title: Assessing the welfare of captive male giraffes in a bachelor herd using behavioural and hormonal analysis

authors: Grigg, Holly Rachel

subjects: Captive giraffe

abstract: As biodiversity continues to decline, zoos play an essential role in ex-situ species conservation. An animal’s ability to feel pain and pleasure drives the need to ensure zoos maintain high animal welfare standards. This thesis aimed to assess the welfare of four male giraffes housed in a bachelor herd at Hamilton Zoo due to concerns about some individuals’ social and stereotypical behaviour. This aim was achieved using non-invasive behavioural observations and faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) analysis. 

Behavioural observations and the collection of faecal samples occurred over 12 weeks. Behavioural analysis investigated the giraffes’ social dynamic, stereotypical behaviour, and enrichment engagement. Faecal cortisol metabolite analysis investigated how each giraffe’s behaviour correlated to their stress levels. Faecal cortisol metabolite analysis also included three giraffes housed in another bachelor herd at Gibbs Farm to identify if the giraffes at each institution experienced similar welfare concerns.   

At Hamilton Zoo, the giraffes’ social dynamic was influenced by a hierarchy. The hierarchy was similar to that displayed by wild males and likely reduced social conflict. The expression of same-sex sexual behaviour such as following and investigating also influenced the giraffes’ social dynamic. All four giraffes expressed oral stereotypes with the underlying cause likely feeding motivation. One giraffe displayed pacing stereotypes more frequently than the others. Pacing occurred more regularly before movement to the day enclosure, and there was a positive correlation between pacing and being followed by another giraffe. Therefore, pacing likely occurred due to anticipation or social stress associated with being followed. Foraging enrichment had little impact on the giraffes’ behaviour. 

In the wild, subordinate males often experience higher FCM levels. However, the subordinate males at Hamilton Zoo did not experience the highest FCM levels. In comparison, the subordinate male at Gibbs Farm did exhibit the highest FCM levels. These variations may be due to the different herd and enclosure sizes at each institution. The expression of pacing stereotypes did not correlate with elevated FCM levels suggesting that stress may not be the underlying cause of that behaviour. Interestingly, the dominant male at Hamilton Zoo displayed the highest FCM levels. These FCM levels were likely due to pain associated with his hoof-related health issues. Foraging enrichment did reduce one giraffe’s FCM levels, but additional data would be needed to draw more definite conclusions about this.

Behavioural observations and FCM analysis often provided contrasting results about the giraffes’ welfare at Hamilton Zoo. Contrasting results are not uncommon and they often spark conflict over what defines optimal welfare and what assessment methods are valid. Perhaps the best welfare assessments will be achieved when scientists consider all views and use multiple assessment methods in conjunction. Hamilton Zoo can use the findings from this thesis to guide its husbandry routines to ensure they support each giraffe’s welfare needs. High welfare standards will enable zoos to act as ethical arks that spark a passion for conservation in their community.

text: Assessing the welfare of captive male giraffes in a bachelor herd using behavioural and hormonal analysis As biodiversity continues to decline, zoos play an essential role in ex-situ species conservation. An animal’s ability to feel pain and pleasure drives the need to ensure zoos maintain high animal welfare standards. This thesis aimed to assess the welfare of four male giraffes housed in a bachelor herd at Hamilton Zoo due to concerns about some individuals’ social and stereotypical behaviour. This aim was achieved using non-invasive behavioural observations and faecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) analysis. 

Behavioural observations and the collection of faecal samples occurred over 12 weeks. Behavioural analysis investigated the giraffes’ social dynamic, stereotypical behaviour, and enrichment engagement. Faecal cortisol metabolite analysis investigated how each giraffe’s behaviour correlated to their stress levels. Faecal cortisol metabolite analysis also included three giraffes housed in another bachelor herd at Gibbs Farm to identify if the giraffes at each institution experienced similar welfare concerns.   

At Hamilton Zoo, the giraffes’ social dynamic was influenced by a hierarchy. The hierarchy was similar to that displayed by wild males and likely reduced social conflict. The expression of same-sex sexual behaviour such as following and investigating also influenced the giraffes’ social dynamic. All four giraffes expressed oral stereotypes with the underlying cause likely feeding motivation. One giraffe displayed pacing stereotypes more frequently than the others. Pacing occurred more regularly before movement to the day enclosure, and there was a positive correlation between pacing and being followed by another giraffe. Therefore, pacing likely occurred due to anticipation or social stress associated with being followed. Foraging enrichment had little impact on the giraffes’ behaviour. 

In the wild, subordinate males often experience higher FCM levels. However, the subordinate males at Hamilton Zoo did not experience the highest FCM levels. In comparison, the subordinate male at Gibbs Farm did exhibit the highest FCM levels. These variations may be due to the different herd and enclosure sizes at each institution. The expression of pacing stereotypes did not correlate with elevated FCM levels suggesting that stress may not be the underlying cause of that behaviour. Interestingly, the dominant male at Hamilton Zoo displayed the highest FCM levels. These FCM levels were likely due to pain associated with his hoof-related health issues. Foraging enrichment did reduce one giraffe’s FCM levels, but additional data would be needed to draw more definite conclusions about this.

Behavioural observations and FCM analysis often provided contrasting results about the giraffes’ welfare at Hamilton Zoo. Contrasting results are not uncommon and they often spark conflict over what defines optimal welfare and what assessment methods are valid. Perhaps the best welfare assessments will be achieved when scientists consider all views and use multiple assessment methods in conjunction. Hamilton Zoo can use the findings from this thesis to guide its husbandry routines to ensure they support each giraffe’s welfare needs. High welfare standards will enable zoos to act as ethical arks that spark a passion for conservation in their community.

year: 2021

title: The informal sector’s contribution to the economic wellbeing of people in Timor-Leste

authors: Mau-Quei, Helio Augusto da Costa Xavier

subjects: The informal sector

abstract: It is widely believed that the informal sector is growing in the modern global economy. When studying who occupies this informal sector and the nature of their business, the universal tendency is to describe the informal sector as made up of low-income producers and having opportunities for disadvantaged and low-quality sectors to run their businesses. The informal sector business has long been seen as marginalized groups working as subordinates because of economic needs and as a last resort. This thesis empirically analyses the features and characteristics of the informal sector in Timor-Leste and is made up of three connected studies. 
In the first study, in Chapter 2, the factors associated with being an informal sector work were identified. The results show that women rather than men dominate the informal sector. Moreover, there is a gender dimension in informal sector economic activities. Women are more interested in small trading activities, such as retail kiosks and weaving, that are attached to homes. Men mostly perform economic activities, such as mining and construction, outside the home. The informal sector is also dominated by uneducated people. The high level of involvement of illiterate people in the informal sector creates the potential for negative consequences. 
The second study, in Chapter 3, investigated the relationship between informal sector work and the income security, food security, and self-reported health. The only statistically significant relationship was with income security, where informal sector work was associated with lower income security. The relationships between informal sector work and food security and health were not statistically significant. The importance of improving income security among informal sector workers was clear. 
The third study, in Chapter 4, qualitatively investigated factors preventing informal sector development from the informal sector workers’ perspective. The thematic analysis demonstrated that most of the less educated informal sector actors do not have the expertise and knowledge to manage the minimal resources they have. This limited knowledge prevents them from gaining access to initial capital, markets, and other resources. Another factor is the lack of knowledge in managing capital. Most informal sector workers were unable to adequately manage their capital cash flow. The lack of skill in handling capital is a severe issue for developing their business. In addition, the unavailability of basic infrastructure further hindered the development of the informal sector. 
This thesis assesses contributions to the informal sector in which most people play a role in job creation, income generation, livelihood improvement, and living standards despite it still being far from their expectations. Overall, the findings of empirical research in this thesis clarifies issues related to the informal sector. The policy implications of this work include providing a supportive environment by simplifying business-related regulations and procedures, and ensuring that there is easier access to credit. A supportive business environment will stimulate new entrepreneurs to start businesses, and thus provide job opportunities, not only for themselves but for other people as well. Also, the finding of this thesis indicated that women and the uneducated are more likely to engage in informal sector work. Hence, policies could usefully be targeted at supporting women and uneducated people. In turn, their businesses will develop as a form of supporting the household and national economy.

text: The informal sector’s contribution to the economic wellbeing of people in Timor-Leste It is widely believed that the informal sector is growing in the modern global economy. When studying who occupies this informal sector and the nature of their business, the universal tendency is to describe the informal sector as made up of low-income producers and having opportunities for disadvantaged and low-quality sectors to run their businesses. The informal sector business has long been seen as marginalized groups working as subordinates because of economic needs and as a last resort. This thesis empirically analyses the features and characteristics of the informal sector in Timor-Leste and is made up of three connected studies. 
In the first study, in Chapter 2, the factors associated with being an informal sector work were identified. The results show that women rather than men dominate the informal sector. Moreover, there is a gender dimension in informal sector economic activities. Women are more interested in small trading activities, such as retail kiosks and weaving, that are attached to homes. Men mostly perform economic activities, such as mining and construction, outside the home. The informal sector is also dominated by uneducated people. The high level of involvement of illiterate people in the informal sector creates the potential for negative consequences. 
The second study, in Chapter 3, investigated the relationship between informal sector work and the income security, food security, and self-reported health. The only statistically significant relationship was with income security, where informal sector work was associated with lower income security. The relationships between informal sector work and food security and health were not statistically significant. The importance of improving income security among informal sector workers was clear. 
The third study, in Chapter 4, qualitatively investigated factors preventing informal sector development from the informal sector workers’ perspective. The thematic analysis demonstrated that most of the less educated informal sector actors do not have the expertise and knowledge to manage the minimal resources they have. This limited knowledge prevents them from gaining access to initial capital, markets, and other resources. Another factor is the lack of knowledge in managing capital. Most informal sector workers were unable to adequately manage their capital cash flow. The lack of skill in handling capital is a severe issue for developing their business. In addition, the unavailability of basic infrastructure further hindered the development of the informal sector. 
This thesis assesses contributions to the informal sector in which most people play a role in job creation, income generation, livelihood improvement, and living standards despite it still being far from their expectations. Overall, the findings of empirical research in this thesis clarifies issues related to the informal sector. The policy implications of this work include providing a supportive environment by simplifying business-related regulations and procedures, and ensuring that there is easier access to credit. A supportive business environment will stimulate new entrepreneurs to start businesses, and thus provide job opportunities, not only for themselves but for other people as well. Also, the finding of this thesis indicated that women and the uneducated are more likely to engage in informal sector work. Hence, policies could usefully be targeted at supporting women and uneducated people. In turn, their businesses will develop as a form of supporting the household and national economy.

year: 2019

title: Flora + Fauna

authors: Apiata, Hāwea

abstract: Visual poetry featured in 'To feel the earth as one's skin: An anthology of Indigenous visual poetry' published by Poem Atlas, London, UK. This poem depicts a koru or an unfurling native fern formed from the words ngāi tipu, referring to plant life (flora), and a tuna or native eel formed from the words ngāi kīrehe, referring to animal life (fauna). Hand-stenciled lettering. Black ink on paper.

text: Flora + Fauna Visual poetry featured in 'To feel the earth as one's skin: An anthology of Indigenous visual poetry' published by Poem Atlas, London, UK. This poem depicts a koru or an unfurling native fern formed from the words ngāi tipu, referring to plant life (flora), and a tuna or native eel formed from the words ngāi kīrehe, referring to animal life (fauna). Hand-stenciled lettering. Black ink on paper.

year: 2024-08-24