title: Virtue in measurement: An interdisciplinary study of conscientiousness through Aristotelian theory

authors: McManus, James

subjects: Aristotle

abstract: Virtues are traits that promote happiness, well-being, and the good of others. Understanding which traits constitute virtues has direct implications for education, character development, and well-being interventions. Aristotelian virtue theory remains highly influential, yet it overlooks conscientiousness, which is a trait that psychological research shows as one of the strongest predictors of life success, health, and longevity. This disconnect is not only theoretical: it means our approaches to character education and personal development may be missing a vital component. The overarching aim of this thesis was to investigate conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective, bridging philosophical and psychological insights to better guide how we cultivate beneficial character traits.

To address this aim, this thesis investigated conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective by (1) developing a theoretical framework aligning conscientiousness with core features of Aristotelian virtue theory, (2) addressing limitations of current approaches to virtue assessment, (3) validating the Aristotelian Virtue of Conscientiousness Scale (AVCS) through Rasch analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and network modelling, and (4) examining how virtuous conscientiousness and its facets relate to one another and to well-being outcomes such as life satisfaction, positive affect, mindfulness, and virtuous gratitude.

Across three independent samples from New Zealand and the United States (total N = 1,478), the AVCS showed strong psychometric properties, conformed to fundamental measurement principles, and was best represented by a multifaceted eight-factor model. Network analyses indicated that excellent behaviours were especially central to the virtue, and that mindfulness may buffer against excessive forms of conscientiousness. Virtuous conscientiousness was positively associated with life satisfaction, positive affect, gratitude, and Big Five conscientiousness, while excessive tendencies were linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.

These findings advance both the theory and science of virtue by showing that Aristotelian constructs can be operationalised and empirically validated. The results provide a foundation for future research on character development and suggest practical applications for education, organisational contexts, and well-being interventions aimed at fostering virtuous forms of conscientiousness while mitigating maladaptive excess.

text: Virtue in measurement: An interdisciplinary study of conscientiousness through Aristotelian theory Virtues are traits that promote happiness, well-being, and the good of others. Understanding which traits constitute virtues has direct implications for education, character development, and well-being interventions. Aristotelian virtue theory remains highly influential, yet it overlooks conscientiousness, which is a trait that psychological research shows as one of the strongest predictors of life success, health, and longevity. This disconnect is not only theoretical: it means our approaches to character education and personal development may be missing a vital component. The overarching aim of this thesis was to investigate conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective, bridging philosophical and psychological insights to better guide how we cultivate beneficial character traits.

To address this aim, this thesis investigated conscientiousness as a virtue from an Aristotelian perspective by (1) developing a theoretical framework aligning conscientiousness with core features of Aristotelian virtue theory, (2) addressing limitations of current approaches to virtue assessment, (3) validating the Aristotelian Virtue of Conscientiousness Scale (AVCS) through Rasch analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and network modelling, and (4) examining how virtuous conscientiousness and its facets relate to one another and to well-being outcomes such as life satisfaction, positive affect, mindfulness, and virtuous gratitude.

Across three independent samples from New Zealand and the United States (total N = 1,478), the AVCS showed strong psychometric properties, conformed to fundamental measurement principles, and was best represented by a multifaceted eight-factor model. Network analyses indicated that excellent behaviours were especially central to the virtue, and that mindfulness may buffer against excessive forms of conscientiousness. Virtuous conscientiousness was positively associated with life satisfaction, positive affect, gratitude, and Big Five conscientiousness, while excessive tendencies were linked to stress, anxiety, and depression.

These findings advance both the theory and science of virtue by showing that Aristotelian constructs can be operationalised and empirically validated. The results provide a foundation for future research on character development and suggest practical applications for education, organisational contexts, and well-being interventions aimed at fostering virtuous forms of conscientiousness while mitigating maladaptive excess.

year: 2026-03-27

title: The strike at Waiorongomai in 1884

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: After the initial crushing produced lower returns than expected, the decision of mine owners to reduce costs by cutting wages provoked a strike to retain the former rates of pay. A particular cause of the sense of injustice was the unexpected manner in which this decision was announced. The owners’ justification of having no alternative was accepted by some but challenged by others, with some newspapers supporting the miners. A widely predicted outcome, that the best miners would leave the field, would be fulfilled. The strike gradually faded, leaving some strikers facing retribution, although the miner who chaired the meeting that voted to strike was not one of those.
Wages were also cut in the battery and on the tramway, provoking a strike on the latter. Although the employers won, the strike and the resultant loss of good workers meant another lowering of the reputation of the field.

text: The strike at Waiorongomai in 1884 After the initial crushing produced lower returns than expected, the decision of mine owners to reduce costs by cutting wages provoked a strike to retain the former rates of pay. A particular cause of the sense of injustice was the unexpected manner in which this decision was announced. The owners’ justification of having no alternative was accepted by some but challenged by others, with some newspapers supporting the miners. A widely predicted outcome, that the best miners would leave the field, would be fulfilled. The strike gradually faded, leaving some strikers facing retribution, although the miner who chaired the meeting that voted to strike was not one of those.
Wages were also cut in the battery and on the tramway, provoking a strike on the latter. Although the employers won, the strike and the resultant loss of good workers meant another lowering of the reputation of the field.

year: 2016

title: Kūkupa, koro, and kai: The use of Māori vocabulary items in New Zealand English children's picture books

authors: Daly, Nicola

subjects: New Zealand

abstract: When a linguistic form from one language is used in another language, such words are known as borrowings or loan words (Crystal 2003: 56). The English language is renowned for its large capacity for borrowing and it has been suggested that the growth in internationalism in recent times has led to people seeking new words to indicate their local identity (Crystal 1995; Crystal 2003). Certainly this is the case of New Zealand English, the most distinctive aspect of which is borrowings from te reo Maori (Deverson 1991). In 1984 Deverson estimated that most New Zealanders have a passive knowledge of at least 40-50 borrowed Maori loan words (Deverson 1984). This figure has been recently revised by Macalister to 70-80 such words (20,-,63.). A study of the frequency of Maori loan words in New Zealand English in New Zealand School Journals of the 1960s and 1990s showed an incidence of around 6 words per 1,000 (Macalister 1999). Kennedy and Yamazaki (1999) also found borrowed Maori words at a rate of 6 per thousand words. Macalister (2006b) has examined the use of Maori loan words in New Zealand English across a 150 year period from 1850-2000. He examined a corpus of a little under five and a half million words from three sources: Newspapers, parliamentary debates and School Journals. Across the three sources there was an increase from 3.29 words per 1,000 in 1850 to 8.8 per thousand in 2000. Macalister lists the reasons for this change as including urbanisation of the Maori population between 1945 and 1975, which created more contact; the changing status of the Maori language with the kOhanga reo movement; the establishment of the Maori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Maori) and legislation of Maori as an official language of New Zealand in 1987.

text: Kūkupa, koro, and kai: The use of Māori vocabulary items in New Zealand English children's picture books When a linguistic form from one language is used in another language, such words are known as borrowings or loan words (Crystal 2003: 56). The English language is renowned for its large capacity for borrowing and it has been suggested that the growth in internationalism in recent times has led to people seeking new words to indicate their local identity (Crystal 1995; Crystal 2003). Certainly this is the case of New Zealand English, the most distinctive aspect of which is borrowings from te reo Maori (Deverson 1991). In 1984 Deverson estimated that most New Zealanders have a passive knowledge of at least 40-50 borrowed Maori loan words (Deverson 1984). This figure has been recently revised by Macalister to 70-80 such words (20,-,63.). A study of the frequency of Maori loan words in New Zealand English in New Zealand School Journals of the 1960s and 1990s showed an incidence of around 6 words per 1,000 (Macalister 1999). Kennedy and Yamazaki (1999) also found borrowed Maori words at a rate of 6 per thousand words. Macalister (2006b) has examined the use of Maori loan words in New Zealand English across a 150 year period from 1850-2000. He examined a corpus of a little under five and a half million words from three sources: Newspapers, parliamentary debates and School Journals. Across the three sources there was an increase from 3.29 words per 1,000 in 1850 to 8.8 per thousand in 2000. Macalister lists the reasons for this change as including urbanisation of the Maori population between 1945 and 1975, which created more contact; the changing status of the Maori language with the kOhanga reo movement; the establishment of the Maori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Maori) and legislation of Maori as an official language of New Zealand in 1987.

year: 2007