title: Year 11 students’ perceptions of political institutions, political decision-making and political personalities: How do young New Zealanders participate in political processes?

authors: Suppers, Janina

subjects: Political participation

abstract: Thirty-seven percent of young, eligible New Zealanders, aged 18 - 24, did not vote in the General Election of 2014, which is a population of 126,065 people (Electoral Commission, 2014a). While New Zealand is still amongst countries with the highest voting rates, it also has the eighth steepest decline in turnout rate out of 22 advanced democracies (Vowles, 2012). These statistics suggest that current methods to involve and entice formal political participation, like voting, seem to fail. From my experience as a secondary school Social Studies teacher, a narrow definition of what constitutes political participation and an incomplete understanding of how young people perceive political institutions and decision-making processes, could be a reason for this perception of the politically disengaged young New Zealander (Arsenau, 2014; Catt, 2005; Liddle, 2013; McCulloch, 2014). This thesis analyses and presents current literature and philosophical theories around the political participation of young people, and political literacy education in the Social Sciences learning area of the New Zealand curriculum (Ministry of Education [NZC], 2007). The thesis also includes results from research I have conducted which focuses on young people aged below the voting age of 18 (Year 11), and their perceptions of political institutions, political decision making processes and political personalities. Through the use of a mixed methods approach (student questionnaires, semi-structured qualitative interviews with Social Sciences teachers, student focus group conversations), this research endeavours to describe how young New Zealanders aged 14 to 16 perceive and participate in political processes. The information gathered through these methods, is analysed, interpreted and used to provide guidance for political literacy education in the Social Sciences learning area of the New Zealand Curriculum.

text: Year 11 students’ perceptions of political institutions, political decision-making and political personalities: How do young New Zealanders participate in political processes? Thirty-seven percent of young, eligible New Zealanders, aged 18 - 24, did not vote in the General Election of 2014, which is a population of 126,065 people (Electoral Commission, 2014a). While New Zealand is still amongst countries with the highest voting rates, it also has the eighth steepest decline in turnout rate out of 22 advanced democracies (Vowles, 2012). These statistics suggest that current methods to involve and entice formal political participation, like voting, seem to fail. From my experience as a secondary school Social Studies teacher, a narrow definition of what constitutes political participation and an incomplete understanding of how young people perceive political institutions and decision-making processes, could be a reason for this perception of the politically disengaged young New Zealander (Arsenau, 2014; Catt, 2005; Liddle, 2013; McCulloch, 2014). This thesis analyses and presents current literature and philosophical theories around the political participation of young people, and political literacy education in the Social Sciences learning area of the New Zealand curriculum (Ministry of Education [NZC], 2007). The thesis also includes results from research I have conducted which focuses on young people aged below the voting age of 18 (Year 11), and their perceptions of political institutions, political decision making processes and political personalities. Through the use of a mixed methods approach (student questionnaires, semi-structured qualitative interviews with Social Sciences teachers, student focus group conversations), this research endeavours to describe how young New Zealanders aged 14 to 16 perceive and participate in political processes. The information gathered through these methods, is analysed, interpreted and used to provide guidance for political literacy education in the Social Sciences learning area of the New Zealand Curriculum.

year: 2016

title: The terrestrial carbon cycle in transition: tracking changes using novel tracers on multiple timescales

authors: Pearson, Andrew

subjects: Speleothems

abstract: Soils store more carbon than the atmosphere and terrestrial vegetation combined, therefore, changes in soil carbon storage can affect the global carbon budget. One of the forms in which carbon is exported from soil is as dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Upon release from soil, components of DOC can be oxidised to CO₂, thus potentially contributing to the global climate crisis. In freshwater systems, DOC is considered a pollutant because of its detrimental impact on freshwater ecology and biodiversity (by blocking light and reducing photosynthesis and altering thermal-mixing regimes in lakes), increasing freshwater acidity, transporting nutrients (particularly N and P) and trace metal pollutants. Further, during the water treatment process (for human consumption), DOC can form toxic by-products. 
This project aimed to shed new light on terrestrial carbon dynamics by testing the hypothesis that climate can drive increases in soil DOC export. This research focused on past soil DOC exports in New Zealand, an archipelago located in the mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. New Zealand’s palaeo-environmental archives (e.g. speleothems and lake sediments) provide a unique opportunity to reconstruct the concentrations and characteristics of DOC under changing climate conditions over centennial/millennial timescales. New Zealand was uninhabited by humans until the 13th century. Palaeo-environmental records that extend beyond the 13th century, therefore, exclude interference from anthropogenic factors, thus enabling the climate hypothesis to be assessed. 
Using lake sediment archives to reconstruct DOC concentrations and characteristics through the past 14,000 years 
This study explored the use of 3D EEM (excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy) fluorescence of water extractable dissolved organic matter (WEDOM) from lake sediments in reconstructing both past soil export of DOM and past trophic status. DOM and water quality are linked because DOM can contain nutrients (N, and P), provide an energy source to heterotrophs and algae, can reduce light penetration, and lead to reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations. 
Mean trophic level index (TLI) monitoring data of the lake water columns were compared against protein-like fluorescence from contemporary sedimentary WEDOM from ten lakes, producing strong positive correlations with total phosphorous (R²= 0.81), and TLI scores (R²= 0.74 ), and weak positive correlations with total nitrogen (R²= 0.5) and chlorophyll a (R²= 0.44). The equation produced from the correlation between TLI scores and protein-like fluorescence of WEDOM was used to reconstruct TLI scores through the past 13,700 years at Adelaide Tarn (a climatically sensitive, sub-alpine lake located in the north west of the South Island), indicating predominantly oligotrophic conditions throughout the record. 
Humic-like DOM fluxes in Adelaide Tarn responded to known climate shifts over the course of the Holocene, indicating a climatic control on soil DOM production and/or export. The results indicate that WEDOM fluorescence can be used as a reliable indicator of past soil export of DOM as well as past trophic status.
To examine total organic carbon concentration; a partial-least square regression (PLSR) model was produced using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS) data vs conventionally measured TOC of 141 sediment samples from 13 lakes, resulting in strong positive correlation (R² =0.88). The equation from this correlation was then used to reconstruct past TOC concentrations from sediments in Adelaide Tarn. The FTIRS-TOC and humic-like DOM records showed a clear relationship with known temperature changes over the past ~14,000 years BP. 
Testing the reliability of calcite to record DOC concentrations from its parent solution 
Natural carbonates (such as speleothems) are known to contain DOM. Speleothems accumulate for hundreds of thousands of years, thus potentially containing long-term records of DOM export from their overlying soil. However, the ability of carbonates to reliably record DOM concentrations from their parent solutions is unknown. A calcite precipitation experiment was undertaken in growth solutions (diluted peat water) of differing [DOC]aq (0, 5, 10, 15 ppm) with the aim of testing the reliability of calcite to record [DOC]aq, and the potential of 3D excitation emission (EEM) analysis to assess the DOC concentration in dissolved calcite samples. A case study of flowstones and dripwaters from three New Zealand caves was also conducted. In the case study, 3D EEM fluorescence-inferred DOC concentrations were measured in the dripwaters and speleothems, thus enabling calculation of DOC partition coefficients between dripwaters and their associated flowstones. Overall, the study demonstrated that calcite [DOC] is controlled by aqueous [DOC] from the parent solution, in natural and experimental environments. 
Further, [DOC]aq within the experimental range did not alter the calcium carbonate polymorph (calcite), yet heavily influenced calcite crystal structure; smooth-faced, rhombohedral crystals formed in growth solutions with low [DOC]aq (0–5 ppm), whereas prismatic, ‘impure’ crystals were produced at high [DOC]aq (10 and 15 ppm).
Using speleothem archives to test the impact of climate on aquatic DOC concentrations in a pre-human continent
3D EEM fluorescence was used to measure humic-like DOC concentrations in modern dripwaters and within three flowstones (secondary carbonate deposits) from three caves distributed along a 7° latitudinal gradient. Calculated DOC concentrations from recently deposited flowstone calcite and dripwater monitoring were used to calculate empirical distribution coefficient (Kd) values, enabling an estimate of dripwater DOC concentrations through the past ~14,000 years BP. 
Correspondence between heightened aquatic DOC concentrations during periods of known temperature increases (especially the Holocene climatic optimum) was observed at Hodges Creek (north-west South Island) and Dave’s Cave (south-west South Island), whilst climatic cooling (during the mid-Holocene) yielded lower DOC values. This occurrence was not clear at Waipuna Cave (western North Island), perhaps owing to its relatively low altitude and lack of climatic sensitivity compared to the other sites. 
Ratios of Mg to Ca in the flowstone showed a strong correspondence between periods of drier climate and increases in DOC dripwater concentration at each site. The findings of this study show that DOC concentrations have been higher in the past at the high-altitude sites, and that climate (in the absence of anthropogenic impacts) plays a pivotal role in soil DOC export in sub-alpine and alpine environments.
Summary
The thesis produced several outcomes. Chapter 3 demonstrated that protein-like fluorescence of sedimentary WEDOM is associated with trophic level index score and can be used as an indicator of past trophic level (i.e. productivity). Further, the Adelaide Tarn palaeo-environmental reconstruction demonstrated that humic-like fluorescence responded to climate shifts through the Holocene, indicating a temperature control on soil C production and/or export. At large, the DOC concentration over the ~10 kyr period approximately halved with a decrease in temperature of 1.2 °C.
The project also demonstrated (in Chapter 4) that speleothems can reliably record DOC from their parent solutions, showing a linear response between dissolved and solid phase organic concentration. This finding formed the foundation of Chapter 5, which demonstrated that high humic-like DOC concentrations in flowstones were associated with drier conditions at Waipuna Cave (lower-altitude North Island site), however there was no clear correspondence between temperature and [DOC] in the Waipuna record.
At the high altitude, South Island sites (Hodges Creek cave, Adelaide Tarn and Dave’s Cave), DOC concentrations were higher during periods with relatively low precipitation and high temperature. Hodges Creek Cave (940 m a.s.l.) is situated at a similar altitude to Adelaide Tarn (1,250 m a.s.l.) the two sites being only 32 km apart. Adelaide Tarn’s WEDOM and FTIR-TOC records show strikingly similar patterns of humic-like fluorescence and TOC concentrations to the Hodge’s Creek fluorescence record, providing support for a regionally coherent signal. The relationship between climate and soil DOC export was most clear during the Holocene climatic optimum. At this time, temperatures were approximately 1.5-2.5 °C warmer than present, whilst humic-like DOC values (relative to modern) were 57 % higher at Hodge’s Creek, 36 % higher at Adelaide Tarn and 40 % higher at Dave’s Cave. The HCO was also drier than most of the Holocene at these sites. Following the HCO, temperature declined, and wetness increased, corresponding with a notable decline in DOC concentrations at these sites.
These findings imply that in the absence of human interference, higher temperatures and aridity were important drivers of elevated soil DOC export through the past 14,000 years BP was controlled by temperature and wetness at the high-altitude sites, whilst only wetness was important at low altitude.

text: The terrestrial carbon cycle in transition: tracking changes using novel tracers on multiple timescales Soils store more carbon than the atmosphere and terrestrial vegetation combined, therefore, changes in soil carbon storage can affect the global carbon budget. One of the forms in which carbon is exported from soil is as dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Upon release from soil, components of DOC can be oxidised to CO₂, thus potentially contributing to the global climate crisis. In freshwater systems, DOC is considered a pollutant because of its detrimental impact on freshwater ecology and biodiversity (by blocking light and reducing photosynthesis and altering thermal-mixing regimes in lakes), increasing freshwater acidity, transporting nutrients (particularly N and P) and trace metal pollutants. Further, during the water treatment process (for human consumption), DOC can form toxic by-products. 
This project aimed to shed new light on terrestrial carbon dynamics by testing the hypothesis that climate can drive increases in soil DOC export. This research focused on past soil DOC exports in New Zealand, an archipelago located in the mid-latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. New Zealand’s palaeo-environmental archives (e.g. speleothems and lake sediments) provide a unique opportunity to reconstruct the concentrations and characteristics of DOC under changing climate conditions over centennial/millennial timescales. New Zealand was uninhabited by humans until the 13th century. Palaeo-environmental records that extend beyond the 13th century, therefore, exclude interference from anthropogenic factors, thus enabling the climate hypothesis to be assessed. 
Using lake sediment archives to reconstruct DOC concentrations and characteristics through the past 14,000 years 
This study explored the use of 3D EEM (excitation-emission matrix spectroscopy) fluorescence of water extractable dissolved organic matter (WEDOM) from lake sediments in reconstructing both past soil export of DOM and past trophic status. DOM and water quality are linked because DOM can contain nutrients (N, and P), provide an energy source to heterotrophs and algae, can reduce light penetration, and lead to reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations. 
Mean trophic level index (TLI) monitoring data of the lake water columns were compared against protein-like fluorescence from contemporary sedimentary WEDOM from ten lakes, producing strong positive correlations with total phosphorous (R²= 0.81), and TLI scores (R²= 0.74 ), and weak positive correlations with total nitrogen (R²= 0.5) and chlorophyll a (R²= 0.44). The equation produced from the correlation between TLI scores and protein-like fluorescence of WEDOM was used to reconstruct TLI scores through the past 13,700 years at Adelaide Tarn (a climatically sensitive, sub-alpine lake located in the north west of the South Island), indicating predominantly oligotrophic conditions throughout the record. 
Humic-like DOM fluxes in Adelaide Tarn responded to known climate shifts over the course of the Holocene, indicating a climatic control on soil DOM production and/or export. The results indicate that WEDOM fluorescence can be used as a reliable indicator of past soil export of DOM as well as past trophic status.
To examine total organic carbon concentration; a partial-least square regression (PLSR) model was produced using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIRS) data vs conventionally measured TOC of 141 sediment samples from 13 lakes, resulting in strong positive correlation (R² =0.88). The equation from this correlation was then used to reconstruct past TOC concentrations from sediments in Adelaide Tarn. The FTIRS-TOC and humic-like DOM records showed a clear relationship with known temperature changes over the past ~14,000 years BP. 
Testing the reliability of calcite to record DOC concentrations from its parent solution 
Natural carbonates (such as speleothems) are known to contain DOM. Speleothems accumulate for hundreds of thousands of years, thus potentially containing long-term records of DOM export from their overlying soil. However, the ability of carbonates to reliably record DOM concentrations from their parent solutions is unknown. A calcite precipitation experiment was undertaken in growth solutions (diluted peat water) of differing [DOC]aq (0, 5, 10, 15 ppm) with the aim of testing the reliability of calcite to record [DOC]aq, and the potential of 3D excitation emission (EEM) analysis to assess the DOC concentration in dissolved calcite samples. A case study of flowstones and dripwaters from three New Zealand caves was also conducted. In the case study, 3D EEM fluorescence-inferred DOC concentrations were measured in the dripwaters and speleothems, thus enabling calculation of DOC partition coefficients between dripwaters and their associated flowstones. Overall, the study demonstrated that calcite [DOC] is controlled by aqueous [DOC] from the parent solution, in natural and experimental environments. 
Further, [DOC]aq within the experimental range did not alter the calcium carbonate polymorph (calcite), yet heavily influenced calcite crystal structure; smooth-faced, rhombohedral crystals formed in growth solutions with low [DOC]aq (0–5 ppm), whereas prismatic, ‘impure’ crystals were produced at high [DOC]aq (10 and 15 ppm).
Using speleothem archives to test the impact of climate on aquatic DOC concentrations in a pre-human continent
3D EEM fluorescence was used to measure humic-like DOC concentrations in modern dripwaters and within three flowstones (secondary carbonate deposits) from three caves distributed along a 7° latitudinal gradient. Calculated DOC concentrations from recently deposited flowstone calcite and dripwater monitoring were used to calculate empirical distribution coefficient (Kd) values, enabling an estimate of dripwater DOC concentrations through the past ~14,000 years BP. 
Correspondence between heightened aquatic DOC concentrations during periods of known temperature increases (especially the Holocene climatic optimum) was observed at Hodges Creek (north-west South Island) and Dave’s Cave (south-west South Island), whilst climatic cooling (during the mid-Holocene) yielded lower DOC values. This occurrence was not clear at Waipuna Cave (western North Island), perhaps owing to its relatively low altitude and lack of climatic sensitivity compared to the other sites. 
Ratios of Mg to Ca in the flowstone showed a strong correspondence between periods of drier climate and increases in DOC dripwater concentration at each site. The findings of this study show that DOC concentrations have been higher in the past at the high-altitude sites, and that climate (in the absence of anthropogenic impacts) plays a pivotal role in soil DOC export in sub-alpine and alpine environments.
Summary
The thesis produced several outcomes. Chapter 3 demonstrated that protein-like fluorescence of sedimentary WEDOM is associated with trophic level index score and can be used as an indicator of past trophic level (i.e. productivity). Further, the Adelaide Tarn palaeo-environmental reconstruction demonstrated that humic-like fluorescence responded to climate shifts through the Holocene, indicating a temperature control on soil C production and/or export. At large, the DOC concentration over the ~10 kyr period approximately halved with a decrease in temperature of 1.2 °C.
The project also demonstrated (in Chapter 4) that speleothems can reliably record DOC from their parent solutions, showing a linear response between dissolved and solid phase organic concentration. This finding formed the foundation of Chapter 5, which demonstrated that high humic-like DOC concentrations in flowstones were associated with drier conditions at Waipuna Cave (lower-altitude North Island site), however there was no clear correspondence between temperature and [DOC] in the Waipuna record.
At the high altitude, South Island sites (Hodges Creek cave, Adelaide Tarn and Dave’s Cave), DOC concentrations were higher during periods with relatively low precipitation and high temperature. Hodges Creek Cave (940 m a.s.l.) is situated at a similar altitude to Adelaide Tarn (1,250 m a.s.l.) the two sites being only 32 km apart. Adelaide Tarn’s WEDOM and FTIR-TOC records show strikingly similar patterns of humic-like fluorescence and TOC concentrations to the Hodge’s Creek fluorescence record, providing support for a regionally coherent signal. The relationship between climate and soil DOC export was most clear during the Holocene climatic optimum. At this time, temperatures were approximately 1.5-2.5 °C warmer than present, whilst humic-like DOC values (relative to modern) were 57 % higher at Hodge’s Creek, 36 % higher at Adelaide Tarn and 40 % higher at Dave’s Cave. The HCO was also drier than most of the Holocene at these sites. Following the HCO, temperature declined, and wetness increased, corresponding with a notable decline in DOC concentrations at these sites.
These findings imply that in the absence of human interference, higher temperatures and aridity were important drivers of elevated soil DOC export through the past 14,000 years BP was controlled by temperature and wetness at the high-altitude sites, whilst only wetness was important at low altitude.

year: 2020

title: Mōteatea Kau Te Ngākau: He aha ia nei i tuā atu i ngā kupu, i te rangi o te waiata?

authors: Tahi-Rangihau, Te Hauāuru Raeleen

subjects: Tūhoe waiata, composition, te reo Māori

abstract: ARIĀ
Māori have always expressed themselves through the medium of song, and the various stanzas contained within the many Māori compositions that exist are a rich depositary of knowledge, offering people an insight into the Māori world. Māori compositions are mirrors into the past reflecting the issues, language, and beliefs of the people of that era, and in many instances immortalising the feelings and ideas of the people. Such was the importance of traditional composition to Māori, that individuals skilled in this art form where held in high regard, and even in a modern context we still celebrate our revered composers.
This study is concerned with Tūhoe composition, and in particular the songs that have been composted for Te Wharekura o Huiarau. This school is located within the Tūhoe settlement of Ruatāhuna, and since its establishment a host of songs have been composed for the school to express its unique identity, as well as the feelings and beliefs of the different composers. This thesis argues that the various songs that have been sung by the children of Te Wharekura o Huiarau throughout the decades are clear markers of the children‟s identity, and by examining these songs a clear picture of the language, issues and influences of the different generations can be examined and investigated.
In addition, this study is concerned with the wider role of composition within Tūhoe society, exploring how this has developed across time, understanding the current state of Tūhoe composition and ultimately looking towards the future. This thesis will highlight many of the famous Tūhoe composers and their compositions, as well as various songs that are connected to Te Wharekura o Huiarau. These compositions will be studied with the view of creating a foundation for further work, that will ultimately support the development of a new generation of Tūhoe composers.

text: Mōteatea Kau Te Ngākau: He aha ia nei i tuā atu i ngā kupu, i te rangi o te waiata? ARIĀ
Māori have always expressed themselves through the medium of song, and the various stanzas contained within the many Māori compositions that exist are a rich depositary of knowledge, offering people an insight into the Māori world. Māori compositions are mirrors into the past reflecting the issues, language, and beliefs of the people of that era, and in many instances immortalising the feelings and ideas of the people. Such was the importance of traditional composition to Māori, that individuals skilled in this art form where held in high regard, and even in a modern context we still celebrate our revered composers.
This study is concerned with Tūhoe composition, and in particular the songs that have been composted for Te Wharekura o Huiarau. This school is located within the Tūhoe settlement of Ruatāhuna, and since its establishment a host of songs have been composed for the school to express its unique identity, as well as the feelings and beliefs of the different composers. This thesis argues that the various songs that have been sung by the children of Te Wharekura o Huiarau throughout the decades are clear markers of the children‟s identity, and by examining these songs a clear picture of the language, issues and influences of the different generations can be examined and investigated.
In addition, this study is concerned with the wider role of composition within Tūhoe society, exploring how this has developed across time, understanding the current state of Tūhoe composition and ultimately looking towards the future. This thesis will highlight many of the famous Tūhoe composers and their compositions, as well as various songs that are connected to Te Wharekura o Huiarau. These compositions will be studied with the view of creating a foundation for further work, that will ultimately support the development of a new generation of Tūhoe composers.

year: 2013