title: Nutrient and sediment loads from farm drains – fact sheet

authors: Tempero, Grant Wayne

abstract: Runoff from intensive agriculture has been identified as a major contributor to the decline of New Zealand's freshwater ecosystems. Excessive nutrient and sediment losses to lakes and rivers lead to reduced water clarity and quality, which in turn leads to reductions in biodiversity and amenity and aesthetic values.

text: Nutrient and sediment loads from farm drains – fact sheet Runoff from intensive agriculture has been identified as a major contributor to the decline of New Zealand's freshwater ecosystems. Excessive nutrient and sediment losses to lakes and rivers lead to reduced water clarity and quality, which in turn leads to reductions in biodiversity and amenity and aesthetic values.

year: 2015

title: Realising potential: investigating the life stories of gifted New Zealand adults

authors: Moltzen, Roger

subjects: Gifted New Zealand Adults

abstract: The aim of this study was to better understand the development of talent across the lifespan by examining the life stories of a group of gifted New Zealand adults. Twenty-eight high achievers participated in this study, representing the following seven broad domains of talent: logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and business-entrepreneurial. 
This study involved a pre-selection process, where experts in each of the seven talent domains nominated four living New Zealanders who they considered had achieved to the highest level in their field. From these nominations, invitations to participate were extended to the four most frequently nominated individuals in each of the seven domains.
Life history inquiry was considered the most appropriate methodology to meet the aim of this research. This involved individual, face-to-face interviews, best described as 'guided conversations'. Consistent with a life history approach, interviewees were accorded a significant degree of control over the direction and the focus of the interviews. However, the researcher had identified beforehand some broad themes he wished to pursue in all interviews, including: participants' ascriptions of their achievements, the influence of parents, family and home, educational experiences, and participants' social and emotional development.
One of the most significant findings from this study was that high achievers, irrespective of the domain of achievement, have developed the traits conducive to the realisation of potential. Consistent with numerous other studies, the attributes of drive, persistence, perseverance, hard work and self-discipline appear to be essential to achieving highly. While almost all the individuals who were included in this study showed early evidence of above average general intelligence, and while many displayed precocity in a particular domain, it was their high levels of motivation and task commitment, more than any natural ability, which distinguished them from their peers.
The childhood homes of the participants varied considerably, but poverty was more common than privilege. Few could be classified as having an advantaged childhood and the experience of early adversity was relatively common. As a group, their parents, while not highly educated, valued learning and education and provided opportunities for their children to engage with ideas. The family homes of most were environments where a love of books and a love of reading was modelled and encouraged.
Few could recall anything of great significance from primary school, but their recollections of high school were much more acute. The most positive accounts of high school came from those who attended schools where high achievement, particularly in academic subjects, was encouraged and valued. Those who provided the most negative recollections of schools were the creators, some of whom said that they failed to fit in at school. In fact marginalisation, both in childhood and adulthood was the experience of many. Some of the participants believed that as children and adolescents they were more emotionally sensitive and emotionally intense than their peers, and some said that they seemed to have a greater concern about issues of social justice than most others in their age group. 
While some of the conditions that support talent development seem universal, there was some evidence from this study that talent develops differently in different domains. The most notable differences appear to be between those who had made their names in the more creative domains, such as art, writing, and to a lesser extent music, and those who had achieved in the other domains. 
This study links closely to other retrospective studies of gifted adults, although there are some findings unique to this study, the majority of which may be explained by socio-cultural factors. Consistent with other retrospective studies, there are numerous areas of difference between the results of this study and the findings from longitudinal studies of gifted children.

text: Realising potential: investigating the life stories of gifted New Zealand adults The aim of this study was to better understand the development of talent across the lifespan by examining the life stories of a group of gifted New Zealand adults. Twenty-eight high achievers participated in this study, representing the following seven broad domains of talent: logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and business-entrepreneurial. 
This study involved a pre-selection process, where experts in each of the seven talent domains nominated four living New Zealanders who they considered had achieved to the highest level in their field. From these nominations, invitations to participate were extended to the four most frequently nominated individuals in each of the seven domains.
Life history inquiry was considered the most appropriate methodology to meet the aim of this research. This involved individual, face-to-face interviews, best described as 'guided conversations'. Consistent with a life history approach, interviewees were accorded a significant degree of control over the direction and the focus of the interviews. However, the researcher had identified beforehand some broad themes he wished to pursue in all interviews, including: participants' ascriptions of their achievements, the influence of parents, family and home, educational experiences, and participants' social and emotional development.
One of the most significant findings from this study was that high achievers, irrespective of the domain of achievement, have developed the traits conducive to the realisation of potential. Consistent with numerous other studies, the attributes of drive, persistence, perseverance, hard work and self-discipline appear to be essential to achieving highly. While almost all the individuals who were included in this study showed early evidence of above average general intelligence, and while many displayed precocity in a particular domain, it was their high levels of motivation and task commitment, more than any natural ability, which distinguished them from their peers.
The childhood homes of the participants varied considerably, but poverty was more common than privilege. Few could be classified as having an advantaged childhood and the experience of early adversity was relatively common. As a group, their parents, while not highly educated, valued learning and education and provided opportunities for their children to engage with ideas. The family homes of most were environments where a love of books and a love of reading was modelled and encouraged.
Few could recall anything of great significance from primary school, but their recollections of high school were much more acute. The most positive accounts of high school came from those who attended schools where high achievement, particularly in academic subjects, was encouraged and valued. Those who provided the most negative recollections of schools were the creators, some of whom said that they failed to fit in at school. In fact marginalisation, both in childhood and adulthood was the experience of many. Some of the participants believed that as children and adolescents they were more emotionally sensitive and emotionally intense than their peers, and some said that they seemed to have a greater concern about issues of social justice than most others in their age group. 
While some of the conditions that support talent development seem universal, there was some evidence from this study that talent develops differently in different domains. The most notable differences appear to be between those who had made their names in the more creative domains, such as art, writing, and to a lesser extent music, and those who had achieved in the other domains. 
This study links closely to other retrospective studies of gifted adults, although there are some findings unique to this study, the majority of which may be explained by socio-cultural factors. Consistent with other retrospective studies, there are numerous areas of difference between the results of this study and the findings from longitudinal studies of gifted children.

year: 2005

title: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites

authors: Petchey, Fiona

abstract: This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

text: Radiocarbon analysis of a novel bone sample type: snapper and barracouta bone from New Zealand archaeological sites This dissertation investigates the potential of fish bone, specifically barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and snapper (Pagrus auratus), for routine radiocarbon analysis. Of particular interest to this study is the perceived reliability of bone ¹⁴C determinations in the New Zealand archaeological literature. Issues of bone preservation and contamination, dietary fractionation, species differences, and the reliability of different pretreatments are of key importance. Informed, critical assessment of bone determinations in New Zealand is, however, currently limited for a number of reasons. First, there have been no, or few comprehensive tests of bone pretreatment, species reliability or the influence of contamination. Second, confusion has resulted regarding the effectiveness of the varied radiocarbon pretreatments available, due in part to the complexity of some methods. This has been further hampered by the incorrect reporting of fractions isolated for ¹⁴C measurement. Third, inadequate sample selection procedures have resulted in burnt bone, sub-fossil bone and severely degraded bone, each with intrinsically different chemistries, being submitted for radiocarbon assay. Fourth, insecure provenance of the sample, or associated samples to be dated, mean that few comparisons of bone reliability could have, or can be made. Fifth, publication of results and procedures have been limited. Finally, there has been limited research into the radiocarbon measurement of bone in New Zealand due to a preconception about the reliability of bone determinations. These uncertainties with bone radiocarbon measurement are addressed in this dissertation. 

The sources of ∆¹⁴C to fish are also critical. Bone collagen and its derivatives (e.g. gelatin, tripeptides, amino acids) are the most common bone fractions isolated for radiocarbon measurement. For fish, the ¹⁴C in collagen is derived either directly, or indirectly via diet, from dissolved inorganic carbon in sea water. A number of uncertainties have previously been identified with the measurement of ¹⁴C in marine animals, including the effects of hardwater, depleted carbon from depth, or terrestrial organic carbon. These factors are investigated, and it is determined that their impact on fish bone ¹⁴C determinations depend on the immediate environment and the type of fish selected for dating. Both barracouta and snapper occupy predominantly the well-mixed surface waters around New Zealand. Studies of marine shell and snapper otolith carbon from around New Zealand, suggest that hardwater and terrestrial organic carbon are of limited influence. This requires further testing and may depend on the specific dietary preferences of each species. Of particular concern, however, is the upwelling of depleted carbon, especially at the convergence of inshore and offshore waters or at the boundary of two water masses (i.e. the Subtropical Convergence). In addition, inbuilt age is often cited as reasons for anomalous ¹⁴C determinations. This also appears to be of nominal influence, due in part to the precision of the radiocarbon technique, but also because of the relatively rapid replacement of collagen.

A range of different bone pretreatment and assessment methods are discussed. From this review it is concluded that gelatinisation following a NaOH wash, should remove better than 8% contamination (i.e. a maximum error of 42 years in a well-preserved sample of 900 BP material if contaminated by modem carbon). This pretreatment method, in combination with techniques for assessing contamination and collagen preservation, will significantly improve the likelihood of a reliable radiocarbon determination. The use of an appropriate assessment methodology also provides a wealth of information about the sample and site taphonomy.

Snapper and barracouta samples from 7 archaeological sites are analysed. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra, stable isotope values, N% determinations and yield data, obtained prior to and during pretreatment, are presented along with ¹⁴C information. Material from Pleasant River, Long Beach, Shag River Mouth, Twilight Beach, Houhora and Rotokura is identified as well-preserved. Bone removed from Tata Beach is of suspect preservation state due to low levels of remaining collagen, and contamination identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. 

Radiocarbon results from Tata Beach are, however, variable, and largely inconclusive at the level of precision used. The remaining 6 sites produced reproducible fish gelatin determinations that are statistically indistinguishable from associated marine shell determinations, and in chronological agreement with charcoal samples after calibration using the marine calibration curve of Stuiver and Braziunas (1993), corrected according to the New Zealand reservoir value (∆R) (Higham and Hogg 1995). Determinations on purified tripeptides do not agree with these results. These are, however, not supported by archaeological evidence or associated ¹⁴C determinations on reliable charcoal and shell samples.

An analysis of 46 New Zealand archaeological sites with bone determinations (human, dog, fish, seal, and moa) obtained over a 40 year period is undertaken and a discard protocol applied according to the results of this dissertation. Eleven sites with bone determinations remain after application of the discard protocol. Not all are statistically indistinguishable from associated charcoal and marine shell pairs. Using geographic and climatic information, as well as intra site data, it is apparent that sites with problematic bone radiocarbon estimates are located in high rainfall areas, which have resulted in bones of poorer preservation. This, in combination with inadequate pretreatment (typically an acid wash, or acid/alkali/acid pretreatment) has resulted in some erroneous determinations.

In the light of these results it is suggested that a bone selection protocol, using a range of chemical methods, needs to be implemented in order to identify problematic samples prior to ¹⁴C analysis. Further, gelatinisation should be a minimum pretreatment. Bones <1000 years of age should be viewed with caution for radiocarbon dating when less than 40% “extractable collagen” remains, and where contamination is identified in the FTIR spectra of the acid-insoluble fraction. The adoption of complex and expensive biochemical purification techniques is not recommended.

year: 1998