title: Understanding the degree of condensation of phenolic and etherified C-9 Units of in situ lignins

authors: Nanayakkara, Bernadette

subjects: β-aryl ether linkages

abstract: A novel approach for the quantification of the degree of condensation at the C₅ position of etherified and phenolic phenylpropane (C-9) units of in situ lignin is described. This is achieved by degrading unmethylated and methylated wood by thioacidolysis and analyzing the resultant product mixtures by quantitative ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. Applying this new method to compression wood and normal wood from Pinus radiata showed that, whereas 41–47% of etherified guaiacyl C-9 units are condensed at the C₅ position, almost all phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units exist as uncondensed moieties. Analysis of milled wood lignin (MWL) isolated from the same wood by ³¹P NMR spectroscopy before and after thioacidolysis showed that the phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units were more condensed than those in the in situ lignin. This is likely due to partial cleavage of the more condensed etherified linkages during the lignin isolation, leading to a relative increase in condensed phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units.

text: Understanding the degree of condensation of phenolic and etherified C-9 Units of in situ lignins A novel approach for the quantification of the degree of condensation at the C₅ position of etherified and phenolic phenylpropane (C-9) units of in situ lignin is described. This is achieved by degrading unmethylated and methylated wood by thioacidolysis and analyzing the resultant product mixtures by quantitative ³¹P NMR spectroscopy. Applying this new method to compression wood and normal wood from Pinus radiata showed that, whereas 41–47% of etherified guaiacyl C-9 units are condensed at the C₅ position, almost all phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units exist as uncondensed moieties. Analysis of milled wood lignin (MWL) isolated from the same wood by ³¹P NMR spectroscopy before and after thioacidolysis showed that the phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units were more condensed than those in the in situ lignin. This is likely due to partial cleavage of the more condensed etherified linkages during the lignin isolation, leading to a relative increase in condensed phenolic guaiacyl C-9 units.

year: 2011

title: Protecting the deep: The combined impact of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa in New Zealand and implications for management

authors: Zelli, Edoardo

subjects: Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems

abstract: The deep sea remains one of the least explored ecosystems on the planet, with 95% still uncharted. From what is known, it harbours critical habitat-forming species like cold-water corals and sponges that sustain extraordinary biodiversity and provide key ecosystem services, including supporting fisheries. These fragile ecosystems face escalating threats from climate change and bottom trawling, yet the extent of their impacts remains poorly understood. This PhD addresses these gaps by examining how these stressors influence Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem (VME) indicator taxa in New Zealand’s Exclusive Economic Zone and explores implications for conservation. The research explores (i) climate change impacts and potential refugia, (ii) the added pressure of bottom trawling, and (iii) management strategies with policymakers and fishery regulators to fast-track spatial protection measures in the New Zealand region.
In Chapter 2, species distribution models were used to predict the spatial distribution of density for several deep-water VME indicator taxa under present-day environmental conditions and two future climate scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP3-7.0) projected by the end of the 21st century. Results showed a significant decline in both the density (54%) and spatial extent (61%) of all assessed taxa under future conditions compared to the current day. However, the models also identified potential climate refugia: areas where certain taxa may persist despite changing environmental pressures, representing crucial conservation targets. This and previous research, however, indicate that existing spatial management measures with respect to bottom trawling may be insufficient to protect VME indicator taxa now and into the future. This suggests that present-day densities, even within potential climate refugia areas, may have already declined due to this activity.
Chapter 3 examines the impact of bottom trawling by estimating the density loss of VME indicator taxa in high-density areas, particularly climate refugia, in New Zealand waters over the past 30 years. Bottom trawling was predicted to have reduced the current density of all assessed taxa across the study region, with the most pronounced reductions in taxon density and habitat extent (up to 10% loss) occurring in areas predicted to be climate refugia. Such declines may undermine the ability of taxa to form ecologically functional habitats in the future if these impacts persist.
The interplay between climate change and bottom trawling presents a complex multi-stressor scenario for VMEs and their indicator taxa. Addressing these cumulative impacts requires integrated approaches that simultaneously consider ecological and social dimensions to provide the scientific knowledge required to support management decisions.
Chapter 4 introduces a social-ecological perspective by combining density-based spatial analysis of VME indicator taxa distributions under multiple stressors (e.g., climate change and bottom trawling) with participatory methods, including interviews and group elicitation with policy regulators and fishery experts. This approach aimed to assess risk perceptions, inform potential management actions, and identify barriers and solutions for effective conservation in the New Zealand region. Findings revealed that presenting additional scientific evidence and engaging a diverse group of stakeholders in discussions enhanced their risk perceptions and confidence about the impacts of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa. Additionally, stakeholder engagement helped refine potential strategies for implementing spatial management measures.
By adopting a social-ecological approach, this PhD thesis integrated ecological modelling, spatial impact analysis, and participatory methods to provide insights into the multiple effects of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa and their effective management. The findings that originated from this work can contribute to the development of climate-resilient marine spatial planning strategies aimed at strengthening the long-term protection of deep-sea VMEs as well as from additional impacts such as bottom trawling. Moreover, the thesis identifies key scientific knowledge gaps, including the need for connectivity analyses and recovery following disturbance from local stressors such as bottom trawling. This information can be useful to enhance the predictive power of species distribution models and the importance of broader stakeholder involvement—particularly the fishing industry—to facilitate the implementation of management initiatives in a socially just and equitable manner.

text: Protecting the deep: The combined impact of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa in New Zealand and implications for management The deep sea remains one of the least explored ecosystems on the planet, with 95% still uncharted. From what is known, it harbours critical habitat-forming species like cold-water corals and sponges that sustain extraordinary biodiversity and provide key ecosystem services, including supporting fisheries. These fragile ecosystems face escalating threats from climate change and bottom trawling, yet the extent of their impacts remains poorly understood. This PhD addresses these gaps by examining how these stressors influence Vulnerable Marine Ecosystem (VME) indicator taxa in New Zealand’s Exclusive Economic Zone and explores implications for conservation. The research explores (i) climate change impacts and potential refugia, (ii) the added pressure of bottom trawling, and (iii) management strategies with policymakers and fishery regulators to fast-track spatial protection measures in the New Zealand region.
In Chapter 2, species distribution models were used to predict the spatial distribution of density for several deep-water VME indicator taxa under present-day environmental conditions and two future climate scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP3-7.0) projected by the end of the 21st century. Results showed a significant decline in both the density (54%) and spatial extent (61%) of all assessed taxa under future conditions compared to the current day. However, the models also identified potential climate refugia: areas where certain taxa may persist despite changing environmental pressures, representing crucial conservation targets. This and previous research, however, indicate that existing spatial management measures with respect to bottom trawling may be insufficient to protect VME indicator taxa now and into the future. This suggests that present-day densities, even within potential climate refugia areas, may have already declined due to this activity.
Chapter 3 examines the impact of bottom trawling by estimating the density loss of VME indicator taxa in high-density areas, particularly climate refugia, in New Zealand waters over the past 30 years. Bottom trawling was predicted to have reduced the current density of all assessed taxa across the study region, with the most pronounced reductions in taxon density and habitat extent (up to 10% loss) occurring in areas predicted to be climate refugia. Such declines may undermine the ability of taxa to form ecologically functional habitats in the future if these impacts persist.
The interplay between climate change and bottom trawling presents a complex multi-stressor scenario for VMEs and their indicator taxa. Addressing these cumulative impacts requires integrated approaches that simultaneously consider ecological and social dimensions to provide the scientific knowledge required to support management decisions.
Chapter 4 introduces a social-ecological perspective by combining density-based spatial analysis of VME indicator taxa distributions under multiple stressors (e.g., climate change and bottom trawling) with participatory methods, including interviews and group elicitation with policy regulators and fishery experts. This approach aimed to assess risk perceptions, inform potential management actions, and identify barriers and solutions for effective conservation in the New Zealand region. Findings revealed that presenting additional scientific evidence and engaging a diverse group of stakeholders in discussions enhanced their risk perceptions and confidence about the impacts of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa. Additionally, stakeholder engagement helped refine potential strategies for implementing spatial management measures.
By adopting a social-ecological approach, this PhD thesis integrated ecological modelling, spatial impact analysis, and participatory methods to provide insights into the multiple effects of climate change and bottom trawling on VME indicator taxa and their effective management. The findings that originated from this work can contribute to the development of climate-resilient marine spatial planning strategies aimed at strengthening the long-term protection of deep-sea VMEs as well as from additional impacts such as bottom trawling. Moreover, the thesis identifies key scientific knowledge gaps, including the need for connectivity analyses and recovery following disturbance from local stressors such as bottom trawling. This information can be useful to enhance the predictive power of species distribution models and the importance of broader stakeholder involvement—particularly the fishing industry—to facilitate the implementation of management initiatives in a socially just and equitable manner.

year: 2025-08-24

title: Kua Huri Taku Tira: The Rereahu Journey Towards Autonomy

authors: Crown, Jenny

subjects: autonomy

abstract: The establishment of the Native Land Court in Aotearoa New Zealand by the settler government caused much upheaval for tangata whenua. Traditional land tenure was interrupted by the colonised view of land ownership. Impetus to establish individual ownership of land was placed upon iwi and hapū Māori. This necessitated the iwi and hapū of the Rohe Pōtae to define their own individual boundaries within the autonomous region.

Over one hundred years later, the New Zealand government were under pressure from the Māori community. Iwi and hapū were vociferous in their requirements. The returning of land and natural resources to Māori was of paramount importance. The implementation of the Māori Trust Board Act enabled iwi and hapū to establish governance entities which permitted access to government funding. These entities also provided a vehicle through which iwi could pursue cultural redress from the Crown. This was the only way forward – the way dictated by the Crown.

Devolution was to become a reality and a sign of the decolonisation process at play. Such would allow Māori to re-establish autonomy which had been lost over a century prior. Destructive notions such as marginalisation, disenfranchisement and displacement would be reversed and Māori would regain control over their own cultural practices, cultural resources and future. Under the Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand this became a reality for some iwi and hapū.

This thesis investigates the attempts made by the Rereahu iwi in securing such recognition. Interrogation into the many ways in which Rereahu has attempted to navigate the multiple political landscapes which still exist and continue to control iwi and hapū have been discussed. The study develops a theoretical framework of Māori wide concepts as applied through a Rereahu-centric lens. Thus, allowing for a balanced approach to the collection, collation and analysis of all evidence utilised in this thesis.

Key findings bring to light the effects colonisation has had and continues to have on Rereahu autonomy. The ways in which Rereahu has been misrepresented, and how Rereahu has responded to threats of colonisation in the 21st century are apparent. This thesis contributes new knowledge to the realm of academia through the experiences of the iwi Rereahu; and offers indigenous discourse regarding resilience and resistance.

The ongoing effects of colonisation being felt by the Rereahu iwi in this contemporary landscape are defined. It is an example of how the oppressed can easily become the oppressor. This thesis goes some way to highlighting the destructive nature of the Waitangi Tribunal process in regards to Rereahu. The knowledge presented in this thesis could be utilised by the Office of Treaty Settlements, education and health establishments, policy makers and the iwi of Rereahu in addressing and combating the negative effects created by the cycle of colonisation.

text: Kua Huri Taku Tira: The Rereahu Journey Towards Autonomy The establishment of the Native Land Court in Aotearoa New Zealand by the settler government caused much upheaval for tangata whenua. Traditional land tenure was interrupted by the colonised view of land ownership. Impetus to establish individual ownership of land was placed upon iwi and hapū Māori. This necessitated the iwi and hapū of the Rohe Pōtae to define their own individual boundaries within the autonomous region.

Over one hundred years later, the New Zealand government were under pressure from the Māori community. Iwi and hapū were vociferous in their requirements. The returning of land and natural resources to Māori was of paramount importance. The implementation of the Māori Trust Board Act enabled iwi and hapū to establish governance entities which permitted access to government funding. These entities also provided a vehicle through which iwi could pursue cultural redress from the Crown. This was the only way forward – the way dictated by the Crown.

Devolution was to become a reality and a sign of the decolonisation process at play. Such would allow Māori to re-establish autonomy which had been lost over a century prior. Destructive notions such as marginalisation, disenfranchisement and displacement would be reversed and Māori would regain control over their own cultural practices, cultural resources and future. Under the Fourth Labour Government of New Zealand this became a reality for some iwi and hapū.

This thesis investigates the attempts made by the Rereahu iwi in securing such recognition. Interrogation into the many ways in which Rereahu has attempted to navigate the multiple political landscapes which still exist and continue to control iwi and hapū have been discussed. The study develops a theoretical framework of Māori wide concepts as applied through a Rereahu-centric lens. Thus, allowing for a balanced approach to the collection, collation and analysis of all evidence utilised in this thesis.

Key findings bring to light the effects colonisation has had and continues to have on Rereahu autonomy. The ways in which Rereahu has been misrepresented, and how Rereahu has responded to threats of colonisation in the 21st century are apparent. This thesis contributes new knowledge to the realm of academia through the experiences of the iwi Rereahu; and offers indigenous discourse regarding resilience and resistance.

The ongoing effects of colonisation being felt by the Rereahu iwi in this contemporary landscape are defined. It is an example of how the oppressed can easily become the oppressor. This thesis goes some way to highlighting the destructive nature of the Waitangi Tribunal process in regards to Rereahu. The knowledge presented in this thesis could be utilised by the Office of Treaty Settlements, education and health establishments, policy makers and the iwi of Rereahu in addressing and combating the negative effects created by the cycle of colonisation.

year: 2019