title: Surface hydrologic modeling and GIS: a case study of the Kaimai Hydropower project catchment, New Zealand

authors: Choudhry, Sohail Afzal

abstract: The recent trend towards spatial hydrologic modeling is due to advances in the field of geographic information systems (GIS). Spatially distributed models take into account the spatial variability within the catchment and allow users to define parameters for each sub-watershed or river section depending on the availability of the data. A study was conducted at the Kaimai Hydropower catchment, Tauranga, to identify the potential advantages and disadvantages of spatial hydrologic modeling for use in surface runoff estimation while emphasizing the importance of GIS data quality and discussing the latest developments in the field of GIS. This study has developed a number of techniques to improve the usefulness of GIS for surface hydrologic modeling. A black box runoff model was also developed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of spatial surface hydrologic model as an inflow prediction tool.

The Kaimai Hydropower scheme is a small storage-constrained scheme and it is very important that such schemes optimize their available water resources in the present competitive electricity marketing environment. River inflow forecasts are an important part of optimizing hydropower schemes. A black box type inflow prediction model was developed and used as an input to the Kaimai Hydropower scheduling software (HYMAX). HYMAX results indicated a 7% improvement in the operation of the hydropower scheme when HYMAX results were compared with the control room operation. 

It is also important for the management of any hydropower scheme to see any impact of landuse change on their river resources. The Kaimai Hydropower catchment has undergone a landuse change from native bush to pinus radiata in several parts of the catchment since 1982. The analysis of electrical power output as a proxy for catchment water yield could not detect any reduction in annual or seasonal water yield. A slight increase in the water yield in winter and spring seasons after landuse change is attributed to the incremental nature of the landuse change. 

The use of GIS in the field of hydrology contains many hidden errors and the user must be aware of the quality of the data before its use. Different types of GIS errors such as generalization, rasterizing error, sink artifacts (and their impacts on the surface hydrologic modeling) were studied and solutions proposed. The digital elevation model is the basic digital data set to be used in surface hydrologic modeling using GIS. A technique was developed to build a hydrologically sound digital elevation model, and this was then applied to develop a surface runoff model using the curve number (CN) approach of excess rainfall estimation within the GIS framework. The unit hydrograph was used to translate the time distribution of excess rainfall into a runoff hydrograph, and routed at the watershed outlet using the Muskingum method. However, the CN method failed in the study area because the region has a high infiltration rate coupled with deep percolation through joints and cracks. The subsurface geology, rather than land surface characteristics, were the dominant factor here, so surface classification methods such as CN could not support predicting quickflow volumes. 

A map-based surface water flow simulation model, which is based on Geographic Information System (GIS) and object oriented programming (OOP), was evaluated after making necessary changes in its original code and applied to the study area to see its applicability as an inflow prediction tool. The selection of this model was based on its strength in addressing GIS and hydrologic modeling, as an integrated field in the area of runoff prediction involving time series data. The model gave a good match when compared with both observed and black box predicted inflows. It proved to be a good strategic management tool for planning purposes, but at present has limited use as an operational tool because of greater computational requirements involved. However, the map-based model is a good addition in the field of integrated spatial hydrologic modeling using GIS. It also solves many of the basic problems such as feature oriented map operations, dynamic segmentation of an arc, and spatial time series database development, which until recently were not possible in a GIS environment. 

This study shows the effective use of black box and GIS techniques by applying them to the study area, and demonstrates the integrated surface hydrologic modeling using ARC/INFO GIS and OOP in an ARCVIEW GIS environment. The importance of the GIS data quality for hydrologic applications is explained by studying the different types of GIS errors, and techniques were developed to handle the errors to improve the quality of the digital data. This study has also addressed new developments in surface hydrologic modeling within a GIS framework; and hopefully some of the solutions presented here will be of value to future work in spatial hydrology and related fields.

text: Surface hydrologic modeling and GIS: a case study of the Kaimai Hydropower project catchment, New Zealand The recent trend towards spatial hydrologic modeling is due to advances in the field of geographic information systems (GIS). Spatially distributed models take into account the spatial variability within the catchment and allow users to define parameters for each sub-watershed or river section depending on the availability of the data. A study was conducted at the Kaimai Hydropower catchment, Tauranga, to identify the potential advantages and disadvantages of spatial hydrologic modeling for use in surface runoff estimation while emphasizing the importance of GIS data quality and discussing the latest developments in the field of GIS. This study has developed a number of techniques to improve the usefulness of GIS for surface hydrologic modeling. A black box runoff model was also developed in order to evaluate the effectiveness of spatial surface hydrologic model as an inflow prediction tool.

The Kaimai Hydropower scheme is a small storage-constrained scheme and it is very important that such schemes optimize their available water resources in the present competitive electricity marketing environment. River inflow forecasts are an important part of optimizing hydropower schemes. A black box type inflow prediction model was developed and used as an input to the Kaimai Hydropower scheduling software (HYMAX). HYMAX results indicated a 7% improvement in the operation of the hydropower scheme when HYMAX results were compared with the control room operation. 

It is also important for the management of any hydropower scheme to see any impact of landuse change on their river resources. The Kaimai Hydropower catchment has undergone a landuse change from native bush to pinus radiata in several parts of the catchment since 1982. The analysis of electrical power output as a proxy for catchment water yield could not detect any reduction in annual or seasonal water yield. A slight increase in the water yield in winter and spring seasons after landuse change is attributed to the incremental nature of the landuse change. 

The use of GIS in the field of hydrology contains many hidden errors and the user must be aware of the quality of the data before its use. Different types of GIS errors such as generalization, rasterizing error, sink artifacts (and their impacts on the surface hydrologic modeling) were studied and solutions proposed. The digital elevation model is the basic digital data set to be used in surface hydrologic modeling using GIS. A technique was developed to build a hydrologically sound digital elevation model, and this was then applied to develop a surface runoff model using the curve number (CN) approach of excess rainfall estimation within the GIS framework. The unit hydrograph was used to translate the time distribution of excess rainfall into a runoff hydrograph, and routed at the watershed outlet using the Muskingum method. However, the CN method failed in the study area because the region has a high infiltration rate coupled with deep percolation through joints and cracks. The subsurface geology, rather than land surface characteristics, were the dominant factor here, so surface classification methods such as CN could not support predicting quickflow volumes. 

A map-based surface water flow simulation model, which is based on Geographic Information System (GIS) and object oriented programming (OOP), was evaluated after making necessary changes in its original code and applied to the study area to see its applicability as an inflow prediction tool. The selection of this model was based on its strength in addressing GIS and hydrologic modeling, as an integrated field in the area of runoff prediction involving time series data. The model gave a good match when compared with both observed and black box predicted inflows. It proved to be a good strategic management tool for planning purposes, but at present has limited use as an operational tool because of greater computational requirements involved. However, the map-based model is a good addition in the field of integrated spatial hydrologic modeling using GIS. It also solves many of the basic problems such as feature oriented map operations, dynamic segmentation of an arc, and spatial time series database development, which until recently were not possible in a GIS environment. 

This study shows the effective use of black box and GIS techniques by applying them to the study area, and demonstrates the integrated surface hydrologic modeling using ARC/INFO GIS and OOP in an ARCVIEW GIS environment. The importance of the GIS data quality for hydrologic applications is explained by studying the different types of GIS errors, and techniques were developed to handle the errors to improve the quality of the digital data. This study has also addressed new developments in surface hydrologic modeling within a GIS framework; and hopefully some of the solutions presented here will be of value to future work in spatial hydrology and related fields.

year: 1998

title: A Chemical Investigation of New Zealand Unifloral Honeys

authors: Senanayake, Mahima

subjects: New Zealand Unifloral Honeys

abstract: The diethyl ether-extracted organic compounds of 155 samples of unifloral grade New Zealand kamahi and honeydew honeys, and New Zealand and Norwegian erica honeys, together with a series of active and inactive manuka honeys were analysed using combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. It was found that Kamahi honey is characterized by the presence of 2,6-dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol, meliracemoic acid, and kamahines A-C and these compounds were typically present at average levels of 31, 14, and 73 mg/kg of honey, respectively. 2,6-Dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol was isolated and the structure of this compound was defined using one- and two-dimensional NMR analyses.  

The only recognizably distinct peak present in the honeydew honey profile was indole acetic acid. In this honey, a relatively low to moderate level of indole acetic acid, ranging from 0.9 to 9.1 mg/kg honey was detected.

In the New Zealand erica honey samples, ericinic acid, isoericinic acid isomers (average levels 363 and 34 mg/kg respectively), trans,cis and trans,trans-abscisic acid isomers (average levels 302 and 224 mg/kg respectively) and benzoic acid (average level 6950 mg/kg) were identified as floral marker compounds. Ericinic acid was isolated and the structure of this acid was defined using one-and two-dimensional NMR analyses.

Low levels of ericinic and isoericinic acids (average levels of 1.1 and 0.32 mg/kg respectively) were detected in the Norwegian erica-rich honeys. The results presented here indicate that ericinic and isoericinic acids are likely to be universally present in erica honeys at levels which may range from as low as 1 mg/kg or less, as found in some Norwegian samples, to more than 100 mg/kg in some New Zealand samples.

Two groups, namely a fingerprint pattern which characterized active manuka honeys, and a fingerprint pattern that characterized inactive manuka honeys were identified. Some substances contributing to the GCMS profile were found as marker compounds for the presence of unidentified substances responsible for the UMF activity. A statistically significant correlation was found between a small set of marker compounds (i.e. phenylacetic acid, 2-methoxyacetophenone, 2-methoxybenzoic, phenyllactic, octanedioic, cis-cinnamic, trans-cinnamic, nonanedioic, 4-methoxyphenyllactic and decanedioic acids and methyl syringate) and UMF activity of manuka honey. The best-fit marker compound regression equation (R = 0.92) was obtained for a set of pooled 30 moderate to high activity (UMF gt 14.1) samples. It was shown that the marker compound regression equation is capable of predicting the approximate UMF activity in both active and inactive manuka and kanuka honey samples.

The leaf oil profiles of manuka (L. scoparium) plants that yielded active and inactive manuka honeys were characterized using an adaption of the micro-scale extraction and GC/FID or GC/MS, technique developed by Brophy et al. (1989). Six major groups of volatile (steam distillable) compounds (monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes [excluding eudesmols], eudesmols, triketones, and nor-triketones) and 3 groups of non-volatile or semi-volatile compounds (flavonoids, grandiflorone and nor-grandiflorone) were recognized in the leaf oil components. The active manuka honeys do not appear to be derived uniquely, or predominantly, from a single leaf oil chemotype.

text: A Chemical Investigation of New Zealand Unifloral Honeys The diethyl ether-extracted organic compounds of 155 samples of unifloral grade New Zealand kamahi and honeydew honeys, and New Zealand and Norwegian erica honeys, together with a series of active and inactive manuka honeys were analysed using combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. It was found that Kamahi honey is characterized by the presence of 2,6-dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol, meliracemoic acid, and kamahines A-C and these compounds were typically present at average levels of 31, 14, and 73 mg/kg of honey, respectively. 2,6-Dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol was isolated and the structure of this compound was defined using one- and two-dimensional NMR analyses.  

The only recognizably distinct peak present in the honeydew honey profile was indole acetic acid. In this honey, a relatively low to moderate level of indole acetic acid, ranging from 0.9 to 9.1 mg/kg honey was detected.

In the New Zealand erica honey samples, ericinic acid, isoericinic acid isomers (average levels 363 and 34 mg/kg respectively), trans,cis and trans,trans-abscisic acid isomers (average levels 302 and 224 mg/kg respectively) and benzoic acid (average level 6950 mg/kg) were identified as floral marker compounds. Ericinic acid was isolated and the structure of this acid was defined using one-and two-dimensional NMR analyses.

Low levels of ericinic and isoericinic acids (average levels of 1.1 and 0.32 mg/kg respectively) were detected in the Norwegian erica-rich honeys. The results presented here indicate that ericinic and isoericinic acids are likely to be universally present in erica honeys at levels which may range from as low as 1 mg/kg or less, as found in some Norwegian samples, to more than 100 mg/kg in some New Zealand samples.

Two groups, namely a fingerprint pattern which characterized active manuka honeys, and a fingerprint pattern that characterized inactive manuka honeys were identified. Some substances contributing to the GCMS profile were found as marker compounds for the presence of unidentified substances responsible for the UMF activity. A statistically significant correlation was found between a small set of marker compounds (i.e. phenylacetic acid, 2-methoxyacetophenone, 2-methoxybenzoic, phenyllactic, octanedioic, cis-cinnamic, trans-cinnamic, nonanedioic, 4-methoxyphenyllactic and decanedioic acids and methyl syringate) and UMF activity of manuka honey. The best-fit marker compound regression equation (R = 0.92) was obtained for a set of pooled 30 moderate to high activity (UMF gt 14.1) samples. It was shown that the marker compound regression equation is capable of predicting the approximate UMF activity in both active and inactive manuka and kanuka honey samples.

The leaf oil profiles of manuka (L. scoparium) plants that yielded active and inactive manuka honeys were characterized using an adaption of the micro-scale extraction and GC/FID or GC/MS, technique developed by Brophy et al. (1989). Six major groups of volatile (steam distillable) compounds (monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes [excluding eudesmols], eudesmols, triketones, and nor-triketones) and 3 groups of non-volatile or semi-volatile compounds (flavonoids, grandiflorone and nor-grandiflorone) were recognized in the leaf oil components. The active manuka honeys do not appear to be derived uniquely, or predominantly, from a single leaf oil chemotype.

year: 2006

title: Creating a curriculum for indigenous and community languages: Te reo Māori as an example

authors: Bruce, Ian

subjects: linguistics

abstract: Part 1 of this paper introduces the draft Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages and describes how it was used in the construction of draft New Zealand curriculum guidelines for French and German. Part 2 discusses how the CEFR has been employed in curriculum development in Te Reo Māori at the University of Waikato and suggests that it could also prove useful in relation to curriculum development projects involving indigenous and community languages more generally.

text: Creating a curriculum for indigenous and community languages: Te reo Māori as an example Part 1 of this paper introduces the draft Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) for languages and describes how it was used in the construction of draft New Zealand curriculum guidelines for French and German. Part 2 discusses how the CEFR has been employed in curriculum development in Te Reo Māori at the University of Waikato and suggests that it could also prove useful in relation to curriculum development projects involving indigenous and community languages more generally.

year: 2002