title: Co-operative learning and gender in mathematics education; A case study in a Malawian secondary school

authors: Chamdimba, Catherine Panji

abstract: Gender differences in mathematics education have persisted in many countries despite the substantial research undertaken to understand the contributing factors and the many intervention efforts adopted to address the issue. Recent gender reformists have drawn attention to mathematical instruction as a strategy for improving girls’ learning of mathematics. In this regard co-operative learning has been consistently recommended as a strategy that has the potential to address gender equity in the mathematics classroom. While most studies have shown that co-operative learning strategies have positive effects on students’ learning of mathematics, it has also been shown that such benefits are attained when certain conditions are in place. However, the conditions under which co-operative learning can be most beneficial for all students have not yet been clearly established. Further, little is known about the feasibility of implementing a co-operative learning approach in developing countries since the bulk of research in this field has been conducted in “developed” countries. 

The present study was designed to investigate the above issues in a Malawian secondary school context. It was exploratory and focused on (i) the feasibility of implementing a co-operative learning approach for mathematics teaching in Malawian secondary schools, and (ii) the likely benefits of co-operative learning for students, especially girls. Data were collected in three phases. The data in phase one were collected through a questionnaire sent to 15 mathematics teachers in Zomba urban secondary schools. Phase two comprised a teacher development workshop. Main data were collected in phase three extended over a period of three months. During this period, one female mathematics teacher and 120 Form 3 (year eleven) students she was teaching in a co-educational secondary school in Zomba Urban-Malawi were investigated. The study was qualitative involving interviews and classroom observations of the students and the teacher. Data consisted of field notes, transcripts of tape recorded interviews with the students and teacher, recorded informal conversations with the students and teacher, students’ written journals and questionnaire responses of students.
 
The results from classroom observations revealed that all students preferred co-operative learning over the traditional question/answer teaching approach because of the learning benefits it offered them. A major finding was that peer interaction significantly contributed to the students’ learning of mathematics. The peer interaction during co-operative learning activities stimulated elaboration, an awareness of knowledge gaps and inconsistent reasoning. The girls gained confidence, actively participated in discussion, showed an understanding of concepts and reported that they found mathematics less difficult as a result of their involvement in the co-operative learning approach. The findings also suggest that the question/answer approach might have contributed to the students’ negative attitude towards mathematics. 

The present study also highlights some of the issues that need to be carefully considered if co-operative learning were to be implemented on a larger scale and longer term in Malawi. Preliminary results gathered through the questionnaire and the teacher development workshop revealed that even though the teachers viewed co-operative learning to be beneficial for the students’ learning of mathematics (especially for girls), it was not a major part of their current instructional practice. They mostly taught mathematics using an expository teaching approach, their use of co-operative learning being limited to revising and practicing mathematics.

text: Co-operative learning and gender in mathematics education; A case study in a Malawian secondary school Gender differences in mathematics education have persisted in many countries despite the substantial research undertaken to understand the contributing factors and the many intervention efforts adopted to address the issue. Recent gender reformists have drawn attention to mathematical instruction as a strategy for improving girls’ learning of mathematics. In this regard co-operative learning has been consistently recommended as a strategy that has the potential to address gender equity in the mathematics classroom. While most studies have shown that co-operative learning strategies have positive effects on students’ learning of mathematics, it has also been shown that such benefits are attained when certain conditions are in place. However, the conditions under which co-operative learning can be most beneficial for all students have not yet been clearly established. Further, little is known about the feasibility of implementing a co-operative learning approach in developing countries since the bulk of research in this field has been conducted in “developed” countries. 

The present study was designed to investigate the above issues in a Malawian secondary school context. It was exploratory and focused on (i) the feasibility of implementing a co-operative learning approach for mathematics teaching in Malawian secondary schools, and (ii) the likely benefits of co-operative learning for students, especially girls. Data were collected in three phases. The data in phase one were collected through a questionnaire sent to 15 mathematics teachers in Zomba urban secondary schools. Phase two comprised a teacher development workshop. Main data were collected in phase three extended over a period of three months. During this period, one female mathematics teacher and 120 Form 3 (year eleven) students she was teaching in a co-educational secondary school in Zomba Urban-Malawi were investigated. The study was qualitative involving interviews and classroom observations of the students and the teacher. Data consisted of field notes, transcripts of tape recorded interviews with the students and teacher, recorded informal conversations with the students and teacher, students’ written journals and questionnaire responses of students.
 
The results from classroom observations revealed that all students preferred co-operative learning over the traditional question/answer teaching approach because of the learning benefits it offered them. A major finding was that peer interaction significantly contributed to the students’ learning of mathematics. The peer interaction during co-operative learning activities stimulated elaboration, an awareness of knowledge gaps and inconsistent reasoning. The girls gained confidence, actively participated in discussion, showed an understanding of concepts and reported that they found mathematics less difficult as a result of their involvement in the co-operative learning approach. The findings also suggest that the question/answer approach might have contributed to the students’ negative attitude towards mathematics. 

The present study also highlights some of the issues that need to be carefully considered if co-operative learning were to be implemented on a larger scale and longer term in Malawi. Preliminary results gathered through the questionnaire and the teacher development workshop revealed that even though the teachers viewed co-operative learning to be beneficial for the students’ learning of mathematics (especially for girls), it was not a major part of their current instructional practice. They mostly taught mathematics using an expository teaching approach, their use of co-operative learning being limited to revising and practicing mathematics.

year: 2002

title: The Meetings Incentives Conferences and Events Industry in Hang Zhou, China: Residents' Perceptions of Policies

authors: Zhou, Chao (Nicole)

subjects: Event tourism

abstract: This thesis was initiated by the occurrence of the 2006 Hang Zhou World Leisure Expo. Hang Zhou is the author's home city, and thus the Expo was of interest, and from this interest came the idea of conducting research into residents' perceptions of the impacts of the 2006 Expo and the more general impacts of Hang Zhou's Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions (MICE) policies. As in other Chinese cities, these policies are primarily determined by the Municipal Government with comparatively little reference to residents.
The researcher has found very little prior research into the subject of resident perceptions of MICE, even though, as described in the thesis, there has been increasing competition between cities as each seeks to build conference centres and attract business for those centres. Much of the literature reviewed was based on research into western cases, and in the final chapter reference is made to potential differences between China and the locations of this other research.
After a literature review, the author undertook a qualitative study by conducting interviews with 40 respondents to both elicit their views and determine items for a subsequent quantitative study based on self completed questionnaires. After 5 months, a sample of just over 400 usable responses had been collected. The design of the questionnaire permitted discriminant analysis to be used, and thus in addition to the use of t-tests and ANOVA, factor, cluster, regression and path analysis were all used.
Given the lack of previous research within China, the main focus of the research was descriptive and exploratory in nature, but the initial results permitted the development of a potential set of causal relationships that are summarised in the main text as Figure 4.3. This permitted a series of four propositions to be examined. It is to be noted that the term ‗proposition' is used rather than ‗hypothesis'. The latter term implies quantifiable relationships are thought to exist and that can be tested. The literature review reveals a deficiency generally about residents' perceptions of MICE and very specifically almost nothing about the Chinese situation, so at this stage it is proposed that a relationship between residents and MICE, but no specific hypothesis of quantifiable relationships exist to be tested.
These were:
Proposition One
Socio-demographic variables impact on perceptions of MICE at the city and personal level, and on evaluations of Hang Zhou's MICE policy. In this respect, generally, it was found that socio-
ii
demographics were not discriminating variables, and only employment status and a past history of MICE attendance had some role of significance.
Proposition Two
There will be differences between residents' perceptions of the impacts of MICE policies when asked to consider (a) impacts in Hang Zhou generally, and (b) impacts on personal daily life. This was found to be generally true, and generally respondents were supportive of MICE policies that generated benefits for the city as a whole even when they were either not affected personally, or those personal impacts such as traffic congestion, were negative.
Proposition Three
There will exist differences in perceptions that can be caught in psychometric measurements that will enable different clusters to be discerned, whereby some will be supportive of MICE policies and others less so - such differences being determined by the evaluations of social and environmental costs as against economic gains. In short, there is an inherent tension between the economic, social and environmental within the current state of Hang Zhou as a developing city in a developing nation. This proved to be the case.
Proposition Four
A history of past attendance at MICE will be a variable that shapes support for MICE development and evaluations of the MICE policy. This was partially supported.
While distinct factors, clusters and the role of past attendance were found, the overall model proposed in chapter four, whereby a mix of civic advantages and personal impacts were thought to generate evaluations of MICE policies, was not wholly supported by path analysis. Goodness of fit measures failed to achieve figures of 0.9, although individual components of the model did achieve this. Reasons for this were thought to exist in the developmental nature of the MICE industry in Hang Zhou, and possibly in China as a whole, and these considerations are discussed in the final chapter.

text: The Meetings Incentives Conferences and Events Industry in Hang Zhou, China: Residents' Perceptions of Policies This thesis was initiated by the occurrence of the 2006 Hang Zhou World Leisure Expo. Hang Zhou is the author's home city, and thus the Expo was of interest, and from this interest came the idea of conducting research into residents' perceptions of the impacts of the 2006 Expo and the more general impacts of Hang Zhou's Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions (MICE) policies. As in other Chinese cities, these policies are primarily determined by the Municipal Government with comparatively little reference to residents.
The researcher has found very little prior research into the subject of resident perceptions of MICE, even though, as described in the thesis, there has been increasing competition between cities as each seeks to build conference centres and attract business for those centres. Much of the literature reviewed was based on research into western cases, and in the final chapter reference is made to potential differences between China and the locations of this other research.
After a literature review, the author undertook a qualitative study by conducting interviews with 40 respondents to both elicit their views and determine items for a subsequent quantitative study based on self completed questionnaires. After 5 months, a sample of just over 400 usable responses had been collected. The design of the questionnaire permitted discriminant analysis to be used, and thus in addition to the use of t-tests and ANOVA, factor, cluster, regression and path analysis were all used.
Given the lack of previous research within China, the main focus of the research was descriptive and exploratory in nature, but the initial results permitted the development of a potential set of causal relationships that are summarised in the main text as Figure 4.3. This permitted a series of four propositions to be examined. It is to be noted that the term ‗proposition' is used rather than ‗hypothesis'. The latter term implies quantifiable relationships are thought to exist and that can be tested. The literature review reveals a deficiency generally about residents' perceptions of MICE and very specifically almost nothing about the Chinese situation, so at this stage it is proposed that a relationship between residents and MICE, but no specific hypothesis of quantifiable relationships exist to be tested.
These were:
Proposition One
Socio-demographic variables impact on perceptions of MICE at the city and personal level, and on evaluations of Hang Zhou's MICE policy. In this respect, generally, it was found that socio-
ii
demographics were not discriminating variables, and only employment status and a past history of MICE attendance had some role of significance.
Proposition Two
There will be differences between residents' perceptions of the impacts of MICE policies when asked to consider (a) impacts in Hang Zhou generally, and (b) impacts on personal daily life. This was found to be generally true, and generally respondents were supportive of MICE policies that generated benefits for the city as a whole even when they were either not affected personally, or those personal impacts such as traffic congestion, were negative.
Proposition Three
There will exist differences in perceptions that can be caught in psychometric measurements that will enable different clusters to be discerned, whereby some will be supportive of MICE policies and others less so - such differences being determined by the evaluations of social and environmental costs as against economic gains. In short, there is an inherent tension between the economic, social and environmental within the current state of Hang Zhou as a developing city in a developing nation. This proved to be the case.
Proposition Four
A history of past attendance at MICE will be a variable that shapes support for MICE development and evaluations of the MICE policy. This was partially supported.
While distinct factors, clusters and the role of past attendance were found, the overall model proposed in chapter four, whereby a mix of civic advantages and personal impacts were thought to generate evaluations of MICE policies, was not wholly supported by path analysis. Goodness of fit measures failed to achieve figures of 0.9, although individual components of the model did achieve this. Reasons for this were thought to exist in the developmental nature of the MICE industry in Hang Zhou, and possibly in China as a whole, and these considerations are discussed in the final chapter.

year: 2010

title: Kuta (Eleocharis sphacelata, Cyperaceae), a locally important and highly valued weaving plant

authors: Wehi, Priscilla M.

subjects: Northland (N.Z.)

abstract: This article introduces and discusses kuta (Eleocharis sphacelata, Cyperaceae), a tall spikerush found on the margins of shallow lakes in New Zealand, which, although often overlooked, is considered in Northland to be a valuable weaving resource.

text: Kuta (Eleocharis sphacelata, Cyperaceae), a locally important and highly valued weaving plant This article introduces and discusses kuta (Eleocharis sphacelata, Cyperaceae), a tall spikerush found on the margins of shallow lakes in New Zealand, which, although often overlooked, is considered in Northland to be a valuable weaving resource.

year: 2006