title: The Psychological Contract: The Development and Validation of a Managerial Measure

authors: Cable, Donald Alfred James

subjects: psychological contract

abstract: The research objective was to develop, through two phases involving development and validation, a measure of the psychological work contract for managerial level employees.  The psychological contract is the unwritten implicit contract that forms in the minds of employees and contains the obligations and expectations that they believe exists between themselves and the organization.  In the first and qualitative phase of the study, a structured interview procedure resulted in the collection of 651 responses from a convenience sample of 35 managers from seven New Zealand organizations.  Responses related to what these managers believed they were obligated to provide the organization (perceived organizational expectations), and what they believed the organization was obligated to provide them (their expectations).  Content analysis of these 651 statements resulted in the development of two initial measures of the psychological contract (employee obligations, organization obligations).  The employee obligations measure (perceived organizational expectations of the employee) contained 16 items, and the organization obligations measure (employee expectations of the organization) contained 23 items.  
In the second and quantitative phase of the study, and using the same criteria for participation as for phase one, a convenience sample of 124 managers from 13 New Zealand organizations completed questionnaires.  The questionnaires included the measures of psychological contract content developed in phase one of the study, and 8 organizational psychology variables to be included in a nomological network.  The nomological network included intention to quit, perceived organizational support, work and job involvement, job satisfaction, career plateau, organizational commitment, person-organization fit, and 2 performance measures.  A separate questionnaire covering job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour was completed by 94 of the participants' managers.  Of the 54 relationships predicted in the nomological network, 41 were significant.  Of the 13 non-significant relationships, 10 involved relationships with the two performance measures.   
The measures of the psychological contract were subjected to a construct validation process involving two steps.  The first step involved item and factor analysis.  Factor analysis of the two measures of the psychological contract revealed two factors in each.  One factor, termed relational obligations and reflecting a collective interest between the employee and the organization, included the items that were believed to influence more directly the relationship between managers and the organization.  This factor included items such as  be committed to the job  (an employee obligation) and  provide a physically and socially safe environment  (an organizational obligation).  The other factor, termed transactional obligations and reflecting a self/other interest on the part of the employee, included the items that were believed to be of a more direct employment transactions nature.  This factor included items such as  stay true to your own values and beliefs  (an employee obligation) and  provide professional and personal support  (an organizational obligation).
In the second step of the validation process, the measures of the psychological contract were embedded into the nomological network and their relationships with the ten variables in that network were tested.  Of the ten hypothesised relationships, only one emerged as significant, that being the relationship between the organization obligations component of the psychological contract and person-organization fit.  Minimal support for construct validity of the measures of the psychological contract was provided confirming that further effort will be required before complete construct validity may be claimed for the measured.  Although the contribution the research makes to the field of knowledge may be limited, it does provide some validation of existing measures of the psychological contract, developed in other studies using different samples.  The present findings increase our knowledge of the content of the psychological contract for managers.  Additionally, a methodological framework has been established for continuing research into the content of psychological contracts, including an exploration of the relationship between content and fulfilment, along with a structure for comparing the psychological contract of disparate occupational groups.  
The most likely explanation for the hypotheses not being fully supported is that it is fulfilment (or conversely breach or violation) of the psychological contract, rather than the content of the contract per se, that is related to the variables in the nomological network.  Whilst the hypotheses were based on research that considered fulfilment of the contract, this study focussed on the content of psychological contracts.  The reasons for basing the hypotheses on research that considered fulfilment, the influence of this decision on hypothesis testing, and other possible explanations for the hypotheses not finding greater support, are explored.  The limitations of the study, and possible directions for future research, are discussed.

text: The Psychological Contract: The Development and Validation of a Managerial Measure The research objective was to develop, through two phases involving development and validation, a measure of the psychological work contract for managerial level employees.  The psychological contract is the unwritten implicit contract that forms in the minds of employees and contains the obligations and expectations that they believe exists between themselves and the organization.  In the first and qualitative phase of the study, a structured interview procedure resulted in the collection of 651 responses from a convenience sample of 35 managers from seven New Zealand organizations.  Responses related to what these managers believed they were obligated to provide the organization (perceived organizational expectations), and what they believed the organization was obligated to provide them (their expectations).  Content analysis of these 651 statements resulted in the development of two initial measures of the psychological contract (employee obligations, organization obligations).  The employee obligations measure (perceived organizational expectations of the employee) contained 16 items, and the organization obligations measure (employee expectations of the organization) contained 23 items.  
In the second and quantitative phase of the study, and using the same criteria for participation as for phase one, a convenience sample of 124 managers from 13 New Zealand organizations completed questionnaires.  The questionnaires included the measures of psychological contract content developed in phase one of the study, and 8 organizational psychology variables to be included in a nomological network.  The nomological network included intention to quit, perceived organizational support, work and job involvement, job satisfaction, career plateau, organizational commitment, person-organization fit, and 2 performance measures.  A separate questionnaire covering job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour was completed by 94 of the participants' managers.  Of the 54 relationships predicted in the nomological network, 41 were significant.  Of the 13 non-significant relationships, 10 involved relationships with the two performance measures.   
The measures of the psychological contract were subjected to a construct validation process involving two steps.  The first step involved item and factor analysis.  Factor analysis of the two measures of the psychological contract revealed two factors in each.  One factor, termed relational obligations and reflecting a collective interest between the employee and the organization, included the items that were believed to influence more directly the relationship between managers and the organization.  This factor included items such as  be committed to the job  (an employee obligation) and  provide a physically and socially safe environment  (an organizational obligation).  The other factor, termed transactional obligations and reflecting a self/other interest on the part of the employee, included the items that were believed to be of a more direct employment transactions nature.  This factor included items such as  stay true to your own values and beliefs  (an employee obligation) and  provide professional and personal support  (an organizational obligation).
In the second step of the validation process, the measures of the psychological contract were embedded into the nomological network and their relationships with the ten variables in that network were tested.  Of the ten hypothesised relationships, only one emerged as significant, that being the relationship between the organization obligations component of the psychological contract and person-organization fit.  Minimal support for construct validity of the measures of the psychological contract was provided confirming that further effort will be required before complete construct validity may be claimed for the measured.  Although the contribution the research makes to the field of knowledge may be limited, it does provide some validation of existing measures of the psychological contract, developed in other studies using different samples.  The present findings increase our knowledge of the content of the psychological contract for managers.  Additionally, a methodological framework has been established for continuing research into the content of psychological contracts, including an exploration of the relationship between content and fulfilment, along with a structure for comparing the psychological contract of disparate occupational groups.  
The most likely explanation for the hypotheses not being fully supported is that it is fulfilment (or conversely breach or violation) of the psychological contract, rather than the content of the contract per se, that is related to the variables in the nomological network.  Whilst the hypotheses were based on research that considered fulfilment of the contract, this study focussed on the content of psychological contracts.  The reasons for basing the hypotheses on research that considered fulfilment, the influence of this decision on hypothesis testing, and other possible explanations for the hypotheses not finding greater support, are explored.  The limitations of the study, and possible directions for future research, are discussed.

year: 2008

title: Students' perceptions of travel through the liminal space: Lessons for teaching

authors: Harlow, Ann

abstract: This paper presents findings from a study in which educational researchers followed the progress of analogue electronics students over their first two years at university.
In this study, the lecturer's main motivation was to examine how a teaching-focus on threshold concepts might help students grasp troublesome ideas and if those students who grasped the threshold concepts achieved higher scores in the end-of-course examination. The lecturer identified two concepts in the first-year course which students repeatedly found hard to grasp. He focused his teaching on these concepts in the first year, and revisited them, albeit indirectly, throughout the second-year course.
Over the two years, the lecturer utilised a variety of teaching strategies to facilitate students' learning of the troublesome concepts. In order to evaluate the effects of these strategies on student learning, an educational researcher, in collaboration with the lecturer, explored students' perceptions about where they 'got stuck' and what helped them understand the selected threshold concepts. Data from student surveys, individual interviews, and focus groups contributed to insights about their experience of transition through the liminal space. The lecturer and researcher reflected on and analysed the lecturer's teaching strategies using video-stimulated reflective dialogue.
Findings revealed that many students did not fully grasp the two identified threshold concepts in their first year, however, repeated experiences with threshold concepts through varied teaching strategies, and a diversity of learning contexts contributed to students' understanding. In the second year, the continuing students felt that they took the threshold concepts for granted and had ceased to regard them as troublesome. They reported that grasping these threshold concepts was necessary to progress in analogue electronics. Findings of this study indicate that travel through the liminal space can be supported by an explicit and sustained focus on threshold concepts.

text: Students' perceptions of travel through the liminal space: Lessons for teaching This paper presents findings from a study in which educational researchers followed the progress of analogue electronics students over their first two years at university.
In this study, the lecturer's main motivation was to examine how a teaching-focus on threshold concepts might help students grasp troublesome ideas and if those students who grasped the threshold concepts achieved higher scores in the end-of-course examination. The lecturer identified two concepts in the first-year course which students repeatedly found hard to grasp. He focused his teaching on these concepts in the first year, and revisited them, albeit indirectly, throughout the second-year course.
Over the two years, the lecturer utilised a variety of teaching strategies to facilitate students' learning of the troublesome concepts. In order to evaluate the effects of these strategies on student learning, an educational researcher, in collaboration with the lecturer, explored students' perceptions about where they 'got stuck' and what helped them understand the selected threshold concepts. Data from student surveys, individual interviews, and focus groups contributed to insights about their experience of transition through the liminal space. The lecturer and researcher reflected on and analysed the lecturer's teaching strategies using video-stimulated reflective dialogue.
Findings revealed that many students did not fully grasp the two identified threshold concepts in their first year, however, repeated experiences with threshold concepts through varied teaching strategies, and a diversity of learning contexts contributed to students' understanding. In the second year, the continuing students felt that they took the threshold concepts for granted and had ceased to regard them as troublesome. They reported that grasping these threshold concepts was necessary to progress in analogue electronics. Findings of this study indicate that travel through the liminal space can be supported by an explicit and sustained focus on threshold concepts.

year: 2014

title: Constructing strategies for sustainable development the communitarian way

authors: Arunachalam, Murugesh

subjects: communities

abstract: Purpose – The paper aims to draw on recommendations of Agenda 21 and communitarian theory to examine collaboration between local district community and local authorities to formulate strategies for the sustainable development of the Taupo district. 
Design/methodology/approach – The paper adopts an interpretative methodology based on philosophical hermeneutic to understand collaboration between local community and local authorities in the Taupo district. Empirical data for this interpretive study comprise public documents, interview transcripts and minutes of meetings attended by the researchers. The paper begins interpretation of empirical data with pre-understanding of communitarian theory and Agenda 21. 
Findings – The findings indicate that historical and political factors and diversity of interests in the community affect processes and outcomes of collaboration. Local authorities play a crucial role in bringing together various groups in the Taupo community which are segregated by diversity of interests, especially between Maori and non-Maori community groups. Without local authority facilitation, the Taupo community may remain segregated; inhibited by lack of information; and not having the opportunity to participate in sustainable development. Community participation in the Taupo district is at an infancy stage and collaboration intended to empower communities may result in local authorities recentralising their positions. 
Originality/value – The paper integrates theory and practice and provides valuable insights for statutory agencies seeking to implement the recommendations of Agenda 21 regarding community participation in sustainable development.

text: Constructing strategies for sustainable development the communitarian way Purpose – The paper aims to draw on recommendations of Agenda 21 and communitarian theory to examine collaboration between local district community and local authorities to formulate strategies for the sustainable development of the Taupo district. 
Design/methodology/approach – The paper adopts an interpretative methodology based on philosophical hermeneutic to understand collaboration between local community and local authorities in the Taupo district. Empirical data for this interpretive study comprise public documents, interview transcripts and minutes of meetings attended by the researchers. The paper begins interpretation of empirical data with pre-understanding of communitarian theory and Agenda 21. 
Findings – The findings indicate that historical and political factors and diversity of interests in the community affect processes and outcomes of collaboration. Local authorities play a crucial role in bringing together various groups in the Taupo community which are segregated by diversity of interests, especially between Maori and non-Maori community groups. Without local authority facilitation, the Taupo community may remain segregated; inhibited by lack of information; and not having the opportunity to participate in sustainable development. Community participation in the Taupo district is at an infancy stage and collaboration intended to empower communities may result in local authorities recentralising their positions. 
Originality/value – The paper integrates theory and practice and provides valuable insights for statutory agencies seeking to implement the recommendations of Agenda 21 regarding community participation in sustainable development.

year: 2010