title: Understanding the potential exposure of coastal marae and urupā in Aotearoa New Zealand to sea level rise

authors: Bailey-Winiata, Akuhata Patrick Stephen

subjects: Marae

abstract: In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori are Indigenous and have inhabited these islands for the past 700 years. They have an intricate physical and spiritual connection to places and the environment. This is reflected in the Māori creation story, where Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (Earth mother) are the ancestral parents of Māori. Between these two gods is the marae, the Māori meeting house. Marae are where the domestic life of Māori traditionally ran its course, with marae being an overarching term to illustrate multiple buildings which each have a specific role to play within the community. Often, marae have an associated urupā (burial ground). Historically, marae and their associated urupā are positioned along the low-lying coast, providing easy access to kaimoana (sea food), transport and trade. However, coastal marae and urupā are at an increasing threat of inundation and erosion from sea level rise, and will also be impacted by other effects of climate change such as drought and other changes to weather patterns such as storms.
Many coastal marae and urupā are already experiencing the impacts of coastal flooding and erosion, however, little is known about the exposure of coastal marae and urupā to sea level rise nationally. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis is to explore the potential exposure of coastal marae nationally, with a particular focus on the Bay of Plenty coastal marae including coastal urupā. This aim was achieved by addressing three objectives. The first of which was to investigate the potential national exposure of coastal marae to a 100 year annual recurrence interval extreme sea level event, with the addition of sea level rise. Second, I conducted a nationally-focused assessment of the local coastal geomorphology surrounding coastal marae to determine the potential response of the coast to sea level rise. I also undertook a case study on the BOP which included a more detailed assessment of the geomorphology around the coastal marae and urupā in this region. Third, findings from these two objectives are brought together to consider the next steps to determine how to move forward with planning to manage coastal marae and urupā with sea level rise.
A spatial mapping approach using Arc GIS and existing datasets was used to address these aims, combining the Coastlines and Islands polygon, marae and urupā locational data and the Aotearoa New Zealand coastal hydrosystem classification system proposed by Hume in 2016. This showed that 191 marae around Aotearoa New Zealand are within 1 km of the coast and in the Bay of Plenty 41 urupā are within 1 km. I then used the bathtub modelling approach to get a national first-pass assessment of the potential exposure of these marae and urupā to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 10 cm increments of sea level rise up to 3 m. Six coastal marae were potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 41 coastal marae are potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event with a 3 m rise in mean sea level. The most common type of coastal geomorphology nationally and in the Bay of Plenty was shallow drowned valleys, with 72 coastal marae in this category. The response of these systems to sea level rise manifests as changes in the tidal regime and sediment transport dynamics which will affect inundation and erosion of low-lying areas, where many coastal marae and urupā are positioned.
Thus, it is clear that marae and urupā are nationally at risk to sea level rise, and their responses will be highly variable with geomorphology. But what are the next steps? There are many legislative documents such as the coastal climate change and hazards report by the Ministry for the Environment which suggests that the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways strategy to address the uncertainty surrounding climate change, recommended as a method for future planning. Another is the pending reform of the Resource Management Act which will introduce a climate change adaptation act where support for managed retreat will be made available. However, any management strategies for marae, hapū and iwi will need to be cognisant of the tapū and māna that these places hold, and there will be no one size fits all approach.

text: Understanding the potential exposure of coastal marae and urupā in Aotearoa New Zealand to sea level rise In Aotearoa New Zealand, Māori are Indigenous and have inhabited these islands for the past 700 years. They have an intricate physical and spiritual connection to places and the environment. This is reflected in the Māori creation story, where Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (Earth mother) are the ancestral parents of Māori. Between these two gods is the marae, the Māori meeting house. Marae are where the domestic life of Māori traditionally ran its course, with marae being an overarching term to illustrate multiple buildings which each have a specific role to play within the community. Often, marae have an associated urupā (burial ground). Historically, marae and their associated urupā are positioned along the low-lying coast, providing easy access to kaimoana (sea food), transport and trade. However, coastal marae and urupā are at an increasing threat of inundation and erosion from sea level rise, and will also be impacted by other effects of climate change such as drought and other changes to weather patterns such as storms.
Many coastal marae and urupā are already experiencing the impacts of coastal flooding and erosion, however, little is known about the exposure of coastal marae and urupā to sea level rise nationally. Therefore, the main aim of this thesis is to explore the potential exposure of coastal marae nationally, with a particular focus on the Bay of Plenty coastal marae including coastal urupā. This aim was achieved by addressing three objectives. The first of which was to investigate the potential national exposure of coastal marae to a 100 year annual recurrence interval extreme sea level event, with the addition of sea level rise. Second, I conducted a nationally-focused assessment of the local coastal geomorphology surrounding coastal marae to determine the potential response of the coast to sea level rise. I also undertook a case study on the BOP which included a more detailed assessment of the geomorphology around the coastal marae and urupā in this region. Third, findings from these two objectives are brought together to consider the next steps to determine how to move forward with planning to manage coastal marae and urupā with sea level rise.
A spatial mapping approach using Arc GIS and existing datasets was used to address these aims, combining the Coastlines and Islands polygon, marae and urupā locational data and the Aotearoa New Zealand coastal hydrosystem classification system proposed by Hume in 2016. This showed that 191 marae around Aotearoa New Zealand are within 1 km of the coast and in the Bay of Plenty 41 urupā are within 1 km. I then used the bathtub modelling approach to get a national first-pass assessment of the potential exposure of these marae and urupā to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 10 cm increments of sea level rise up to 3 m. Six coastal marae were potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event at current mean sea level, with 41 coastal marae are potentially exposed to a 100 year extreme sea level event with a 3 m rise in mean sea level. The most common type of coastal geomorphology nationally and in the Bay of Plenty was shallow drowned valleys, with 72 coastal marae in this category. The response of these systems to sea level rise manifests as changes in the tidal regime and sediment transport dynamics which will affect inundation and erosion of low-lying areas, where many coastal marae and urupā are positioned.
Thus, it is clear that marae and urupā are nationally at risk to sea level rise, and their responses will be highly variable with geomorphology. But what are the next steps? There are many legislative documents such as the coastal climate change and hazards report by the Ministry for the Environment which suggests that the Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways strategy to address the uncertainty surrounding climate change, recommended as a method for future planning. Another is the pending reform of the Resource Management Act which will introduce a climate change adaptation act where support for managed retreat will be made available. However, any management strategies for marae, hapū and iwi will need to be cognisant of the tapū and māna that these places hold, and there will be no one size fits all approach.

year: 2021

title: Tū Māori Ake: Seeking which is above.

authors: Maxwell, Te Kahautu

abstract: Te Waka Āwhina 2015 Seeking that which is above Kaupapa - Philosophy o Aotearoa “Tū Māori ake” E ngā mana, e ngā reo, e ngā karangatanga, nei rā te powhiri ki a koutou katoa ‘MĀ TE MĀORI, MŌ TE MĀORI’ Te Waka Āwhina o Aotearoa National Training Hui by Māori for Māori within local government Āwhea: 2 – 4 February 2015 Ki whea: The Gallagher Academy of Performing Arts, The University of Waikato, Hamilton Hau kāinga: Te Puku o te Ika.

text: Tū Māori Ake: Seeking which is above. Te Waka Āwhina 2015 Seeking that which is above Kaupapa - Philosophy o Aotearoa “Tū Māori ake” E ngā mana, e ngā reo, e ngā karangatanga, nei rā te powhiri ki a koutou katoa ‘MĀ TE MĀORI, MŌ TE MĀORI’ Te Waka Āwhina o Aotearoa National Training Hui by Māori for Māori within local government Āwhea: 2 – 4 February 2015 Ki whea: The Gallagher Academy of Performing Arts, The University of Waikato, Hamilton Hau kāinga: Te Puku o te Ika.

year: 2015-02-03

title: The Effect of Caffeine Deprivation on Decisions about Future Events in Humans

authors: Frankish, Rosanna P.J.

subjects: Delay Discounting

abstract: The current study used the stimulant model, caffeine, to assess the effects of stimulant deprivation on impulsivity in humans. Previous research has found substance abusers express greater preference for immediate outcomes and this effect is increased with deprivation from the substance. A delay discounting method was used to examine the effects of stimulant deprivation on caffeine-dependents and non-dependents. Experiment 1 looked at the effects of 12 hour's abstinence from caffeine on High and Low caffeine consumers' decision making, using a pen-and-paper delay discounting method. Experiment 1 produced area under the curve values which showed the largest effect in the Low caffeine consumers, Low caffeine consumers increased discounting when under the influence of caffeine. Experiment 2 used a well supported computer-based, hypothetical monetary, delay discounting task in hope of generating a magnitude effect. Experiment 2 was used to determine the task mode in Experiment 1 was not responsible for the unexpected pattern of results. A magnitude effect was found between the $1000 and $10,000 tasks in the delay discounting procedure. Experiment 3 used the established computer-based, hypothetical monetary amounts, delay discounting task from Experiment 2 to assess the effects of 24 hours abstinence from caffeine in High and Low caffeine consumers. The k values revealed a significant increase in discounting when participants were caffeine deprived for all groups except the High caffeine group in the $10,000 condition. These mixed results were discussed in terms of weaknesses revealed about the common mathematical measures used to analyse delay discounting data. Most importantly, the practice regularly employed by delay discounting researchers to exclude data which does not conform to discounting functions. The exponential, hyperbolic, extended hyperbolic models and the area under the curve measure were compared. The area under the curve was found to be the only measure to not exclude data, and sub-sequentially was preferred. Further research is required to establish if the area under the curve behaved in similar ways to other measures of discounting data as correlations in this study are not clear.

text: The Effect of Caffeine Deprivation on Decisions about Future Events in Humans The current study used the stimulant model, caffeine, to assess the effects of stimulant deprivation on impulsivity in humans. Previous research has found substance abusers express greater preference for immediate outcomes and this effect is increased with deprivation from the substance. A delay discounting method was used to examine the effects of stimulant deprivation on caffeine-dependents and non-dependents. Experiment 1 looked at the effects of 12 hour's abstinence from caffeine on High and Low caffeine consumers' decision making, using a pen-and-paper delay discounting method. Experiment 1 produced area under the curve values which showed the largest effect in the Low caffeine consumers, Low caffeine consumers increased discounting when under the influence of caffeine. Experiment 2 used a well supported computer-based, hypothetical monetary, delay discounting task in hope of generating a magnitude effect. Experiment 2 was used to determine the task mode in Experiment 1 was not responsible for the unexpected pattern of results. A magnitude effect was found between the $1000 and $10,000 tasks in the delay discounting procedure. Experiment 3 used the established computer-based, hypothetical monetary amounts, delay discounting task from Experiment 2 to assess the effects of 24 hours abstinence from caffeine in High and Low caffeine consumers. The k values revealed a significant increase in discounting when participants were caffeine deprived for all groups except the High caffeine group in the $10,000 condition. These mixed results were discussed in terms of weaknesses revealed about the common mathematical measures used to analyse delay discounting data. Most importantly, the practice regularly employed by delay discounting researchers to exclude data which does not conform to discounting functions. The exponential, hyperbolic, extended hyperbolic models and the area under the curve measure were compared. The area under the curve was found to be the only measure to not exclude data, and sub-sequentially was preferred. Further research is required to establish if the area under the curve behaved in similar ways to other measures of discounting data as correlations in this study are not clear.

year: 2011