title: Using discursive strategies, playing policy games and shaping the future of physical education

authors: Swabey, Karen

subjects: education

abstract: This paper presents a critical analysis of the representation of physical education (PE) in the 1992 Senate inquiry into 'Physical and Sport Education' in Australia. Analysis focuses specifically upon how and why a new professional discourse, fundamental motor skills (FMS), gained a privileged position in the inquiry, the inquiry report and in subsequent PE policy and practice across Australia. This paper examines the complex policy processes and power-relations underpinning the progressive legitimisation of the FMS discourse, and identifies subtleties and variations in the expression of the discourse. Attention is drawn to the strategic appropriation of established professional discourses and utilisation of crisis discourses in establishing and gaining support for the FMS discourse. The analysis reaffirms policy arenas as sites of contestation but highlights that they are simultaneously sites of possibility for PE professionals who are prepared and able to use discursive resources in strategic ways. The contemporary relevance of the discourses privileged in 1992 and lessons to be learned from events surrounding the Senate inquiry are discussed.

text: Using discursive strategies, playing policy games and shaping the future of physical education This paper presents a critical analysis of the representation of physical education (PE) in the 1992 Senate inquiry into 'Physical and Sport Education' in Australia. Analysis focuses specifically upon how and why a new professional discourse, fundamental motor skills (FMS), gained a privileged position in the inquiry, the inquiry report and in subsequent PE policy and practice across Australia. This paper examines the complex policy processes and power-relations underpinning the progressive legitimisation of the FMS discourse, and identifies subtleties and variations in the expression of the discourse. Attention is drawn to the strategic appropriation of established professional discourses and utilisation of crisis discourses in establishing and gaining support for the FMS discourse. The analysis reaffirms policy arenas as sites of contestation but highlights that they are simultaneously sites of possibility for PE professionals who are prepared and able to use discursive resources in strategic ways. The contemporary relevance of the discourses privileged in 1992 and lessons to be learned from events surrounding the Senate inquiry are discussed.

year: 2011-01

title: Realising potential: investigating the life stories of gifted New Zealand adults

authors: Moltzen, Roger

subjects: Gifted New Zealand Adults

abstract: The aim of this study was to better understand the development of talent across the lifespan by examining the life stories of a group of gifted New Zealand adults. Twenty-eight high achievers participated in this study, representing the following seven broad domains of talent: logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and business-entrepreneurial. 
This study involved a pre-selection process, where experts in each of the seven talent domains nominated four living New Zealanders who they considered had achieved to the highest level in their field. From these nominations, invitations to participate were extended to the four most frequently nominated individuals in each of the seven domains.
Life history inquiry was considered the most appropriate methodology to meet the aim of this research. This involved individual, face-to-face interviews, best described as 'guided conversations'. Consistent with a life history approach, interviewees were accorded a significant degree of control over the direction and the focus of the interviews. However, the researcher had identified beforehand some broad themes he wished to pursue in all interviews, including: participants' ascriptions of their achievements, the influence of parents, family and home, educational experiences, and participants' social and emotional development.
One of the most significant findings from this study was that high achievers, irrespective of the domain of achievement, have developed the traits conducive to the realisation of potential. Consistent with numerous other studies, the attributes of drive, persistence, perseverance, hard work and self-discipline appear to be essential to achieving highly. While almost all the individuals who were included in this study showed early evidence of above average general intelligence, and while many displayed precocity in a particular domain, it was their high levels of motivation and task commitment, more than any natural ability, which distinguished them from their peers.
The childhood homes of the participants varied considerably, but poverty was more common than privilege. Few could be classified as having an advantaged childhood and the experience of early adversity was relatively common. As a group, their parents, while not highly educated, valued learning and education and provided opportunities for their children to engage with ideas. The family homes of most were environments where a love of books and a love of reading was modelled and encouraged.
Few could recall anything of great significance from primary school, but their recollections of high school were much more acute. The most positive accounts of high school came from those who attended schools where high achievement, particularly in academic subjects, was encouraged and valued. Those who provided the most negative recollections of schools were the creators, some of whom said that they failed to fit in at school. In fact marginalisation, both in childhood and adulthood was the experience of many. Some of the participants believed that as children and adolescents they were more emotionally sensitive and emotionally intense than their peers, and some said that they seemed to have a greater concern about issues of social justice than most others in their age group. 
While some of the conditions that support talent development seem universal, there was some evidence from this study that talent develops differently in different domains. The most notable differences appear to be between those who had made their names in the more creative domains, such as art, writing, and to a lesser extent music, and those who had achieved in the other domains. 
This study links closely to other retrospective studies of gifted adults, although there are some findings unique to this study, the majority of which may be explained by socio-cultural factors. Consistent with other retrospective studies, there are numerous areas of difference between the results of this study and the findings from longitudinal studies of gifted children.

text: Realising potential: investigating the life stories of gifted New Zealand adults The aim of this study was to better understand the development of talent across the lifespan by examining the life stories of a group of gifted New Zealand adults. Twenty-eight high achievers participated in this study, representing the following seven broad domains of talent: logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and business-entrepreneurial. 
This study involved a pre-selection process, where experts in each of the seven talent domains nominated four living New Zealanders who they considered had achieved to the highest level in their field. From these nominations, invitations to participate were extended to the four most frequently nominated individuals in each of the seven domains.
Life history inquiry was considered the most appropriate methodology to meet the aim of this research. This involved individual, face-to-face interviews, best described as 'guided conversations'. Consistent with a life history approach, interviewees were accorded a significant degree of control over the direction and the focus of the interviews. However, the researcher had identified beforehand some broad themes he wished to pursue in all interviews, including: participants' ascriptions of their achievements, the influence of parents, family and home, educational experiences, and participants' social and emotional development.
One of the most significant findings from this study was that high achievers, irrespective of the domain of achievement, have developed the traits conducive to the realisation of potential. Consistent with numerous other studies, the attributes of drive, persistence, perseverance, hard work and self-discipline appear to be essential to achieving highly. While almost all the individuals who were included in this study showed early evidence of above average general intelligence, and while many displayed precocity in a particular domain, it was their high levels of motivation and task commitment, more than any natural ability, which distinguished them from their peers.
The childhood homes of the participants varied considerably, but poverty was more common than privilege. Few could be classified as having an advantaged childhood and the experience of early adversity was relatively common. As a group, their parents, while not highly educated, valued learning and education and provided opportunities for their children to engage with ideas. The family homes of most were environments where a love of books and a love of reading was modelled and encouraged.
Few could recall anything of great significance from primary school, but their recollections of high school were much more acute. The most positive accounts of high school came from those who attended schools where high achievement, particularly in academic subjects, was encouraged and valued. Those who provided the most negative recollections of schools were the creators, some of whom said that they failed to fit in at school. In fact marginalisation, both in childhood and adulthood was the experience of many. Some of the participants believed that as children and adolescents they were more emotionally sensitive and emotionally intense than their peers, and some said that they seemed to have a greater concern about issues of social justice than most others in their age group. 
While some of the conditions that support talent development seem universal, there was some evidence from this study that talent develops differently in different domains. The most notable differences appear to be between those who had made their names in the more creative domains, such as art, writing, and to a lesser extent music, and those who had achieved in the other domains. 
This study links closely to other retrospective studies of gifted adults, although there are some findings unique to this study, the majority of which may be explained by socio-cultural factors. Consistent with other retrospective studies, there are numerous areas of difference between the results of this study and the findings from longitudinal studies of gifted children.

year: 2005

title: Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Surfactant Protein A and D with Otitis Media.

authors: Barnett, Catherine Margaret Eleanor

subjects: otitis media

abstract: Otitis Media is one of the most common childhood diseases. Recurrent acute otitis media RAOM is characterized by repeated episodes of inflammation of the middle ear in conjunction with middle ear fluid, and often with an inflamed or bulging eardrum. Defective clearance by the Eustachian tube results in mucus build-up and is characteristic of otitis media with effusion (OME). Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, respiratory syncytial virus, and rhinovirus are the most common contributors to otitis media pathogenesis. In New Zealand, OME has been implicated with conductive hearing loss in childhood and has been shown to significantly impact on speech and language development. New Zealand Māori and Polynesian children have displayed significantly higher hearing test failure rates than European-Caucasian children.

The collectins, Surfactant Protein (SP)-A and -D are encoded by three genes (SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D) and are host defense proteins present in the middle ear and Eustachian tube. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SP-A1 and SP-A2 have been associated with increased or decreased susceptibility to otitis media, meningococcal disease, and range of respiratory diseases. Using allele-specific primers and real-time PCR with SYBR  Green I melting curve analysis, four groups of individuals were genotyped for eleven SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D SNPs: European-Caucasian individuals with RAOM/OME; New Zealand Māori/Polynesian individuals with RAOM/OME; individuals with meningococcal disease; and a control group. The computer program, Haploview, was employed to perform χ2 analyses and identify statistically significant associations of alleles/haplotypes with RAOM/OME or meningococcal disease.

In the European-Caucasian population, two SP-A1 alleles, one SP-A2 allele, and four haplotypes (CGAGC, 1A3, 1A9, and 1A10) were found to be associated with increased risk of RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). Conversely, haplotypes 6A2 and 1A2 were found to be protective against susceptibility to RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). In New Zealand Māori and Polynesian individuals, two SP-A1 alleles, three SP-A2 alleles, one SP-D allele, and four haplotypes (6A8, 6A10, 1A3, and 1A10) were found to be associated with increased risk of RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). An additional four haplotypes (6A2, 1A0, 1A2, and TA) were determined to be protective against susceptibility to RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). However, protective SPA1/SPA2/SPD haplotype 6A2-1A0-TA was significantly under-represented in the New Zealand Māori and Polynesian population (P lt; 0.05). A single allele and haplotype were associated with increased risk of meningococcal disease (P lt; 0.05).

The findings of this study confirm that specific genetic variants of SP-A and SP-D are associated with either increased or decreased risk of developing RAOM and/or OME. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that New Zealand Māori and Polynesian individuals appear to exhibit more haplotypes susceptible to RAOM/OME. This may provide a partial explanation for the higher RAOM/OME-related failure rates of hearing tests in New Zealand Māori and Polynesian children. However, there are numerous socio-economic and environmental factors that also contribute to otitis media pathogenesis which were not considered in this study. The effects of the SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D alleles and haplotypes on the bacterial/viral binding efficiencies of SP-A and SP-D need to be investigated by further research, using a large population, to confirm the association with susceptibility or resistance with RAOM/OME.

text: Association of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Surfactant Protein A and D with Otitis Media. Otitis Media is one of the most common childhood diseases. Recurrent acute otitis media RAOM is characterized by repeated episodes of inflammation of the middle ear in conjunction with middle ear fluid, and often with an inflamed or bulging eardrum. Defective clearance by the Eustachian tube results in mucus build-up and is characteristic of otitis media with effusion (OME). Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, respiratory syncytial virus, and rhinovirus are the most common contributors to otitis media pathogenesis. In New Zealand, OME has been implicated with conductive hearing loss in childhood and has been shown to significantly impact on speech and language development. New Zealand Māori and Polynesian children have displayed significantly higher hearing test failure rates than European-Caucasian children.

The collectins, Surfactant Protein (SP)-A and -D are encoded by three genes (SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D) and are host defense proteins present in the middle ear and Eustachian tube. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SP-A1 and SP-A2 have been associated with increased or decreased susceptibility to otitis media, meningococcal disease, and range of respiratory diseases. Using allele-specific primers and real-time PCR with SYBR  Green I melting curve analysis, four groups of individuals were genotyped for eleven SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D SNPs: European-Caucasian individuals with RAOM/OME; New Zealand Māori/Polynesian individuals with RAOM/OME; individuals with meningococcal disease; and a control group. The computer program, Haploview, was employed to perform χ2 analyses and identify statistically significant associations of alleles/haplotypes with RAOM/OME or meningococcal disease.

In the European-Caucasian population, two SP-A1 alleles, one SP-A2 allele, and four haplotypes (CGAGC, 1A3, 1A9, and 1A10) were found to be associated with increased risk of RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). Conversely, haplotypes 6A2 and 1A2 were found to be protective against susceptibility to RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). In New Zealand Māori and Polynesian individuals, two SP-A1 alleles, three SP-A2 alleles, one SP-D allele, and four haplotypes (6A8, 6A10, 1A3, and 1A10) were found to be associated with increased risk of RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). An additional four haplotypes (6A2, 1A0, 1A2, and TA) were determined to be protective against susceptibility to RAOM/OME (P lt; 0.05). However, protective SPA1/SPA2/SPD haplotype 6A2-1A0-TA was significantly under-represented in the New Zealand Māori and Polynesian population (P lt; 0.05). A single allele and haplotype were associated with increased risk of meningococcal disease (P lt; 0.05).

The findings of this study confirm that specific genetic variants of SP-A and SP-D are associated with either increased or decreased risk of developing RAOM and/or OME. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that New Zealand Māori and Polynesian individuals appear to exhibit more haplotypes susceptible to RAOM/OME. This may provide a partial explanation for the higher RAOM/OME-related failure rates of hearing tests in New Zealand Māori and Polynesian children. However, there are numerous socio-economic and environmental factors that also contribute to otitis media pathogenesis which were not considered in this study. The effects of the SP-A1, SP-A2, and SP-D alleles and haplotypes on the bacterial/viral binding efficiencies of SP-A and SP-D need to be investigated by further research, using a large population, to confirm the association with susceptibility or resistance with RAOM/OME.

year: 2007