title: Evaluating soil and landscape models to predict liquefaction susceptibility in the Hinuera Formation, Hamilton Basin

authors: McKay, Aleesha May

abstract: The Hinuera Formation, being an extensive alluvial deposit throughout the Hamilton Basin plains, has been identified by Kleyburg (2015) as being susceptible to liquefaction. As much of the infrastructure of the Hamilton Basin is based on the Hinuera Formation, liquefaction thus poses a risk to the population of the area. This research project aims to develop a susceptibility model for liquefaction within the Hinuera Formation.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data collected during investigation for the Hamilton Section of the Waikato Expressway were acquired from the NZ Geotechnical Database. CLiqᵀᴹ software was used to analyse these data and determine the liquefaction potential index (LPI) of each CPT site. Soil map information (S-Map) was provided by Waikato Regional Council with the permission of Landcare Research, and Digital Elevation Data (DEM) by Waikato Regional Council. Parameters of slope, elevation, soil family and sibling number as well as the LPI derived from CLiqᵀᴹ were input into STATISTICAᵀᴹ and analysed using I-Tree analysis to determine the most influential factor to liquefaction. ArcGIS was then implemented to create landscape/soil models based on CLiqᵀᴹ data as well as calculations identified by statistical analysis.
The Hinuera Formation was found to have an overall susceptibility to liquefaction, ranging from low to high LPI dependant on depth. At a depth of 10 m, liquefaction potential on average was high, when compared to 3 and 5 m depths that showed a low to moderate LPI. At 3 m depth, which is most likely to show surface manifestation, liquefaction potential was low to moderate with the majority being considered as having a low LPI.

Soil textures ranged from coarse sand, to silt, to clay with few organics. When LPI was related to soil behaviour index (Ic) soil that had a ‘mixed’ texture of silty sand/sandy silt were most susceptible to liquefaction (~1.8-2.4 Ic). Much of the calculated liquefaction occurrence within CLiqᵀᴹ directly correlated to these sand/silt soil textures. Soil that was nearer to granular (coarse sand) or clay–like in behaviour were shown to likely inhibit liquefaction occurrence.
Soil family, a pedological map (and taxonomic) class, was shown to provide a good initial indication of the physical conditions of the underlying liquefiable soil, and therefore in turn liquefaction potential of land on the plains within the Hamilton Basin. A correlation between soil family and topography was identified using statistical analysis showing Utuhinaf and Kaipakif as most susceptible. Both Utuhinaf and Kaipakif soil families are of an organic texture (associated with peat formation). This observation led to the conclusion that areas of peat formation are likely correlated to the underlying soils having a relatively high susceptibility to liquefaction. This correlation is based on the knowledge that for peat formation to occur the land must have little relief (flat to a slight depression) and a high water table, both of which are prerequisites for liquefaction.
Elevation was also shown as a good initial indicator of liquefaction potential where a range between 38–39 m showed the highest liquefaction potential. When compared to a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) it was found that liquefaction potential was higher within interfluve and floodplain zones and lower in topography with a greater relief such as within the many paleo channels or low ridges of the Hamilton Basin. This is likely a result of the soil textures being finer with a higher silt component within the interfluve and floodplains due to the low energy depositional environment that is associated with these topographic features.
Based on the observations of soil family and topography being correlated to liquefaction susceptibility, two liquefaction susceptibility maps were developed to provide a preliminary assessment map.

text: Evaluating soil and landscape models to predict liquefaction susceptibility in the Hinuera Formation, Hamilton Basin The Hinuera Formation, being an extensive alluvial deposit throughout the Hamilton Basin plains, has been identified by Kleyburg (2015) as being susceptible to liquefaction. As much of the infrastructure of the Hamilton Basin is based on the Hinuera Formation, liquefaction thus poses a risk to the population of the area. This research project aims to develop a susceptibility model for liquefaction within the Hinuera Formation.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data collected during investigation for the Hamilton Section of the Waikato Expressway were acquired from the NZ Geotechnical Database. CLiqᵀᴹ software was used to analyse these data and determine the liquefaction potential index (LPI) of each CPT site. Soil map information (S-Map) was provided by Waikato Regional Council with the permission of Landcare Research, and Digital Elevation Data (DEM) by Waikato Regional Council. Parameters of slope, elevation, soil family and sibling number as well as the LPI derived from CLiqᵀᴹ were input into STATISTICAᵀᴹ and analysed using I-Tree analysis to determine the most influential factor to liquefaction. ArcGIS was then implemented to create landscape/soil models based on CLiqᵀᴹ data as well as calculations identified by statistical analysis.
The Hinuera Formation was found to have an overall susceptibility to liquefaction, ranging from low to high LPI dependant on depth. At a depth of 10 m, liquefaction potential on average was high, when compared to 3 and 5 m depths that showed a low to moderate LPI. At 3 m depth, which is most likely to show surface manifestation, liquefaction potential was low to moderate with the majority being considered as having a low LPI.

Soil textures ranged from coarse sand, to silt, to clay with few organics. When LPI was related to soil behaviour index (Ic) soil that had a ‘mixed’ texture of silty sand/sandy silt were most susceptible to liquefaction (~1.8-2.4 Ic). Much of the calculated liquefaction occurrence within CLiqᵀᴹ directly correlated to these sand/silt soil textures. Soil that was nearer to granular (coarse sand) or clay–like in behaviour were shown to likely inhibit liquefaction occurrence.
Soil family, a pedological map (and taxonomic) class, was shown to provide a good initial indication of the physical conditions of the underlying liquefiable soil, and therefore in turn liquefaction potential of land on the plains within the Hamilton Basin. A correlation between soil family and topography was identified using statistical analysis showing Utuhinaf and Kaipakif as most susceptible. Both Utuhinaf and Kaipakif soil families are of an organic texture (associated with peat formation). This observation led to the conclusion that areas of peat formation are likely correlated to the underlying soils having a relatively high susceptibility to liquefaction. This correlation is based on the knowledge that for peat formation to occur the land must have little relief (flat to a slight depression) and a high water table, both of which are prerequisites for liquefaction.
Elevation was also shown as a good initial indicator of liquefaction potential where a range between 38–39 m showed the highest liquefaction potential. When compared to a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) it was found that liquefaction potential was higher within interfluve and floodplain zones and lower in topography with a greater relief such as within the many paleo channels or low ridges of the Hamilton Basin. This is likely a result of the soil textures being finer with a higher silt component within the interfluve and floodplains due to the low energy depositional environment that is associated with these topographic features.
Based on the observations of soil family and topography being correlated to liquefaction susceptibility, two liquefaction susceptibility maps were developed to provide a preliminary assessment map.

year: 2017

title: Science education in context: An overview and some observations

authors: Coll, Richard K.

subjects: science education

abstract: This book presents an international perspective of the influence of educational context on science education. By this we mean the context in which the teaching and learning takes place, rather than the use of a context-based approach to learning and teaching (Pilot & Bulte, 2006). The focus is on the interactions between curriculum development and implementation in non-Western and non- English-speaking contexts (i.e., outside the UK, USA, Australia, NZ, etc.).

text: Science education in context: An overview and some observations This book presents an international perspective of the influence of educational context on science education. By this we mean the context in which the teaching and learning takes place, rather than the use of a context-based approach to learning and teaching (Pilot & Bulte, 2006). The focus is on the interactions between curriculum development and implementation in non-Western and non- English-speaking contexts (i.e., outside the UK, USA, Australia, NZ, etc.).

year: 2008

title: Na Tarimo i whakaari... Ko Rangiwewehi te iwi

authors: Flavell, James William Ben

abstract: Ko ngā kōrero e whai ake nei, he mea kohikohi, he mea tuku mai ki ahau mō te iwi e kiia nei, ko Ngāti Rangiwewehi. Ko te rohe ki te taha raki o te Rotorua-nui-ā-kahumatamomoe to tūrangawaewae, otirā the rohe takahi o te iwi nei, i ngā rā o mua, nā, ahakoa he nui te whenua kua ngaro atu, kei konei tonu te papa kāinga mō tēnei karangatanga o Te Arawa waka, kei konei hoki tōna mauri, tōna mana, tōna wehi.
Ko Ngāti Rangiwehei i ēnei rā, e rite tonu ana ki te tōtara nui. I tipu ake tēnei tōtara i te kākano i ruia i Rangiātea arā, i Hawaiki, i mānu mai ki Aotearoa nei, i puāwai mai, ā, kei te tipu tonu, kei te tuipu tonu.
Nā, kei roto i tēnei rākau, ko ngā kōrero katoa mō te iwi nei, arā ko ngā whakapapa, ko ngā waiata ko ngā karakia, ko ngā pakiwaitara otirā ko ngā āhuatanga katoa e pā ana ki te iwi. Kei konei hoki ko te ira o te tangata e mau nei i ēnei āhuatanga nei.
Ka tae ki te ngahuru, ka heke iho ngā rau rākau ka pirau, ka ngaro. Pēnei i te rākau nei, te hinga te tangata, ka kapohia e te ringa o Aituā, ā, ka ngaro. Ēhara i te mea ko te mauri o te tangata anake te mea e ngaro nei, ēngari, ko ōna mātauranga katoa hoki.
Nā, matemate noa atu ngā koroua me ngākuia e mōhio tūturu ana ki ngā kōrero hōhonu tuku iho a Ngāti Rangiwewehi. Nō reira, ko tāku mahi, he kohi i ēnei kōrero, i mua i te ngaronga tonutanga o ngā kaumātua e ora ana, nei ngaro.
Kua kohia nei e au ngā kōrero katoa ahakoa Māori ahakoa Pākehā, kia kitea ai, kia mārama ake ai ngā momo āhuatanga o tōku iwi.
Ēhara tēnei i te me ngāwari, nō te mea, ko tēnei mea te mātaranga ahakoa he whakapapa rānei, he pakiwaitara rānei, he mea tino tapu ki te Māori, i te ao tawhito, ā, kei te pērā anō hoki i ēnei rā. Kua oti te tārai te tāhū o tēnei tuhituhinga e kore a taea te whakatārewa tēnei tāhū mehemea kāore, ōna pou kāore ōna here e tika ana. Otirā e kore e tū te whare kōreo, te tāhū whakaringa kōereo, mehemea kāore ōna kaupapa whenua, tangata, tae atu ki a Papatūānuku. Nō reira, koia tēnei ka tātaihia ake ngā kupu kōreroa muri ake nei, kia tutuki ai ngā tūmanako ngā wawata, a ngā whakatipuranga, mai, mai, mai i te pō ki ngā kaikōrero me te kaituhi.
E ai ki te iwi, ko Rangiwewehi te tipuna o tēnei iwi te tamaiti a Tawakeheimoa rāua ko Te Aongahoro.
Nā te mea, he karangatanga a Ngāti Rangiwewehi nō Te Arawa waka i hoki atu ai au ki ngā kōrero mō tēnei waka tapu. Tae rawa mai tēnei waka ki tēnei whenua, ka horapa hāere ngā tāngata i te mata o te whenua. I tōna wā, i tae atu ngā tīpuna ke Te Awahou awa, otirā ki te taha raki o Rotorua moana. Mai i taua wā, ka tīmata ngā āhuatanga katoa e pā ana ki tēnei iwi.
Nā, ēhara tēnei tuhinga i te pukapuka hei whakaatu i te tūturutanga o ngā kōrero katoa o Ngāti Rangiwewehi, mā Ngāti Rangiwewehi hei whai atu, ēngari he kōrero kua kohia nei e au i ngā rangatira, i ngā tohunga, i ngā tāngata mōhio, i ngā whāea, i ngā kaumātua me ngā pukapuka a ngā Māori me ngā Pākehā.
He pūtake kōrero noa iho tēnei mō Ngāti Rangiwewehi he tohu whakamaharatanga hoki ki ngā tīpuna, ki ngā mātua kua wehe atu nei ki te pō.

text: Na Tarimo i whakaari... Ko Rangiwewehi te iwi Ko ngā kōrero e whai ake nei, he mea kohikohi, he mea tuku mai ki ahau mō te iwi e kiia nei, ko Ngāti Rangiwewehi. Ko te rohe ki te taha raki o te Rotorua-nui-ā-kahumatamomoe to tūrangawaewae, otirā the rohe takahi o te iwi nei, i ngā rā o mua, nā, ahakoa he nui te whenua kua ngaro atu, kei konei tonu te papa kāinga mō tēnei karangatanga o Te Arawa waka, kei konei hoki tōna mauri, tōna mana, tōna wehi.
Ko Ngāti Rangiwehei i ēnei rā, e rite tonu ana ki te tōtara nui. I tipu ake tēnei tōtara i te kākano i ruia i Rangiātea arā, i Hawaiki, i mānu mai ki Aotearoa nei, i puāwai mai, ā, kei te tipu tonu, kei te tuipu tonu.
Nā, kei roto i tēnei rākau, ko ngā kōrero katoa mō te iwi nei, arā ko ngā whakapapa, ko ngā waiata ko ngā karakia, ko ngā pakiwaitara otirā ko ngā āhuatanga katoa e pā ana ki te iwi. Kei konei hoki ko te ira o te tangata e mau nei i ēnei āhuatanga nei.
Ka tae ki te ngahuru, ka heke iho ngā rau rākau ka pirau, ka ngaro. Pēnei i te rākau nei, te hinga te tangata, ka kapohia e te ringa o Aituā, ā, ka ngaro. Ēhara i te mea ko te mauri o te tangata anake te mea e ngaro nei, ēngari, ko ōna mātauranga katoa hoki.
Nā, matemate noa atu ngā koroua me ngākuia e mōhio tūturu ana ki ngā kōrero hōhonu tuku iho a Ngāti Rangiwewehi. Nō reira, ko tāku mahi, he kohi i ēnei kōrero, i mua i te ngaronga tonutanga o ngā kaumātua e ora ana, nei ngaro.
Kua kohia nei e au ngā kōrero katoa ahakoa Māori ahakoa Pākehā, kia kitea ai, kia mārama ake ai ngā momo āhuatanga o tōku iwi.
Ēhara tēnei i te me ngāwari, nō te mea, ko tēnei mea te mātaranga ahakoa he whakapapa rānei, he pakiwaitara rānei, he mea tino tapu ki te Māori, i te ao tawhito, ā, kei te pērā anō hoki i ēnei rā. Kua oti te tārai te tāhū o tēnei tuhituhinga e kore a taea te whakatārewa tēnei tāhū mehemea kāore, ōna pou kāore ōna here e tika ana. Otirā e kore e tū te whare kōreo, te tāhū whakaringa kōereo, mehemea kāore ōna kaupapa whenua, tangata, tae atu ki a Papatūānuku. Nō reira, koia tēnei ka tātaihia ake ngā kupu kōreroa muri ake nei, kia tutuki ai ngā tūmanako ngā wawata, a ngā whakatipuranga, mai, mai, mai i te pō ki ngā kaikōrero me te kaituhi.
E ai ki te iwi, ko Rangiwewehi te tipuna o tēnei iwi te tamaiti a Tawakeheimoa rāua ko Te Aongahoro.
Nā te mea, he karangatanga a Ngāti Rangiwewehi nō Te Arawa waka i hoki atu ai au ki ngā kōrero mō tēnei waka tapu. Tae rawa mai tēnei waka ki tēnei whenua, ka horapa hāere ngā tāngata i te mata o te whenua. I tōna wā, i tae atu ngā tīpuna ke Te Awahou awa, otirā ki te taha raki o Rotorua moana. Mai i taua wā, ka tīmata ngā āhuatanga katoa e pā ana ki tēnei iwi.
Nā, ēhara tēnei tuhinga i te pukapuka hei whakaatu i te tūturutanga o ngā kōrero katoa o Ngāti Rangiwewehi, mā Ngāti Rangiwewehi hei whai atu, ēngari he kōrero kua kohia nei e au i ngā rangatira, i ngā tohunga, i ngā tāngata mōhio, i ngā whāea, i ngā kaumātua me ngā pukapuka a ngā Māori me ngā Pākehā.
He pūtake kōrero noa iho tēnei mō Ngāti Rangiwewehi he tohu whakamaharatanga hoki ki ngā tīpuna, ki ngā mātua kua wehe atu nei ki te pō.

year: 1986