title: Variability of blue carbon stocks in restored saltmarsh wetlands: Bay of Plenty, Aotearoa New Zealand

authors: Visser, Jade Skye

abstract: As anthropogenic pressures including urbanisation and climate change continue to pressure the natural environment, there is a great need to focus on solutions that both increase ecosystem resilience and mitigate climate change. Coastal wetlands are a “powerhouse” environment that have the potential to achieve this and much more. Among the variety of coastal wetlands, saltmarsh habitats are one of the most degraded environments globally, with a mere <10% estimated to remain in Aotearoa New Zealand. Many saltmarshes have been lost  due to factors such as,  conversion to pasture, and/or environmental degradation. As part of the conversation around saltmarsh restoration, nature-based solutions are a tool that is being increasingly considered when it comes to climate change mitigation and adaptation,  due to the large potential saltmarshes possess to sequester CO2 alongside adapting to sea level rise such as by providing a space for flood water and for vegetation to slow down storm surges, alongside other environmental and societal benefits.

This study investigates the blue carbon dynamics in restored and control saltmarsh habitats in the Bay of Plenty Aotearoa New Zealand, focusing on bulk density, concentration of carbon (%), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Sediment Accumulation Rates (SAR), and Carbon Accumulation Rates (CAR). We focus on changes in blue carbon with time since saltmarsh restoration. Bulk density analysis revealed minimal variability among sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the largest standard error (0.765 ± 0.057g cm3) and Wainui River Saltmarsh the lowest mean bulk density (0.633 ± 0.032g cm3). Carbon concentration was generally highly variable across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest mean concentration (5.83 ± 1.151%) and Wainui Repo Whenua the lowest (2.91 ± 0.26%). Total organic carbon stock decreased with depth across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh having the highest total organic carbon stock (1.21 ± 0.005g cm3 or 121.42 ± 0.534t ha-1) and Te Awa o Ngātoroirangi the lowest (0.69 ± 0.004g cm3 or 68.66 ± 0.401t ha-1). Carbon accumulation rates generally increased with restoration age, with Wainui River Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest sediment accumulation rate (11.57mm yr-1) and Matua Saltmarsh the highest carbon accumulation rate (161.87g m-2 yr-1 over the last 20 years). While no distinct trends in blue carbon stocks and concentration emerged between the restored and control environments, it is notable that restored saltmarshes consistently exhibited substantial carbon stocks compared to controls and global standards. Moreover, there were higher mean TOC figures within the first ~30 years post-restoration. These results align with expectations from previous studies, emphasizing the efficacy of saltmarsh restoration efforts in enhancing future carbon storage potential in Aotearoa. 

These findings underscore the need for comprehensive investigations into the roles of vegetation, sedimentation rates, microbial processes, alongside catchment hydrological conditions history. This thesis also highlights that long-term monitoring beyond the initial 20- 30 years post-restoration is crucial to comprehensively understand the trajectory of blue carbon dynamics. In addition, comparative studies accounting for diverse restoration techniques and assessments of broader ecosystem services delivered by saltmarsh restoration are essential. Addressing these factors will deepen our understanding of the specific mechanisms influencing blue carbon dynamics in Aotearoa's restored saltmarshes.

text: Variability of blue carbon stocks in restored saltmarsh wetlands: Bay of Plenty, Aotearoa New Zealand As anthropogenic pressures including urbanisation and climate change continue to pressure the natural environment, there is a great need to focus on solutions that both increase ecosystem resilience and mitigate climate change. Coastal wetlands are a “powerhouse” environment that have the potential to achieve this and much more. Among the variety of coastal wetlands, saltmarsh habitats are one of the most degraded environments globally, with a mere <10% estimated to remain in Aotearoa New Zealand. Many saltmarshes have been lost  due to factors such as,  conversion to pasture, and/or environmental degradation. As part of the conversation around saltmarsh restoration, nature-based solutions are a tool that is being increasingly considered when it comes to climate change mitigation and adaptation,  due to the large potential saltmarshes possess to sequester CO2 alongside adapting to sea level rise such as by providing a space for flood water and for vegetation to slow down storm surges, alongside other environmental and societal benefits.

This study investigates the blue carbon dynamics in restored and control saltmarsh habitats in the Bay of Plenty Aotearoa New Zealand, focusing on bulk density, concentration of carbon (%), Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Sediment Accumulation Rates (SAR), and Carbon Accumulation Rates (CAR). We focus on changes in blue carbon with time since saltmarsh restoration. Bulk density analysis revealed minimal variability among sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the largest standard error (0.765 ± 0.057g cm3) and Wainui River Saltmarsh the lowest mean bulk density (0.633 ± 0.032g cm3). Carbon concentration was generally highly variable across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest mean concentration (5.83 ± 1.151%) and Wainui Repo Whenua the lowest (2.91 ± 0.26%). Total organic carbon stock decreased with depth across sites, with Matua Saltmarsh having the highest total organic carbon stock (1.21 ± 0.005g cm3 or 121.42 ± 0.534t ha-1) and Te Awa o Ngātoroirangi the lowest (0.69 ± 0.004g cm3 or 68.66 ± 0.401t ha-1). Carbon accumulation rates generally increased with restoration age, with Wainui River Saltmarsh exhibiting the highest sediment accumulation rate (11.57mm yr-1) and Matua Saltmarsh the highest carbon accumulation rate (161.87g m-2 yr-1 over the last 20 years). While no distinct trends in blue carbon stocks and concentration emerged between the restored and control environments, it is notable that restored saltmarshes consistently exhibited substantial carbon stocks compared to controls and global standards. Moreover, there were higher mean TOC figures within the first ~30 years post-restoration. These results align with expectations from previous studies, emphasizing the efficacy of saltmarsh restoration efforts in enhancing future carbon storage potential in Aotearoa. 

These findings underscore the need for comprehensive investigations into the roles of vegetation, sedimentation rates, microbial processes, alongside catchment hydrological conditions history. This thesis also highlights that long-term monitoring beyond the initial 20- 30 years post-restoration is crucial to comprehensively understand the trajectory of blue carbon dynamics. In addition, comparative studies accounting for diverse restoration techniques and assessments of broader ecosystem services delivered by saltmarsh restoration are essential. Addressing these factors will deepen our understanding of the specific mechanisms influencing blue carbon dynamics in Aotearoa's restored saltmarshes.

year: 2023-12-24

title: Education outside the classroom in Aotearoa New Zealand - A comprehensive national study: Final Report

authors: Hill, Allen

abstract: Education outside the Classroom (EOTC) has a long and rich history in Aotearoa New Zealand schools (Lynch, 2006), contributing positively to the lives of many young New Zealanders. The purpose of this study was to gain a contemporary and comprehensive understanding of what EOTC is currently occurring in schools across, the value that schools see in/ascribe to EOTC, and the various challenges and factors that influence the provision of EOTC.  
Data for the EOTC Comprehensive National Study was gathered from late 2017 throughout 2018 utilising a multiphase mixed methods research design. Data collection involved a national EOTC questionnaire (NEOTCQ) completed by school leaders and EOTC coordinators’ (n=523), specific EOTC inventories from a small sample of schools (n=23), and individual and focus group interviews with school leaders and teachers (n=28), students (n=140) and LEOTC providers (n=9).
This executive summary provides a succinct overview of the key findings from the comprehensive final report. The summary comprises four key sections addressing: what schools are doing with EOTC, teacher and student perspectives on the value of EOTC, how school leaders and teachers view challenges associated with EOTC provision, and enablers of flourishing EOTC in schools.

text: Education outside the classroom in Aotearoa New Zealand - A comprehensive national study: Final Report Education outside the Classroom (EOTC) has a long and rich history in Aotearoa New Zealand schools (Lynch, 2006), contributing positively to the lives of many young New Zealanders. The purpose of this study was to gain a contemporary and comprehensive understanding of what EOTC is currently occurring in schools across, the value that schools see in/ascribe to EOTC, and the various challenges and factors that influence the provision of EOTC.  
Data for the EOTC Comprehensive National Study was gathered from late 2017 throughout 2018 utilising a multiphase mixed methods research design. Data collection involved a national EOTC questionnaire (NEOTCQ) completed by school leaders and EOTC coordinators’ (n=523), specific EOTC inventories from a small sample of schools (n=23), and individual and focus group interviews with school leaders and teachers (n=28), students (n=140) and LEOTC providers (n=9).
This executive summary provides a succinct overview of the key findings from the comprehensive final report. The summary comprises four key sections addressing: what schools are doing with EOTC, teacher and student perspectives on the value of EOTC, how school leaders and teachers view challenges associated with EOTC provision, and enablers of flourishing EOTC in schools.

year: 2020

title: Te Mata Ono. E tipu atu te kūmara, e ohu mai te anuhe

authors: Pēwhairangi, Te Aorere Tūwhakairiora

subjects: Māori television

abstract: Mai anō, mai anō kua whakapaoho te iwi Māori, tīmata mai ai i te mahi whaikōrero, i te mahi karanga, i te mahi taonga puoro, i te mahi toi, me te mahi waiata. Ko ngā mahi nei he huarahi tuku karere i tētahi takitahi, takitini rānei ki tētahi takitahi, takitini rānei. Mā ēnei mahi e whakawhitiwhiti mōhiohio ai te tangata. Nō te taitanga mai a te Pākehā kua whai huarahi whakapaoho atu anō te iwi Māori i ō rātau mōhiohio, tīmata ana mai i ngā niu pepa, eke ana rā ki ngā reo irirangi, tae noa mai ki te pouaka whakaata me te ipurangi. Ko te rangahautanga nei ka titiro ki tētahi o ngā huarahi mātāmuri e whakapaohotia ai ngā mōhiohio a te Māori, arā te pouaka whakaata. Ka arotaketia ngā mahi tuari mōhiohio a te whare waihanga hōtaka pouaka whakaata nei a Whakaata Māori mā tētahi anga tātai e kīia nei ko Te Mata Ono.

I ngā tau 15 kua pahure ake nei ehara i te mea kua tū a Whakaata Māori hai kaitohatoha mōhiohio Māori, engari hai kaiwhakarauora hoki i te reo Māori me ngā tikanga Māori. I te tuhinga roa nei ka tirohia ngā huarahi taketake me ngā huarahi hōu o te whakapaoho i ngā mōhiohio o te tangata mā roto i a Whakaata Māori. Mā te whakauruuru i ngā huarahi e rua nei e whakahōuhia ai te ara, e whakapaoho Māoritia ai hoki ngā hōtaka o te wā. 

E ono katoa ngā āhuatanga o te anga e kōrerotia nei. Ko te tuhinga roa nei he haurua o te anga. Nā ngā ture ā-kupu o te tohu paerua nei, ka rangahaua rētōtia e a au ngā wāhanga e toru o te ono e kīia nei ko Te Mata Ako, Te Mata Tikanga, Te Mata Iwi anō hoki. E tuhia ana hoki tētahi atu tuhinga roa i te wā nei e Kimiora Kaire-Melbourne. Kai te titiro ia ki ērā atu wāhanga e toru o te anga, Te Mata Māori, Te Mata Pākehā me Te Mata ō-Tua. Hai te mutunga o ngā tuhinga roa e rua nei, ka whakapiria ai ngā āhuatanga e ono kia waihanga pūmautia ai te anga tātari o Te Mata Ono. Ka piri ana te anga tātari ko te whāinga kia whakahāngaitia ai ki a Whakaata Māori hai tautoko, hai hāpai, hai ārahi hoki i te teihanga ki ngā rā kai te heke mai.

text: Te Mata Ono. E tipu atu te kūmara, e ohu mai te anuhe Mai anō, mai anō kua whakapaoho te iwi Māori, tīmata mai ai i te mahi whaikōrero, i te mahi karanga, i te mahi taonga puoro, i te mahi toi, me te mahi waiata. Ko ngā mahi nei he huarahi tuku karere i tētahi takitahi, takitini rānei ki tētahi takitahi, takitini rānei. Mā ēnei mahi e whakawhitiwhiti mōhiohio ai te tangata. Nō te taitanga mai a te Pākehā kua whai huarahi whakapaoho atu anō te iwi Māori i ō rātau mōhiohio, tīmata ana mai i ngā niu pepa, eke ana rā ki ngā reo irirangi, tae noa mai ki te pouaka whakaata me te ipurangi. Ko te rangahautanga nei ka titiro ki tētahi o ngā huarahi mātāmuri e whakapaohotia ai ngā mōhiohio a te Māori, arā te pouaka whakaata. Ka arotaketia ngā mahi tuari mōhiohio a te whare waihanga hōtaka pouaka whakaata nei a Whakaata Māori mā tētahi anga tātai e kīia nei ko Te Mata Ono.

I ngā tau 15 kua pahure ake nei ehara i te mea kua tū a Whakaata Māori hai kaitohatoha mōhiohio Māori, engari hai kaiwhakarauora hoki i te reo Māori me ngā tikanga Māori. I te tuhinga roa nei ka tirohia ngā huarahi taketake me ngā huarahi hōu o te whakapaoho i ngā mōhiohio o te tangata mā roto i a Whakaata Māori. Mā te whakauruuru i ngā huarahi e rua nei e whakahōuhia ai te ara, e whakapaoho Māoritia ai hoki ngā hōtaka o te wā. 

E ono katoa ngā āhuatanga o te anga e kōrerotia nei. Ko te tuhinga roa nei he haurua o te anga. Nā ngā ture ā-kupu o te tohu paerua nei, ka rangahaua rētōtia e a au ngā wāhanga e toru o te ono e kīia nei ko Te Mata Ako, Te Mata Tikanga, Te Mata Iwi anō hoki. E tuhia ana hoki tētahi atu tuhinga roa i te wā nei e Kimiora Kaire-Melbourne. Kai te titiro ia ki ērā atu wāhanga e toru o te anga, Te Mata Māori, Te Mata Pākehā me Te Mata ō-Tua. Hai te mutunga o ngā tuhinga roa e rua nei, ka whakapiria ai ngā āhuatanga e ono kia waihanga pūmautia ai te anga tātari o Te Mata Ono. Ka piri ana te anga tātari ko te whāinga kia whakahāngaitia ai ki a Whakaata Māori hai tautoko, hai hāpai, hai ārahi hoki i te teihanga ki ngā rā kai te heke mai.

year: 2019