title: Ecological, genetic and cultural status of Solanum aviculare, poroporo (Solanaceae)

authors: Weavers, Graeme Morris

subjects: Solanum aviculare

abstract: Solanum aviculare, endemic to Australasia, is an opportunist pioneer secondary successional plant occupying disturbed and open lowland habitats, and was an important medicinal and cultural species to Māori known as poroporo. It is currently in 'decline', the ecological decline appearing to correspond to a decline in knowledge and cultural use of the species. To gain understanding of the reasons for the decline, enhance ecological knowledge, assist conservation and cultural restoration of Solanum aviculare this research documented the successional role and cycle of regeneration dynamics and tactics, established morphological characteristics, investigated the genetic diversity and recorded cultural and conservation information.
The successional status and role was identified. Growth data identified cohort development and inter-site differences, metadata found height and crown spread growth to be significantly correlated and likely part of an early reproduction and dispersal strategy. Germination of soil cores from differing depths confirmed a viable seed bank exists sufficient for species maintenance. Viable seed spread via animal gut passage was determined by germination and chemical tests, results showed rats passed higher rates of viable seed than birds. Seed germination trials with stratified and fresh seed confirmed temporal and depth behaviour, flowering observation documented temporal differences with the closely allied species Solanum laciniatum, indicating a relationship to stasis induction. Leaf morphology studies documented differences between the two allied species and proposed further nomenclature.
Genetic diversity was investigated through the use of PCR/ISSR techniques. Chloroplast DNA was extracted by CTAB and DNA kit protocols. CTAB extraction was unable to effectively remove RNA, although use of DNA samples with high quantities of RNA confirmed that RNA was not an inhibiting factor in PCR production. The production of consistent reliable ISSR bands proved difficult, with no technical explanation found. ISSR findings indicate that Solanum aviculare is highly monomorphic, consisting of predominant invariant monomorphic loci. Twenty primers were tested with no polymorphic loci
identified and no intra species variation documented. Indications were also that Solanum aviculare and Solanum laciniatum are inter species invariant on monomorphic loci. Monomorphic loci may possibly be the evolutionary markers of generic differentiation within Solanum.
Surveys identified Solanum aviculare as uncommon and rare, existing mainly as single plants or small groups in the majority of areas surveyed. The Threatened and Uncommon Plant listing of Solanum aviculare as an 'at risk declining' species is confirmed and a further Recommendation category proposed. Ecological decline and corresponding decline in cultural use and knowledge of Solanum aviculare was identified through specialist interviews; appearing to be related to removal from Māori of control over their land. The name poroporo being now associated mainly with non indigenous Solanum species. Māori cultural concepts in practice were highlighted as fundamentally important to reversing the decline, with an example of a successful traditional practice based (tikanga) integrative collaborative restoration program being documented.
This research forwards that optimal collaborative solutions, programs integrating scientific and tikanga knowledge and practices, provide the best opportunity of reversing the declining trend and for increasing and maintaining knowledge associated with the traditional role of poroporo.

text: Ecological, genetic and cultural status of Solanum aviculare, poroporo (Solanaceae) Solanum aviculare, endemic to Australasia, is an opportunist pioneer secondary successional plant occupying disturbed and open lowland habitats, and was an important medicinal and cultural species to Māori known as poroporo. It is currently in 'decline', the ecological decline appearing to correspond to a decline in knowledge and cultural use of the species. To gain understanding of the reasons for the decline, enhance ecological knowledge, assist conservation and cultural restoration of Solanum aviculare this research documented the successional role and cycle of regeneration dynamics and tactics, established morphological characteristics, investigated the genetic diversity and recorded cultural and conservation information.
The successional status and role was identified. Growth data identified cohort development and inter-site differences, metadata found height and crown spread growth to be significantly correlated and likely part of an early reproduction and dispersal strategy. Germination of soil cores from differing depths confirmed a viable seed bank exists sufficient for species maintenance. Viable seed spread via animal gut passage was determined by germination and chemical tests, results showed rats passed higher rates of viable seed than birds. Seed germination trials with stratified and fresh seed confirmed temporal and depth behaviour, flowering observation documented temporal differences with the closely allied species Solanum laciniatum, indicating a relationship to stasis induction. Leaf morphology studies documented differences between the two allied species and proposed further nomenclature.
Genetic diversity was investigated through the use of PCR/ISSR techniques. Chloroplast DNA was extracted by CTAB and DNA kit protocols. CTAB extraction was unable to effectively remove RNA, although use of DNA samples with high quantities of RNA confirmed that RNA was not an inhibiting factor in PCR production. The production of consistent reliable ISSR bands proved difficult, with no technical explanation found. ISSR findings indicate that Solanum aviculare is highly monomorphic, consisting of predominant invariant monomorphic loci. Twenty primers were tested with no polymorphic loci
identified and no intra species variation documented. Indications were also that Solanum aviculare and Solanum laciniatum are inter species invariant on monomorphic loci. Monomorphic loci may possibly be the evolutionary markers of generic differentiation within Solanum.
Surveys identified Solanum aviculare as uncommon and rare, existing mainly as single plants or small groups in the majority of areas surveyed. The Threatened and Uncommon Plant listing of Solanum aviculare as an 'at risk declining' species is confirmed and a further Recommendation category proposed. Ecological decline and corresponding decline in cultural use and knowledge of Solanum aviculare was identified through specialist interviews; appearing to be related to removal from Māori of control over their land. The name poroporo being now associated mainly with non indigenous Solanum species. Māori cultural concepts in practice were highlighted as fundamentally important to reversing the decline, with an example of a successful traditional practice based (tikanga) integrative collaborative restoration program being documented.
This research forwards that optimal collaborative solutions, programs integrating scientific and tikanga knowledge and practices, provide the best opportunity of reversing the declining trend and for increasing and maintaining knowledge associated with the traditional role of poroporo.

year: 2010

title: River Co-management and Planning in the Waikato: An Analysis of Regional and District Plans and Regional Policy Statement Compliance, and a New Approach to Plan Preparation

authors: den Ouden, Hester

subjects: co-management

abstract: The Waikato River is one of New Zealand most significant rivers.  It is an ancestor to one Iwi, significant to four other Iwi generates most of the country’s hydroelectricity and provides large amount of potable water to municipalities.
In 2010 and 2012 three Acts of parliament established the framework for the restoration and protection of the Waikato River Catchment.  It did so in three ways.  The River Co-Management Legislation (RCML) has significantly added to the policy framework under the Resource Management Act 1991 for the Waikato Regional and six Districts.  It introduced the requirement for co-management of decision-making at policy and regulatory approvals, and established the Waikato River Authority which manages a $270 million Clean-Up fund.
This research outlines the provisions of the three statutes that comprise the RCML, how legislation changed the hierarchy of the planning framework, and identifies areas where improvements could be made.  
The RCML introduces a ‘Vision and Strategy’ as a National Policy Statement for the area of the region within the Waikato River Catchment.  The ‘Vision and Strategy’ comprises 13 statements that are the Vision and 12 statements that are the strategy, collectively referred to as stratagems.  The research assesses each plan and policy statement within the Waikato River catchment to determine the nature and level of incorporation of the 25 stratagems of ‘Vision and Strategy’.
A new approach in planning is the requirement for the use of Maatauranga Maaori along with western science, the Māori and western science worldviews.  These worldviews are discussed.  Three Models that use Maatauranga Maaori principles are described.  The purpose of this has been to begin a discussion on the basis of another perspective in future plan and policy making that included better provisions based on the Maatauranga Maaori worldview.
The Planning Under a Co-operative Mandate (PUCM) project assisted in identify criteria against which to assess the regional and district plans and regional policy statement, their quality, comprehensiveness of inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ stratagems, and the required cascading nature of Objective policies and methods that are contain in the plans and regional policy statement.   
Key findings were that the provisions or inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems was mixed, high in the case of scientifically quantifiable matters and poor and non-existent where matters to be included were less able to be quantified and qualified in a western science worldview.  The strengths and weakness of including the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems varied and the strength of that inclusion was identified.
A consequential finding was the overall quality of the plans themselves.  The first PUCM report to government in 2001 on plan quality, scored all six districts and regional plans below 50%.  Using PUCM project criteria to assess the degree to which the Stratagems were included in the plans in 2016 showed a similar result.  The consequential findings also found confusion over the nature of good objective, policy and method drafting.  It also found significant lack of cascading from objectives through policies to methods.

text: River Co-management and Planning in the Waikato: An Analysis of Regional and District Plans and Regional Policy Statement Compliance, and a New Approach to Plan Preparation The Waikato River is one of New Zealand most significant rivers.  It is an ancestor to one Iwi, significant to four other Iwi generates most of the country’s hydroelectricity and provides large amount of potable water to municipalities.
In 2010 and 2012 three Acts of parliament established the framework for the restoration and protection of the Waikato River Catchment.  It did so in three ways.  The River Co-Management Legislation (RCML) has significantly added to the policy framework under the Resource Management Act 1991 for the Waikato Regional and six Districts.  It introduced the requirement for co-management of decision-making at policy and regulatory approvals, and established the Waikato River Authority which manages a $270 million Clean-Up fund.
This research outlines the provisions of the three statutes that comprise the RCML, how legislation changed the hierarchy of the planning framework, and identifies areas where improvements could be made.  
The RCML introduces a ‘Vision and Strategy’ as a National Policy Statement for the area of the region within the Waikato River Catchment.  The ‘Vision and Strategy’ comprises 13 statements that are the Vision and 12 statements that are the strategy, collectively referred to as stratagems.  The research assesses each plan and policy statement within the Waikato River catchment to determine the nature and level of incorporation of the 25 stratagems of ‘Vision and Strategy’.
A new approach in planning is the requirement for the use of Maatauranga Maaori along with western science, the Māori and western science worldviews.  These worldviews are discussed.  Three Models that use Maatauranga Maaori principles are described.  The purpose of this has been to begin a discussion on the basis of another perspective in future plan and policy making that included better provisions based on the Maatauranga Maaori worldview.
The Planning Under a Co-operative Mandate (PUCM) project assisted in identify criteria against which to assess the regional and district plans and regional policy statement, their quality, comprehensiveness of inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ stratagems, and the required cascading nature of Objective policies and methods that are contain in the plans and regional policy statement.   
Key findings were that the provisions or inclusion of the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems was mixed, high in the case of scientifically quantifiable matters and poor and non-existent where matters to be included were less able to be quantified and qualified in a western science worldview.  The strengths and weakness of including the ‘Vision and Strategy’ Stratagems varied and the strength of that inclusion was identified.
A consequential finding was the overall quality of the plans themselves.  The first PUCM report to government in 2001 on plan quality, scored all six districts and regional plans below 50%.  Using PUCM project criteria to assess the degree to which the Stratagems were included in the plans in 2016 showed a similar result.  The consequential findings also found confusion over the nature of good objective, policy and method drafting.  It also found significant lack of cascading from objectives through policies to methods.

year: 2017

title: Review of Jacqueline Brunning and Paul Forster, eds. “The rule of reason: The philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce”

authors: Legg, Catherine

abstract: This article reviews the book The Rule of Reason: The Philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by Jacqueline Brunning and Paul Forster..

text: Review of Jacqueline Brunning and Paul Forster, eds. “The rule of reason: The philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce” This article reviews the book The Rule of Reason: The Philosophy of Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by Jacqueline Brunning and Paul Forster..

year: 1999