title: Crossing the symbolic threshold: a critical review of Terrence Deacon's The Symbolic Species

authors: Lumsden, David

abstract: Terrence Deacon's views about the origin of language are based on a particular notion of a symbol. While the notion is derived from Peirce's semiotics, it diverges from that source and needs to be investigated on its own terms in order to evaluate the idea that the human species has crossed the symbolic threshold. Deacon's view is defended from the view that symbols in the animal world are widespread and from the extreme connectionist view that they are not even to be found in humans.  Deacon's treatment of symbols involves a form of holism, as a symbol needs to be part of a system of symbols. He also appears to take a realist view of symbols.  That combination of holism and realism makes the threshold a sharp threshold, which makes it hard to explain how the threshold was crossed.  This difficulty is overcome if we take a mild realist position towards symbols, in the style of Dennett. Mild realism allows intermediate stages in the crossing but does not undermine Deacon's claim that the threshold is difficult to cross or the claim that it needs to be crossed quickly.

text: Crossing the symbolic threshold: a critical review of Terrence Deacon's The Symbolic Species Terrence Deacon's views about the origin of language are based on a particular notion of a symbol. While the notion is derived from Peirce's semiotics, it diverges from that source and needs to be investigated on its own terms in order to evaluate the idea that the human species has crossed the symbolic threshold. Deacon's view is defended from the view that symbols in the animal world are widespread and from the extreme connectionist view that they are not even to be found in humans.  Deacon's treatment of symbols involves a form of holism, as a symbol needs to be part of a system of symbols. He also appears to take a realist view of symbols.  That combination of holism and realism makes the threshold a sharp threshold, which makes it hard to explain how the threshold was crossed.  This difficulty is overcome if we take a mild realist position towards symbols, in the style of Dennett. Mild realism allows intermediate stages in the crossing but does not undermine Deacon's claim that the threshold is difficult to cross or the claim that it needs to be crossed quickly.

year: 2002-06-01

title: Having your cake and eating it too: Toward a deeper understanding of the potential of self-regulation to address private and public goals

authors: Allen, Brennan Gerard

abstract: The purpose of this thesis is to help develop a deeper understanding of the potential of self-regulation in fields where private and public interests converge. The focus of the research was on [i] the development of standards for Environmental Management Systems (EMS) by the International Organization for Standardization Technical Committee 207 (ISO/TC207); [ii] applications of EMS in environmental regulation; and [iii] future developments in the area. 
ISO/TC207' s vision statement promises; 
the worldwide acceptance and use of the IS014000 series of standards ... will provide an effective means to improve the environmental performance of organizations and their products, facilitate world trade, and ultimately contribute to sustainable development(1993). 
The private interest goals in this statement are; acceptance and use of the ISO 14000 standards, and facilitation of world trade. The other two goals - improvement in environmental performance, and sustainable development (SD) - both have significant public good aspects (Bosselman, 1995). 
The application of voluntaristic, private initiatives to public good goals presents some problems. Conventional thinking in this area tends to assume a tension between 'public' and 'private' perspectives, and questions can be asked about whether self-interest can in practice be adapted to public ends (Korten, 1995). 
The thesis reports on a journey of research in three parts. The first part outlines the results of an investigation into the development of the IS014001 standard, which is based on my involvement in ISO/TC207, representing New Zealand. The analysis highlights the problems that TC207 had integrating private and public interest issues. It is found that TC207 processes and outputs are informed by a narrow interpretation of EMS potential, and reflect a strong bias toward short-term private interests. 
The second part reports on an investigation into broader contexts of regulation and self-regulation. The discussion starts with the analytical framework from Streeck & Schmitter (1985), and develops the 'skeleton' of a novel conceptual model of regulatory structure. This is used to analyse forms of environmental regulation and the applications of EMS-related initiatives. 
The third part is devoted to developing the model using the results of an empirical programme which was based on interviews with actors in environmental regulation in NZ, and participant-observation in the ISO/TC207 strategic revision of 2001-2003. The 'edified' model is employed to help address the issue of the potential of self-regulation in private-public convergences. The structural aspect of the model indicates promising regulatory configurations, and is used to suggest that principles of participation, balance and harmony may also be useful. The process aspect of the model is utilized to make suggestions for the conception, creation and management of self and semi-self regulatory initiatives in areas of possible pubic-private dichotomy. 
Overall, it is found that EMS is a sophisticated and multifaceted form of social regulation, but that this is not always recognized in practice. It is argued that voluntarism has not only very high potential in mediating the public and private, but is an essential tool for addressing problems where the public and private interests traditionally clash. The final part of the thesis reflects on the artifice involved in demarcating between 'public' and 'private' interests in regulatory praxis, and concludes that in addressing really big and important issues, such distinctions might hinder, rather than help the emergence of solutions.

text: Having your cake and eating it too: Toward a deeper understanding of the potential of self-regulation to address private and public goals The purpose of this thesis is to help develop a deeper understanding of the potential of self-regulation in fields where private and public interests converge. The focus of the research was on [i] the development of standards for Environmental Management Systems (EMS) by the International Organization for Standardization Technical Committee 207 (ISO/TC207); [ii] applications of EMS in environmental regulation; and [iii] future developments in the area. 
ISO/TC207' s vision statement promises; 
the worldwide acceptance and use of the IS014000 series of standards ... will provide an effective means to improve the environmental performance of organizations and their products, facilitate world trade, and ultimately contribute to sustainable development(1993). 
The private interest goals in this statement are; acceptance and use of the ISO 14000 standards, and facilitation of world trade. The other two goals - improvement in environmental performance, and sustainable development (SD) - both have significant public good aspects (Bosselman, 1995). 
The application of voluntaristic, private initiatives to public good goals presents some problems. Conventional thinking in this area tends to assume a tension between 'public' and 'private' perspectives, and questions can be asked about whether self-interest can in practice be adapted to public ends (Korten, 1995). 
The thesis reports on a journey of research in three parts. The first part outlines the results of an investigation into the development of the IS014001 standard, which is based on my involvement in ISO/TC207, representing New Zealand. The analysis highlights the problems that TC207 had integrating private and public interest issues. It is found that TC207 processes and outputs are informed by a narrow interpretation of EMS potential, and reflect a strong bias toward short-term private interests. 
The second part reports on an investigation into broader contexts of regulation and self-regulation. The discussion starts with the analytical framework from Streeck & Schmitter (1985), and develops the 'skeleton' of a novel conceptual model of regulatory structure. This is used to analyse forms of environmental regulation and the applications of EMS-related initiatives. 
The third part is devoted to developing the model using the results of an empirical programme which was based on interviews with actors in environmental regulation in NZ, and participant-observation in the ISO/TC207 strategic revision of 2001-2003. The 'edified' model is employed to help address the issue of the potential of self-regulation in private-public convergences. The structural aspect of the model indicates promising regulatory configurations, and is used to suggest that principles of participation, balance and harmony may also be useful. The process aspect of the model is utilized to make suggestions for the conception, creation and management of self and semi-self regulatory initiatives in areas of possible pubic-private dichotomy. 
Overall, it is found that EMS is a sophisticated and multifaceted form of social regulation, but that this is not always recognized in practice. It is argued that voluntarism has not only very high potential in mediating the public and private, but is an essential tool for addressing problems where the public and private interests traditionally clash. The final part of the thesis reflects on the artifice involved in demarcating between 'public' and 'private' interests in regulatory praxis, and concludes that in addressing really big and important issues, such distinctions might hinder, rather than help the emergence of solutions.

year: 2004

title: Kaumtua Mana Motuhake: A study protocol for a peer education intervention to help Māori elders work through later-stage life transitions

authors: Oetzel, John G.

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Background
The Aotearoa/New Zealand population is ageing and numerous studies demonstrate with this phenomenon comes increases in non-communicable diseases, injuries and healthcare costs among other issues. Further, significant inequities exist between Māori (Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand) and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Most research addressing these issues is deficit oriented; however, the current research project takes a strengths-based approach that highlights the potential of kaumātua (elders) by asserting mana motuhake (autonomy, identity and self-actualisation). We believe that the esteem of elders in Māori culture signals transformative potential. Specifically, this project utilises a ‘tuakana-teina’ (older sibling/younger sibling) peer-educator model, where kaumātua work with other kaumātua in relation to health and wellbeing. The objectives of the project are (a) to develop the capacity of kaumātua as peer educators, whilst having positive impacts on their sense of purpose, health and wellbeing; and (b) to enhance the social and health outcomes for kaumātua receiving the intervention.

Methods
The research is grounded in principles of Kaupapa Māori and community-based participatory research, and brings together an Indigenous community of kaumātua, community health researchers, and academic researchers working with two advisory boards. The project intervention involves an orientation programme for tuakana peer educators for other kaumātua (teina). The research design is a pre- and post-test, clustered staggered design. All participants will complete a baseline assessment of health and wellbeing consistent with Māori worldviews (i.e., holistic model). The tuakana and teina participants will be divided into two groups with the first group completing the intervention during the first half of the project and the second group during the second half of the project. All participants will complete post-test assessments following both interventions allowing comparison of the two groups along with repeated measures over time.

Discussion
The findings will provide an evidence base for the importance and relevancy of kaumātua knowledge to create contextually based and culturally safe age-friendly environments that facilitate engagement and participation by kaumātua for kaumātua. If the model is effective, we will seek to facilitate the dissemination and scalability of the intervention.

Trial registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry (ACTRN12617001396314); Date Registered: 3 October 2017 (retrospectively registered).

text: Kaumtua Mana Motuhake: A study protocol for a peer education intervention to help Māori elders work through later-stage life transitions Background
The Aotearoa/New Zealand population is ageing and numerous studies demonstrate with this phenomenon comes increases in non-communicable diseases, injuries and healthcare costs among other issues. Further, significant inequities exist between Māori (Indigenous peoples of Aotearoa/New Zealand) and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Most research addressing these issues is deficit oriented; however, the current research project takes a strengths-based approach that highlights the potential of kaumātua (elders) by asserting mana motuhake (autonomy, identity and self-actualisation). We believe that the esteem of elders in Māori culture signals transformative potential. Specifically, this project utilises a ‘tuakana-teina’ (older sibling/younger sibling) peer-educator model, where kaumātua work with other kaumātua in relation to health and wellbeing. The objectives of the project are (a) to develop the capacity of kaumātua as peer educators, whilst having positive impacts on their sense of purpose, health and wellbeing; and (b) to enhance the social and health outcomes for kaumātua receiving the intervention.

Methods
The research is grounded in principles of Kaupapa Māori and community-based participatory research, and brings together an Indigenous community of kaumātua, community health researchers, and academic researchers working with two advisory boards. The project intervention involves an orientation programme for tuakana peer educators for other kaumātua (teina). The research design is a pre- and post-test, clustered staggered design. All participants will complete a baseline assessment of health and wellbeing consistent with Māori worldviews (i.e., holistic model). The tuakana and teina participants will be divided into two groups with the first group completing the intervention during the first half of the project and the second group during the second half of the project. All participants will complete post-test assessments following both interventions allowing comparison of the two groups along with repeated measures over time.

Discussion
The findings will provide an evidence base for the importance and relevancy of kaumātua knowledge to create contextually based and culturally safe age-friendly environments that facilitate engagement and participation by kaumātua for kaumātua. If the model is effective, we will seek to facilitate the dissemination and scalability of the intervention.

Trial registration
Australia New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry (ACTRN12617001396314); Date Registered: 3 October 2017 (retrospectively registered).

year: 2019