title: Heterogeneity and Female-Headed Households in Sri Lanka: Vulnerability and Resilience in a Transitional Development Society

authors: Adikaram Boyagoda, Adikaram Mudiyanselage Kumudika Suramya

subjects: Female headed households

abstract: Since the 1970s, female-headed households (FHHs) in developing countries have often been used in development literature as a proxy for poverty and vulnerability. In reality the profile of women-headed households is diverse; they include, at the least, rich and poor women, aged widows as well as young single mothers and wives of migrant workers, educated professionals and semi-literate manual labourers. This diversity of characteristics, with its attendant diversity of experience and vulnerability unfolds a picture of heterogeneity, rather than homogeneity.  Yet, despite ample evidence that FHHs are, in fact, heterogeneous and not homogeneous, contemporary research and practice remains caught dominantly within the ‘poverty-vulnerability’ nexus. The heterogeneity of female headship is undermined by conventional notions of homogeneity. It is this gap that the present research addresses. Drawing on interdisciplinary perspectives especially from demography, gender studies; particularly gender and development, risk and vulnerability studies, as well as scholarship on social capital, this thesis employs a ‘heterogeneity’ lens to specifically examine the complexities of household formation, economic conditions and social relations of FHHs in Sri Lanka, in an attempt to explore their vulnerabilities and resilience.

The choice of Sri Lanka as the context for this study is grounded in the demographic reality of a relatively high, and consistently increasing, proportion of households headed by women since the 1970s. By 2009/10, FHHs accounted for nearly one-quarter of all households, throughout the country. In order to capture the geographical and social diversity of FHHs, empirical research was conducted in three contrasting types of district in Sri Lanka, encompassing urban, rural, and estate sectors.   Two main data collection strategies were employed in a mixed methods approach: a sample survey of a cross-section of 534 FHHs, and in-depth interviews with 32 female heads purposively selected from among the survey participants. The findings and discussions include quantitative statistical and qualitative thematic analyses based on primary data, combined with secondary data from censuses, national survey reports and micro-studies of FHHs in Sri Lanka. 

The key findings show the diversity in profile of FHHs in the sample: they range from single person to large extended households. While some households consist of only the woman head and her young children, others comprise aged parents and a woman head. Households were also constituted of ‘working-age’ household members, including the female heads who were totally reliant on others for income and other resources. The study also revealed novel findings that challenge the emphasis of most conventional perceptions of poverty and female headship. From an economic perspective, the results show women from rich households can be personally poor, lacking, among others, in skills to manage household economies, while women in low-income brackets may be resilient, enterprising and satisfied with their needs, despite their apparent poverty. Finally, the thesis highlights the significant role of social capital, a relatively under-researched area in relation to FHHs. The findings reveal that many female heads in Sri Lanka are rich in social capital, a resource in its own right for these women. However, social capital itself needs to be disaggregated into ‘support networks’ and ‘leverage networks’ to understand the role it plays in providing long-term security and resilience. The results show that the majority of FHHs in the sample had access to support networks that provide day-to-day subsistence, but which did not offer them prospects to leverage out of their current situation.

text: Heterogeneity and Female-Headed Households in Sri Lanka: Vulnerability and Resilience in a Transitional Development Society Since the 1970s, female-headed households (FHHs) in developing countries have often been used in development literature as a proxy for poverty and vulnerability. In reality the profile of women-headed households is diverse; they include, at the least, rich and poor women, aged widows as well as young single mothers and wives of migrant workers, educated professionals and semi-literate manual labourers. This diversity of characteristics, with its attendant diversity of experience and vulnerability unfolds a picture of heterogeneity, rather than homogeneity.  Yet, despite ample evidence that FHHs are, in fact, heterogeneous and not homogeneous, contemporary research and practice remains caught dominantly within the ‘poverty-vulnerability’ nexus. The heterogeneity of female headship is undermined by conventional notions of homogeneity. It is this gap that the present research addresses. Drawing on interdisciplinary perspectives especially from demography, gender studies; particularly gender and development, risk and vulnerability studies, as well as scholarship on social capital, this thesis employs a ‘heterogeneity’ lens to specifically examine the complexities of household formation, economic conditions and social relations of FHHs in Sri Lanka, in an attempt to explore their vulnerabilities and resilience.

The choice of Sri Lanka as the context for this study is grounded in the demographic reality of a relatively high, and consistently increasing, proportion of households headed by women since the 1970s. By 2009/10, FHHs accounted for nearly one-quarter of all households, throughout the country. In order to capture the geographical and social diversity of FHHs, empirical research was conducted in three contrasting types of district in Sri Lanka, encompassing urban, rural, and estate sectors.   Two main data collection strategies were employed in a mixed methods approach: a sample survey of a cross-section of 534 FHHs, and in-depth interviews with 32 female heads purposively selected from among the survey participants. The findings and discussions include quantitative statistical and qualitative thematic analyses based on primary data, combined with secondary data from censuses, national survey reports and micro-studies of FHHs in Sri Lanka. 

The key findings show the diversity in profile of FHHs in the sample: they range from single person to large extended households. While some households consist of only the woman head and her young children, others comprise aged parents and a woman head. Households were also constituted of ‘working-age’ household members, including the female heads who were totally reliant on others for income and other resources. The study also revealed novel findings that challenge the emphasis of most conventional perceptions of poverty and female headship. From an economic perspective, the results show women from rich households can be personally poor, lacking, among others, in skills to manage household economies, while women in low-income brackets may be resilient, enterprising and satisfied with their needs, despite their apparent poverty. Finally, the thesis highlights the significant role of social capital, a relatively under-researched area in relation to FHHs. The findings reveal that many female heads in Sri Lanka are rich in social capital, a resource in its own right for these women. However, social capital itself needs to be disaggregated into ‘support networks’ and ‘leverage networks’ to understand the role it plays in providing long-term security and resilience. The results show that the majority of FHHs in the sample had access to support networks that provide day-to-day subsistence, but which did not offer them prospects to leverage out of their current situation.

year: 2014

title: A multitone current sink for measuring impedance of in-use batteries

authors: Dunn, Christopher

abstract: Measurement of impedance of rechargeable batteries at very low frequencies reveals valuable information relating to battery behaviour and condition. Until now, successful measurements have been made in the laboratory with bench analysers. This requires batteries to be taken out of service for periods ranging from hours to days, which is impractical for units that are needed for continual use or that are difficult to remove for analysis (e.g. electric vehicles), or that are difficult or impossible to access (e.g. satellites, implanted medical devices, distant data centres). This manuscript describes a simple microprocessor-based circuit that draws current at a number of frequencies and provides voltage and current data that can be logged and used to calculate the impedance of batteries in situ. It is a good engineering example of a PIC-based electronic circuit design and verification including C-language code.

text: A multitone current sink for measuring impedance of in-use batteries Measurement of impedance of rechargeable batteries at very low frequencies reveals valuable information relating to battery behaviour and condition. Until now, successful measurements have been made in the laboratory with bench analysers. This requires batteries to be taken out of service for periods ranging from hours to days, which is impractical for units that are needed for continual use or that are difficult to remove for analysis (e.g. electric vehicles), or that are difficult or impossible to access (e.g. satellites, implanted medical devices, distant data centres). This manuscript describes a simple microprocessor-based circuit that draws current at a number of frequencies and provides voltage and current data that can be logged and used to calculate the impedance of batteries in situ. It is a good engineering example of a PIC-based electronic circuit design and verification including C-language code.

year: 2019

title: Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua

authors: Tempero, Grant Wayne

abstract: Lake Rotorua is one of 12 lakes jointly managed by the Rotorua Lakes Council, Te Arawa Lakes Trust and the Bay of Plenty Regional Council under the Rotorua Te Arawa Lakes Programme. The lake is currently classified as eutrophic and a Trophic Lake Index (TLI) value of 4.2 has been set as an integrated target for lake water quality. A number of catchment and lake management strategies have been implemented to achieve the targeted TLI including land use changes, wetland enhancement, lake weed harvesting, sediment detainment bunds, sewage reticulation and alum dosing. Alum (aluminium sulphate) is commonly applied to freshwater and wastewater systems to remove phosphorus, reducing its availability for phytoplankton growth. The initiation of alum dosing to the Utuhina Stream in 2006 and the Puarenga Stream in 2010 was associated with a significant decline in water column dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and improvements in water quality of Lake Rotorua. 
The use of alum to control external and internal phosphorus loading has been identified as key component in the restoration of Lake Rotorua and recently observed improvements in water quality suggest that the lake could be transitioning to a more phosphorus limited state. Determination of phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua was identified as a priority through the 2017 Plan Change 10 Science Review. An initial seasonal nutrient limitation study was carried out in 2019 with nutrient limitation assays conducted at 3-monthly intervals over the course of the year. Nitrogen limitation was indicated for the March assay and nutrient co-limitation for the December period, but results for the winter and spring periods were inconclusive. There has also been increasing recognition that nutrient availability in limnetic systems may vary in response to seasonal changes in external and external loading and even to isolated storm events. 
The University of Waikato was contracted to investigate potential changes in nutrient limitation within Lake Rotorua at sub-monthly time-scales, and to determine if alum dose rates could be optimised to take advantage of periods of phosphorus limitation. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation growth assays were conducted on a fortnightly basis from mid-October 2020 to May 2021. In addition to determination of lake surface nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, triplicate 1 L phytoplankton samples were spiked with either phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹), nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) or phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹) and nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) and incubated for 5-days under a single light intensity of 100 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ PAR at lake surface temperature and photoperiod. Phytoplankton growth responses were measured as comparative chlorophyll a, comparative biomass and net biomass growth. Summarised results from the 16 assays along with the predicted nutrient state from the stoichiometric mass ratio of TN:TP are presented in the table below. 
Under the test conditions nitrogen limitation was indicated for most of the summer months (December–March) and nutrient co-limitation during the spring and late autumn. Only short (~2 weeks) periods of P-limitation were observed, one of which was associated with an intensive storm event at the end of March. These seasonal fluctuations in nitrogen and phosphorus supply are similar to those observed in other temperate limnetic systems. In the spring, external nitrogen and phosphorus loading is high, then decline in the summer as rainfall and associated inflows wane. During the summer, internal loading becomes more important in polymictic lakes due to repeated internal nutrient cycling from stratification and mixing events. This results in phosphorus limitation in the spring, transitioning to nitrogen limitation or colimitation (primarily nitrogen) in the summer, and then returning to phosphorus/colimitation during the winter due to increased nitrogen-loading from the catchment from increased catchment discharge. 
Due to the modest periods of phosphorus limitation indicated by the assays, there appears to be little potential for optimisation of alum dose rates in order capitalise on natural periods of phosphorus limitation. Further, changes in phytoplankton community composition and abundance appear to be more strongly driven by physical environmental factors such as temperature, light and wind speed, than nutrient availability. Although alum dosing is effective in removing DRP from the Utuhina and Puarenga inflows, its assumed effectiveness in reducing internal phosphorus loading in Lake Rotorua requires further evaluation.

text: Phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua Lake Rotorua is one of 12 lakes jointly managed by the Rotorua Lakes Council, Te Arawa Lakes Trust and the Bay of Plenty Regional Council under the Rotorua Te Arawa Lakes Programme. The lake is currently classified as eutrophic and a Trophic Lake Index (TLI) value of 4.2 has been set as an integrated target for lake water quality. A number of catchment and lake management strategies have been implemented to achieve the targeted TLI including land use changes, wetland enhancement, lake weed harvesting, sediment detainment bunds, sewage reticulation and alum dosing. Alum (aluminium sulphate) is commonly applied to freshwater and wastewater systems to remove phosphorus, reducing its availability for phytoplankton growth. The initiation of alum dosing to the Utuhina Stream in 2006 and the Puarenga Stream in 2010 was associated with a significant decline in water column dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP) and improvements in water quality of Lake Rotorua. 
The use of alum to control external and internal phosphorus loading has been identified as key component in the restoration of Lake Rotorua and recently observed improvements in water quality suggest that the lake could be transitioning to a more phosphorus limited state. Determination of phytoplankton nutrient limitation in Lake Rotorua was identified as a priority through the 2017 Plan Change 10 Science Review. An initial seasonal nutrient limitation study was carried out in 2019 with nutrient limitation assays conducted at 3-monthly intervals over the course of the year. Nitrogen limitation was indicated for the March assay and nutrient co-limitation for the December period, but results for the winter and spring periods were inconclusive. There has also been increasing recognition that nutrient availability in limnetic systems may vary in response to seasonal changes in external and external loading and even to isolated storm events. 
The University of Waikato was contracted to investigate potential changes in nutrient limitation within Lake Rotorua at sub-monthly time-scales, and to determine if alum dose rates could be optimised to take advantage of periods of phosphorus limitation. Phytoplankton nutrient limitation growth assays were conducted on a fortnightly basis from mid-October 2020 to May 2021. In addition to determination of lake surface nutrient and chlorophyll a concentrations, triplicate 1 L phytoplankton samples were spiked with either phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹), nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) or phosphorus (0.1 mg-P L⁻¹) and nitrogen (1 mg-N L⁻¹) and incubated for 5-days under a single light intensity of 100 μmol m⁻²s⁻¹ PAR at lake surface temperature and photoperiod. Phytoplankton growth responses were measured as comparative chlorophyll a, comparative biomass and net biomass growth. Summarised results from the 16 assays along with the predicted nutrient state from the stoichiometric mass ratio of TN:TP are presented in the table below. 
Under the test conditions nitrogen limitation was indicated for most of the summer months (December–March) and nutrient co-limitation during the spring and late autumn. Only short (~2 weeks) periods of P-limitation were observed, one of which was associated with an intensive storm event at the end of March. These seasonal fluctuations in nitrogen and phosphorus supply are similar to those observed in other temperate limnetic systems. In the spring, external nitrogen and phosphorus loading is high, then decline in the summer as rainfall and associated inflows wane. During the summer, internal loading becomes more important in polymictic lakes due to repeated internal nutrient cycling from stratification and mixing events. This results in phosphorus limitation in the spring, transitioning to nitrogen limitation or colimitation (primarily nitrogen) in the summer, and then returning to phosphorus/colimitation during the winter due to increased nitrogen-loading from the catchment from increased catchment discharge. 
Due to the modest periods of phosphorus limitation indicated by the assays, there appears to be little potential for optimisation of alum dose rates in order capitalise on natural periods of phosphorus limitation. Further, changes in phytoplankton community composition and abundance appear to be more strongly driven by physical environmental factors such as temperature, light and wind speed, than nutrient availability. Although alum dosing is effective in removing DRP from the Utuhina and Puarenga inflows, its assumed effectiveness in reducing internal phosphorus loading in Lake Rotorua requires further evaluation.

year: 2022