title: Harakeke (Phormium tenax) ecology and historical management by Maori: The changing landscape in New Zealand

authors: Wehi, Priscilla M.

subjects: ethnobotany

abstract: Harakeke (Phormium tenax: Phormiaceae) is an important weaving resource for the indigenous Maori people of New Zealand. This research project investigates Maori knowledge of harakeke ecology and management practices prior to the early 20th century within the context of a study of relevant environmental parameters that limit its natural distribution. Ecological information referring to harakeke was analysed from interviews with elders and ancestral sayings (whakatauki). As well, documents from the late 181h to the early 20th century were examined, and environmental parameters for both harakeke and wharariki (Phormium cookianum) were quantified and analysed using correlative models. 
Interviews with 11 elders (from Waikato and Northland) identified key issues in harakeke management, including 'correct' harvesting procedures, use of natural harakeke stands, and specific use of different varieties. Planting practices varied regionally. Three different methods of excess harakeke disposal were reported, including burning. The 15 whakatauki analysed emphasise the interconnectedness of ecosystems, including pollinator-plant relationships for kaka and bellbirds. Four whakataukirefer to environmental tolerances for harakeke and two to the use of fire to stimulate harakeke growth. Others refer to competition between shoots, nutrient requirements, and the growth and multiplication of harakeke offsets. 
Numerous early reports indicate that harakeke has been cultivated throughout much of New Zealand, with cultivations ranging in size from a few bushes to at least several acres. Thirty six varieties were linked to specific weaving uses. Twenty varieties were cultivated, but ten prized fibre varieties were also harvested from natural stands. Numbers of recorded varieties varied between districts, with 31 recorded in Taranaki but only two recorded by name for Northland. Valued varieties, including raumoa and oue, were dispersed throughout the North Island. Mapping different varieties revealed a wide spatial spread for varieties such as rataroa and oue. Specific management techniques included seed germination as well as vegetative propagation. Early records of harakeke pests were not found. Records of harakeke irrigation and the use of fire indicate that Maori created suitable conditions for new cultivations or pii harakeke, which may also have prevented insect infestation. Cumulatively, there is evidence of extensive active management of harakeke. Wharariki and harakeke were found to have distinct environmental niches, with wharariki better able to withstand cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and greater frequency of ground frost than harakeke.
Predictive mapping of harakeke for the northern region of New Zealand shows a low probability of naturally occurring harakeke in much of the Northland and Waikato interior, and a high probability in coastal areas with warm temperatures. It seems likely that Maori transported harakeke into areas where it was unlikely to have occurred naturally and that some apparently 'natural' stands ofharakeke were created and maintained by Maori.
Maori cultivation, dispersal and active management of harakeke, as well as possible creation of wetland areas, emphasises the importance of harakeke as an economic resource prior to European colonisation, and indicates how the New Zealand landscape may have been transformed. Maori ecological knowledge can contribute new perspectives to restoration ecology and ecosystem research.

text: Harakeke (Phormium tenax) ecology and historical management by Maori: The changing landscape in New Zealand Harakeke (Phormium tenax: Phormiaceae) is an important weaving resource for the indigenous Maori people of New Zealand. This research project investigates Maori knowledge of harakeke ecology and management practices prior to the early 20th century within the context of a study of relevant environmental parameters that limit its natural distribution. Ecological information referring to harakeke was analysed from interviews with elders and ancestral sayings (whakatauki). As well, documents from the late 181h to the early 20th century were examined, and environmental parameters for both harakeke and wharariki (Phormium cookianum) were quantified and analysed using correlative models. 
Interviews with 11 elders (from Waikato and Northland) identified key issues in harakeke management, including 'correct' harvesting procedures, use of natural harakeke stands, and specific use of different varieties. Planting practices varied regionally. Three different methods of excess harakeke disposal were reported, including burning. The 15 whakatauki analysed emphasise the interconnectedness of ecosystems, including pollinator-plant relationships for kaka and bellbirds. Four whakataukirefer to environmental tolerances for harakeke and two to the use of fire to stimulate harakeke growth. Others refer to competition between shoots, nutrient requirements, and the growth and multiplication of harakeke offsets. 
Numerous early reports indicate that harakeke has been cultivated throughout much of New Zealand, with cultivations ranging in size from a few bushes to at least several acres. Thirty six varieties were linked to specific weaving uses. Twenty varieties were cultivated, but ten prized fibre varieties were also harvested from natural stands. Numbers of recorded varieties varied between districts, with 31 recorded in Taranaki but only two recorded by name for Northland. Valued varieties, including raumoa and oue, were dispersed throughout the North Island. Mapping different varieties revealed a wide spatial spread for varieties such as rataroa and oue. Specific management techniques included seed germination as well as vegetative propagation. Early records of harakeke pests were not found. Records of harakeke irrigation and the use of fire indicate that Maori created suitable conditions for new cultivations or pii harakeke, which may also have prevented insect infestation. Cumulatively, there is evidence of extensive active management of harakeke. Wharariki and harakeke were found to have distinct environmental niches, with wharariki better able to withstand cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and greater frequency of ground frost than harakeke.
Predictive mapping of harakeke for the northern region of New Zealand shows a low probability of naturally occurring harakeke in much of the Northland and Waikato interior, and a high probability in coastal areas with warm temperatures. It seems likely that Maori transported harakeke into areas where it was unlikely to have occurred naturally and that some apparently 'natural' stands ofharakeke were created and maintained by Maori.
Maori cultivation, dispersal and active management of harakeke, as well as possible creation of wetland areas, emphasises the importance of harakeke as an economic resource prior to European colonisation, and indicates how the New Zealand landscape may have been transformed. Maori ecological knowledge can contribute new perspectives to restoration ecology and ecosystem research.

year: 2005

title: Iwi, institutes, societies & community led initiatives

authors: Whaanga, Hēmi

abstract: With the rapid evolution, innovation and incredible growth of ICT, the avenues to exchange, access, manage, create, disseminate, display and research Indigenous data and Mātauranga Māori have increased at astounding rates. This generation, often referred to as ‘digital natives', ‘homo zappiëns’, ‘Net generation’, ‘millennials’, ‘i-generation’ (see, for example Akçayır, Dündar, & Akçayır, 2016; Kirschner & De Bruyckere, 2017; Prensky, 2001; Yong & Gates, 2014), have been raised, immersed and exposed to a myriad of digital technologies, video games, computers, digital music players and cellular phones during their brief lifetimes. Technologies have dramatically transformed how each generation access, communicate, share knowledge, distribute and view information. Social networks like Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Reddit, Pinterest, Tumblr and social networking apps such as Messenger, WhatsApp, WeChat, QQ Chat, QZone, Viber, LINE, and Snapchat, with billons of active users per month, are as familiar to this generation as was the radio, television and landline telephones to the Baby Boomers who grew up with pre-cellphone mobile technology.

text: Iwi, institutes, societies & community led initiatives With the rapid evolution, innovation and incredible growth of ICT, the avenues to exchange, access, manage, create, disseminate, display and research Indigenous data and Mātauranga Māori have increased at astounding rates. This generation, often referred to as ‘digital natives', ‘homo zappiëns’, ‘Net generation’, ‘millennials’, ‘i-generation’ (see, for example Akçayır, Dündar, & Akçayır, 2016; Kirschner & De Bruyckere, 2017; Prensky, 2001; Yong & Gates, 2014), have been raised, immersed and exposed to a myriad of digital technologies, video games, computers, digital music players and cellular phones during their brief lifetimes. Technologies have dramatically transformed how each generation access, communicate, share knowledge, distribute and view information. Social networks like Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, Reddit, Pinterest, Tumblr and social networking apps such as Messenger, WhatsApp, WeChat, QQ Chat, QZone, Viber, LINE, and Snapchat, with billons of active users per month, are as familiar to this generation as was the radio, television and landline telephones to the Baby Boomers who grew up with pre-cellphone mobile technology.

year: 2017

title: Automatic Weighing for Dry Stock

authors: Smialowski, Grzegorz

subjects: weighing

abstract: The aim of the research was to develop an accurate weight estimation algorithm for dry stock cattle using unsupervised walk-over equipment and to investigate the accuracy of the dairy cow algorithm for dry stock animals. Several customers and research organisations requested a suitable product for weighing dry stock, similar to the automatic weighing system for dairy cows. The development of the algorithm had to take into account the erratic behaviour of dry stock cattle. An additional requirement for the research was to improve cost effectiveness of the existing system, by removing the need for the lead-on platform.
Data was collected from a series of dry stock herds, as they walked over the existing dairy cow walk-over weighing (WOW) platform, in either a paddock or a stockyard. All dry stock cattle were static weighed before walking over the WOW to obtain an accurate true weight of the animal. The weight estimations produced by the dairy cow algorithm were recorded and the raw load cell data was captured. The raw load cell data was then used to devise a new algorithm specifically for dry stock cattle. The new algorithm was tested against the collected load cell data from various herds. The dairy cow algorithm results were used to compare the accuracy of the existing algorithm on dry stock cattle.
The new devised algorithm used a threshold to locate a rough start and end point for each walk-over event. The data between the initial start and end points was processed to locate the period which had the full weight of the cattle located on the weighing platform. The algorithm estimated the weight of the animal from the data between these points.
It was found that the dairy cow algorithm was nearing the required accuracy, but was not able to determine weights for the majority of the animals. The new algorithm devised for dry stock cattle was unable to obtain an improvement in accuracy, but was able to estimate weights for a greater proportion of the cattle. Additionally the new algorithm was successful in eliminating the need for the lead-on platform for detecting animals.

text: Automatic Weighing for Dry Stock The aim of the research was to develop an accurate weight estimation algorithm for dry stock cattle using unsupervised walk-over equipment and to investigate the accuracy of the dairy cow algorithm for dry stock animals. Several customers and research organisations requested a suitable product for weighing dry stock, similar to the automatic weighing system for dairy cows. The development of the algorithm had to take into account the erratic behaviour of dry stock cattle. An additional requirement for the research was to improve cost effectiveness of the existing system, by removing the need for the lead-on platform.
Data was collected from a series of dry stock herds, as they walked over the existing dairy cow walk-over weighing (WOW) platform, in either a paddock or a stockyard. All dry stock cattle were static weighed before walking over the WOW to obtain an accurate true weight of the animal. The weight estimations produced by the dairy cow algorithm were recorded and the raw load cell data was captured. The raw load cell data was then used to devise a new algorithm specifically for dry stock cattle. The new algorithm was tested against the collected load cell data from various herds. The dairy cow algorithm results were used to compare the accuracy of the existing algorithm on dry stock cattle.
The new devised algorithm used a threshold to locate a rough start and end point for each walk-over event. The data between the initial start and end points was processed to locate the period which had the full weight of the cattle located on the weighing platform. The algorithm estimated the weight of the animal from the data between these points.
It was found that the dairy cow algorithm was nearing the required accuracy, but was not able to determine weights for the majority of the animals. The new algorithm devised for dry stock cattle was unable to obtain an improvement in accuracy, but was able to estimate weights for a greater proportion of the cattle. Additionally the new algorithm was successful in eliminating the need for the lead-on platform for detecting animals.

year: 2013