title: Importing documents and metadata into digital libraries: requirements analysis and an extensible architecture

authors: Witten, Ian H.

subjects: computer science

abstract: Flexible digital library systems need to be able to accept, or “import,” documents and metadata in a variety of forms, and associate metadata with the appropriate documents. This paper analyzes the requirements of the import process for general digital libraries. The requirements include (a) format conversion for source documents, (b) the ability to incorporate existing conversion utilities, (c) provision for metadata to be specified in the document files themselves and/or in separate metadata files, (d) format conversion for metadata files, (e) provision for metadata to be computed from the document content, and (f) flexible ways of associating metadata with documents or sets of documents. We argue that these requirements are so open-ended that they are best met by an extensible architecture that facilitates the addition of new document formats and metadata facilities to existing digital library systems. An implementation of this architecture is briefly described.

text: Importing documents and metadata into digital libraries: requirements analysis and an extensible architecture Flexible digital library systems need to be able to accept, or “import,” documents and metadata in a variety of forms, and associate metadata with the appropriate documents. This paper analyzes the requirements of the import process for general digital libraries. The requirements include (a) format conversion for source documents, (b) the ability to incorporate existing conversion utilities, (c) provision for metadata to be specified in the document files themselves and/or in separate metadata files, (d) format conversion for metadata files, (e) provision for metadata to be computed from the document content, and (f) flexible ways of associating metadata with documents or sets of documents. We argue that these requirements are so open-ended that they are best met by an extensible architecture that facilitates the addition of new document formats and metadata facilities to existing digital library systems. An implementation of this architecture is briefly described.

year: 2002

title: Premarital sexual behaviour among adolescents and youths in Nepal

authors: Shakya, Prabin

subjects: Premarital sex

abstract: Premarital sex (PMS) among adolescents and young people (AY) is reported to be increasing worldwide. Research to date has tended to focus on analysing the prevalence of PMS among AY, and the individual characteristics associated with PMS, rather than pursuing a more nuanced understanding of changes in the younger generations’ premarital sexual behaviour (PMSB). Recognising this gap, this study explores the dynamics of PMSB among AY aged 15-24 years in Nepal, a country undergoing major social, economic and cultural transitions, and where PMS is still heavily stigmatised. This study has two objectives: to investigate the social determinants of PMSB in Nepal and, in particular, the factors associated with marked gender differences in PMSB; and to centre the voices of AY themselves so as to better understand their perspectives and experiences.
Using a social determinants of health (SDH) approach, mixed methods are employed in a sequential fashion. It begins with statistical analysis of secondary data from a large-scale national survey—the Nepal Adolescent and Youth Survey (NAYS) conducted in 2010/11. This analysis addresses questions relating to the social determinants of PMSB and gender differentials. The qualitative component involves interviews and focus group discussions with AY and key social agents including parents and teachers. By allowing AY to narrate their perceptions of PMS from their own complex standpoints, this part of the study addresses questions relating to the importance of context and AY subjectivities.
Unsurprisingly, the NAYS analysis identified major gender differences with 23% of males reporting that they had experienced PMSB compared to just 4% of females. For both males and females, the likelihood of having PMS was most strongly associated with marital status, prior involvement in at least one ‘love affair’, having a permissive attitude towards PMS, and experience of sexual abuse. The direction of association between marital status with PMSB varied by gender. Ever-married females were 2.5 times more likely to have experienced PMS than never-married females, while never-married males were 1.5 times more likely to experience PMS than their ever-married counterparts. Unlike females, males were also more likely to have had PMS if they had got married later and undertaken some form of migration, increasing exposure time and opportunities to engage in PMS. 
The in-depth interviews and focus groups allowed for much richer insights into AY perspectives. The findings suggest that gender differentials in PMSB among AY in Nepal is largely due to three reasons: gendered norms and values in relation to PMS; gender differences in vulnerabilities to the consequences of PMS; and gender differences in the opportunity to experience PMS. All of those interviewed were either against PMS or for it – with little middle ground – and with significant differences by age and gender. The majority of the adult participants and female AY had negative attitudes towards PMS, whereas male AY attitudes were more diverse. The findings also suggest that there are three distinct contexts in which AY could experience PMS: within intimate love affairs, in transaction (i.e., with sex worker, or informal exchange of offer), and in coercive contexts. 
The use of the SDH theoretical approach in this study is somewhat novel given the dominance, in the literature, of individualistic approaches to exploring PSMB among AY. It enabled me to situate the relationships between individuals’ exposure, attitudes, and behaviours and their PMSB within the broader social context in which AY grow up, live and work. As such, this study shows that the change in PMSB among AY in Nepal is significantly influenced by changes in the social structure, increasing both opportunities and vulnerabilities (e.g., when coerced) to experience PMS. The use of a mixed methods approach also helped to surface the multidimensional realities around PMSB among AY and made visible the limitation of relying on a single method. While this study was limited in its ability to operationalise social determinants, its conceptual framework can be used to incorporate many other social determinants of PMSB at different levels, and to develop locally grounded theories that are more sensitive to local social context. 
Finally, this study suggests that the reporting of PMS, particularly among females, is likely to be understated due to the heavy social stigma that they have to navigate. Therefore, future studies should look to employ new methods of data collection that are gender sensitive, in order to get a more coherent and accurate picture of PMSB among AY in Nepal.

text: Premarital sexual behaviour among adolescents and youths in Nepal Premarital sex (PMS) among adolescents and young people (AY) is reported to be increasing worldwide. Research to date has tended to focus on analysing the prevalence of PMS among AY, and the individual characteristics associated with PMS, rather than pursuing a more nuanced understanding of changes in the younger generations’ premarital sexual behaviour (PMSB). Recognising this gap, this study explores the dynamics of PMSB among AY aged 15-24 years in Nepal, a country undergoing major social, economic and cultural transitions, and where PMS is still heavily stigmatised. This study has two objectives: to investigate the social determinants of PMSB in Nepal and, in particular, the factors associated with marked gender differences in PMSB; and to centre the voices of AY themselves so as to better understand their perspectives and experiences.
Using a social determinants of health (SDH) approach, mixed methods are employed in a sequential fashion. It begins with statistical analysis of secondary data from a large-scale national survey—the Nepal Adolescent and Youth Survey (NAYS) conducted in 2010/11. This analysis addresses questions relating to the social determinants of PMSB and gender differentials. The qualitative component involves interviews and focus group discussions with AY and key social agents including parents and teachers. By allowing AY to narrate their perceptions of PMS from their own complex standpoints, this part of the study addresses questions relating to the importance of context and AY subjectivities.
Unsurprisingly, the NAYS analysis identified major gender differences with 23% of males reporting that they had experienced PMSB compared to just 4% of females. For both males and females, the likelihood of having PMS was most strongly associated with marital status, prior involvement in at least one ‘love affair’, having a permissive attitude towards PMS, and experience of sexual abuse. The direction of association between marital status with PMSB varied by gender. Ever-married females were 2.5 times more likely to have experienced PMS than never-married females, while never-married males were 1.5 times more likely to experience PMS than their ever-married counterparts. Unlike females, males were also more likely to have had PMS if they had got married later and undertaken some form of migration, increasing exposure time and opportunities to engage in PMS. 
The in-depth interviews and focus groups allowed for much richer insights into AY perspectives. The findings suggest that gender differentials in PMSB among AY in Nepal is largely due to three reasons: gendered norms and values in relation to PMS; gender differences in vulnerabilities to the consequences of PMS; and gender differences in the opportunity to experience PMS. All of those interviewed were either against PMS or for it – with little middle ground – and with significant differences by age and gender. The majority of the adult participants and female AY had negative attitudes towards PMS, whereas male AY attitudes were more diverse. The findings also suggest that there are three distinct contexts in which AY could experience PMS: within intimate love affairs, in transaction (i.e., with sex worker, or informal exchange of offer), and in coercive contexts. 
The use of the SDH theoretical approach in this study is somewhat novel given the dominance, in the literature, of individualistic approaches to exploring PSMB among AY. It enabled me to situate the relationships between individuals’ exposure, attitudes, and behaviours and their PMSB within the broader social context in which AY grow up, live and work. As such, this study shows that the change in PMSB among AY in Nepal is significantly influenced by changes in the social structure, increasing both opportunities and vulnerabilities (e.g., when coerced) to experience PMS. The use of a mixed methods approach also helped to surface the multidimensional realities around PMSB among AY and made visible the limitation of relying on a single method. While this study was limited in its ability to operationalise social determinants, its conceptual framework can be used to incorporate many other social determinants of PMSB at different levels, and to develop locally grounded theories that are more sensitive to local social context. 
Finally, this study suggests that the reporting of PMS, particularly among females, is likely to be understated due to the heavy social stigma that they have to navigate. Therefore, future studies should look to employ new methods of data collection that are gender sensitive, in order to get a more coherent and accurate picture of PMSB among AY in Nepal.

year: 2021

title: The concept of partnership and The Treaty of Waitangi: Three case studies

authors: Morrison, Sandy

subjects: Te Tiriti o Waitangi

abstract: There has been, and continues to be, considerable debate about the meaning and intent of different versions of the Treaty of Waitangi and about the extent of its relevance to contemporary New Zealand. It is in this context that a number of organisations and institutions in New Zealand, anxious to demonstrate their positive support for the creation of a just society, have attempted to restructure in ways that allow for a 'partnership' between Māori and Pākehā. With reference to three different case studies, I argue here that such restructuring, although generally very well intentioned and very welcome, should not be seen - as it frequently is - as an expression of the fulfilment of partnership obligations arising out of the Treaty of Waitangi. To treat organisational restructuring in this way, particularly where it does not provide both 'partners' with an equal right to determine the operational parameters and future direction of the organisation, is to misrepresent (often wholly unintentionally) the nature of the Treaty. Nevertheless, one way of resolving some of the debates concerning the meaning and intent of the Treaty of Waitangi might be to establish a principle of equal partnership in the governance and management of state institutions.

text: The concept of partnership and The Treaty of Waitangi: Three case studies There has been, and continues to be, considerable debate about the meaning and intent of different versions of the Treaty of Waitangi and about the extent of its relevance to contemporary New Zealand. It is in this context that a number of organisations and institutions in New Zealand, anxious to demonstrate their positive support for the creation of a just society, have attempted to restructure in ways that allow for a 'partnership' between Māori and Pākehā. With reference to three different case studies, I argue here that such restructuring, although generally very well intentioned and very welcome, should not be seen - as it frequently is - as an expression of the fulfilment of partnership obligations arising out of the Treaty of Waitangi. To treat organisational restructuring in this way, particularly where it does not provide both 'partners' with an equal right to determine the operational parameters and future direction of the organisation, is to misrepresent (often wholly unintentionally) the nature of the Treaty. Nevertheless, one way of resolving some of the debates concerning the meaning and intent of the Treaty of Waitangi might be to establish a principle of equal partnership in the governance and management of state institutions.

year: 2005