title: #AreHashtagsWords? Structure, position, and syntactic integration of hashtags in (English) tweets

authors: Calude, Andreea S.

subjects: hashtags

abstract: As social media use continues to increase its presence in our lives, so does the language of such platforms. One of the most salient features of social media discourse is the hashtag. Starting its life on Twitter (X) about 15 years ago, the hashtag has seeped from online to offline communication. Yet, it is not clear whether hashtags are words, tags, or something else altogether, nor is it clear what morphological process gives rise to them. This study presents an extensive analysis of 3,423 hashtags from 1,216 English-language tweets, each manually coded for various linguistics features, including position in the tweet, grammatical function, and syntactic integration. Our findings suggest that hashtags are extremely varied and we propose that they are indeed words, arising through a process of hashtagging (which is distinct from compounding). We also argue that some hashtags are syntactically integrated while others constitute parenthetical material.

text: #AreHashtagsWords? Structure, position, and syntactic integration of hashtags in (English) tweets As social media use continues to increase its presence in our lives, so does the language of such platforms. One of the most salient features of social media discourse is the hashtag. Starting its life on Twitter (X) about 15 years ago, the hashtag has seeped from online to offline communication. Yet, it is not clear whether hashtags are words, tags, or something else altogether, nor is it clear what morphological process gives rise to them. This study presents an extensive analysis of 3,423 hashtags from 1,216 English-language tweets, each manually coded for various linguistics features, including position in the tweet, grammatical function, and syntactic integration. Our findings suggest that hashtags are extremely varied and we propose that they are indeed words, arising through a process of hashtagging (which is distinct from compounding). We also argue that some hashtags are syntactically integrated while others constitute parenthetical material.

year: 2024

title: Postgraduate boundary crossings?

authors: White, Elizabeth Jayne

abstract: This Special Issue: Crossing Philosophical, Cultural and Geographic Boundaries in Educational Scholarship?: Postgraduate Experiences arose out of an invited panel of postgraduate speakers at the 42nd Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia Conference, held 7–10 December 2012 in Chiayi, Taiwan. The wider conference theme of “Crossing Boundaries” generated lively discussions about what such encounters and experiences might mean in the broader sphere of education; while the postgraduate speakers were invited to address their personal experience of boundaries during doctoral study. The central thrust of this invitation was to consider the extent to which such boundaries could (or should) be crossed through postgraduate experiences, and to gain a deeper appreciation of what this might mean for scholars who venture – physically and/or philosophically – outside of familiar terrain. The papers that comprise this issue provide associated cross-cultural, cross-country and cross-philosophical narratives, reflections and interrogations of their experiences in this regard. In doing so the authors provide a rich landscape through which to consider boundary crossing as an opportunity to expand on knowledge and/or to appreciate ones own position through encounters with ‘other’. Such crossings (or attempts to cross) presented significant challenges to these students, as they reveal in this issue. Their insights highlight the point that crossing philosophical, cultural and geographic boundaries is often a difficult relationship between all three, and, that there are costs involved. Such profoundly confronting experiences of crossing (or not crossing) are not necessarily bridges to be traversed as much as a means of confronting boundaries through which students might gain important insights – about themselves as persons of culture, scholars and members of a global society that is characterized by difference. This complex encounter – for all its pleasure and pain – is, evident through every paper in this issue, and sets the scene for important 21st century dialogues concerning diversity and difference in education.

text: Postgraduate boundary crossings? This Special Issue: Crossing Philosophical, Cultural and Geographic Boundaries in Educational Scholarship?: Postgraduate Experiences arose out of an invited panel of postgraduate speakers at the 42nd Philosophy of Education Society of Australasia Conference, held 7–10 December 2012 in Chiayi, Taiwan. The wider conference theme of “Crossing Boundaries” generated lively discussions about what such encounters and experiences might mean in the broader sphere of education; while the postgraduate speakers were invited to address their personal experience of boundaries during doctoral study. The central thrust of this invitation was to consider the extent to which such boundaries could (or should) be crossed through postgraduate experiences, and to gain a deeper appreciation of what this might mean for scholars who venture – physically and/or philosophically – outside of familiar terrain. The papers that comprise this issue provide associated cross-cultural, cross-country and cross-philosophical narratives, reflections and interrogations of their experiences in this regard. In doing so the authors provide a rich landscape through which to consider boundary crossing as an opportunity to expand on knowledge and/or to appreciate ones own position through encounters with ‘other’. Such crossings (or attempts to cross) presented significant challenges to these students, as they reveal in this issue. Their insights highlight the point that crossing philosophical, cultural and geographic boundaries is often a difficult relationship between all three, and, that there are costs involved. Such profoundly confronting experiences of crossing (or not crossing) are not necessarily bridges to be traversed as much as a means of confronting boundaries through which students might gain important insights – about themselves as persons of culture, scholars and members of a global society that is characterized by difference. This complex encounter – for all its pleasure and pain – is, evident through every paper in this issue, and sets the scene for important 21st century dialogues concerning diversity and difference in education.

year: 2014

title: In what ways do the perceptions of connectedness of Māori students in Alternative Education secondary schools affect their self-efficacy within the learning environment?

authors: Lemon, Katrina Suezanne

subjects: Alternative Education

abstract: This study has sought to identify connectedness for Māori students within the alternative-education, learning environment and the effect this has had on their self-efficacy. Alternative education in New Zealand is described as a place where second chance learners have access to education (Alternative Education National Body New Zealand, 2016). Generally, students are referred to alternative education due to becoming habitual truants, while other students are deemed as behaviourally-challenging, and are consequently excluded from school (Education Review Office, 2010; Ministry of Education, 2016a). A Critical Theory approach was employed guided by Kaupapa Māori methodology. Data was collected using the qualitative methods of focus-group interviews and one-to-one semi-structured interviews. An open-coded approach was adopted to analyse the data from the interview transcripts where themes were selected, and a summary reflection was written. 

Three distant themes were identified during the data analysis phase: Tāhuhu Kōrero – Kura; Alternative Education – Kura; and Alternative Education Teaching and Learning Approaches.  Within these themes sub-themes were explored: perceptions and experiences of primary and secondary school; Māori in mainstream education; the referring schools involvement; misconceptions; connection to the alternative-education, learning environment; centre and teacher practices; connection with Māori; and pathways, mana, and self-efficacy. An important aspect of this study was to seek to understand these students’ prior educational experiences before gathering their narratives on the alternative-education, learning environment. This was a strength of the study as the student narratives on their entire educational journey provided a depth of understanding for the researcher, and went towards explaining their disconnection, how it happened, and gave context to their referral to alternative education. 

The student narratives expressed a strong sense of connection to their primary-school, learning environment, however, a complete disconnection to their secondary-school, learning environment. Students expressed feeling discriminated against for being Māori, that there was no empathy or understanding given to their lived realities despite wanting to succeed at school. They felt that their teachers did not make an effort to connect with them describing a power imbalance between the teachers and themselves. The students felt that expectations were low, and that teachers could not be bothered to help them with their work. The student participants attributed this disconnection to the reason for their truancy and behavioural issues. The student narratives on the alternative-education, learning environment described an environment that was: whānau; where teachers worked at a connection and understood their learners; challenging them academically; where the teachers were highly committed to their students; where trust and respect was built; and where one size did not fit all - flexibility was exercised. Students felt that the alternative-education, learning environment provided them with career ambition, and academic confidence resulting in self-efficacy. 

This study provides student voice from a group that was overlooked within the Te Kotahitanga research project (Bishop, Berryman, Tiakiwai, & Richardson, 2003). To hear the voice of alternative education students is important in seeking to improve educational success and enjoyment for Māori priority learners. If we get to know and understand what works for these priority learners, we can then work towards making a difference for them within mainstream education. This study aims to identify the importance of connectedness for Māori students and how connectedness will positively affect Māori learners and their self-efficacy. 


Kia mau ki tō Māoritanga.
Hold fast to your Māori culture.

text: In what ways do the perceptions of connectedness of Māori students in Alternative Education secondary schools affect their self-efficacy within the learning environment? This study has sought to identify connectedness for Māori students within the alternative-education, learning environment and the effect this has had on their self-efficacy. Alternative education in New Zealand is described as a place where second chance learners have access to education (Alternative Education National Body New Zealand, 2016). Generally, students are referred to alternative education due to becoming habitual truants, while other students are deemed as behaviourally-challenging, and are consequently excluded from school (Education Review Office, 2010; Ministry of Education, 2016a). A Critical Theory approach was employed guided by Kaupapa Māori methodology. Data was collected using the qualitative methods of focus-group interviews and one-to-one semi-structured interviews. An open-coded approach was adopted to analyse the data from the interview transcripts where themes were selected, and a summary reflection was written. 

Three distant themes were identified during the data analysis phase: Tāhuhu Kōrero – Kura; Alternative Education – Kura; and Alternative Education Teaching and Learning Approaches.  Within these themes sub-themes were explored: perceptions and experiences of primary and secondary school; Māori in mainstream education; the referring schools involvement; misconceptions; connection to the alternative-education, learning environment; centre and teacher practices; connection with Māori; and pathways, mana, and self-efficacy. An important aspect of this study was to seek to understand these students’ prior educational experiences before gathering their narratives on the alternative-education, learning environment. This was a strength of the study as the student narratives on their entire educational journey provided a depth of understanding for the researcher, and went towards explaining their disconnection, how it happened, and gave context to their referral to alternative education. 

The student narratives expressed a strong sense of connection to their primary-school, learning environment, however, a complete disconnection to their secondary-school, learning environment. Students expressed feeling discriminated against for being Māori, that there was no empathy or understanding given to their lived realities despite wanting to succeed at school. They felt that their teachers did not make an effort to connect with them describing a power imbalance between the teachers and themselves. The students felt that expectations were low, and that teachers could not be bothered to help them with their work. The student participants attributed this disconnection to the reason for their truancy and behavioural issues. The student narratives on the alternative-education, learning environment described an environment that was: whānau; where teachers worked at a connection and understood their learners; challenging them academically; where the teachers were highly committed to their students; where trust and respect was built; and where one size did not fit all - flexibility was exercised. Students felt that the alternative-education, learning environment provided them with career ambition, and academic confidence resulting in self-efficacy. 

This study provides student voice from a group that was overlooked within the Te Kotahitanga research project (Bishop, Berryman, Tiakiwai, & Richardson, 2003). To hear the voice of alternative education students is important in seeking to improve educational success and enjoyment for Māori priority learners. If we get to know and understand what works for these priority learners, we can then work towards making a difference for them within mainstream education. This study aims to identify the importance of connectedness for Māori students and how connectedness will positively affect Māori learners and their self-efficacy. 


Kia mau ki tō Māoritanga.
Hold fast to your Māori culture.

year: 2017