title: Modified Output in Response to Clarification Requests and Second Language

authors: Ogino, Masayoshi

subjects: second language acquisition

abstract: Modified output, second language (L2) learners' reformulation of their own utterances, has been attracting researchers' interest as an important component of learner interactions, and as a manifestation of interlanguage development and psycholinguistic processing. 

The output hypothesis (Swain, 1985, 1993, 1995, 2005) claims that the act of production constitutes part of the process of L2 learning in terms of noticing, hypothesis testing and metalinguistic functions.  This hypothesis has been used as a theoretical framework to investigate the relationship between modified output and L2 learning (e.g., McDonough, 2001, 2005; Nobuyoshi  Ellis, 1993; O'Relly, Flatiz,  Kromrey, 2001; Takashima  Ellis, 1999).  However, the empirical evidence from these studies does not yet appear to confirm unequivocally that the production of modified output facilitates L2 learning. 

The present study further explored the impact of modified output on L2 learning, by means of an experimental pre-test, post-test and delayed-post design.  The production of modified output was triggered by one type of implicit feedback, clarification requests.  The data were collected from 28 undergraduate students who were learning Japanese as a foreign language.  The target linguistic feature was the negation of adjectives in Japanese, and a total of 1,011 negations were elicited and analysed.  The impact of modified output on L2 learning was measured in two different aspects of potential outcomes of modified output (i.e., grammatical accuracy and interlanguage development).  In addition, the study investigated whether the non-targetlike forms which participants previously modified were then produced in the subsequent situations of use.  

The output hypothesis was originally framed in terms of the relationship between output and grammatical accuracy, but the findings of the current study suggest that production of modified output in response to clarification requests may facilitate the progress of interlanguage development towards targetlike use even when its immediate impact on grammatical accuracy may not be observed.  Therefore, the present study lends at least partial support to the claim of the output hypothesis.

The results did not clearly demonstrate whether or not production of modified output might sensitise learners to avoid the use of the same non-targetlike form that they have previously modified.  This indicates a possibility of the limited role of production of modified output in L2 learning, and suggests that the follow-up feedback to learners' modified output may be necessary to maximise the impact of modified output in facilitating L2 learning.

text: Modified Output in Response to Clarification Requests and Second Language Modified output, second language (L2) learners' reformulation of their own utterances, has been attracting researchers' interest as an important component of learner interactions, and as a manifestation of interlanguage development and psycholinguistic processing. 

The output hypothesis (Swain, 1985, 1993, 1995, 2005) claims that the act of production constitutes part of the process of L2 learning in terms of noticing, hypothesis testing and metalinguistic functions.  This hypothesis has been used as a theoretical framework to investigate the relationship between modified output and L2 learning (e.g., McDonough, 2001, 2005; Nobuyoshi  Ellis, 1993; O'Relly, Flatiz,  Kromrey, 2001; Takashima  Ellis, 1999).  However, the empirical evidence from these studies does not yet appear to confirm unequivocally that the production of modified output facilitates L2 learning. 

The present study further explored the impact of modified output on L2 learning, by means of an experimental pre-test, post-test and delayed-post design.  The production of modified output was triggered by one type of implicit feedback, clarification requests.  The data were collected from 28 undergraduate students who were learning Japanese as a foreign language.  The target linguistic feature was the negation of adjectives in Japanese, and a total of 1,011 negations were elicited and analysed.  The impact of modified output on L2 learning was measured in two different aspects of potential outcomes of modified output (i.e., grammatical accuracy and interlanguage development).  In addition, the study investigated whether the non-targetlike forms which participants previously modified were then produced in the subsequent situations of use.  

The output hypothesis was originally framed in terms of the relationship between output and grammatical accuracy, but the findings of the current study suggest that production of modified output in response to clarification requests may facilitate the progress of interlanguage development towards targetlike use even when its immediate impact on grammatical accuracy may not be observed.  Therefore, the present study lends at least partial support to the claim of the output hypothesis.

The results did not clearly demonstrate whether or not production of modified output might sensitise learners to avoid the use of the same non-targetlike form that they have previously modified.  This indicates a possibility of the limited role of production of modified output in L2 learning, and suggests that the follow-up feedback to learners' modified output may be necessary to maximise the impact of modified output in facilitating L2 learning.

year: 2008

title: Multiple small monthly doses of dicyandiamide (DCD) did not reduce denitrification in Waikato dairy pasture

authors: Watkins, Natalie Lisa

subjects: denitrification

abstract: The effectiveness of multiple small doses of the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) to decrease denitrification under warm moist conditions was tested in a 1-year field trial on a grazed dairy pasture. DCD was applied approximately every 4 weeks as an aqueous spray onto ten replicate plots 3 days after rotational grazing by dairy cows. Each application was at the rate of 3 kg DCD ha⁻¹, with a total annual application of 33 kg ha⁻¹. Denitrification was assessed 5 days after each DCD application using the acetylene block method. At the end of the trial, the rate of degradation of DCD under summer conditions was measured. DCD significantly decreased the mean annual nitrate concentration by about 17%. Denitrification and denitrification enzyme activity were highly variable and no significant effect of DCD in decreasing denitrification was detected. In the summer month of December, DCD degraded rapidly with an estimated half-life of 5 ± 3 days (mean and standard deviation).

text: Multiple small monthly doses of dicyandiamide (DCD) did not reduce denitrification in Waikato dairy pasture The effectiveness of multiple small doses of the nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) to decrease denitrification under warm moist conditions was tested in a 1-year field trial on a grazed dairy pasture. DCD was applied approximately every 4 weeks as an aqueous spray onto ten replicate plots 3 days after rotational grazing by dairy cows. Each application was at the rate of 3 kg DCD ha⁻¹, with a total annual application of 33 kg ha⁻¹. Denitrification was assessed 5 days after each DCD application using the acetylene block method. At the end of the trial, the rate of degradation of DCD under summer conditions was measured. DCD significantly decreased the mean annual nitrate concentration by about 17%. Denitrification and denitrification enzyme activity were highly variable and no significant effect of DCD in decreasing denitrification was detected. In the summer month of December, DCD degraded rapidly with an estimated half-life of 5 ± 3 days (mean and standard deviation).

year: 2013

title: Surplus Public Works Land: The Crown's Special Duty to Maori

authors: Grayson, Michael Robert

subjects: Maori

abstract: The Crown's obligations to Maori regarding the offer back of surplus Crown land under s40 of the Public Works Act 1981.

text: Surplus Public Works Land: The Crown's Special Duty to Maori The Crown's obligations to Maori regarding the offer back of surplus Crown land under s40 of the Public Works Act 1981.

year: 2017