title: Analysing International Sports Fan Motivations and Constraints: The Case of Japanese International Sports Fan Tourists and Rugby World Cup Fan Tourists

authors: Nishio, Tatsuru

subjects: Sports Tourism

abstract: The scale of professional sports leagues and mega sports events has expanded recently. Many sports fans travel to foreign countries to watch international events featuring the world’s top athletes or players. The number of international sports fan tourists has increased, and understanding their behaviour is very important for stakeholders and those involved in marketing, such as sports organisations, travel companies, and government tourist organisations. 

This study examines the motivations and constraints of Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup fan tourists. Sports fan tourists are tourists as well as sports fans. Many researchers have examined motivation either from a sports fan’s perspective or a tourist perspective. However, a motivation scale for international sports fan tourists (combining both sports fan and tourist motivations) has been not developed as there has been a lack of research into the behaviour of the international sports fan tourist.  

The main research aim of this study is to analyse the motivation and constraint factors of both Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup tourists. The methodology aims to: 
1.profile Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup tourists;
2.develop a motivational scale for actual sports fan tourists and a constraints scale for potential sports fan tourists (those who considered going but did not go);
3.analyse these factors according to demographics;
4.examine factors related to motivations and constraints on fans’ satisfaction, or their intention to attend future events.

A quantitative approach was employed. The main data collection methods were three email surveys:
1.Study 1 collected data about actual international sports fan tourists (N=338) and potential sports fan tourists (N=292).
2.Study 2 collected data about actual Rugby World Cup 1987-2007 tourists (N=101) and potential tourists (N=297). 
3.Study 3 collected data about actual Rugby World Cup 2011 tourists (N=84) and potential tourists (N=115). 

In previous studies, the sample was collected either from actual fans or potential fans separately; however, in this study, samples were collected not only from actual sports fan tourists but also from potential sports fan tourists from the same database.

The data analysis predominantly used explanatory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), independent t-test, ANOVA, regression analysis, and structure equation modelling (SEM) including interaction effects analysis.

The results of this study were analysed using four steps: 
1.Showing the demographic profiles and behavioural patterns of Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup fan tourists. 
2.Developing motivation and constraints scales: 
• an International Sports Fan Motivation Scale
• an International Sports Fan Tourist Motivation Scale 
• an International Sports Fan Constraints Scale
• a Rugby World Cup Sports Fan Motivation Scale 
• a Rugby World Cup Fan Tourist Motivation Scale
• a Rugby World Cup Fan Constraints Scale. 
3.Comparing the mean scores of extracted factors by demographics such as gender, age, sports experiences etc.
4.Analysing the impact on satisfaction or future intention using interaction effect methods. 

The results showed some interesting academic and practical implications. This study has thus made a significant and unique contribution to the knowledge of international sports fan behaviour by researching the combined sports fan motivation factors and tourist motivation factors of actual sports fans, and the constraints of potential sports fan tourists. The study has also provided an academic contribution to the sports and tourism fields, and has provided a practical contribution to the areas of sports fan behaviour, tourism, leisure constraints, and sports events management.

text: Analysing International Sports Fan Motivations and Constraints: The Case of Japanese International Sports Fan Tourists and Rugby World Cup Fan Tourists The scale of professional sports leagues and mega sports events has expanded recently. Many sports fans travel to foreign countries to watch international events featuring the world’s top athletes or players. The number of international sports fan tourists has increased, and understanding their behaviour is very important for stakeholders and those involved in marketing, such as sports organisations, travel companies, and government tourist organisations. 

This study examines the motivations and constraints of Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup fan tourists. Sports fan tourists are tourists as well as sports fans. Many researchers have examined motivation either from a sports fan’s perspective or a tourist perspective. However, a motivation scale for international sports fan tourists (combining both sports fan and tourist motivations) has been not developed as there has been a lack of research into the behaviour of the international sports fan tourist.  

The main research aim of this study is to analyse the motivation and constraint factors of both Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup tourists. The methodology aims to: 
1.profile Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup tourists;
2.develop a motivational scale for actual sports fan tourists and a constraints scale for potential sports fan tourists (those who considered going but did not go);
3.analyse these factors according to demographics;
4.examine factors related to motivations and constraints on fans’ satisfaction, or their intention to attend future events.

A quantitative approach was employed. The main data collection methods were three email surveys:
1.Study 1 collected data about actual international sports fan tourists (N=338) and potential sports fan tourists (N=292).
2.Study 2 collected data about actual Rugby World Cup 1987-2007 tourists (N=101) and potential tourists (N=297). 
3.Study 3 collected data about actual Rugby World Cup 2011 tourists (N=84) and potential tourists (N=115). 

In previous studies, the sample was collected either from actual fans or potential fans separately; however, in this study, samples were collected not only from actual sports fan tourists but also from potential sports fan tourists from the same database.

The data analysis predominantly used explanatory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), independent t-test, ANOVA, regression analysis, and structure equation modelling (SEM) including interaction effects analysis.

The results of this study were analysed using four steps: 
1.Showing the demographic profiles and behavioural patterns of Japanese international sports fan tourists and Japanese Rugby World Cup fan tourists. 
2.Developing motivation and constraints scales: 
• an International Sports Fan Motivation Scale
• an International Sports Fan Tourist Motivation Scale 
• an International Sports Fan Constraints Scale
• a Rugby World Cup Sports Fan Motivation Scale 
• a Rugby World Cup Fan Tourist Motivation Scale
• a Rugby World Cup Fan Constraints Scale. 
3.Comparing the mean scores of extracted factors by demographics such as gender, age, sports experiences etc.
4.Analysing the impact on satisfaction or future intention using interaction effect methods. 

The results showed some interesting academic and practical implications. This study has thus made a significant and unique contribution to the knowledge of international sports fan behaviour by researching the combined sports fan motivation factors and tourist motivation factors of actual sports fans, and the constraints of potential sports fan tourists. The study has also provided an academic contribution to the sports and tourism fields, and has provided a practical contribution to the areas of sports fan behaviour, tourism, leisure constraints, and sports events management.

year: 2013

title: Ancient origins determine global biogeography of hot and cold desert cyanobacteria

authors: Bahl, Justin

subjects: biological sciences

abstract: Factors governing large-scale spatio-temporal distribution of microorganisms remain unresolved, yet are pivotal to understanding ecosystem value and function. Molecular genetic analyses have focused on the influence of niche and neutral processes in determining spatial patterns without considering the temporal scale. Here, we use temporal phylogenetic analysis calibrated using microfossil data for a globally sampled desert cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis, to investigate spatio-temporal patterns in microbial biogeography and evolution. Multilocus phylogenetic associations were dependent on contemporary climate with no evidence for distance-related patterns. Massively parallel pyrosequencing of environmental samples confirmed that Chroococcidiopsis variants were specific to either hot or cold deserts. Temporally scaled phylogenetic analyses showed no evidence of recent inter-regional gene flow, indicating populations have not shared common ancestry since before the formation of modern continents. These results indicate that global distribution of desert cyanobacteria has not resulted from widespread contemporary dispersal but is an ancient evolutionary legacy. This highlights the importance of considering temporal scales in microbial biogeography.

text: Ancient origins determine global biogeography of hot and cold desert cyanobacteria Factors governing large-scale spatio-temporal distribution of microorganisms remain unresolved, yet are pivotal to understanding ecosystem value and function. Molecular genetic analyses have focused on the influence of niche and neutral processes in determining spatial patterns without considering the temporal scale. Here, we use temporal phylogenetic analysis calibrated using microfossil data for a globally sampled desert cyanobacterium, Chroococcidiopsis, to investigate spatio-temporal patterns in microbial biogeography and evolution. Multilocus phylogenetic associations were dependent on contemporary climate with no evidence for distance-related patterns. Massively parallel pyrosequencing of environmental samples confirmed that Chroococcidiopsis variants were specific to either hot or cold deserts. Temporally scaled phylogenetic analyses showed no evidence of recent inter-regional gene flow, indicating populations have not shared common ancestry since before the formation of modern continents. These results indicate that global distribution of desert cyanobacteria has not resulted from widespread contemporary dispersal but is an ancient evolutionary legacy. This highlights the importance of considering temporal scales in microbial biogeography.

year: 2010

title: Significance of an early date from an adzed tree stump in Northland

authors: Higham, Thomas F.G.

abstract: Ogle, Jones, Sutton and Wallace (1998) have recently investigated the radiocarbon dating of a tree stump ('Ogle's stump’) which had evidence of adze marks, near the site of Taumatawhana pa, Houhora, Northland. The conventional radiocarbon age of 938 ± 31 BP was obtained at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd (formerly INS) laboratory in 1971. Ogle et al.(1998) considered the 'inbuilt age' of the wood (see McFadgen, 1982) and assessed its contribution to the radiocarbon determination. In this brief paper we re-evaluate that methodology and question the conclusion of Ogle et al. (1998) that the date is reliable. We are particularly concerned with the comparison of the date with an associated radiocarbon result obtained by Elliot et al. (1995) from a nearby site at Lake Taumatawhana, which we think is misleading.

text: Significance of an early date from an adzed tree stump in Northland Ogle, Jones, Sutton and Wallace (1998) have recently investigated the radiocarbon dating of a tree stump ('Ogle's stump’) which had evidence of adze marks, near the site of Taumatawhana pa, Houhora, Northland. The conventional radiocarbon age of 938 ± 31 BP was obtained at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Ltd (formerly INS) laboratory in 1971. Ogle et al.(1998) considered the 'inbuilt age' of the wood (see McFadgen, 1982) and assessed its contribution to the radiocarbon determination. In this brief paper we re-evaluate that methodology and question the conclusion of Ogle et al. (1998) that the date is reliable. We are particularly concerned with the comparison of the date with an associated radiocarbon result obtained by Elliot et al. (1995) from a nearby site at Lake Taumatawhana, which we think is misleading.

year: 1998