title: Premarital sexual behaviour among adolescents and youths in Nepal

authors: Shakya, Prabin

subjects: Premarital sex

abstract: Premarital sex (PMS) among adolescents and young people (AY) is reported to be increasing worldwide. Research to date has tended to focus on analysing the prevalence of PMS among AY, and the individual characteristics associated with PMS, rather than pursuing a more nuanced understanding of changes in the younger generations’ premarital sexual behaviour (PMSB). Recognising this gap, this study explores the dynamics of PMSB among AY aged 15-24 years in Nepal, a country undergoing major social, economic and cultural transitions, and where PMS is still heavily stigmatised. This study has two objectives: to investigate the social determinants of PMSB in Nepal and, in particular, the factors associated with marked gender differences in PMSB; and to centre the voices of AY themselves so as to better understand their perspectives and experiences.
Using a social determinants of health (SDH) approach, mixed methods are employed in a sequential fashion. It begins with statistical analysis of secondary data from a large-scale national survey—the Nepal Adolescent and Youth Survey (NAYS) conducted in 2010/11. This analysis addresses questions relating to the social determinants of PMSB and gender differentials. The qualitative component involves interviews and focus group discussions with AY and key social agents including parents and teachers. By allowing AY to narrate their perceptions of PMS from their own complex standpoints, this part of the study addresses questions relating to the importance of context and AY subjectivities.
Unsurprisingly, the NAYS analysis identified major gender differences with 23% of males reporting that they had experienced PMSB compared to just 4% of females. For both males and females, the likelihood of having PMS was most strongly associated with marital status, prior involvement in at least one ‘love affair’, having a permissive attitude towards PMS, and experience of sexual abuse. The direction of association between marital status with PMSB varied by gender. Ever-married females were 2.5 times more likely to have experienced PMS than never-married females, while never-married males were 1.5 times more likely to experience PMS than their ever-married counterparts. Unlike females, males were also more likely to have had PMS if they had got married later and undertaken some form of migration, increasing exposure time and opportunities to engage in PMS. 
The in-depth interviews and focus groups allowed for much richer insights into AY perspectives. The findings suggest that gender differentials in PMSB among AY in Nepal is largely due to three reasons: gendered norms and values in relation to PMS; gender differences in vulnerabilities to the consequences of PMS; and gender differences in the opportunity to experience PMS. All of those interviewed were either against PMS or for it – with little middle ground – and with significant differences by age and gender. The majority of the adult participants and female AY had negative attitudes towards PMS, whereas male AY attitudes were more diverse. The findings also suggest that there are three distinct contexts in which AY could experience PMS: within intimate love affairs, in transaction (i.e., with sex worker, or informal exchange of offer), and in coercive contexts. 
The use of the SDH theoretical approach in this study is somewhat novel given the dominance, in the literature, of individualistic approaches to exploring PSMB among AY. It enabled me to situate the relationships between individuals’ exposure, attitudes, and behaviours and their PMSB within the broader social context in which AY grow up, live and work. As such, this study shows that the change in PMSB among AY in Nepal is significantly influenced by changes in the social structure, increasing both opportunities and vulnerabilities (e.g., when coerced) to experience PMS. The use of a mixed methods approach also helped to surface the multidimensional realities around PMSB among AY and made visible the limitation of relying on a single method. While this study was limited in its ability to operationalise social determinants, its conceptual framework can be used to incorporate many other social determinants of PMSB at different levels, and to develop locally grounded theories that are more sensitive to local social context. 
Finally, this study suggests that the reporting of PMS, particularly among females, is likely to be understated due to the heavy social stigma that they have to navigate. Therefore, future studies should look to employ new methods of data collection that are gender sensitive, in order to get a more coherent and accurate picture of PMSB among AY in Nepal.

text: Premarital sexual behaviour among adolescents and youths in Nepal Premarital sex (PMS) among adolescents and young people (AY) is reported to be increasing worldwide. Research to date has tended to focus on analysing the prevalence of PMS among AY, and the individual characteristics associated with PMS, rather than pursuing a more nuanced understanding of changes in the younger generations’ premarital sexual behaviour (PMSB). Recognising this gap, this study explores the dynamics of PMSB among AY aged 15-24 years in Nepal, a country undergoing major social, economic and cultural transitions, and where PMS is still heavily stigmatised. This study has two objectives: to investigate the social determinants of PMSB in Nepal and, in particular, the factors associated with marked gender differences in PMSB; and to centre the voices of AY themselves so as to better understand their perspectives and experiences.
Using a social determinants of health (SDH) approach, mixed methods are employed in a sequential fashion. It begins with statistical analysis of secondary data from a large-scale national survey—the Nepal Adolescent and Youth Survey (NAYS) conducted in 2010/11. This analysis addresses questions relating to the social determinants of PMSB and gender differentials. The qualitative component involves interviews and focus group discussions with AY and key social agents including parents and teachers. By allowing AY to narrate their perceptions of PMS from their own complex standpoints, this part of the study addresses questions relating to the importance of context and AY subjectivities.
Unsurprisingly, the NAYS analysis identified major gender differences with 23% of males reporting that they had experienced PMSB compared to just 4% of females. For both males and females, the likelihood of having PMS was most strongly associated with marital status, prior involvement in at least one ‘love affair’, having a permissive attitude towards PMS, and experience of sexual abuse. The direction of association between marital status with PMSB varied by gender. Ever-married females were 2.5 times more likely to have experienced PMS than never-married females, while never-married males were 1.5 times more likely to experience PMS than their ever-married counterparts. Unlike females, males were also more likely to have had PMS if they had got married later and undertaken some form of migration, increasing exposure time and opportunities to engage in PMS. 
The in-depth interviews and focus groups allowed for much richer insights into AY perspectives. The findings suggest that gender differentials in PMSB among AY in Nepal is largely due to three reasons: gendered norms and values in relation to PMS; gender differences in vulnerabilities to the consequences of PMS; and gender differences in the opportunity to experience PMS. All of those interviewed were either against PMS or for it – with little middle ground – and with significant differences by age and gender. The majority of the adult participants and female AY had negative attitudes towards PMS, whereas male AY attitudes were more diverse. The findings also suggest that there are three distinct contexts in which AY could experience PMS: within intimate love affairs, in transaction (i.e., with sex worker, or informal exchange of offer), and in coercive contexts. 
The use of the SDH theoretical approach in this study is somewhat novel given the dominance, in the literature, of individualistic approaches to exploring PSMB among AY. It enabled me to situate the relationships between individuals’ exposure, attitudes, and behaviours and their PMSB within the broader social context in which AY grow up, live and work. As such, this study shows that the change in PMSB among AY in Nepal is significantly influenced by changes in the social structure, increasing both opportunities and vulnerabilities (e.g., when coerced) to experience PMS. The use of a mixed methods approach also helped to surface the multidimensional realities around PMSB among AY and made visible the limitation of relying on a single method. While this study was limited in its ability to operationalise social determinants, its conceptual framework can be used to incorporate many other social determinants of PMSB at different levels, and to develop locally grounded theories that are more sensitive to local social context. 
Finally, this study suggests that the reporting of PMS, particularly among females, is likely to be understated due to the heavy social stigma that they have to navigate. Therefore, future studies should look to employ new methods of data collection that are gender sensitive, in order to get a more coherent and accurate picture of PMSB among AY in Nepal.

year: 2021

title: Enhancing learner agency: Engaging appreciative inquiry to support school transitions

authors: McNae, Rachel Elizabeth

abstract: There is a growing body of literature highlighting the various challenges both teachers and students face when students transition between schools, (e.g. from intermediate to high school), with very little focus given to transitions within school contexts. The nature of common transition processes frequently positions students within a deficit model as individuals needing to be fixed, reflects managerial rather than pedagogical decision-making, (e.g. fluidity, staffing considerations, time management, maximising time on task and minimising disruption), and can lack overall pedagogical focus. As a team of educators and researchers, we strongly believed that Appreciative Inquiry had the potential to be an innovative practice which can aid in creating coherent learning pathways for a more seamless education experience.

text: Enhancing learner agency: Engaging appreciative inquiry to support school transitions There is a growing body of literature highlighting the various challenges both teachers and students face when students transition between schools, (e.g. from intermediate to high school), with very little focus given to transitions within school contexts. The nature of common transition processes frequently positions students within a deficit model as individuals needing to be fixed, reflects managerial rather than pedagogical decision-making, (e.g. fluidity, staffing considerations, time management, maximising time on task and minimising disruption), and can lack overall pedagogical focus. As a team of educators and researchers, we strongly believed that Appreciative Inquiry had the potential to be an innovative practice which can aid in creating coherent learning pathways for a more seamless education experience.

year: 2018

title: Software development: Involving Tangata Whenua and incorporating Tikanga Māori

authors: Taia, Ivy

subjects: software engineering

abstract: Over the past fifty years, software development (SD) has been dominated by Western approaches, which is widely accepted as the standard way of doing things (Diaz Andrade et al., 2021). Consequently, many software applications for specific Indigenous cultures, especially health interventions and educational software (Dobson, Whittaker, Bartley, Connor, Chen, Ross & McCool, 2017; Fleer, 1989), were developed using traditional software engineering (SE) methodologies. Although these methodologies provide the workflows and methods for developing software, they do not provide guidelines for developing Indigenous software. While there have been numerous studies on diversity, such as gender and ethnicity in the field of Information Systems, there is very little research on the practices of involving Indigenous people and incorporating their traditional customs in the software development process. This thesis examines the participation of Indigenous people in software development. The research specifically focuses on Tangata Whenua (Māori people, the Indigenous population of Aotearoa New Zealand) and Tikanga Māori (Māori cultural methods). Our findings are useful to those attempting to enhance Indigenous representation in software development, especially those wanting to involve Māori people and their cultural methods in the development process and design of software.

text: Software development: Involving Tangata Whenua and incorporating Tikanga Māori Over the past fifty years, software development (SD) has been dominated by Western approaches, which is widely accepted as the standard way of doing things (Diaz Andrade et al., 2021). Consequently, many software applications for specific Indigenous cultures, especially health interventions and educational software (Dobson, Whittaker, Bartley, Connor, Chen, Ross & McCool, 2017; Fleer, 1989), were developed using traditional software engineering (SE) methodologies. Although these methodologies provide the workflows and methods for developing software, they do not provide guidelines for developing Indigenous software. While there have been numerous studies on diversity, such as gender and ethnicity in the field of Information Systems, there is very little research on the practices of involving Indigenous people and incorporating their traditional customs in the software development process. This thesis examines the participation of Indigenous people in software development. The research specifically focuses on Tangata Whenua (Māori people, the Indigenous population of Aotearoa New Zealand) and Tikanga Māori (Māori cultural methods). Our findings are useful to those attempting to enhance Indigenous representation in software development, especially those wanting to involve Māori people and their cultural methods in the development process and design of software.

year: 2025