title: Aspects of hens’ visual behaviour

authors: Weavers, Richard

abstract: Five experiments were conducted to examine different aspects of hens’ visual behaviour, and to assess whether hens respond to slide images in the same way as they respond to real conspecifics that those slides depict. Experiment 1 was a replication of a study by Candland (1969). Six domestic hens were trained to make simultaneous discriminations between slide images of conspecifics that differed only in combs, beaks and wattles. In further test trials these facial appendices were rearranged in all the possible combinations to determine which was the most salient. The comb appeared to be the most salient feature in both Candlan’s study and Experiment 1. In Experiment 2 the hens were retrained to discriminate between images of two different conspecifics, and then presented with the real object hens that the slides depicted. The subject hens did not discriminate between the real conspecifics. During Experiment 3 the same subject hens were presented with a series of different images, under the same conditions as Experiment 1. Test trials revealed that most hens discriminated between pairs of images on the basis of the uppermost feature, irrespective of whether that feature depicted part of a conspecific or a geometric shape. Backprojected sinusoidal grating patterns of varying contrast and spatial frequency were used to assess the visual resolution of four hens in Experiment 4. Contrast sensitivity functions were measured under two different viewing conditions. These two functions both spanned a range of low spatial frequencies, that is, showed that the hens had low visual acuity, and also differed in the ranges of spatial frequencies, indicating different levels of visual acuity for frontal and lateral viewing. Experiment 5 was designed to assess and demonstrate high-frequency image loss in hens. Four hens were trained to make simultaneous discriminations between two copies of one of the images used in Experiment 1. One of the copies had been blurred by removing high-frequency contrasts. During a subsequent test phase, the hens were presented with pairs of this image, with one of each pair blurred by removal of high-frequency contrasts across a range of cutoff frequencies. A mean threshold for discrimination of high-frequency image loss was measured at 2.237 cyc/° (cycles per degree of visual angle). Demonstrations of this image loss are shown in Experiment 5. 

Low visual resolution was measured for the hens - at around the same levels as pigeons and six-month old humans. It was concluded that hens do not respond to slide images in the same way as they respond to real conspecifics that those slides depict, but that they might learn to do so after extensive discrimination training with both types of stimuli. Possible influences of the hens’ low visual resolution on their inability to generalize responding across slide images and real conspecifics are discussed.

text: Aspects of hens’ visual behaviour Five experiments were conducted to examine different aspects of hens’ visual behaviour, and to assess whether hens respond to slide images in the same way as they respond to real conspecifics that those slides depict. Experiment 1 was a replication of a study by Candland (1969). Six domestic hens were trained to make simultaneous discriminations between slide images of conspecifics that differed only in combs, beaks and wattles. In further test trials these facial appendices were rearranged in all the possible combinations to determine which was the most salient. The comb appeared to be the most salient feature in both Candlan’s study and Experiment 1. In Experiment 2 the hens were retrained to discriminate between images of two different conspecifics, and then presented with the real object hens that the slides depicted. The subject hens did not discriminate between the real conspecifics. During Experiment 3 the same subject hens were presented with a series of different images, under the same conditions as Experiment 1. Test trials revealed that most hens discriminated between pairs of images on the basis of the uppermost feature, irrespective of whether that feature depicted part of a conspecific or a geometric shape. Backprojected sinusoidal grating patterns of varying contrast and spatial frequency were used to assess the visual resolution of four hens in Experiment 4. Contrast sensitivity functions were measured under two different viewing conditions. These two functions both spanned a range of low spatial frequencies, that is, showed that the hens had low visual acuity, and also differed in the ranges of spatial frequencies, indicating different levels of visual acuity for frontal and lateral viewing. Experiment 5 was designed to assess and demonstrate high-frequency image loss in hens. Four hens were trained to make simultaneous discriminations between two copies of one of the images used in Experiment 1. One of the copies had been blurred by removing high-frequency contrasts. During a subsequent test phase, the hens were presented with pairs of this image, with one of each pair blurred by removal of high-frequency contrasts across a range of cutoff frequencies. A mean threshold for discrimination of high-frequency image loss was measured at 2.237 cyc/° (cycles per degree of visual angle). Demonstrations of this image loss are shown in Experiment 5. 

Low visual resolution was measured for the hens - at around the same levels as pigeons and six-month old humans. It was concluded that hens do not respond to slide images in the same way as they respond to real conspecifics that those slides depict, but that they might learn to do so after extensive discrimination training with both types of stimuli. Possible influences of the hens’ low visual resolution on their inability to generalize responding across slide images and real conspecifics are discussed.

year: 2000

title: Examining participatory development in internationally funded climate adaptation programmes: Insights from the Marshall Islands

authors: Yamaguchi, Yoshiko

subjects: Adaptation

abstract: The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) faces threats from climate change, necessitating urgent and effective adaptation strategies. This research examines participatory development approaches in climate adaptation within the RMI, assessing their effectiveness, inclusivity, and alignment with local needs and cultural knowledge. Despite global recognition of the importance of participatory development, adaptation projects in the RMI remain largely donor-driven, often failing to integrate local perspectives. Existing literature highlights the theoretical benefits of participatory approaches, yet critiques indicate persistent power imbalances between international donors and local stakeholders. This study evaluates how participatory development principles are applied in RMI climate adaptation initiatives, determining the extent to which they empower local communities and enhance project sustainability.

Utilizing a qualitative methodology grounded in narrative inquiry, the research incorporates semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and an interpretive approach to data analysis. Respondents included RMI government officials, NGOs, development partners, and community members engaged in adaptation efforts. A key methodological feature is the use of Bwebwenato, a traditional Marshallese storytelling approach, to ensure culturally relevant data collection and analysis. 

Findings reveal that while participatory rhetoric is prevalent in adaptation discourse, implementation often falls short due to top-down decision-making, rigid funding structures, and limited local autonomy. Although national policies emphasize community involvement, international funding mechanisms frequently dictate project priorities, constraining meaningful local engagement. However, integrating traditional knowledge systems with participatory frameworks presents a viable pathway to more effective and contextually appropriate adaptation solutions. The findings emphasize the need for adaptation strategies that genuinely reflect Marshallese voices, prioritizing equitable stakeholder collaboration. By highlighting gaps in current participatory development practices, the research contributes to discussions on improving climate adaptation governance in the RMI. Its conclusions support advocacy for structural reforms in donor-recipient relationships to enhance the inclusivity and sustainability of adaptation efforts in the RMI and beyond.

text: Examining participatory development in internationally funded climate adaptation programmes: Insights from the Marshall Islands The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) faces threats from climate change, necessitating urgent and effective adaptation strategies. This research examines participatory development approaches in climate adaptation within the RMI, assessing their effectiveness, inclusivity, and alignment with local needs and cultural knowledge. Despite global recognition of the importance of participatory development, adaptation projects in the RMI remain largely donor-driven, often failing to integrate local perspectives. Existing literature highlights the theoretical benefits of participatory approaches, yet critiques indicate persistent power imbalances between international donors and local stakeholders. This study evaluates how participatory development principles are applied in RMI climate adaptation initiatives, determining the extent to which they empower local communities and enhance project sustainability.

Utilizing a qualitative methodology grounded in narrative inquiry, the research incorporates semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and an interpretive approach to data analysis. Respondents included RMI government officials, NGOs, development partners, and community members engaged in adaptation efforts. A key methodological feature is the use of Bwebwenato, a traditional Marshallese storytelling approach, to ensure culturally relevant data collection and analysis. 

Findings reveal that while participatory rhetoric is prevalent in adaptation discourse, implementation often falls short due to top-down decision-making, rigid funding structures, and limited local autonomy. Although national policies emphasize community involvement, international funding mechanisms frequently dictate project priorities, constraining meaningful local engagement. However, integrating traditional knowledge systems with participatory frameworks presents a viable pathway to more effective and contextually appropriate adaptation solutions. The findings emphasize the need for adaptation strategies that genuinely reflect Marshallese voices, prioritizing equitable stakeholder collaboration. By highlighting gaps in current participatory development practices, the research contributes to discussions on improving climate adaptation governance in the RMI. Its conclusions support advocacy for structural reforms in donor-recipient relationships to enhance the inclusivity and sustainability of adaptation efforts in the RMI and beyond.

year: 2025-03

title: Te Whare o Te Kahikatoa: He Kura nui, he Kura roa, he Kura Parawhakawai

authors: Rangihau, Ngatai

subjects: Kahikatoa

abstract: “Te Whare o te Kahikatoa,
Te Iho o te Maire,
Te Pōkaitāniwhaniwha o te Kohu”
(TKPOT, 2010-2016).¹

Ka hoki nei kia Te Maunga rāua ko Hinepukohurangi, ki te taetanga mai hoki o Mataatua waka², ko ngā kura o tawhito, kura wānanga, kura parawhakawai o te iwi o Tūhoe ngā tino whare whakapakari pōkaitāniwhaniwha mō roto i te whare o te kahikatoa. Īnā te rahi o ngā toataumatarau i puta ngā ihu, ka tū rātau hai toa rangatira ārahi i te iwi. Ki te kore ēneki kura o te nehenehe kāre he oranga, kāre e eke te iwi ngā whakairinga tūmanako e wawatatia ana e rātau.
 
Waihoki, ko te kaupapa e rangahau ana i tēnei tuhinga he whakapono, he whakapae, kai konei tonu tēnei hua o te wānanga. He kura hai whakapakari rangatira mō āpōpō. Ahakoa tēnei ao hurihuri koinei tonu tētahi huarahi nā te Māori, nā Tūhoe hai whakaohooho mā ngā uri whakaheke, e mau pū ai a Ngāi Tūhoe ki ōna kura tapu o nehe.

text: Te Whare o Te Kahikatoa: He Kura nui, he Kura roa, he Kura Parawhakawai “Te Whare o te Kahikatoa,
Te Iho o te Maire,
Te Pōkaitāniwhaniwha o te Kohu”
(TKPOT, 2010-2016).¹

Ka hoki nei kia Te Maunga rāua ko Hinepukohurangi, ki te taetanga mai hoki o Mataatua waka², ko ngā kura o tawhito, kura wānanga, kura parawhakawai o te iwi o Tūhoe ngā tino whare whakapakari pōkaitāniwhaniwha mō roto i te whare o te kahikatoa. Īnā te rahi o ngā toataumatarau i puta ngā ihu, ka tū rātau hai toa rangatira ārahi i te iwi. Ki te kore ēneki kura o te nehenehe kāre he oranga, kāre e eke te iwi ngā whakairinga tūmanako e wawatatia ana e rātau.
 
Waihoki, ko te kaupapa e rangahau ana i tēnei tuhinga he whakapono, he whakapae, kai konei tonu tēnei hua o te wānanga. He kura hai whakapakari rangatira mō āpōpō. Ahakoa tēnei ao hurihuri koinei tonu tētahi huarahi nā te Māori, nā Tūhoe hai whakaohooho mā ngā uri whakaheke, e mau pū ai a Ngāi Tūhoe ki ōna kura tapu o nehe.

year: 2017