title: Chemical aspects of some ovine hepatogenous photosensitization diseases

authors: Deng, Dawei

abstract: Current understandings of the chemistry, aetiology of saponin-associated hepatogenous photosensitization diseases of ruminants (sheep, cattle, goats and deer), the distribution of saponins in causative plants (Agave lecheguilla, Brachiaria decumbens, Narthecium ossifragum, Nolina texana, Tribulus terrestris and some Panicum species), and the ovine metabolism of saponins implicated in the development of hepatogenous photosensitization diseases, are reviewed. 

Sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside and 3β-D-epismilagenin β-D-glucoside were synthesised from sarsasapogenin and α-acetoglucosyl bromide via three and five step reaction sequences respectively. The structures of intermediates and the product glucosides were established using a combination of GC-MS, ES-MS and 400 MHz one- and two- dimensional NMR spectral data.  

20,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin was prepared from sarsasapogenin using deuterioacetic acid, and the stability (exchangeability) of the deuterium atoms was determined in a series of pH 1-8 buffer solutions at 37°C, and in acetic acid at room temperature and 37°c.

Administration of an ethanol-water suspension of sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside to a sheep afforded a maximum level of episarsasapogenin in bile samples 12 hours after dosing. Elevated levels of free sarsasapogenin and low levels of conjugated sarsasapogenin, free and conjugated episarsasapogenins and free and conjugated sarsasapogenones were detected in a rumen sample. 

Administration of mixtures of sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside and 20,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin to two sheep afforded a maximum level of episarsasapogenin in bile samples 7-16 hours after dosing. Unexpected loss of deuterium atoms occurred during ovine metabolism.

Analyses of mass spectral ion ratio data, determined for the mixed dosing experiment (using free and conjugated sarsasapogenins) and an experiment in which only 23,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin was dosed, showed that when administered as an ethanol-water suspension sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside was ca 1.7 times more bioavailable than sarsasapogenin.

Dosing of 3β-D-epismilagenin β-D-glucoside to two sheep showed that oxidation and reduction at C-3 was a reversible process, and that epismilagenin (α-OH), rather than smilagenin (3β-OH), was the favoured reduction product of smilagen-3-one. Deuterium loss occurred at different rates for free and conjugated epismilagenins in different metabolic regions (e.g. the rumen and the jejunum). The ion ratio profile of jejunum epismilagenin conjugates was similar to that of bile epismilagenin conjugates. 

Six saponins (faroecin, asiaticin, asiaticioside, narthecin, narthecioside and 22-methoxy-narthecioside) were isolated from a Norwegian collection of N. ossifragum and their structures were elucidated using ES-MS and one- and two-dimensional NMR spectral data. Three of these saponins, faroecin, asiaticioside and narthecioside, were identified as new compounds. Elevated levels of sarsasapogenin and smilagenin glycosides were found in some N. ossifragum samples (up to 2121 and 557 mg/kg respectively). 

The furostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-furost-5-ene-3β,22α,26-triol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-26-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, was isolated from a USA collection of P. virgatum. Variable levels of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides were found in 13 USA P. virgatum collections (up to 288 and 42 mg/kg of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides respectively). 

The furostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-furost-5-ene-3β,22α,26-triol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-26-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and the corresponding spirostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-spirost-5-en-3β-ol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranoside}, were isolated from a New Zealand collection of P. miliaceum.

Hydrolysis of the ethanol-water extracts of a USA collection of N. texana afforded three dihydroxy sapogenins, ruscogenin, neoruscogenin and spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol, in a ratio of ca 1:1.2:2.5. Three monoglycosylated saponins, spirosta-5,25(27)-diene- 1β,3β-diol 1-O-α-D-fucopyranoside, spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol 1-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside and spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol 1-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, were identified as constituents of the N. texana ethanol-water extract. 

The levels of saponins in 82 Papua New Guinea collections of B. decumbens and 4 Iranian collections of Tribulus terrestris were determined. Variable levels of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides (B. decumbens samples), and diosgenin, smilagenin, sarsasapogenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, hecogenin and neohecogenin glycosides (T. terrestris samples) were identified.

text: Chemical aspects of some ovine hepatogenous photosensitization diseases Current understandings of the chemistry, aetiology of saponin-associated hepatogenous photosensitization diseases of ruminants (sheep, cattle, goats and deer), the distribution of saponins in causative plants (Agave lecheguilla, Brachiaria decumbens, Narthecium ossifragum, Nolina texana, Tribulus terrestris and some Panicum species), and the ovine metabolism of saponins implicated in the development of hepatogenous photosensitization diseases, are reviewed. 

Sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside and 3β-D-epismilagenin β-D-glucoside were synthesised from sarsasapogenin and α-acetoglucosyl bromide via three and five step reaction sequences respectively. The structures of intermediates and the product glucosides were established using a combination of GC-MS, ES-MS and 400 MHz one- and two- dimensional NMR spectral data.  

20,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin was prepared from sarsasapogenin using deuterioacetic acid, and the stability (exchangeability) of the deuterium atoms was determined in a series of pH 1-8 buffer solutions at 37°C, and in acetic acid at room temperature and 37°c.

Administration of an ethanol-water suspension of sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside to a sheep afforded a maximum level of episarsasapogenin in bile samples 12 hours after dosing. Elevated levels of free sarsasapogenin and low levels of conjugated sarsasapogenin, free and conjugated episarsasapogenins and free and conjugated sarsasapogenones were detected in a rumen sample. 

Administration of mixtures of sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside and 20,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin to two sheep afforded a maximum level of episarsasapogenin in bile samples 7-16 hours after dosing. Unexpected loss of deuterium atoms occurred during ovine metabolism.

Analyses of mass spectral ion ratio data, determined for the mixed dosing experiment (using free and conjugated sarsasapogenins) and an experiment in which only 23,23,23-D₃-sarsasapogenin was dosed, showed that when administered as an ethanol-water suspension sarsasapogenin β-D-glucoside was ca 1.7 times more bioavailable than sarsasapogenin.

Dosing of 3β-D-epismilagenin β-D-glucoside to two sheep showed that oxidation and reduction at C-3 was a reversible process, and that epismilagenin (α-OH), rather than smilagenin (3β-OH), was the favoured reduction product of smilagen-3-one. Deuterium loss occurred at different rates for free and conjugated epismilagenins in different metabolic regions (e.g. the rumen and the jejunum). The ion ratio profile of jejunum epismilagenin conjugates was similar to that of bile epismilagenin conjugates. 

Six saponins (faroecin, asiaticin, asiaticioside, narthecin, narthecioside and 22-methoxy-narthecioside) were isolated from a Norwegian collection of N. ossifragum and their structures were elucidated using ES-MS and one- and two-dimensional NMR spectral data. Three of these saponins, faroecin, asiaticioside and narthecioside, were identified as new compounds. Elevated levels of sarsasapogenin and smilagenin glycosides were found in some N. ossifragum samples (up to 2121 and 557 mg/kg respectively). 

The furostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-furost-5-ene-3β,22α,26-triol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-26-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, was isolated from a USA collection of P. virgatum. Variable levels of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides were found in 13 USA P. virgatum collections (up to 288 and 42 mg/kg of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides respectively). 

The furostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-furost-5-ene-3β,22α,26-triol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranosyl}-26-O-β-D-glucopyranoside and the corresponding spirostenol tetrasaccharide, (25R/S)-spirost-5-en-3β-ol 3-O-{O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-O-[O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)]-β-D-glucopyranoside}, were isolated from a New Zealand collection of P. miliaceum.

Hydrolysis of the ethanol-water extracts of a USA collection of N. texana afforded three dihydroxy sapogenins, ruscogenin, neoruscogenin and spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol, in a ratio of ca 1:1.2:2.5. Three monoglycosylated saponins, spirosta-5,25(27)-diene- 1β,3β-diol 1-O-α-D-fucopyranoside, spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol 1-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside and spirosta-5,25(27)-diene-1β,3β-diol 1-O-β-D-galactopyranoside, were identified as constituents of the N. texana ethanol-water extract. 

The levels of saponins in 82 Papua New Guinea collections of B. decumbens and 4 Iranian collections of Tribulus terrestris were determined. Variable levels of diosgenin and yamogenin glycosides (B. decumbens samples), and diosgenin, smilagenin, sarsasapogenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, hecogenin and neohecogenin glycosides (T. terrestris samples) were identified.

year: 1999

title: Isotopic fractionation in a large herbivorous insect, the Auckland tree weta

authors: Wehi, Priscilla M.

subjects: discrimination factor

abstract: Determining diet and trophic position of species with stable isotopes requires appropriate trophic enrichment estimates between an animal and its potential foods. These estimates are particularly important for cryptic foragers where there is little comparative dietary information. Nonetheless, many trophic enrichment estimates are based on related taxa, without confirmation of accuracy using laboratory trials. We used stable isotope analysis to investigate diet and to resolve trophic relationships in a large endemic insect, the Auckland tree weta (Hemideina thoracica White). Comparisons of isotopes in plant foods fed to captive wetas with isotope ratios in their frass provided variable results, so frass isotope values had limited usefulness as a proxy indicator of trophic level. Isotopic values varied between different tissues, with trophic depletion of 15N highest in body fat and testes. Tissue fractionation was consistent in captive and wild caught wetas, and isotopic values were not significantly different between the two groups, suggesting that this weta species is primarily herbivorous. Whole-body values in captive wetas demonstrated trophic depletion (Δδ) for δ¹⁵N of about–0.77‰ and trophic enrichment of 4.28‰ for δ¹³C. These values differ from commonly estimated trophic enrichments for both insects and herbivores and indicate the importance of laboratory trials to determine trophic enrichment. Isotopic values for femur muscles from a number of local wild weta populations did not vary consistently with body weight or size, suggesting that juveniles eat the same foods as adults. Considerable variation among individuals within and between populations suggest that isotopic values are strongly influenced by food availability and individual foraging traits.

text: Isotopic fractionation in a large herbivorous insect, the Auckland tree weta Determining diet and trophic position of species with stable isotopes requires appropriate trophic enrichment estimates between an animal and its potential foods. These estimates are particularly important for cryptic foragers where there is little comparative dietary information. Nonetheless, many trophic enrichment estimates are based on related taxa, without confirmation of accuracy using laboratory trials. We used stable isotope analysis to investigate diet and to resolve trophic relationships in a large endemic insect, the Auckland tree weta (Hemideina thoracica White). Comparisons of isotopes in plant foods fed to captive wetas with isotope ratios in their frass provided variable results, so frass isotope values had limited usefulness as a proxy indicator of trophic level. Isotopic values varied between different tissues, with trophic depletion of 15N highest in body fat and testes. Tissue fractionation was consistent in captive and wild caught wetas, and isotopic values were not significantly different between the two groups, suggesting that this weta species is primarily herbivorous. Whole-body values in captive wetas demonstrated trophic depletion (Δδ) for δ¹⁵N of about–0.77‰ and trophic enrichment of 4.28‰ for δ¹³C. These values differ from commonly estimated trophic enrichments for both insects and herbivores and indicate the importance of laboratory trials to determine trophic enrichment. Isotopic values for femur muscles from a number of local wild weta populations did not vary consistently with body weight or size, suggesting that juveniles eat the same foods as adults. Considerable variation among individuals within and between populations suggest that isotopic values are strongly influenced by food availability and individual foraging traits.

year: 2010

title: Te whakatau i te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu; tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna ahunga whakamua

authors: MacLeod, Jeremy Tātere

subjects: Ngāti Kahungunu, Dialect

abstract: He Whakamāramatanga

Ko Te Whanganui-a-Tara te maunga,
Ko Waingōngoro te awa,
Ko Takitimu te waka,
Ko Waimārama te marae,
Ko Taupunga te whare,
Ko Ngāti Kahungunu te iwi,
Ko Ngāti Kurukuru te hapū.

Ko te reo Māori taku reo tuarua. He mea ako ahau e ētahi o ngā tino mātanga reo o te motu. He reo takitini tōku, arā, he whenumitanga nō ngā momo reo o te motu. Ko te nuinga o ōku kaiako nō Ngāti Kahungunu, nō Ngāi Tūhoe me Ngāti Porou hoki. I a au ka tīmata ki te ako i taku reo nei, tere tonu taku rongo i ngā rerekētanga o ngā reo o aku kaiako o Tūhoe me Ngāti Porou. He āhuatanga tērā kāore au i rongo i aku kaiako o Kahungunu nei. Koirā te wā i tīmata ai te kōrori o te tōmina o roto i au ki te rangahau i ngā momo rerekētanga ā-reo o aku tīpuna o Ngāti Kahungunu nei. Nō te tau 2010 ka kopoua ahau hai Pouarataki Reo ki Te Kaporeihana ā-Iwi o Ngāti Kahungunu. Ko taku mahi matua ko te whakatinana i te rautaki whakarauora reo Māori a Ngāti Kahungunu. Ko te whāinga matua o te rautaki i taua wā, ko te whakahoki mai i te ‘reo o Kahungunu’ hai reo kōrero mō Ngāti Kahungunu. Uaua ana ki a au tērā te whakatutuki nā taku kore i āta mārama he aha rā taua reo o Kahungunu nei. 

He ruarua rawa atu ngā kōrero mō te kaupapa nei, arā, te mita, ngā mita rānei o Ngāti Kahungunu. Koinei anō tētahi take i kaha hiahia ahau ki te rangahau i te kaupapa nei. Kai reira anō ētahi rangahau pēnei i ā Dr. Joseph Te Rito rāua ko Lee Smith, engari, kāore anō kia āta whakatauhia he aha oti te mita o Kahungunu, mehemea rānei he mita tōna, ōna rānei. Kāore anō kia āta rangahautia ngā motuhaketanga ā reo o ngā tīpuna o Ngāti Kahungunu mai i runga ki raro. Ko ētahi kua rangahau i ngā putunga kōrero ā-oro nei, ko ētahi kua rangahau i ngā kupu i roto i ngā tuhinga a ngā kaumātua, engari kāore anō tētahi rangahau kotahi kia āta tātari i ngā rerekētanga matua e toru o tēnei mea te mita, arā, ngā rerekētanga ā-wetereo, ā wetekupu, ātangi anō hoki. 

Ko te kaupapa matua o taku tuhinga nei ko: Te whakatau i te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu; tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna ahunga whakamua. 


Ko ngā pātai mātāmua:
 He aha oti te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu – tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna āpōpō?
 He aha te wāhi ki te mita i roto i te rautaki whakarauora reo pae tawhiti a te iwi?


Ko ngā pātai mātāmuri:
 He aha tēnei mea, te mita?
 He aha tēnei mea, te mita i roto i te reo Māori?
 Ko wai a Ngāti Kahungunu?
 He mita rānei tō Ngāti Kahungunu?
 He aha te wāhi ki te mita i roto i ngā mahere whakarauora reo?


Ko tētahi atu take nui, ko tēnei kupu, te mita. Ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te mita hai tohu i ngā motuhaketanga ā-reo o tēnā iwi, o tēnā rohe. Ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te reo ā-iwi, ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te rangi o te reo. Kāore anō tētahi tangata kotahi kia āta wetewete i te kupu mita, me te wānanga āe rānei e tika ana tērā kupu mō tēnei mea te rerekētanga ā-reo o tētahi rohe, o tētahi rōpū rānei. He kupu mino te kupu mita, arā, he mea tiki ake i te reo Pākehā. E hia nei ōna whakapākehātanga. Ko tētahi mate nui ko te korenga o tētahi kupu wairua Māori nei hai kupu matua mō ngā rerekētanga ā-reo nei. Hai te upoko whakamutunga o taku tuhinga nei ahau hoatu ai i tētahi kupu hou mō te mita, arā, ko te tūreo. Ko te tikanga o te tūreo, ko ngā tūmomo rerekētanga o te reo e motuhake ana ki tētahi rōpū, ki tētahi rohe rānei. Ki te wetewetehia te kupu tūreo nei ka kitea kua honoa mai ko te ‘tū’ me te ‘reo’ kia kotahi te kupu. Ko taua ‘tū’ rā, he kupu anō mō te momo. Ka noho ko te tūreo nei hai kupu whānui mō ngā tūmomo rerekētanga ā-reo e motuhake ana ki tētahi rōpū, ki tētahi rohe rānei. Ki a au, me ruke te kupu mita ki tāhaki, ka whakamahi ai i te kupu tūreo ā muri ake nei. Ka heke mai i taua kupu ko ngā momo tūreo e rua nei – ā-pāpori me te ā-rohe. Nā, ka heke mai i aua momo tūreo e rua ko ngā wāhanga e toru e tohu ana i ngā momo rerekētanga o te reo – ā wetereo, ā-wetekupu, ā-tangi anō hoki. Kua oti nei tētahi anga mita hou hai āwhina i te hunga rangahau.

Kua oti i a au tētahi tūāpapa mō te kohinga kōrero ā-tuhi me te kohinga kōrero ā-oro. Ka noho ko aua kohinga e rua hai puna mātauranga mō ngā mahi rangahau i ngā kōrero a ngā tīpuna me kore e kitea iho ētahi tū āhuatanga ā-reo hai whakahoki mai ki te reo o ēnei wā nei. Ko te tūtohunga nui ko te waihanga i tētahi tūreo ā pāpori hou hai kinaki i te reo ā-motu nāna nei i ora ai te reo huri noa ki roto o Ngāti Kahungunu. Me waihanga tētahi tūreo hou hai tohu tuakiritanga mō Ngāti Kahungunu kia riro ai mā ētahi tū āhuatanga o tōna reo hai whakaatu atu nō Kahungunu te tangata e tū atu nei. 

E tutuki ai tēnei moemoeā me tautoko te hunga kōrero Māori katoa o Ngāti Kahungunu nei. Kai te kaupapa nei ōna anō papatoiaketanga, pēnei i te kimi i te pūtea e taea ai te utu te hunga rangahau i te kohinga kōrero. E ea ai te wawata nei, me kaha te whakaemi mai a Ngāti Kahungunu ki te tautoko i te kaupapa rangahau, ka 10 tau pea tōna roa, ā, oti rawa ake kua whai tūreo ā-pāpori hou a Ngāti Kahungunu hai kinaki i te reo ā-motu, hai tohu tuakiritanga anō hoki.

text: Te whakatau i te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu; tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna ahunga whakamua He Whakamāramatanga

Ko Te Whanganui-a-Tara te maunga,
Ko Waingōngoro te awa,
Ko Takitimu te waka,
Ko Waimārama te marae,
Ko Taupunga te whare,
Ko Ngāti Kahungunu te iwi,
Ko Ngāti Kurukuru te hapū.

Ko te reo Māori taku reo tuarua. He mea ako ahau e ētahi o ngā tino mātanga reo o te motu. He reo takitini tōku, arā, he whenumitanga nō ngā momo reo o te motu. Ko te nuinga o ōku kaiako nō Ngāti Kahungunu, nō Ngāi Tūhoe me Ngāti Porou hoki. I a au ka tīmata ki te ako i taku reo nei, tere tonu taku rongo i ngā rerekētanga o ngā reo o aku kaiako o Tūhoe me Ngāti Porou. He āhuatanga tērā kāore au i rongo i aku kaiako o Kahungunu nei. Koirā te wā i tīmata ai te kōrori o te tōmina o roto i au ki te rangahau i ngā momo rerekētanga ā-reo o aku tīpuna o Ngāti Kahungunu nei. Nō te tau 2010 ka kopoua ahau hai Pouarataki Reo ki Te Kaporeihana ā-Iwi o Ngāti Kahungunu. Ko taku mahi matua ko te whakatinana i te rautaki whakarauora reo Māori a Ngāti Kahungunu. Ko te whāinga matua o te rautaki i taua wā, ko te whakahoki mai i te ‘reo o Kahungunu’ hai reo kōrero mō Ngāti Kahungunu. Uaua ana ki a au tērā te whakatutuki nā taku kore i āta mārama he aha rā taua reo o Kahungunu nei. 

He ruarua rawa atu ngā kōrero mō te kaupapa nei, arā, te mita, ngā mita rānei o Ngāti Kahungunu. Koinei anō tētahi take i kaha hiahia ahau ki te rangahau i te kaupapa nei. Kai reira anō ētahi rangahau pēnei i ā Dr. Joseph Te Rito rāua ko Lee Smith, engari, kāore anō kia āta whakatauhia he aha oti te mita o Kahungunu, mehemea rānei he mita tōna, ōna rānei. Kāore anō kia āta rangahautia ngā motuhaketanga ā reo o ngā tīpuna o Ngāti Kahungunu mai i runga ki raro. Ko ētahi kua rangahau i ngā putunga kōrero ā-oro nei, ko ētahi kua rangahau i ngā kupu i roto i ngā tuhinga a ngā kaumātua, engari kāore anō tētahi rangahau kotahi kia āta tātari i ngā rerekētanga matua e toru o tēnei mea te mita, arā, ngā rerekētanga ā-wetereo, ā wetekupu, ātangi anō hoki. 

Ko te kaupapa matua o taku tuhinga nei ko: Te whakatau i te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu; tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna ahunga whakamua. 


Ko ngā pātai mātāmua:
 He aha oti te mita o Ngāti Kahungunu – tōna hītori, tōna whanaketanga me tōna āpōpō?
 He aha te wāhi ki te mita i roto i te rautaki whakarauora reo pae tawhiti a te iwi?


Ko ngā pātai mātāmuri:
 He aha tēnei mea, te mita?
 He aha tēnei mea, te mita i roto i te reo Māori?
 Ko wai a Ngāti Kahungunu?
 He mita rānei tō Ngāti Kahungunu?
 He aha te wāhi ki te mita i roto i ngā mahere whakarauora reo?


Ko tētahi atu take nui, ko tēnei kupu, te mita. Ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te mita hai tohu i ngā motuhaketanga ā-reo o tēnā iwi, o tēnā rohe. Ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te reo ā-iwi, ko ētahi e whakamahi ana i te rangi o te reo. Kāore anō tētahi tangata kotahi kia āta wetewete i te kupu mita, me te wānanga āe rānei e tika ana tērā kupu mō tēnei mea te rerekētanga ā-reo o tētahi rohe, o tētahi rōpū rānei. He kupu mino te kupu mita, arā, he mea tiki ake i te reo Pākehā. E hia nei ōna whakapākehātanga. Ko tētahi mate nui ko te korenga o tētahi kupu wairua Māori nei hai kupu matua mō ngā rerekētanga ā-reo nei. Hai te upoko whakamutunga o taku tuhinga nei ahau hoatu ai i tētahi kupu hou mō te mita, arā, ko te tūreo. Ko te tikanga o te tūreo, ko ngā tūmomo rerekētanga o te reo e motuhake ana ki tētahi rōpū, ki tētahi rohe rānei. Ki te wetewetehia te kupu tūreo nei ka kitea kua honoa mai ko te ‘tū’ me te ‘reo’ kia kotahi te kupu. Ko taua ‘tū’ rā, he kupu anō mō te momo. Ka noho ko te tūreo nei hai kupu whānui mō ngā tūmomo rerekētanga ā-reo e motuhake ana ki tētahi rōpū, ki tētahi rohe rānei. Ki a au, me ruke te kupu mita ki tāhaki, ka whakamahi ai i te kupu tūreo ā muri ake nei. Ka heke mai i taua kupu ko ngā momo tūreo e rua nei – ā-pāpori me te ā-rohe. Nā, ka heke mai i aua momo tūreo e rua ko ngā wāhanga e toru e tohu ana i ngā momo rerekētanga o te reo – ā wetereo, ā-wetekupu, ā-tangi anō hoki. Kua oti nei tētahi anga mita hou hai āwhina i te hunga rangahau.

Kua oti i a au tētahi tūāpapa mō te kohinga kōrero ā-tuhi me te kohinga kōrero ā-oro. Ka noho ko aua kohinga e rua hai puna mātauranga mō ngā mahi rangahau i ngā kōrero a ngā tīpuna me kore e kitea iho ētahi tū āhuatanga ā-reo hai whakahoki mai ki te reo o ēnei wā nei. Ko te tūtohunga nui ko te waihanga i tētahi tūreo ā pāpori hou hai kinaki i te reo ā-motu nāna nei i ora ai te reo huri noa ki roto o Ngāti Kahungunu. Me waihanga tētahi tūreo hou hai tohu tuakiritanga mō Ngāti Kahungunu kia riro ai mā ētahi tū āhuatanga o tōna reo hai whakaatu atu nō Kahungunu te tangata e tū atu nei. 

E tutuki ai tēnei moemoeā me tautoko te hunga kōrero Māori katoa o Ngāti Kahungunu nei. Kai te kaupapa nei ōna anō papatoiaketanga, pēnei i te kimi i te pūtea e taea ai te utu te hunga rangahau i te kohinga kōrero. E ea ai te wawata nei, me kaha te whakaemi mai a Ngāti Kahungunu ki te tautoko i te kaupapa rangahau, ka 10 tau pea tōna roa, ā, oti rawa ake kua whai tūreo ā-pāpori hou a Ngāti Kahungunu hai kinaki i te reo ā-motu, hai tohu tuakiritanga anō hoki.

year: 2021