title: How do ageing stereotypes affect performance on a previously unexplored false memory task?

authors: Ubha, Sukhandeep

abstract: False memories are memories that are thought to have happened but did not happen. Age-related neurological changes can cause an increase in false memories; however, researchers have started focusing on stereotype threat, to explain this increase. Stereotype threat occurs when negative beliefs about a particular group are introduced, causing them to perform poorly on tasks. Studies focused on the effects of age-based stereotype threat on false memories have been conflicted due to the methodological differences (such as the use of retrieval task and the focus of the task). Thus, Experiment 1 aimed to account for those methodological differences and investigated whether stereotype threat influenced performance on the memory conjunction task. In Experiment 1, 60 participants were given a memory conjunction task online and were randomly assigned to either a control or a stereotype threat group. Participants were then given a free recall and a recognition task. They were also asked to indicate their levels of education, employment and importance given to memory (moderating factors), as these factors can affect performance. The results indicated no difference in performance between the control and the stereotyped participants. This could be due to participants finding the memory conjunction task difficult, thus choosing to disengage from the task. Therefore, Experiment 2 aimed to investigate whether there were any changes in performance when an online DRM task with a different focus (prevention or promotion) was used. In Experiment 2, 120 participants were given a DRM task online and were randomly assigned to the stereotype threat-promotion, stereotype threat-prevention,
control-promotion and control-prevention groups. This experiment did not find any significant differences between the groups. It is possible that previous studies mistakenly induced subtle and blatant stereotype threats while the present experiment only used blatant threat. Recruiting participants from an online platform could also explain why present study found discrepant findings compared to the previous research. Even though present study was unable to replicate previous findings, it still added to the limited literature and focused on different methodological factors all at once. It is essential to keep investigating and focusing on different methodological factors to better understand a very complex topic. The threat could cause older adults to be diagnosed with dementia and receive unnecessary treatment when, in fact, they are healthy.

text: How do ageing stereotypes affect performance on a previously unexplored false memory task? False memories are memories that are thought to have happened but did not happen. Age-related neurological changes can cause an increase in false memories; however, researchers have started focusing on stereotype threat, to explain this increase. Stereotype threat occurs when negative beliefs about a particular group are introduced, causing them to perform poorly on tasks. Studies focused on the effects of age-based stereotype threat on false memories have been conflicted due to the methodological differences (such as the use of retrieval task and the focus of the task). Thus, Experiment 1 aimed to account for those methodological differences and investigated whether stereotype threat influenced performance on the memory conjunction task. In Experiment 1, 60 participants were given a memory conjunction task online and were randomly assigned to either a control or a stereotype threat group. Participants were then given a free recall and a recognition task. They were also asked to indicate their levels of education, employment and importance given to memory (moderating factors), as these factors can affect performance. The results indicated no difference in performance between the control and the stereotyped participants. This could be due to participants finding the memory conjunction task difficult, thus choosing to disengage from the task. Therefore, Experiment 2 aimed to investigate whether there were any changes in performance when an online DRM task with a different focus (prevention or promotion) was used. In Experiment 2, 120 participants were given a DRM task online and were randomly assigned to the stereotype threat-promotion, stereotype threat-prevention,
control-promotion and control-prevention groups. This experiment did not find any significant differences between the groups. It is possible that previous studies mistakenly induced subtle and blatant stereotype threats while the present experiment only used blatant threat. Recruiting participants from an online platform could also explain why present study found discrepant findings compared to the previous research. Even though present study was unable to replicate previous findings, it still added to the limited literature and focused on different methodological factors all at once. It is essential to keep investigating and focusing on different methodological factors to better understand a very complex topic. The threat could cause older adults to be diagnosed with dementia and receive unnecessary treatment when, in fact, they are healthy.

year: 2022

title: Impacts of Early Childhood Education Social Obligations on Families and Whanau

authors: Randall, Judith

subjects: early childhood education

abstract: This thesis explores the impacts of ECE social obligations on affected families and whānau. In 2013 ECE social obligations were introduced through the Social Security (Benefit Categories and Work Focus) Amendment Bill. These obligations require beneficiaries to ensure their children are “enrolled in and attending an approved early childhood education programme from the age of three, until they start school” (Work and Income New Zealand, 2013c). 
A qualitative approach was utilised to hear the voices of those affected. Data was gathered through interviews with eight beneficiary families and two ECE centre managers who had knowledge of the impacts of obligations.  Perceived impacts were analysed using thematic analysis. An examination of the discourses underpinning these obligations as represented in policy documents was undertaken utilising Bacchi’s (2000; 1999) “what’s the problem?” framework.
The introduction of the ECE social obligation policy was found to have placed responsibility on beneficiaries but to have failed to adequately address barriers to ECE participation that families face. The study identified many barriers which impede a family’s ability to participate in ECE. These include transportation, cost, and provision of high quality, suitable ECE for their children available in their local community. Mandatory ECE does not provide the infrastructure needed to enable families to access ECE programmes as it does not address the accessibility, structural, and personal barriers that families face. The thesis argues that the context of incorporating ECE policy in Ministry of Social Development (MSD) legislation and the use of sanctions to ensure compliance is likely to lead to negative outcomes for children’s well-being. 
Policy-as-discourse analysis identified that social obligations were conceived in the context of reducing long-term benefit dependency. The three interrelated dominant discourses underpinning this policy, economic rationalisation, the positioning of beneficiaries as job seekers, and the positioning of children as vulnerable, has left the child as citizen invisible. I advocate that redefining the problem through a child as citizen lens could provide a framework for government to support families through barriers and address provision of high quality ECE. 
Three key suggestions are made. Firstly, utilisation of a child’s rights framework could ensure children’s rights are at the forefront of ECE policy.  This would enable the primary emphasis to be on the welfare and best interests of all children. Within this framework this study identified the need for ECE matters to be in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, rather than MSD, in order to ensure consistency and accessibility to quality ECE for all children. Secondly, ECE engagement needs to be promoted through a positive model rather than sanctions. Government financial investment in integrated ECE services within local communities could aid families to overcome participation barriers and provide an ideal model for enabling families to access social services.  Thirdly, government policy and funding needs to support provision of high quality ECE services that are responsive to their local communities. Such services are essential to encouraging ECE participation.

text: Impacts of Early Childhood Education Social Obligations on Families and Whanau This thesis explores the impacts of ECE social obligations on affected families and whānau. In 2013 ECE social obligations were introduced through the Social Security (Benefit Categories and Work Focus) Amendment Bill. These obligations require beneficiaries to ensure their children are “enrolled in and attending an approved early childhood education programme from the age of three, until they start school” (Work and Income New Zealand, 2013c). 
A qualitative approach was utilised to hear the voices of those affected. Data was gathered through interviews with eight beneficiary families and two ECE centre managers who had knowledge of the impacts of obligations.  Perceived impacts were analysed using thematic analysis. An examination of the discourses underpinning these obligations as represented in policy documents was undertaken utilising Bacchi’s (2000; 1999) “what’s the problem?” framework.
The introduction of the ECE social obligation policy was found to have placed responsibility on beneficiaries but to have failed to adequately address barriers to ECE participation that families face. The study identified many barriers which impede a family’s ability to participate in ECE. These include transportation, cost, and provision of high quality, suitable ECE for their children available in their local community. Mandatory ECE does not provide the infrastructure needed to enable families to access ECE programmes as it does not address the accessibility, structural, and personal barriers that families face. The thesis argues that the context of incorporating ECE policy in Ministry of Social Development (MSD) legislation and the use of sanctions to ensure compliance is likely to lead to negative outcomes for children’s well-being. 
Policy-as-discourse analysis identified that social obligations were conceived in the context of reducing long-term benefit dependency. The three interrelated dominant discourses underpinning this policy, economic rationalisation, the positioning of beneficiaries as job seekers, and the positioning of children as vulnerable, has left the child as citizen invisible. I advocate that redefining the problem through a child as citizen lens could provide a framework for government to support families through barriers and address provision of high quality ECE. 
Three key suggestions are made. Firstly, utilisation of a child’s rights framework could ensure children’s rights are at the forefront of ECE policy.  This would enable the primary emphasis to be on the welfare and best interests of all children. Within this framework this study identified the need for ECE matters to be in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, rather than MSD, in order to ensure consistency and accessibility to quality ECE for all children. Secondly, ECE engagement needs to be promoted through a positive model rather than sanctions. Government financial investment in integrated ECE services within local communities could aid families to overcome participation barriers and provide an ideal model for enabling families to access social services.  Thirdly, government policy and funding needs to support provision of high quality ECE services that are responsive to their local communities. Such services are essential to encouraging ECE participation.

year: 2014

title: Caught in the cross-fire: the realities of being Māori at a bicultural law school

authors: Papuni-Ball, Makere

abstract: This thesis examines the first Waikato Māori Law Graduates’ experiences at law school and our employment choices. It has been written as a result of a research project which was conducted in 1994. The paper begins with establishing the importance of other Māori the guidelines on this project. In this discussion, my role as the researcher is explained together with how the original research project impacted upon this thesis.

Waikato School of Law was established in an era of socio-political changes in our society. Te Matahauariki Report supported its establishment based upon proven demand for law graduates. It also envisaged the School as being a meeting place for all who attended, an institution which might encourage relationships between Māori and Pakeha societies. The Council of Legal Education supported the need to have at least one law school which would not reflect the traditional legal education system and acknowledged the need to incorporate a Māori perspective. Tainui as tangata whenua hoped the school would provide opportunities for Māori students, including Māori in the curriculum and assist in promoting research ensuring the recognition of Māori lore/law.

Amongst this backdrop, the most important reason why we came to law school was because of our whānau expectations. It is the accountability and responsibility we have as Māori to our whānau and the wider Māori community that is a major theme throughout this thesis. As students we were expected to utilise our skills to benefit our wider Māori networks.

We had expected that the School would provide us with a legal education which would be enriched in Māori kaupapa. Our experiences tell another story. Instead of being educated in Māori tikanga and the true discourse of the law as a tool of oppression, we were exposed to continual suppression of our cultural heritage. In class we had become the teachers of the Māori content.

The School, although admiral in its aims, was not prepared in structure, staff or mental processes for biculturalism. The consequences for the Māori students who were exposed to this structure was devastating. Our experiences of being discriminated against and made to justify our Māori perspective against the backdrop of the dominant Pakeha legal culture have affected our perceptions of the law. The myths of one law for all and the neutrality of the justice system have resulted in our choosing to work in jobs that will continue to benefit Māori.

It is suggested that our legal education has influenced our choices to work in areas which focus on benefiting the Māori community. In those monocultural work areas which have few Māori practising, this is because such places repel those of us who know that such work places perpetuate the dominant Pakeha culture. Māori struggle against the oppressive presence of the dominant culture.

This thesis calls upon my own experiences and the experiences of my fellow Māori law graduates. It is a starting point for other Māori to write about their experiences and to reassert Māori rangatiratanga not only in law school, but in the wider community.

text: Caught in the cross-fire: the realities of being Māori at a bicultural law school This thesis examines the first Waikato Māori Law Graduates’ experiences at law school and our employment choices. It has been written as a result of a research project which was conducted in 1994. The paper begins with establishing the importance of other Māori the guidelines on this project. In this discussion, my role as the researcher is explained together with how the original research project impacted upon this thesis.

Waikato School of Law was established in an era of socio-political changes in our society. Te Matahauariki Report supported its establishment based upon proven demand for law graduates. It also envisaged the School as being a meeting place for all who attended, an institution which might encourage relationships between Māori and Pakeha societies. The Council of Legal Education supported the need to have at least one law school which would not reflect the traditional legal education system and acknowledged the need to incorporate a Māori perspective. Tainui as tangata whenua hoped the school would provide opportunities for Māori students, including Māori in the curriculum and assist in promoting research ensuring the recognition of Māori lore/law.

Amongst this backdrop, the most important reason why we came to law school was because of our whānau expectations. It is the accountability and responsibility we have as Māori to our whānau and the wider Māori community that is a major theme throughout this thesis. As students we were expected to utilise our skills to benefit our wider Māori networks.

We had expected that the School would provide us with a legal education which would be enriched in Māori kaupapa. Our experiences tell another story. Instead of being educated in Māori tikanga and the true discourse of the law as a tool of oppression, we were exposed to continual suppression of our cultural heritage. In class we had become the teachers of the Māori content.

The School, although admiral in its aims, was not prepared in structure, staff or mental processes for biculturalism. The consequences for the Māori students who were exposed to this structure was devastating. Our experiences of being discriminated against and made to justify our Māori perspective against the backdrop of the dominant Pakeha legal culture have affected our perceptions of the law. The myths of one law for all and the neutrality of the justice system have resulted in our choosing to work in jobs that will continue to benefit Māori.

It is suggested that our legal education has influenced our choices to work in areas which focus on benefiting the Māori community. In those monocultural work areas which have few Māori practising, this is because such places repel those of us who know that such work places perpetuate the dominant Pakeha culture. Māori struggle against the oppressive presence of the dominant culture.

This thesis calls upon my own experiences and the experiences of my fellow Māori law graduates. It is a starting point for other Māori to write about their experiences and to reassert Māori rangatiratanga not only in law school, but in the wider community.

year: 1996