title: PISA for development and its impact on education policy and development in Cambodia

authors: Khan, Chenda

abstract: In recent years, the right to education has emerged as a cornerstone of UNESCO’s Education Agenda 2030 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015, SDG4 serves as a blueprint for developing countries to achieve a more equitable and sustainable future. In 2016, UNESCO established a steering committee, comprising UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), to facilitate the global implementation of SDG4.

To monitor the progress of developing countries in achieving SDG4, the OECD persuaded UNESCO to leverage one of its International Large-Scale Assessments (ILSAs) – PISA for Development (PISA-D). Building on the established Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), PISA-D operates through two distinct forms of power that operate through Cambodia as a state administration and through Cambodia as a population. The first is referred to in this thesis as ‘governance’ and refers to the ways in which the state administration, officials and executives are steered to introducing education reforms and policies. The other is referred to as ‘disciplinary power’, which operates through examination and treatment, imposing particular forms of accountability onto the school system including school principals, teachers and students. These two forms of power may enable the OECD to place Cambodia under its policy directives through the PISA-D programme. I understand that the articulation of these two forms of power tends to be a form or iteration of coloniality.

The overarching objective of this thesis is to analyse how and why Cambodia chose to become involved in PISA-D and what have been the local impacts. I employed some elements of a document analysis on academic and media sources to deepen my understanding of the OECD's educational initiatives through PISA and PISA-D. This analysis began with a review of PISA's application in member countries, providing essential context for studying the PISA-D program itself. The thesis further explores the tensions arising during the enactment of PISA-D in Cambodia, offering a nuanced perspective on the coloniality associated with PISA(-D). This exploration was enriched through semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders to understand how these tensions manifest in practice.

The thesis argues that Cambodia's decision to join the PISA-D programme was naive and pressured. Enacted through the Ministry's EQAD with support from the World Bank – the OECD’s strategic partner, the PISA-D programme produced results, which were meant for the World Bank to justify the urgent implementation of SBM as the only way to enhance accountability in Cambodian schools. Influenced by these two said IOs, Cambodian leaders were led to believe that assessing students internationally was essential for local education reform and would yield valuable evidence for policy making, which has increasingly focused on generating human capital solely for national economic growth – identified as neoliberalisation of Cambodian education. Overall, there is much evidence that the OECD has used the PISA-D programme to subject Cambodia to the negative effects of globalisation, the power of PISA and ultimately the OECD’s policy directives.

text: PISA for development and its impact on education policy and development in Cambodia In recent years, the right to education has emerged as a cornerstone of UNESCO’s Education Agenda 2030 and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4). Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 2015, SDG4 serves as a blueprint for developing countries to achieve a more equitable and sustainable future. In 2016, UNESCO established a steering committee, comprising UNESCO, UNICEF, the World Bank, and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), to facilitate the global implementation of SDG4.

To monitor the progress of developing countries in achieving SDG4, the OECD persuaded UNESCO to leverage one of its International Large-Scale Assessments (ILSAs) – PISA for Development (PISA-D). Building on the established Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), PISA-D operates through two distinct forms of power that operate through Cambodia as a state administration and through Cambodia as a population. The first is referred to in this thesis as ‘governance’ and refers to the ways in which the state administration, officials and executives are steered to introducing education reforms and policies. The other is referred to as ‘disciplinary power’, which operates through examination and treatment, imposing particular forms of accountability onto the school system including school principals, teachers and students. These two forms of power may enable the OECD to place Cambodia under its policy directives through the PISA-D programme. I understand that the articulation of these two forms of power tends to be a form or iteration of coloniality.

The overarching objective of this thesis is to analyse how and why Cambodia chose to become involved in PISA-D and what have been the local impacts. I employed some elements of a document analysis on academic and media sources to deepen my understanding of the OECD's educational initiatives through PISA and PISA-D. This analysis began with a review of PISA's application in member countries, providing essential context for studying the PISA-D program itself. The thesis further explores the tensions arising during the enactment of PISA-D in Cambodia, offering a nuanced perspective on the coloniality associated with PISA(-D). This exploration was enriched through semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders to understand how these tensions manifest in practice.

The thesis argues that Cambodia's decision to join the PISA-D programme was naive and pressured. Enacted through the Ministry's EQAD with support from the World Bank – the OECD’s strategic partner, the PISA-D programme produced results, which were meant for the World Bank to justify the urgent implementation of SBM as the only way to enhance accountability in Cambodian schools. Influenced by these two said IOs, Cambodian leaders were led to believe that assessing students internationally was essential for local education reform and would yield valuable evidence for policy making, which has increasingly focused on generating human capital solely for national economic growth – identified as neoliberalisation of Cambodian education. Overall, there is much evidence that the OECD has used the PISA-D programme to subject Cambodia to the negative effects of globalisation, the power of PISA and ultimately the OECD’s policy directives.

year: 2024-11-04

title: The ecological consequences of stream sedimentation for freshwater macroinvertebrates in the Te Awanui/Tauranga Harbour catchment

authors: Lea, Brooklyn

subjects: freshwater ecology

abstract: Sedimentation is a significant stressor in streams and rivers globally. The natural sediment regime 
paradigm posits that human activities have greatly altered the natural transport of sediment in river 
networks and that land-uses leading to increased bank erosion and surface runoff have resulted in 
large quantities of fine sediment being deposited in streams and rivers. In New Zealand, land 
conversion from native forest to pastoral agriculture has dramatically increased riverine sediment 
loads, making deposited fine sediment (DFS) a major stressor that negatively impacts stream 
ecosystem health. Consequently, DFS is an important attribute managed under the National Policy 
Statement for Freshwater Management 2020. However, uncertainties remain in how best to 
monitor the effects of DFS, and what impacts different land-use types have on stream ecosystems 
in addition to the adverse influence of sedimentation.  
In my study, I surveyed 24 stream sites allocated evenly to three land-use types (native forest, 
pastoral agriculture, and horticulture, e.g. kiwifruit orchards) in the Tauranga Harbour basin. I 
measured habitat attributes, including DFS, and sampled stream macroinvertebrate communities 
at each site. Using macroinvertebrate data, I calculated and compared taxonomic and trait-based 
metrics as indicators of ecosystem health across land-use types. I used a variety of metrics, 
including the Macroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI) and its quantitative equivalent, the 
QMCI, the Average Score Per Metric (ASPM) index, and community-weighted mean trait 
abundances, including facets of functional diversity to assess impacts on stream health.  
I found that human land uses negatively influenced stream health, indicated by greatly reduced 
MCI, QMCI, and ASPM scores. Although DFS explained most of the negative influences on 
macroinvertebrate communities in pastoral and horticultural streams, there were differences 
between native forest and horticultural streams not accounted for by DFS that contributed to 
declines in ecosystem health. I also found that sediment-specific macroinvertebrate metrics 
(sediment ‘decreasers’) were the best indicators of DFS impacts on stream health. Contrary to my 
predictions, I did not find that functional diversity was strongly reduced by land use or DFS, 
although several key traits responded to these stressors. Notably, life history trait modalities 
involving the number of reproductive cycles per year and oviposition site responded strongly to 
DFS and land use, indicating potential mechanisms contributing towards the impacts of these 
stressors on macroinvertebrate communities.  
ii 
My study points to the need to continuously manage the deposition of fine sediment in streams to 
help mitigate the adverse effects of human land use. Future research should further explore the 
role that fine sediment and other stressors associated with human land uses play in the degradation 
of streams ecosystems in the Tauranga Harbour basin. Quantifying land use and land cover 
(LULC) attributes using geospatial tools will help further explore the relationship between 
catchment properties and macroinvertebrate responses. Additionally, issues regarding trait 
syndromes, trade-offs, and database inconsistencies must be addressed to better understand the 
mechanistic links between specific macroinvertebrate traits and fine sediment.

text: The ecological consequences of stream sedimentation for freshwater macroinvertebrates in the Te Awanui/Tauranga Harbour catchment Sedimentation is a significant stressor in streams and rivers globally. The natural sediment regime 
paradigm posits that human activities have greatly altered the natural transport of sediment in river 
networks and that land-uses leading to increased bank erosion and surface runoff have resulted in 
large quantities of fine sediment being deposited in streams and rivers. In New Zealand, land 
conversion from native forest to pastoral agriculture has dramatically increased riverine sediment 
loads, making deposited fine sediment (DFS) a major stressor that negatively impacts stream 
ecosystem health. Consequently, DFS is an important attribute managed under the National Policy 
Statement for Freshwater Management 2020. However, uncertainties remain in how best to 
monitor the effects of DFS, and what impacts different land-use types have on stream ecosystems 
in addition to the adverse influence of sedimentation.  
In my study, I surveyed 24 stream sites allocated evenly to three land-use types (native forest, 
pastoral agriculture, and horticulture, e.g. kiwifruit orchards) in the Tauranga Harbour basin. I 
measured habitat attributes, including DFS, and sampled stream macroinvertebrate communities 
at each site. Using macroinvertebrate data, I calculated and compared taxonomic and trait-based 
metrics as indicators of ecosystem health across land-use types. I used a variety of metrics, 
including the Macroinvertebrate Community Index (MCI) and its quantitative equivalent, the 
QMCI, the Average Score Per Metric (ASPM) index, and community-weighted mean trait 
abundances, including facets of functional diversity to assess impacts on stream health.  
I found that human land uses negatively influenced stream health, indicated by greatly reduced 
MCI, QMCI, and ASPM scores. Although DFS explained most of the negative influences on 
macroinvertebrate communities in pastoral and horticultural streams, there were differences 
between native forest and horticultural streams not accounted for by DFS that contributed to 
declines in ecosystem health. I also found that sediment-specific macroinvertebrate metrics 
(sediment ‘decreasers’) were the best indicators of DFS impacts on stream health. Contrary to my 
predictions, I did not find that functional diversity was strongly reduced by land use or DFS, 
although several key traits responded to these stressors. Notably, life history trait modalities 
involving the number of reproductive cycles per year and oviposition site responded strongly to 
DFS and land use, indicating potential mechanisms contributing towards the impacts of these 
stressors on macroinvertebrate communities.  
ii 
My study points to the need to continuously manage the deposition of fine sediment in streams to 
help mitigate the adverse effects of human land use. Future research should further explore the 
role that fine sediment and other stressors associated with human land uses play in the degradation 
of streams ecosystems in the Tauranga Harbour basin. Quantifying land use and land cover 
(LULC) attributes using geospatial tools will help further explore the relationship between 
catchment properties and macroinvertebrate responses. Additionally, issues regarding trait 
syndromes, trade-offs, and database inconsistencies must be addressed to better understand the 
mechanistic links between specific macroinvertebrate traits and fine sediment.

year: 2024

title: Efficacy of an incentive intervention on secondary prophylaxis for young people with rheumatic fever: a multiple baseline study

authors: Oetzel, John G.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Background
Acute rheumatic fever in New Zealand persists and is a barometer of equity as its burden almost exclusively falls on Māori and Pacific Island populations. The primary objective of this study is to determine whether an incentive programme will result in increased secondary prophylaxis injections over a one-year period compared to a baseline period prior to the intervention.

Methods
The evaluation used a multiple baseline study to determine whether an incentive consisting of a mobile phone and monthly “top-up” (for data/calls) resulted in increased injections, increased texts/calls with nurses, reduced number of visits to get a successful injection, less medicine wasted, and increased nurse satisfaction. Participants were 77 young people (aged 14–21) on an acute rheumatic fever registry in Waikato region, New Zealand classified as either fully adherent (all injections received and no more than one late) or partially adherent based on injections at baseline.

Results
There was a sharp increase in injections for intermittent patients post-intervention and then a slight decrease overtime, while fully adherent patients maintained their high rate of injections (p = .003). A similar pattern for nurse satisfaction emerged (p = .001). The number of calls/texts increased for all patients (p = .003). The number of visits went down for partially adherent patients and up for fully adherent patients (p = .012). The overall incremental cost-effectiveness was $989 per extra successful injection although costs increased sharply toward the end of the intervention.

Conclusions
Incentivising secondary prophylaxis appears to have a strong impact for partially adherent patients, particularly during the early periods following the initiation of the intervention. Enhancing communication with patients who returned to care may result in more sustainable adherence.

Trial registration
Retrospectively registered: Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12618001150235, 12 July 2018.

text: Efficacy of an incentive intervention on secondary prophylaxis for young people with rheumatic fever: a multiple baseline study Background
Acute rheumatic fever in New Zealand persists and is a barometer of equity as its burden almost exclusively falls on Māori and Pacific Island populations. The primary objective of this study is to determine whether an incentive programme will result in increased secondary prophylaxis injections over a one-year period compared to a baseline period prior to the intervention.

Methods
The evaluation used a multiple baseline study to determine whether an incentive consisting of a mobile phone and monthly “top-up” (for data/calls) resulted in increased injections, increased texts/calls with nurses, reduced number of visits to get a successful injection, less medicine wasted, and increased nurse satisfaction. Participants were 77 young people (aged 14–21) on an acute rheumatic fever registry in Waikato region, New Zealand classified as either fully adherent (all injections received and no more than one late) or partially adherent based on injections at baseline.

Results
There was a sharp increase in injections for intermittent patients post-intervention and then a slight decrease overtime, while fully adherent patients maintained their high rate of injections (p = .003). A similar pattern for nurse satisfaction emerged (p = .001). The number of calls/texts increased for all patients (p = .003). The number of visits went down for partially adherent patients and up for fully adherent patients (p = .012). The overall incremental cost-effectiveness was $989 per extra successful injection although costs increased sharply toward the end of the intervention.

Conclusions
Incentivising secondary prophylaxis appears to have a strong impact for partially adherent patients, particularly during the early periods following the initiation of the intervention. Enhancing communication with patients who returned to care may result in more sustainable adherence.

Trial registration
Retrospectively registered: Australia New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12618001150235, 12 July 2018.

year: 2019