title: Production and decay of mangrove (Avicennia marina subsp. australasica) detritus and its effects on coastal benthic communities

authors: Gladstone-Gallagher, Rebecca

subjects: Macrobenthic assemblages

abstract: Temperate mangrove forests have been poorly studied compared to their tropical counterparts, because they constitute just 1.4% of the global mangrove forest area. Research from tropical mangrove forests suggests they are open systems that provide a large array of ecosystem goods and services. For example, tropical mangrove forests frequently support invertebrate communities in adjacent habitats through the production, export, decomposition and uptake of organic matter. However, ecological differences between temperate and tropical mangrove forests means that information collected in tropical regions cannot be readily extrapolated to temperate systems. Therefore, it is unclear how, or if, temperate mangrove forests supply an organic subsidy to estuarine ecosystems. Here I investigate the linkages between mangrove organic matter production and the role that decomposing mangrove detritus (dead, broken down organic matter) plays in structuring estuarine benthic communities. Research was conducted at two sites (encompassing small-scale differences in sediment properties and macrofaunal communities) in Whangamata Harbour, New Zealand. The production of mangrove detritus was quantified by measuring litter production and its decomposition into detritus. A manipulative detritus addition experiment explored the role of exported mangrove detritus in structuring benthic communities of unvegetated intertidal flats.
 
The temperate Whangamata Harbour mangrove forest produced the equivalent of 3.24 - 5.38 t DW ha-1 yr-1 of litter, which is comparable to forests at similar latitudes and overlaps with the lower range of tropical mangrove productivity. The decomposition rates of litter following summer litterfall were dependent upon the type of litter, as well as the burial state. However, hypotheses that tidal position and site would affect litter degradation rates were not supported. Leaf and wood litter that was buried in the sediment decomposed significantly slower (1.3 - 1.4 times slower) than litter on the sediment surface. Leaf litter decomposition was faster (63 days to decay by 50%) than wood and root material (460 and 316 days, respectively). Decay models predicted that wood and root material will take years to breakdown, which has implications for New Zealand mangrove removal plans, where wood and roots often remain in situ (following clearances). Finally, a manipulative detrital addition experiment found that mangrove detritus created subtle changes in the relative abundances of a few dominant taxa, rather than shifts in whole community species composition. Communities responded similarly to the addition of mangrove detritus, with the same dominant taxa responding at both experimental sites. The subtle benthic community responses to the large amount of detritus added suggests that mangrove detritus plays a relatively minor role in shaping communities on temperate intertidal flats. The studies that comprise this thesis have together shown that as a result of different input and decomposition rates of mangrove litter, temperate estuarine benthic communities are probably less reliant on mangrove productivity than tropical communities.

text: Production and decay of mangrove (Avicennia marina subsp. australasica) detritus and its effects on coastal benthic communities Temperate mangrove forests have been poorly studied compared to their tropical counterparts, because they constitute just 1.4% of the global mangrove forest area. Research from tropical mangrove forests suggests they are open systems that provide a large array of ecosystem goods and services. For example, tropical mangrove forests frequently support invertebrate communities in adjacent habitats through the production, export, decomposition and uptake of organic matter. However, ecological differences between temperate and tropical mangrove forests means that information collected in tropical regions cannot be readily extrapolated to temperate systems. Therefore, it is unclear how, or if, temperate mangrove forests supply an organic subsidy to estuarine ecosystems. Here I investigate the linkages between mangrove organic matter production and the role that decomposing mangrove detritus (dead, broken down organic matter) plays in structuring estuarine benthic communities. Research was conducted at two sites (encompassing small-scale differences in sediment properties and macrofaunal communities) in Whangamata Harbour, New Zealand. The production of mangrove detritus was quantified by measuring litter production and its decomposition into detritus. A manipulative detritus addition experiment explored the role of exported mangrove detritus in structuring benthic communities of unvegetated intertidal flats.
 
The temperate Whangamata Harbour mangrove forest produced the equivalent of 3.24 - 5.38 t DW ha-1 yr-1 of litter, which is comparable to forests at similar latitudes and overlaps with the lower range of tropical mangrove productivity. The decomposition rates of litter following summer litterfall were dependent upon the type of litter, as well as the burial state. However, hypotheses that tidal position and site would affect litter degradation rates were not supported. Leaf and wood litter that was buried in the sediment decomposed significantly slower (1.3 - 1.4 times slower) than litter on the sediment surface. Leaf litter decomposition was faster (63 days to decay by 50%) than wood and root material (460 and 316 days, respectively). Decay models predicted that wood and root material will take years to breakdown, which has implications for New Zealand mangrove removal plans, where wood and roots often remain in situ (following clearances). Finally, a manipulative detrital addition experiment found that mangrove detritus created subtle changes in the relative abundances of a few dominant taxa, rather than shifts in whole community species composition. Communities responded similarly to the addition of mangrove detritus, with the same dominant taxa responding at both experimental sites. The subtle benthic community responses to the large amount of detritus added suggests that mangrove detritus plays a relatively minor role in shaping communities on temperate intertidal flats. The studies that comprise this thesis have together shown that as a result of different input and decomposition rates of mangrove litter, temperate estuarine benthic communities are probably less reliant on mangrove productivity than tropical communities.

year: 2012

title: Characterizing heart rate differences across rugby union competition levels

authors: Koumandarakis, Nikolas

subjects: Internal load

abstract: Heart rate (HR) monitoring provides insight into the demands of rugby union and may be able to help discriminate between different levels of competition. There is limited data examining the differences in physiological responses among different levels of rugby union. Rugby union athletes from different levels of competition (n=15 School, n=15 Club, n=15 Professional, and n=15 International) were included in the study. HR was measured via chest straps worn during the game with specific variables compared between levels of competition (e.g. Average (Avg) HR (bpm), and HR during worst-case scenario (WCS) periods of play (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 minutes). Data was collected from eight matches for International, six matches for Professional and Club, and with School only able to play four due to season constraints. A one-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in Avg HR across the four competition levels (p < 0.05). School players recorded the highest Avg HR (175 ± 10 bpm), while International players had the lowest (159 ± 9 bpm). Club and Professional teams had similar values, with no significant difference between them (p = 0.72). This trend was consistent across both forwards and backs. WCS HRs over rolling 1–5-minute intervals followed the same pattern, with School players consistently recording the highest values and International players the lowest. The largest WCS difference was observed at the 2-minute interval between School (191 ± 9 bpm) and International (179 ± 6 bpm) teams. Tukey post-hoc tests confirmed that School and International were significantly different from all other groups, while Club and Professional teams did not differ significantly. To the authors knowledge, this study is the first to compare heart rate metrics through different levels of competition in rugby union and is timely as the age of professional players is getting lower. Coaches should consider accurately tailor training to prepare athletes for optimal performance across different levels of competition as HR provides an accurate measure of internal load and could be more effective than the commonly used measures of external load e.g. GPS.

text: Characterizing heart rate differences across rugby union competition levels Heart rate (HR) monitoring provides insight into the demands of rugby union and may be able to help discriminate between different levels of competition. There is limited data examining the differences in physiological responses among different levels of rugby union. Rugby union athletes from different levels of competition (n=15 School, n=15 Club, n=15 Professional, and n=15 International) were included in the study. HR was measured via chest straps worn during the game with specific variables compared between levels of competition (e.g. Average (Avg) HR (bpm), and HR during worst-case scenario (WCS) periods of play (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 minutes). Data was collected from eight matches for International, six matches for Professional and Club, and with School only able to play four due to season constraints. A one-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in Avg HR across the four competition levels (p < 0.05). School players recorded the highest Avg HR (175 ± 10 bpm), while International players had the lowest (159 ± 9 bpm). Club and Professional teams had similar values, with no significant difference between them (p = 0.72). This trend was consistent across both forwards and backs. WCS HRs over rolling 1–5-minute intervals followed the same pattern, with School players consistently recording the highest values and International players the lowest. The largest WCS difference was observed at the 2-minute interval between School (191 ± 9 bpm) and International (179 ± 6 bpm) teams. Tukey post-hoc tests confirmed that School and International were significantly different from all other groups, while Club and Professional teams did not differ significantly. To the authors knowledge, this study is the first to compare heart rate metrics through different levels of competition in rugby union and is timely as the age of professional players is getting lower. Coaches should consider accurately tailor training to prepare athletes for optimal performance across different levels of competition as HR provides an accurate measure of internal load and could be more effective than the commonly used measures of external load e.g. GPS.

year: 2025

title: Manaakitia te paharakeke: an insight into the daily operational challenges facing Te Whakaruruhau

authors: Kurei, Anna

subjects: Women's refuge

abstract: This report is based on participant observations of the daily operations at Te Whakaruruhau, Hamilton. The observations represent the fieldwork element of an undergraduate paper contributing to the co-author, Anna Kurei’s Bachelor’s degree at the University of Waikato. Anna’s participation and observations over several weeks included attending meetings, shadowing Advocates, contributing (as appropriate) to operations and observing interactions between Advocates and the women in living in the service’s residential housing. 
Founded by Ruahine Albert and Ariana Simpson in 1986, Te Whakaruruhau Incorporated (Waikato women's refuge) was the first Māori women's refuge in Aotearoa. Since its inception, Te Whakaruruhau has been a Kaupapa driven service, with Māori cultural practices consciously employed throughout all its operations. Māori tikanga is fluid and adaptable by nature and can therefore meet the needs of people from multiple cultures and backgrounds. The current service has grown from humble beginnings in a four-bedroom state owned house providing emergency housing, to now include a twenty-four-hour crisis service, residential housing and a broadened community outreach programme. Staff numbers have increased from 7 to 36 paid staff and the twenty-fourhour crisis service has allowed the refuge to provide services for high risk cases that would otherwise be turned away. 
Funding is critical to the successful operation of the service. The refuge provides wrap-around services to meet clients’ needs and help them navigate through a maze of government and community services. The needs of women and families who have lived with domestic violence are deep-seated and complex. Achieving a stable, healthy, independent life is frequently a long-term process. Funding however, is not only limited, but is tied to expectations of achieving successful outcomes in the short-term. It was quickly evident during the fieldwork that Te Whakaruruhau is desperately under-resourced. In the year to June 2015 the Refuge provided services for 6575 cases, but had contracted funds for less than 1600. The consequences of such starkly inadequate resources are dire – for both clients and staff.
Advocates (case workers) are frequently exhausted as they try to assist women and children with high and complex needs with very little resources on a highly restricted budget. Many times, workers were observed relegating their own interests (including their own health and safety) in order to meet the demands and needs of their clients. Similarly, the successful rehabilitation of clients is jeopardised by restricted options, insufficient capacity in the system and at times even the simplest of requirements such as transport to essential services. We know that when women and children become free of violence they have better health, employment and education outcomes. These outcomes benefit not only themselves but their communities and the wider social and economic landscape. Higher levels of funding - with a longer term focus- would therefore ultimately reduce the costs of domestic violence overall. Further to this, Kaupapa-based services at Te Whakaruruhau offer a culturally meaningful response to the high representation of Maori women seeking assistance. Its success in the face of such high levels of under-resourcing suggests that expectations around funding also need to be altered.

text: Manaakitia te paharakeke: an insight into the daily operational challenges facing Te Whakaruruhau This report is based on participant observations of the daily operations at Te Whakaruruhau, Hamilton. The observations represent the fieldwork element of an undergraduate paper contributing to the co-author, Anna Kurei’s Bachelor’s degree at the University of Waikato. Anna’s participation and observations over several weeks included attending meetings, shadowing Advocates, contributing (as appropriate) to operations and observing interactions between Advocates and the women in living in the service’s residential housing. 
Founded by Ruahine Albert and Ariana Simpson in 1986, Te Whakaruruhau Incorporated (Waikato women's refuge) was the first Māori women's refuge in Aotearoa. Since its inception, Te Whakaruruhau has been a Kaupapa driven service, with Māori cultural practices consciously employed throughout all its operations. Māori tikanga is fluid and adaptable by nature and can therefore meet the needs of people from multiple cultures and backgrounds. The current service has grown from humble beginnings in a four-bedroom state owned house providing emergency housing, to now include a twenty-four-hour crisis service, residential housing and a broadened community outreach programme. Staff numbers have increased from 7 to 36 paid staff and the twenty-fourhour crisis service has allowed the refuge to provide services for high risk cases that would otherwise be turned away. 
Funding is critical to the successful operation of the service. The refuge provides wrap-around services to meet clients’ needs and help them navigate through a maze of government and community services. The needs of women and families who have lived with domestic violence are deep-seated and complex. Achieving a stable, healthy, independent life is frequently a long-term process. Funding however, is not only limited, but is tied to expectations of achieving successful outcomes in the short-term. It was quickly evident during the fieldwork that Te Whakaruruhau is desperately under-resourced. In the year to June 2015 the Refuge provided services for 6575 cases, but had contracted funds for less than 1600. The consequences of such starkly inadequate resources are dire – for both clients and staff.
Advocates (case workers) are frequently exhausted as they try to assist women and children with high and complex needs with very little resources on a highly restricted budget. Many times, workers were observed relegating their own interests (including their own health and safety) in order to meet the demands and needs of their clients. Similarly, the successful rehabilitation of clients is jeopardised by restricted options, insufficient capacity in the system and at times even the simplest of requirements such as transport to essential services. We know that when women and children become free of violence they have better health, employment and education outcomes. These outcomes benefit not only themselves but their communities and the wider social and economic landscape. Higher levels of funding - with a longer term focus- would therefore ultimately reduce the costs of domestic violence overall. Further to this, Kaupapa-based services at Te Whakaruruhau offer a culturally meaningful response to the high representation of Maori women seeking assistance. Its success in the face of such high levels of under-resourcing suggests that expectations around funding also need to be altered.

year: 2016