day distribution and genetic structure of freshwater idoteid isopods throughout New Zealand and its outlying islands.
In Antarctica, analysis of patterns of mtDNA (COI) diversity and the geographic distribution of haplotypes among populations of the springtail Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni and the mite Stereotydeus mollis also revealed (congruent) patterns of genetic sub-structuring. Furthermore, genetic discontinuities suggested limited dispersal opportunities and isolation-by-distance for these taxa. Haplotype diversity within Wright and Victoria Valleys (St. John's, Olympus and Asgard ranges) was found to be higher here than in other areas and the distribution of haplotypes across sites was very heterogeneous. G. hodgsoni and S. mollis populations harboured eight and 23 new mtDNA haplotypes, respectively and showed links to previously sampled populations across southern Victoria Land. Accordingly, it is possible that this region may represent a primary location of a refugial source population from which many extant populations in southern Victoria Land have expanded since the Pleistocene and Holocene. 
Collectively, these studies revealed limited current dispersal and high levels of regional genetic differentiation for three arthropod taxa from fragmented habitats in both New Zealand and Antarctica. It provided insight into the biogeographic processes underlying modem distribution patterns of these taxa and highlighted the utility of the phylogeographic approach in reconstructing biotic history to further / knowledge of the relationships that exist between population processes and patterns of species diversity. Additionally, genetic analyses such as those performed here provided a basis to re-evaluate populations from a biodiversity perspective. Specifically, the New Zealand study clarified specific and generic relationships for potential reassessment of conservation status, while the Antarctic study identified biodiversity hotspots and priorities for conservation strategies (e.g. specially protected areas).

text: Genetic diversity and phylogeography of New Zealand and Antarctic arthropods Historical climatic and geological changes and ecological factors ( e.g. population size, dispersal abilities) are conducive to shaping genetic differentiation among natural populations. This thesis examines these issues in a phylogeographic context by looking at patterns of genetic diversity and dispersal of arthropods in two geographic regions. 
In southern New Zealand and its outlying islands, regional genetic divergence was revealed using mtDNA (COi) analysis for populations of idoteid isopods. Divergence within Austridotea benhami was < 2.0%. However, divergence within A. lacustris reached up to 10% with four main groupings: 1) Chatham Islands; 2) Campbell Island; 3) Fiordland; and 4) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. Similarly, A. annectens showed two main groups (4.4% diverg~nt): 1) Chatham Islands; and 2) east coast South Island and Stewart Island. These patterns are likely to be the result of geographical isolation, with some populations showing divergence corresponding to the availability of habitat (e.g. the divergence of A. lacustris and A. annectens on Chatham Islands may relate to the availability of this habitat - 4 Mya). Additionally, divergence of A. lacustris on Campbell Island and Fiordland may indicate a rare founder event or environmental change that resulted in population isolation. Overall, genetic data and geological history indicated that rare dispersal / events (or range expansion and population extinction), particularly during the Pliocene, may have played an important role in shaping the present-day distribution and genetic structure of freshwater idoteid isopods throughout New Zealand and its outlying islands.
In Antarctica, analysis of patterns of mtDNA (COI) diversity and the geographic distribution of haplotypes among populations of the springtail Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni and the mite Stereotydeus mollis also revealed (congruent) patterns of genetic sub-structuring. Furthermore, genetic discontinuities suggested limited dispersal opportunities and isolation-by-distance for these taxa. Haplotype diversity within Wright and Victoria Valleys (St. John's, Olympus and Asgard ranges) was found to be higher here than in other areas and the distribution of haplotypes across sites was very heterogeneous. G. hodgsoni and S. mollis populations harboured eight and 23 new mtDNA haplotypes, respectively and showed links to previously sampled populations across southern Victoria Land. Accordingly, it is possible that this region may represent a primary location of a refugial source population from which many extant populations in southern Victoria Land have expanded since the Pleistocene and Holocene. 
Collectively, these studies revealed limited current dispersal and high levels of regional genetic differentiation for three arthropod taxa from fragmented habitats in both New Zealand and Antarctica. It provided insight into the biogeographic processes underlying modem distribution patterns of these taxa and highlighted the utility of the phylogeographic approach in reconstructing biotic history to further / knowledge of the relationships that exist between population processes and patterns of species diversity. Additionally, genetic analyses such as those performed here provided a basis to re-evaluate populations from a biodiversity perspective. Specifically, the New Zealand study clarified specific and generic relationships for potential reassessment of conservation status, while the Antarctic study identified biodiversity hotspots and priorities for conservation strategies (e.g. specially protected areas).

year: 2005

title: Māori wards in Tauranga Moana and Aotearoa: Liminal local government democracy

authors: Des Forges, Sandra

subjects: Māori wards

abstract: This thesis focuses on Māori representation within the highly contested arena of local government democracy in Aotearoa New Zealand. Limitations of the current Eurocentric model of local government democracy are considered at various spatial scales. Legislative changes to enable councils to establish Māori wards were launched in the early 2000s. Māori wards are defined locations where those on the Māori electoral roll vote for Māori ward candidates, resulting in dedicated Māori representation at elected member level. Until 2021 when the legislation was amended to remove the ability for public referenda to challenge council decisions on establishing Māori wards, however, little change occurred. Since then, 35 councils have established Māori wards for the 2022 local body elections.
The research asks how, and in what ways, do Māori wards decolonise local government and encourage greater Māori representation? To explore this question, the empirical chapters are framed around three key aspects of liminality; the in-between positioning of Māori wards reflecting a time of change; this liminal space being a time where unease and discomfort is experienced by some as Indigenous disparity is addressed; and the threshold positioning of Māori wards as a place of opportunity and creativity, where new ideas and practices may be considered. Geographical concepts of (un)belonging, exclusion and deep colonising reveal challenges for Māori participation at the level of local government decision-making. 
The research uses an Indigenous methodological framework, Te Ara Tika, based on a framework of Kaupapa Māori, and developed specifically for non-Māori researchers. Māori wards have been widely debated in the media, particularly at the time of changes to the Māori ward legislation in 2021. Thematic analysis of 122 media representations of the Māori ward debate constitutes part of the empirical evidence. Fourteen individual interviews with local government representatives, including elected Council members from Tauranga Moana and members of Te Rangapū Mana Whenua o Tauranga Moana Partnership, were conducted. Additionally, participant observations took place at three public meetings on Māori wards.
The way the current form of local government representative democracy impacts Māori representation is identified. The research demonstrates how local government continues to act as a tool of colonialism by privileging Western worldviews, institutions, and systems. The research finds that Māori wards are liminal democratic options that are both decolonising and deep colonising. Evidence shows that the liminal space of Māori wards is an opportunity to consider options for a way forward to reimagine local government as a place of belonging underpinned by Te Tiriti o Waitangi and Te Ao Māori principles. 
The research builds on decolonisation literatures that seek to unsettle the hegemony of Eurocentric institutions and systems within colonised countries such as Aotearoa. Providing a critical spatial perspective on the intersection of democracy, colonisation and Indigeneity, this thesis advances decolonising geographical knowledges. In particular, this research advances debates about democratic processes, exposing ways in which colonially-based local authority democratic mechanisms contribute to under-representation issues. A reimagined local government allows current hegemonic approaches to be rethought and provides insights for a shift towards genuine decolonising processes.

text: Māori wards in Tauranga Moana and Aotearoa: Liminal local government democracy This thesis focuses on Māori representation within the highly contested arena of local government democracy in Aotearoa New Zealand. Limitations of the current Eurocentric model of local government democracy are considered at various spatial scales. Legislative changes to enable councils to establish Māori wards were launched in the early 2000s. Māori wards are defined locations where those on the Māori electoral roll vote for Māori ward candidates, resulting in dedicated Māori representation at elected member level. Until 2021 when the legislation was amended to remove the ability for public referenda to challenge council decisions on establishing Māori wards, however, little change occurred. Since then, 35 councils have established Māori wards for the 2022 local body elections.
The research asks how, and in what ways, do Māori wards decolonise local government and encourage greater Māori representation? To explore this question, the empirical chapters are framed around three key aspects of liminality; the in-between positioning of Māori wards reflecting a time of change; this liminal space being a time where unease and discomfort is experienced by some as Indigenous disparity is addressed; and the threshold positioning of Māori wards as a place of opportunity and creativity, where new ideas and practices may be considered. Geographical concepts of (un)belonging, exclusion and deep colonising reveal challenges for Māori participation at the level of local government decision-making. 
The research uses an Indigenous methodological framework, Te Ara Tika, based on a framework of Kaupapa Māori, and developed specifically for non-Māori researchers. Māori wards have been widely debated in the media, particularly at the time of changes to the Māori ward legislation in 2021. Thematic analysis of 122 media representations of the Māori ward debate constitutes part of the empirical evidence. Fourteen individual interviews with local government representatives, including elected Council members from Tauranga Moana and members of Te Rangapū Mana Whenua o Tauranga Moana Partnership, were conducted. Additionally, participant observations took place at three public meetings on Māori wards.
The way the current form of local government representative democracy impacts Māori representation is identified. The research demonstrates how local government continues to act as a tool of colonialism by privileging Western worldviews, institutions, and systems. The research finds that Māori wards are liminal democratic options that are both decolonising and deep colonising. Evidence shows that the liminal space of Māori wards is an opportunity to consider options for a way forward to reimagine local government as a place of belonging underpinned by Te Tiriti o Waitangi and Te Ao Māori principles. 
The research builds on decolonisation literatures that seek to unsettle the hegemony of Eurocentric institutions and systems within colonised countries such as Aotearoa. Providing a critical spatial perspective on the intersection of democracy, colonisation and Indigeneity, this thesis advances decolonising geographical knowledges. In particular, this research advances debates about democratic processes, exposing ways in which colonially-based local authority democratic mechanisms contribute to under-representation issues. A reimagined local government allows current hegemonic approaches to be rethought and provides insights for a shift towards genuine decolonising processes.

year: 2023