title: The influence of income on subjective well-being: An empirical study in transitional country of Vietnam

authors: La, Binh

abstract: Abstracts
The pursuit of happiness is not merely a personal endeavour but also a societal imperative, influencing governmental policies and individual well-being. In the realm of economics, the correlation between income and happiness has long been a subject of scrutiny, particularly the phenomenon known as the income paradox. This paradox, first highlighted by Easterlin in 1974, questions why despite rising incomes, average happiness levels often remain stagnant. Numerous studies have since delved into this puzzle, with a predominant focus on relative income and income inequality. However, there remains a notable research gap on this subject in transitional countries, especially Vietnam.
This thesis aims to enrich the empirical study of the influence of income on subjective well-being, in part to elucidate the income - happiness paradox in Vietnam. This thesis includes three papers.
The first paper employs panel data sourced from the Viet Nam Access to Resources Household Survey (VARHS), spanning three periods — 2012, 2014, and 2016. Utilising fixed effect estimates, it assessed the impact of absolute income and three specifications of external comparison income on individual happiness. The focal point of this paper lies in categorizing subgroups based on relative income rather than absolute income. This approach enables the removal of conflicting relationships, allowing for a clearer understanding of how social comparison income influences individual happiness. Findings suggest that individuals compare themselves to multiple reference groups, both upwards to those better off and downwards to those worse off. However, statistically significant results emerge only when one comparison outweighs the other, or when both comparisons align either upward or downward impact. Intriguingly, the outcome shifts from asymmetry to near symmetry when the interactive effects among reference groups change from opposition to alignment. 
The second paper presents a pioneering investigation into the impact of self-perceived economic status on subjective well-being. This study employs panel data sourced from VARHS, covering three periods: 2016, 2018, and 2020. By employing fixed effect estimates, it investigates the dynamic interplay between absolute and relative self-perceived household economic status within the commune and subjective well-being. This exploration is conducted by applying four primary specifications and an analysis of the interaction between increases in per capita income and shifts in household economic status. The findings reveal that present self-perceived economics status positively influences personal happiness, while past self-perceived economics status has the opposite effect. 
Additionally, the influence of comparisons between present and past self-perceived relative income can exhibit symmetry or asymmetry, depending on the approach. Moreover, a positive relationship is identified between the distance in a household's current and past economic household rank and individual happiness. External comparison is asymmetrical and is a stronger factor than internal income comparison. Despite an increase in absolute income, overall personal SWB is not guaranteed to rise, underscoring the pivotal role of the perception of household economic position or relative income in determining individual happiness. 
The third and final paper represents one of the earliest studies to examine the influence of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction, employing an instrumental variable approach. It is also a pioneering study in utilising data from the VARHS of 2020 in investigating the effects of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction in Vietnam. The results highlight the adverse impact of perceived income inequality on individuals' overall life satisfaction, with controls for endogeneity further emphasizing this effect. These findings underscore the importance of government initiatives aimed at reducing economic disparities to enhance individual subjective well-being.

text: The influence of income on subjective well-being: An empirical study in transitional country of Vietnam Abstracts
The pursuit of happiness is not merely a personal endeavour but also a societal imperative, influencing governmental policies and individual well-being. In the realm of economics, the correlation between income and happiness has long been a subject of scrutiny, particularly the phenomenon known as the income paradox. This paradox, first highlighted by Easterlin in 1974, questions why despite rising incomes, average happiness levels often remain stagnant. Numerous studies have since delved into this puzzle, with a predominant focus on relative income and income inequality. However, there remains a notable research gap on this subject in transitional countries, especially Vietnam.
This thesis aims to enrich the empirical study of the influence of income on subjective well-being, in part to elucidate the income - happiness paradox in Vietnam. This thesis includes three papers.
The first paper employs panel data sourced from the Viet Nam Access to Resources Household Survey (VARHS), spanning three periods — 2012, 2014, and 2016. Utilising fixed effect estimates, it assessed the impact of absolute income and three specifications of external comparison income on individual happiness. The focal point of this paper lies in categorizing subgroups based on relative income rather than absolute income. This approach enables the removal of conflicting relationships, allowing for a clearer understanding of how social comparison income influences individual happiness. Findings suggest that individuals compare themselves to multiple reference groups, both upwards to those better off and downwards to those worse off. However, statistically significant results emerge only when one comparison outweighs the other, or when both comparisons align either upward or downward impact. Intriguingly, the outcome shifts from asymmetry to near symmetry when the interactive effects among reference groups change from opposition to alignment. 
The second paper presents a pioneering investigation into the impact of self-perceived economic status on subjective well-being. This study employs panel data sourced from VARHS, covering three periods: 2016, 2018, and 2020. By employing fixed effect estimates, it investigates the dynamic interplay between absolute and relative self-perceived household economic status within the commune and subjective well-being. This exploration is conducted by applying four primary specifications and an analysis of the interaction between increases in per capita income and shifts in household economic status. The findings reveal that present self-perceived economics status positively influences personal happiness, while past self-perceived economics status has the opposite effect. 
Additionally, the influence of comparisons between present and past self-perceived relative income can exhibit symmetry or asymmetry, depending on the approach. Moreover, a positive relationship is identified between the distance in a household's current and past economic household rank and individual happiness. External comparison is asymmetrical and is a stronger factor than internal income comparison. Despite an increase in absolute income, overall personal SWB is not guaranteed to rise, underscoring the pivotal role of the perception of household economic position or relative income in determining individual happiness. 
The third and final paper represents one of the earliest studies to examine the influence of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction, employing an instrumental variable approach. It is also a pioneering study in utilising data from the VARHS of 2020 in investigating the effects of self-perceived income inequality on life satisfaction in Vietnam. The results highlight the adverse impact of perceived income inequality on individuals' overall life satisfaction, with controls for endogeneity further emphasizing this effect. These findings underscore the importance of government initiatives aimed at reducing economic disparities to enhance individual subjective well-being.

year: 2024-11-30

title: A paradox in action? A critical analysis of an appreciative inquiry

authors: Grant, Suzanne Lisa Parker

subjects: Appreciative inquiry

abstract: A journey comprised of three paths is the metaphor through which I
i)	reflect and report on my involvement with four New Zealand primary school Boards of Trustees (BOTs) investigating the emancipatory potential that applications of information and communication technologies (ICTs) may have on their governance processes,
ii)	analyse appreciative inquiry through application(s) of critical theory, with specific reference to the investigation above so as to deepen understanding of the research method, and
iii)	reflect on my personal development, as achieved through my engagement with participants and the research process. 	

Stemming from an interest in improving school governance I was keen to identify current use of ICTs by BOTs and to work with them to identify potential applications. Appreciative inquiry with its focus on enhancing existing positive organisational attributes seemed to provide an appropriate structure for my investigation. At the back of my mind however, a concern was formulating: Does this method of research deliver the benefits the literature espouses? What influence would the positive orientation have on the research process and on the power dynamics within the research environment? Complementary streams of critical thinking and reflexivity were invoked to assist my analysis.

Applications of ICTs which may appear 'helpful' to BOT governance processes are identified in this report. However, uncritical uptake of these applications may not necessarily be consistent with the emancipatory intentions I aspire to. Framed within Habermas' theory of communicative action, the potential colonisation of the BOT lifeworld by the system is considered. Domesticating influences may potentially constrain democratic processes at local school and societal levels.

The participatory action research process undertaken facilitated a deepened understanding of governance for all involved. Identification of time and funding constraints indicates BOTs may be prevented from reaching their true potential. Attempts to enhance governance through additional applications of ICTs will be of minimal effect unless efforts are made to better understand and resource the governance efforts of Trustees. Purported empowerment of the community as mandated in the Education Act 1989 comes with a heavy cost, for schools and individuals. Care must be taken to ensure that 'efficiency' gains are not made at the expense of democratic processes. 

Critical analysis of appreciative inquiry as a research method highlights the influences of power and language use within the research process. Appreciative inquiry should be seen as a process for, rather than a master of change. The contribution of appreciative inquiry to organisational and personal transformation may be drawn from the ontological basis of the approach rather than from the technicalities of a specific form of implementation. I suggest the focus on what is 'good' be made more complex, to recognise that appreciation may also mean 'to know, to be conscious of, to take full and sufficient account of'. Application of an enhanced definition of appreciation has deepened my understanding of not only the situation under investigation but also the research process itself. Through my enhanced concept of 'appreciation' embedded and sometimes obscured influences were highlighted, better understood, and at times transformed to serve the emancipatory aspirations of participants.

In keeping with the reflexivity mandated by my commitment to critical theory and action research, I applied this enhanced definition of appreciation to my personal development during my engagement with participants and the research process. My struggles to apply my chosen social constructionist and critical theory lenses to this work are evident in my attempts to work with the largely functionalist literature in this field and the influence of my undergraduate education. Recognising the theoretical and personal developments I gained as I travelled the three paths of my PhD journey, the scene is now set for me to challenge the predominance of functionalist, mechanistic metaphors which dominate organisational literature. In doing so, I seek an alternative approach to understanding organisational activity; and a new vocabulary through which I might extend my understanding, and negotiate new and emancipatory meaning(s) with others.

text: A paradox in action? A critical analysis of an appreciative inquiry A journey comprised of three paths is the metaphor through which I
i)	reflect and report on my involvement with four New Zealand primary school Boards of Trustees (BOTs) investigating the emancipatory potential that applications of information and communication technologies (ICTs) may have on their governance processes,
ii)	analyse appreciative inquiry through application(s) of critical theory, with specific reference to the investigation above so as to deepen understanding of the research method, and
iii)	reflect on my personal development, as achieved through my engagement with participants and the research process. 	

Stemming from an interest in improving school governance I was keen to identify current use of ICTs by BOTs and to work with them to identify potential applications. Appreciative inquiry with its focus on enhancing existing positive organisational attributes seemed to provide an appropriate structure for my investigation. At the back of my mind however, a concern was formulating: Does this method of research deliver the benefits the literature espouses? What influence would the positive orientation have on the research process and on the power dynamics within the research environment? Complementary streams of critical thinking and reflexivity were invoked to assist my analysis.

Applications of ICTs which may appear 'helpful' to BOT governance processes are identified in this report. However, uncritical uptake of these applications may not necessarily be consistent with the emancipatory intentions I aspire to. Framed within Habermas' theory of communicative action, the potential colonisation of the BOT lifeworld by the system is considered. Domesticating influences may potentially constrain democratic processes at local school and societal levels.

The participatory action research process undertaken facilitated a deepened understanding of governance for all involved. Identification of time and funding constraints indicates BOTs may be prevented from reaching their true potential. Attempts to enhance governance through additional applications of ICTs will be of minimal effect unless efforts are made to better understand and resource the governance efforts of Trustees. Purported empowerment of the community as mandated in the Education Act 1989 comes with a heavy cost, for schools and individuals. Care must be taken to ensure that 'efficiency' gains are not made at the expense of democratic processes. 

Critical analysis of appreciative inquiry as a research method highlights the influences of power and language use within the research process. Appreciative inquiry should be seen as a process for, rather than a master of change. The contribution of appreciative inquiry to organisational and personal transformation may be drawn from the ontological basis of the approach rather than from the technicalities of a specific form of implementation. I suggest the focus on what is 'good' be made more complex, to recognise that appreciation may also mean 'to know, to be conscious of, to take full and sufficient account of'. Application of an enhanced definition of appreciation has deepened my understanding of not only the situation under investigation but also the research process itself. Through my enhanced concept of 'appreciation' embedded and sometimes obscured influences were highlighted, better understood, and at times transformed to serve the emancipatory aspirations of participants.

In keeping with the reflexivity mandated by my commitment to critical theory and action research, I applied this enhanced definition of appreciation to my personal development during my engagement with participants and the research process. My struggles to apply my chosen social constructionist and critical theory lenses to this work are evident in my attempts to work with the largely functionalist literature in this field and the influence of my undergraduate education. Recognising the theoretical and personal developments I gained as I travelled the three paths of my PhD journey, the scene is now set for me to challenge the predominance of functionalist, mechanistic metaphors which dominate organisational literature. In doing so, I seek an alternative approach to understanding organisational activity; and a new vocabulary through which I might extend my understanding, and negotiate new and emancipatory meaning(s) with others.

year: 2006

title: Aro mai aro atu: Raising Māori-medium students' academic oral language proficiency

authors: Shandley, Rosina Mary

subjects: Māori-medium

abstract: From the early 1860s, colonial governments worked systematically to eradicate the language and culture of the indigenous people of Aotearoa / New Zealand, and, by the late 1960s, the death of the Māori language was being predicted by leading linguists. Māori leaders responded in the 1980s with language regeneration initiatives that included the birth of Māori-medium education. Today, this uniquely indigenous education system is a significant site of language learning for new generations of Māori children. In Māori-medium education, children are nurtured, educated, and loved as Māori, and they are more likely to attain educational qualifications than their Māori peers who attend English-medium schools. 

The success of Māori-medium education is achieved in the face of a raft of ongoing challenges that teachers and students confront on a daily basis. Years of language marginalisation, including the disruption to intergenerational transfer, mean Māori-medium students are required to learn the curriculum through their second and less-developed language. They have limited opportunities to hear or use the Māori language outside of the school, and this places huge pressure on teachers who are often their most significant language models. The challenge is compounded by the limited education that has been made available to teachers in relation to second-language pedagogies specifically designed for Māori-medium classrooms. The resulting situation is that Māori-medium teachers are often left struggling to find ways that they can develop students’ Māori language proficiency at the same time as their curriculum achievement so that one is not sacrificed for the other. 

This study designed and trialled pedagogies to support Māori-medium students to develop their academic oral language proficiency at the same time as their curriculum achievement. It was a mixed methods study grounded in a kaupapa Māori approach, and involved three teachers and 24 students across three separate Māori-medium schools. An Anga Putanga Ako (Curriculum Outcomes Matrix) was developed to support the students to understand what they needed to learn to progress through the writing curriculum. Teachers then learnt to share explicit learning outcomes from the Anga Putanga Ako with students before lessons and to allow them time to discuss their achievement of those outcomes in pairs at the conclusion of those lessons. Linguistic scaffolds were developed to support students’ learning conversations, including the self and peer assessment of the learning outcomes, and decisions about their curriculum achievement levels and next learning steps.

The quantitative and qualitative results of the study revealed that the confluence of the self and peer assessment practices, supported by the Anga Putanga Ako and linguistic scaffolds, improved the students’ academic oral language and accelerated their reading and writing achievement significantly beyond what is usually expected in a Māori-medium classroom in 14 weeks. The study also found that, through implementing the self and peer assessment pedagogies, teachers were able to identify ways they could develop their students’ academic language and curriculum achievement simultaneously and how these approaches could be applied across the curriculum.

It was clear from the research results that pedagogies that support second-language development and curriculum learning, such as the self and peer assessment pedagogies demonstrated in this study, need to be explicitly taught with consistency across initial and in-service teacher education programmes. This development is necessary to help ensure Māori-medium students are supported with the thinking and linguistic skills needed to contribute to the creation of new knowledge, to support or challenge the current social order as they see fit, and to continue to transfer the Māori language to new generations of mokopuna.

text: Aro mai aro atu: Raising Māori-medium students' academic oral language proficiency From the early 1860s, colonial governments worked systematically to eradicate the language and culture of the indigenous people of Aotearoa / New Zealand, and, by the late 1960s, the death of the Māori language was being predicted by leading linguists. Māori leaders responded in the 1980s with language regeneration initiatives that included the birth of Māori-medium education. Today, this uniquely indigenous education system is a significant site of language learning for new generations of Māori children. In Māori-medium education, children are nurtured, educated, and loved as Māori, and they are more likely to attain educational qualifications than their Māori peers who attend English-medium schools. 

The success of Māori-medium education is achieved in the face of a raft of ongoing challenges that teachers and students confront on a daily basis. Years of language marginalisation, including the disruption to intergenerational transfer, mean Māori-medium students are required to learn the curriculum through their second and less-developed language. They have limited opportunities to hear or use the Māori language outside of the school, and this places huge pressure on teachers who are often their most significant language models. The challenge is compounded by the limited education that has been made available to teachers in relation to second-language pedagogies specifically designed for Māori-medium classrooms. The resulting situation is that Māori-medium teachers are often left struggling to find ways that they can develop students’ Māori language proficiency at the same time as their curriculum achievement so that one is not sacrificed for the other. 

This study designed and trialled pedagogies to support Māori-medium students to develop their academic oral language proficiency at the same time as their curriculum achievement. It was a mixed methods study grounded in a kaupapa Māori approach, and involved three teachers and 24 students across three separate Māori-medium schools. An Anga Putanga Ako (Curriculum Outcomes Matrix) was developed to support the students to understand what they needed to learn to progress through the writing curriculum. Teachers then learnt to share explicit learning outcomes from the Anga Putanga Ako with students before lessons and to allow them time to discuss their achievement of those outcomes in pairs at the conclusion of those lessons. Linguistic scaffolds were developed to support students’ learning conversations, including the self and peer assessment of the learning outcomes, and decisions about their curriculum achievement levels and next learning steps.

The quantitative and qualitative results of the study revealed that the confluence of the self and peer assessment practices, supported by the Anga Putanga Ako and linguistic scaffolds, improved the students’ academic oral language and accelerated their reading and writing achievement significantly beyond what is usually expected in a Māori-medium classroom in 14 weeks. The study also found that, through implementing the self and peer assessment pedagogies, teachers were able to identify ways they could develop their students’ academic language and curriculum achievement simultaneously and how these approaches could be applied across the curriculum.

It was clear from the research results that pedagogies that support second-language development and curriculum learning, such as the self and peer assessment pedagogies demonstrated in this study, need to be explicitly taught with consistency across initial and in-service teacher education programmes. This development is necessary to help ensure Māori-medium students are supported with the thinking and linguistic skills needed to contribute to the creation of new knowledge, to support or challenge the current social order as they see fit, and to continue to transfer the Māori language to new generations of mokopuna.

year: 2022