title: The effects of sex and sex-role typing behaviour on children’s problem-solving behaviour and outerdirectedness

authors: Ho, Robert

abstract: The effects of sex and sex-role typing behaviour on children’s problem solving ability and glancing behaviour (outerdirectedness) were investigated. Two hundred and fifty five subjects were tested in a series of six experiments. 
Experiment I was a pilot study involving adult student subjects whose glancing behaviour and problem solving skills were tested in three experimental tasks - the Rod and Frame Test, the object assembly tasks and the card game. In Experiments II and III, children were categorized into various sex roles by means of the Children’s Androgyny Scale (C.A.S.), and the effects of sex and sex role typing behaviour on their problem solving ability and glancing behaviour were studied using the RFT and object assembly tasks. In Experiments IV and V, the effects of sex and sex role typing behaviour were investigated under the more ‘social’ condition of the concept identification task. In Experiment VI, the learning strategies utilized by different types of subjects were investigated by means of the discrimination task. 
The findings from Experiment I revealed that adult student subjects, regardless of sex, engaged in very little glancing behaviour and its restricted range resulted in the non-significant difference in glancing behaviour between male and female subjects. As a result of this failure to demonstrate this important difference between the sexes, it was decided to abandon the use of adult subjects and to utilize children as subjects for the remainder of the research. 
The findings from Experiment II failed to demonstrate any effects of sex role typing behaviour on subject’s performance on the RFT. The introduction of external cues in the experimental procedure in Experiment III yielded results that partially supported the hypotheses that children’s problem solving ability and glancing behaviour can be differentially affected by their sex role typing behaviour. In Experiments IV and V, the subjects were tested with task problems that included ‘social’ cues, and the results supported the hypothesis that children’s problem solving ability can be differentially affected by their sex role typing behaviour by demonstrating both the adaptability of the androgynous subjects and the behavioural restriction of the sex typed subjects in their performance on the experimental tasks. No effect of sex role typing behaviour on subject’s glancing behaviour was demonstrated. The results also indicated that subjects of different sex and sex role orientation have different problem solving strategies. From the results, it appears that the female feminine subject’s task approach orientation was characterized by a cue learning (reliance on external cues) strategy while the male masculine subject’s task approach orientation was characterized by the problem learning (task oriented) strategy. The androgynous subject’s task approach orientation appeared to be more flexible, varying between cue learning and problem learning depending on the nature of the situation. Experiment VI was designed to investigate these different learning strategies utilized by different types of subjects, and the findings corroborate the findings from Experiments IV and V that female feminine subjects do indeed use a cue learning strategy in their problem solving. The performance of the androgynous subjects of both sexes indicated that they were able to use either strategy effectively.
Overall, the results of the research supported the hypothesis that sex and sex role typing behaviour by children do result in differential problem solving skills, with androgynous subjects being better problem solvers than sex typed subjects at tasks designed specifically to elicit masculine or feminine responses. The findings were attributed to the differential socialization process for males and females. Implications of the findings were discussed.

text: The effects of sex and sex-role typing behaviour on children’s problem-solving behaviour and outerdirectedness The effects of sex and sex-role typing behaviour on children’s problem solving ability and glancing behaviour (outerdirectedness) were investigated. Two hundred and fifty five subjects were tested in a series of six experiments. 
Experiment I was a pilot study involving adult student subjects whose glancing behaviour and problem solving skills were tested in three experimental tasks - the Rod and Frame Test, the object assembly tasks and the card game. In Experiments II and III, children were categorized into various sex roles by means of the Children’s Androgyny Scale (C.A.S.), and the effects of sex and sex role typing behaviour on their problem solving ability and glancing behaviour were studied using the RFT and object assembly tasks. In Experiments IV and V, the effects of sex and sex role typing behaviour were investigated under the more ‘social’ condition of the concept identification task. In Experiment VI, the learning strategies utilized by different types of subjects were investigated by means of the discrimination task. 
The findings from Experiment I revealed that adult student subjects, regardless of sex, engaged in very little glancing behaviour and its restricted range resulted in the non-significant difference in glancing behaviour between male and female subjects. As a result of this failure to demonstrate this important difference between the sexes, it was decided to abandon the use of adult subjects and to utilize children as subjects for the remainder of the research. 
The findings from Experiment II failed to demonstrate any effects of sex role typing behaviour on subject’s performance on the RFT. The introduction of external cues in the experimental procedure in Experiment III yielded results that partially supported the hypotheses that children’s problem solving ability and glancing behaviour can be differentially affected by their sex role typing behaviour. In Experiments IV and V, the subjects were tested with task problems that included ‘social’ cues, and the results supported the hypothesis that children’s problem solving ability can be differentially affected by their sex role typing behaviour by demonstrating both the adaptability of the androgynous subjects and the behavioural restriction of the sex typed subjects in their performance on the experimental tasks. No effect of sex role typing behaviour on subject’s glancing behaviour was demonstrated. The results also indicated that subjects of different sex and sex role orientation have different problem solving strategies. From the results, it appears that the female feminine subject’s task approach orientation was characterized by a cue learning (reliance on external cues) strategy while the male masculine subject’s task approach orientation was characterized by the problem learning (task oriented) strategy. The androgynous subject’s task approach orientation appeared to be more flexible, varying between cue learning and problem learning depending on the nature of the situation. Experiment VI was designed to investigate these different learning strategies utilized by different types of subjects, and the findings corroborate the findings from Experiments IV and V that female feminine subjects do indeed use a cue learning strategy in their problem solving. The performance of the androgynous subjects of both sexes indicated that they were able to use either strategy effectively.
Overall, the results of the research supported the hypothesis that sex and sex role typing behaviour by children do result in differential problem solving skills, with androgynous subjects being better problem solvers than sex typed subjects at tasks designed specifically to elicit masculine or feminine responses. The findings were attributed to the differential socialization process for males and females. Implications of the findings were discussed.

year: 1978

title: What Effect Does Relevant Policy Have on Pacific Peoples’ Experiences of Housing in Aotearoa New Zealand?

authors: Brown, Georgia

subjects: housing

abstract: Every New Zealander has the right to a warm, safe, and secure home. However, many people in Aotearoa experience housing that lacks these fundamental aspects. The size, quality, and affordability of Aotearoa New Zealand’s housing within both the state and private rental markets are not meeting the health or well-being needs of the nation’s people. This is particularly notable for specific sectors of the population, including those with low socio-economic status, and Māori and Pacific peoples. This thesis aims to understand and examine Pacific peoples’ housing experiences in Kirikiriroa Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. Specifically, this work seeks to understand the context of housing policy in Aotearoa New Zealand and how that links to the experiences of Pacific home occupants. It will uncover severe issues related to housing deprivation, housing over-crowding, housing affordability, housing quality, and the relationship between health and housing for Pacific peoples in Aotearoa New Zealand. In understanding these factors of peoples’ experiences with housing, relevant housing policy is examined. Policies that are included are The Resident Tenancies Act 1986 (including the Amendment Act 2020), the Housing Improvement Regulation 1947, the Health Act 1956, the Building Act 2004, the Healthy Home Guarantees Act and the Residential Tenancies (Healthy Homes Standards) Regulations 2019. Understanding how these policies function, are enforced, and are implemented by national and local governments allows insight into their effectiveness in ensuring that all of New Zealand’s population are able to access adequate and affordable housing. Assessing Kāinga Ora, New Zealand’s largest landlord, will also allow for an understanding of the housing experiences of many of the most vulnerable populations in Aotearoa. Through talanoa methodology, driven by a Pacific research team, an understanding of housing experiences is shaped around the narratives provided by seven Pacific families living in severe housing deprivation within Kirikiriroa Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. Little qualitative research has been conducted on the experiences of Pacific peoples living in Aotearoa New Zealand. This thesis hopes to improve understandings of housing for Pacific peoples, their position in society and the impacts of relevant policy. Identifying existing issues will hopefully allow for a recognition of housing issues that will work towards being effectively improved by stakeholders essential to uplifting New Zealand’s housing space.

text: What Effect Does Relevant Policy Have on Pacific Peoples’ Experiences of Housing in Aotearoa New Zealand? Every New Zealander has the right to a warm, safe, and secure home. However, many people in Aotearoa experience housing that lacks these fundamental aspects. The size, quality, and affordability of Aotearoa New Zealand’s housing within both the state and private rental markets are not meeting the health or well-being needs of the nation’s people. This is particularly notable for specific sectors of the population, including those with low socio-economic status, and Māori and Pacific peoples. This thesis aims to understand and examine Pacific peoples’ housing experiences in Kirikiriroa Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. Specifically, this work seeks to understand the context of housing policy in Aotearoa New Zealand and how that links to the experiences of Pacific home occupants. It will uncover severe issues related to housing deprivation, housing over-crowding, housing affordability, housing quality, and the relationship between health and housing for Pacific peoples in Aotearoa New Zealand. In understanding these factors of peoples’ experiences with housing, relevant housing policy is examined. Policies that are included are The Resident Tenancies Act 1986 (including the Amendment Act 2020), the Housing Improvement Regulation 1947, the Health Act 1956, the Building Act 2004, the Healthy Home Guarantees Act and the Residential Tenancies (Healthy Homes Standards) Regulations 2019. Understanding how these policies function, are enforced, and are implemented by national and local governments allows insight into their effectiveness in ensuring that all of New Zealand’s population are able to access adequate and affordable housing. Assessing Kāinga Ora, New Zealand’s largest landlord, will also allow for an understanding of the housing experiences of many of the most vulnerable populations in Aotearoa. Through talanoa methodology, driven by a Pacific research team, an understanding of housing experiences is shaped around the narratives provided by seven Pacific families living in severe housing deprivation within Kirikiriroa Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand. Little qualitative research has been conducted on the experiences of Pacific peoples living in Aotearoa New Zealand. This thesis hopes to improve understandings of housing for Pacific peoples, their position in society and the impacts of relevant policy. Identifying existing issues will hopefully allow for a recognition of housing issues that will work towards being effectively improved by stakeholders essential to uplifting New Zealand’s housing space.

year: 2023

title: Health reform and the impact on Mäori 1983-1997

authors: Ferguson, Lisa Arleen.

abstract: This study investigates the New Zealand health sector reforms from 1983 to 1997and examines whether the reform process has been consistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. It evaluates the impact of the reforms on Mäori from that perspective. 

The study introduces the health sector reforms generally and then their specific effects on Mäori. It draws on two research exercises undertaken by the author, being research for the Wai 692 Napier Hospital and Health Services claim to the Waitangi Tribunal and on improving Mäori Health outcomes for the National Health Committee. The methodologies used are those from the discipline of history.

The study outlines the argument for Crown responsibilities under the Treaty and draws out the distinctions between Article 2 and Article 3 of the Treaty. It provides a historical background to the place of the Treaty in the health sector, and forms the basis for a Treaty based analysis of the health reforms and their impact. 

The New Zealand health sector has undergone massive government initiated structural change throughout the period under study. During this time the neo-liberal reforms have had a key role in reshaping health service structures. The process of change, the international influences on the changes, and the resulting entities are described. An example from Tainui Iwi of the effect of structural health reform illustrates the changes in Mäori health service provision by Mäori.
Since 1983 successive governments have produced copious Mäori health policy. The key policy documents, and their recommendations, are identified, as is the degree to which they were implemented. The cyclical nature of such policy making suggests that it is not always followed by policy implementation. While Mäori are identified as a health gain priority, the evidence reviewed shows that the responsibility to implement and monitor the policy is diffuse and ineffective.

The Wai 692 claim provides a detailed look at the impact of the 1990s health reform for Mäori. The claim was precipitated by the threatened closure of Napier Hospital, but was broadened to include a wide-ranging look at the impact of health reform on Mäori. As a case study it provides a specific example of one Iwi’s experience of the reality of policy implementation at that time versus policy making.

Crown evaluation of the effectiveness of its own policies, and the extent to which its own agencies breach those policies is explored. The lack of control and accountability measures, plus the inability of the Crown to monitor (let alone sanction) success or failure, is highlighted. A contrast is drawn between the health and local government sectors, using the operation of the Resource Management Act (1991). 

The latest health sector reforms consequent on the 1999 Labour/Alliance coalition government are briefly considered, together with an overview of the Crown’s effectiveness in delivering improved Mäori health outcomes. The study suggests that the use of the Treaty as a cornerstone for Maori health policy formation and delivery may lead to more effective engagement between the Crown and Mäori in addressing Mäori health issues. The study concludes by asking the question, has the health sector reform process of the 1980s and 1990s itself been a Treaty breach?

A brief postscript considers the further reform of the health sector beyond the period of study.

text: Health reform and the impact on Mäori 1983-1997 This study investigates the New Zealand health sector reforms from 1983 to 1997and examines whether the reform process has been consistent with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. It evaluates the impact of the reforms on Mäori from that perspective. 

The study introduces the health sector reforms generally and then their specific effects on Mäori. It draws on two research exercises undertaken by the author, being research for the Wai 692 Napier Hospital and Health Services claim to the Waitangi Tribunal and on improving Mäori Health outcomes for the National Health Committee. The methodologies used are those from the discipline of history.

The study outlines the argument for Crown responsibilities under the Treaty and draws out the distinctions between Article 2 and Article 3 of the Treaty. It provides a historical background to the place of the Treaty in the health sector, and forms the basis for a Treaty based analysis of the health reforms and their impact. 

The New Zealand health sector has undergone massive government initiated structural change throughout the period under study. During this time the neo-liberal reforms have had a key role in reshaping health service structures. The process of change, the international influences on the changes, and the resulting entities are described. An example from Tainui Iwi of the effect of structural health reform illustrates the changes in Mäori health service provision by Mäori.
Since 1983 successive governments have produced copious Mäori health policy. The key policy documents, and their recommendations, are identified, as is the degree to which they were implemented. The cyclical nature of such policy making suggests that it is not always followed by policy implementation. While Mäori are identified as a health gain priority, the evidence reviewed shows that the responsibility to implement and monitor the policy is diffuse and ineffective.

The Wai 692 claim provides a detailed look at the impact of the 1990s health reform for Mäori. The claim was precipitated by the threatened closure of Napier Hospital, but was broadened to include a wide-ranging look at the impact of health reform on Mäori. As a case study it provides a specific example of one Iwi’s experience of the reality of policy implementation at that time versus policy making.

Crown evaluation of the effectiveness of its own policies, and the extent to which its own agencies breach those policies is explored. The lack of control and accountability measures, plus the inability of the Crown to monitor (let alone sanction) success or failure, is highlighted. A contrast is drawn between the health and local government sectors, using the operation of the Resource Management Act (1991). 

The latest health sector reforms consequent on the 1999 Labour/Alliance coalition government are briefly considered, together with an overview of the Crown’s effectiveness in delivering improved Mäori health outcomes. The study suggests that the use of the Treaty as a cornerstone for Maori health policy formation and delivery may lead to more effective engagement between the Crown and Mäori in addressing Mäori health issues. The study concludes by asking the question, has the health sector reform process of the 1980s and 1990s itself been a Treaty breach?

A brief postscript considers the further reform of the health sector beyond the period of study.

year: 2002