title: Mind wandering during everyday driving

authors: Burdett, Bridget Rose Doran

subjects: Mind wandering

abstract: Mind wandering is a common experience but its prevalence and consequences during routine activities such as driving are unclear. This thesis comprises five studies investigating how often drivers’ minds wander, and the relationship between mind wandering and crash risk.
The first study was a questionnaire completed by 502 drivers, to explore their experiences of mind wandering including its variation in different driving contexts. All drivers reported mind wandering at least some of the time. Tendency to report mind wandering during driving was positively correlated with trait tendency towards cognitive failure, and negatively correlated with tendency towards mindful attention and awareness. Drivers reported most mind wandering driving their own car on familiar roads.
The second study built on the finding that drivers are most likely to report mind wandering on a familiar trip in their own car through an on-road study of drivers’ thoughts. Eleven drivers traveling in their own cars between home and work were periodically asked what they were thinking about, across 110 trips in total, to establish how often drivers report mind wandering on real streets. Drivers reported mind wandering around two thirds of the time, demonstrating that it is a frequent experience on familiar urban roads. Drivers’ thoughts shifted frequently, triggered by what they saw in the environment and by internal concerns unrelated to driving.
The first two studies found relatively high likelihood of mind wandering on familiar roads, so the third study investigated links between mind wandering and crash risk by exploring variation in crash patterns on roads close to home and further away. Analysis of crash distance from home, accounting for travel exposure, confirmed a ‘Close to Home Effect’ for road crashes. New Zealand drivers face increased crash risk on familiar roads within 10km of home, suggesting that higher rates of mind wandering close to home may influence crash risk. 
The Close to Home Effect was explored in more depth in the fourth study, which was based on analysis of police Traffic Crash Reports. Crash frequencies at different distances from home were compared in relation with posted speed limit, crash location (intersection or midblock), and errors (intentional violations or unintentional lapses of attention). Compared with crashes on roads further away, crashes close to home were more commonly reported on urban than on rural roads; more often at midblocks (stretches between intersections) than at intersections; and were more likely to involve a lapse of attention than an intentional violation such as excessive speeding.
The fifth and final study combined an on-road study of drivers’ thoughts on a prescribed urban road route with analysis of crash data from the same route. The purpose of the fifth study was to determine how patterns of mind wandering and crashes vary with respect to road environment factors. Results showed that mind wandering is not random, but varies systematically in relation to task demand and crash risk on familiar urban roads. 
Overall, results from the five studies showed that mind wandering is ubiquitous during everyday driving. Drivers focus on aspects of the driving task frequently, but typically briefly, in response to momentary actions of other road users, or to situations that are usually demanding, such as roundabouts. Although there is an inverse association between patterns of mind wandering and the places where most crashes happen, there is no evidence that mind wandering causes crashes. 
Findings from this research support theories of mind wandering that acknowledge its variation in different contexts. However, while theories imply that mind wandering is an infrequent departure from a norm of task focus, this research found that driving task focus is typically a temporary, intermittent departure from mind wandering. Results are generally consistent with the tandem model of driver behaviour, which suggests that drivers do not pay continual attention to driving but rely on an unconscious monitoring process that governs their behaviour most of the time.
The main implication of this research for road safety practitioners is that roads ought to be designed to account for drivers’ unconscious, routine behaviours because their minds are often wandering. Drivers’ attention can be captured and directed appropriately where focus on driving is warranted. Overall however, mind wandering is not intrinsically dangerous but is a normal characteristic of safe everyday driving.

text: Mind wandering during everyday driving Mind wandering is a common experience but its prevalence and consequences during routine activities such as driving are unclear. This thesis comprises five studies investigating how often drivers’ minds wander, and the relationship between mind wandering and crash risk.
The first study was a questionnaire completed by 502 drivers, to explore their experiences of mind wandering including its variation in different driving contexts. All drivers reported mind wandering at least some of the time. Tendency to report mind wandering during driving was positively correlated with trait tendency towards cognitive failure, and negatively correlated with tendency towards mindful attention and awareness. Drivers reported most mind wandering driving their own car on familiar roads.
The second study built on the finding that drivers are most likely to report mind wandering on a familiar trip in their own car through an on-road study of drivers’ thoughts. Eleven drivers traveling in their own cars between home and work were periodically asked what they were thinking about, across 110 trips in total, to establish how often drivers report mind wandering on real streets. Drivers reported mind wandering around two thirds of the time, demonstrating that it is a frequent experience on familiar urban roads. Drivers’ thoughts shifted frequently, triggered by what they saw in the environment and by internal concerns unrelated to driving.
The first two studies found relatively high likelihood of mind wandering on familiar roads, so the third study investigated links between mind wandering and crash risk by exploring variation in crash patterns on roads close to home and further away. Analysis of crash distance from home, accounting for travel exposure, confirmed a ‘Close to Home Effect’ for road crashes. New Zealand drivers face increased crash risk on familiar roads within 10km of home, suggesting that higher rates of mind wandering close to home may influence crash risk. 
The Close to Home Effect was explored in more depth in the fourth study, which was based on analysis of police Traffic Crash Reports. Crash frequencies at different distances from home were compared in relation with posted speed limit, crash location (intersection or midblock), and errors (intentional violations or unintentional lapses of attention). Compared with crashes on roads further away, crashes close to home were more commonly reported on urban than on rural roads; more often at midblocks (stretches between intersections) than at intersections; and were more likely to involve a lapse of attention than an intentional violation such as excessive speeding.
The fifth and final study combined an on-road study of drivers’ thoughts on a prescribed urban road route with analysis of crash data from the same route. The purpose of the fifth study was to determine how patterns of mind wandering and crashes vary with respect to road environment factors. Results showed that mind wandering is not random, but varies systematically in relation to task demand and crash risk on familiar urban roads. 
Overall, results from the five studies showed that mind wandering is ubiquitous during everyday driving. Drivers focus on aspects of the driving task frequently, but typically briefly, in response to momentary actions of other road users, or to situations that are usually demanding, such as roundabouts. Although there is an inverse association between patterns of mind wandering and the places where most crashes happen, there is no evidence that mind wandering causes crashes. 
Findings from this research support theories of mind wandering that acknowledge its variation in different contexts. However, while theories imply that mind wandering is an infrequent departure from a norm of task focus, this research found that driving task focus is typically a temporary, intermittent departure from mind wandering. Results are generally consistent with the tandem model of driver behaviour, which suggests that drivers do not pay continual attention to driving but rely on an unconscious monitoring process that governs their behaviour most of the time.
The main implication of this research for road safety practitioners is that roads ought to be designed to account for drivers’ unconscious, routine behaviours because their minds are often wandering. Drivers’ attention can be captured and directed appropriately where focus on driving is warranted. Overall however, mind wandering is not intrinsically dangerous but is a normal characteristic of safe everyday driving.

year: 2018

title: The concept of income within the New Zealand taxation system

authors: Alley, Clinton

subjects: accounting

abstract: The paper looks at the core provisions used in the procedure for calculating and satisfying income tax liability as applied by the New Zealand Income Tax Act 2004. This Act has introduced an additional part to the subpart BC flowchart and a new term “non-residents’ foreign-sourced income’ to assist in the determination of income. The authors review these additions to the Income Tax Act and suggest that further improvements can be made. To this end they include proposed amendments to Part B ( including the subpart BC flowchart) and Part C of ITA 2004

text: The concept of income within the New Zealand taxation system The paper looks at the core provisions used in the procedure for calculating and satisfying income tax liability as applied by the New Zealand Income Tax Act 2004. This Act has introduced an additional part to the subpart BC flowchart and a new term “non-residents’ foreign-sourced income’ to assist in the determination of income. The authors review these additions to the Income Tax Act and suggest that further improvements can be made. To this end they include proposed amendments to Part B ( including the subpart BC flowchart) and Part C of ITA 2004

year: 2006-09

title: In vitro cell culture to study microglial inflammation

authors: Newland, Julia

subjects: CNs

abstract: Inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) characterised by release of cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) is an event that is often detrimental to neuronal cells and is thought to contribute to the neuronal loss observed during neurodegeneration.
One objective of this study was to investigate the potential anti-inflammatory properties of kawakawa leaf extracts using in vitro model cell systems. Kawakawa leaf extracts anti-inflammatory properties have anecdotally been documented in traditional Maori medicinal practices (Rangoa). However, before this aspect could be carried out, experiments were undertaken to investigate the effects the kawakawa leaf extracts had on the growth rates of two mammalian cell lines (HeLa and THP-1 cells).
Interestingly, the growth assays showed that the extracts to have both a stimulatory and inhibitory effect on cell growth. Toxicity of cells can be categorised as either necrotic or apoptotic cell death. In this study, HeLa cells and THP-1 cells were incubated under standard growth conditions with various concentrations (10 to 100ug/ml) of Kawakawa leave extracts prepared at room temperature or 60OC.
Growth data as seen in figures 2 and 3 typically have a long lag phase before they start to reach exponential growth between days 4 and 5. The extract having the largest stimulatory effect on HeLa cells as shown by figure 6 was 25 ug/ml at 60OC and the largest inhibitory effect seen on HeLa cells was seen at 50 ug/ml RT shown by figure 6. The extract which has the largest stimulatory effect on THP-1 cells is 25 ug/ml 60OC as shown by figure 11 whereas the extract producing the largest inhibitory effect is 25 ug/ml RT.

Apoptotic and necrotic cell death mechanisms were examined by using in vitro biochemistry techniques. Assessments were largely made based on biochemical changes of HeLa cells and THP-1 cells post treatment of Kawakawa leave extracts.
Measurement of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH assays) in the growth media of cells that were shown to be growth inhibited during exposure to Kawakawa extracts indicated that the growth inhibition resulting from exposure to the extracts was not due to necrotic cell death processes. (ie that cells maintained their membrane integrity) When compared to the control, a lower amount of cytosolic LDH was seen in THP-1 cell lines. However, HeLa cell lines produced a high level of cytosolic LDH which may be due to mycoplasma contamination. On average, Kawakawa concentrations at 12.5ug/ml and 25ug/ml yielded less lysed cells percentage across both cell lines.
The demonstrated cell growth inhibition was unlikely to be due to necrosis and because of this it was decided to see if cell death was caused by mitochondrial processes that would further support apoptotic cell death. The biochemical assay MTT indirectly measures mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity in the presence of kawakawa leave extracts.
The MTT data illustrated mitochondrial impairment where HeLa cells exposed to Kawakawa 60OC concentrations 6.25 ug/ml and 12.5 ug/ml had the lowest average mitochondrial activity. THP-1 cells exposed to Kawakawa 60OC concentrations 12.5 ug/ml and 50 ug/ml had the lowest average mitochondrial activity.
The main results of this study include, the treatment of HeLa and THP-1 cells with kawakawa extracts demonstrated that cytotoxicity was not due to necrosis. The most interesting finding of this study is when kawakawa extracts inhibit cell growth there is no increase in LDH. This is suggestive that the cellular membrane remains intact when exposed to the extract.

text: In vitro cell culture to study microglial inflammation Inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS) characterised by release of cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a) and interleukin-1 (IL-1) is an event that is often detrimental to neuronal cells and is thought to contribute to the neuronal loss observed during neurodegeneration.
One objective of this study was to investigate the potential anti-inflammatory properties of kawakawa leaf extracts using in vitro model cell systems. Kawakawa leaf extracts anti-inflammatory properties have anecdotally been documented in traditional Maori medicinal practices (Rangoa). However, before this aspect could be carried out, experiments were undertaken to investigate the effects the kawakawa leaf extracts had on the growth rates of two mammalian cell lines (HeLa and THP-1 cells).
Interestingly, the growth assays showed that the extracts to have both a stimulatory and inhibitory effect on cell growth. Toxicity of cells can be categorised as either necrotic or apoptotic cell death. In this study, HeLa cells and THP-1 cells were incubated under standard growth conditions with various concentrations (10 to 100ug/ml) of Kawakawa leave extracts prepared at room temperature or 60OC.
Growth data as seen in figures 2 and 3 typically have a long lag phase before they start to reach exponential growth between days 4 and 5. The extract having the largest stimulatory effect on HeLa cells as shown by figure 6 was 25 ug/ml at 60OC and the largest inhibitory effect seen on HeLa cells was seen at 50 ug/ml RT shown by figure 6. The extract which has the largest stimulatory effect on THP-1 cells is 25 ug/ml 60OC as shown by figure 11 whereas the extract producing the largest inhibitory effect is 25 ug/ml RT.

Apoptotic and necrotic cell death mechanisms were examined by using in vitro biochemistry techniques. Assessments were largely made based on biochemical changes of HeLa cells and THP-1 cells post treatment of Kawakawa leave extracts.
Measurement of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH assays) in the growth media of cells that were shown to be growth inhibited during exposure to Kawakawa extracts indicated that the growth inhibition resulting from exposure to the extracts was not due to necrotic cell death processes. (ie that cells maintained their membrane integrity) When compared to the control, a lower amount of cytosolic LDH was seen in THP-1 cell lines. However, HeLa cell lines produced a high level of cytosolic LDH which may be due to mycoplasma contamination. On average, Kawakawa concentrations at 12.5ug/ml and 25ug/ml yielded less lysed cells percentage across both cell lines.
The demonstrated cell growth inhibition was unlikely to be due to necrosis and because of this it was decided to see if cell death was caused by mitochondrial processes that would further support apoptotic cell death. The biochemical assay MTT indirectly measures mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity in the presence of kawakawa leave extracts.
The MTT data illustrated mitochondrial impairment where HeLa cells exposed to Kawakawa 60OC concentrations 6.25 ug/ml and 12.5 ug/ml had the lowest average mitochondrial activity. THP-1 cells exposed to Kawakawa 60OC concentrations 12.5 ug/ml and 50 ug/ml had the lowest average mitochondrial activity.
The main results of this study include, the treatment of HeLa and THP-1 cells with kawakawa extracts demonstrated that cytotoxicity was not due to necrosis. The most interesting finding of this study is when kawakawa extracts inhibit cell growth there is no increase in LDH. This is suggestive that the cellular membrane remains intact when exposed to the extract.

year: 2016