title: Solomon Islands: Colonisation and the complexity of nationhood

authors: Rohorua, Frederick Isom

subjects: Soloman Islands

abstract: To many people, 'Solomon Islands' is little more than a name attached to a group of islands on a map, a place often associated with unrest and internal strife. That these islands are perceived as a totality, as a bounded entity, relates to the fact that they are identified by a single name and the fact that this name is now associated with a political entity, a nation state. Whether these islands can be said to represent a social entity is a rather different matter, one that is critical to our understanding of both the people who inhabit these islands and the political processes that have played a part in shaping their sense of identity. In this paper, I attempt to unravel some of the complexities of nationhood and identity in contemporary Solomon Islands society with reference to three readily identifiable metaphors: island, betel nut and wantok which were first used with reference to Solomon Islands by Bishop Brown (2003).

text: Solomon Islands: Colonisation and the complexity of nationhood To many people, 'Solomon Islands' is little more than a name attached to a group of islands on a map, a place often associated with unrest and internal strife. That these islands are perceived as a totality, as a bounded entity, relates to the fact that they are identified by a single name and the fact that this name is now associated with a political entity, a nation state. Whether these islands can be said to represent a social entity is a rather different matter, one that is critical to our understanding of both the people who inhabit these islands and the political processes that have played a part in shaping their sense of identity. In this paper, I attempt to unravel some of the complexities of nationhood and identity in contemporary Solomon Islands society with reference to three readily identifiable metaphors: island, betel nut and wantok which were first used with reference to Solomon Islands by Bishop Brown (2003).

year: 2006-02

title: Persistence and availability of agrichemical residues in New Zealand horticultural soils

authors: Gaw, S. K.

subjects: Agricultural chemicals Environmental aspects New Zealand

abstract: ﻿New Zealand has a long history of intensive horticulture and many of the greenfield sites designated for residential development have previously been extensively used for horticulture. Currently there is limited information on the potential levels and likely effects of agrichemical residues in horticultural soils available to regulatory authorities with a mandate to manage contaminants in soil. A series of investigations were undertaken to identify the key contaminants present in horticultural soils, to determine the availability and toxicity of contaminants to plants and earthworms, and to estimate likely human exposures to selected contaminants in residential settings. 
Trace element and selected organochlorine pesticide concentrations were measured in soil samples collected from horticultural and grazing properties in three regions of New Zealand (Auckland, Tasman and Waikato). Elevated levels of arsenic ( <2-58 mg kg- 1 ), cadmium (<0.1-1.5 mg kg- 1 ), copper (5-523 mg kg-1), lead (5-243 mg kt1 ) and LDDT (<0.03-34.5 mg kt1 ) were detected in horticultural soils from all three regions. With the exception of cadmium and zinc, significantly higher levels of contaminants were generally detected in horticultural soils than in grazing soils (p<0.05). Concentrations ofLDDT, arsenic, cadmium, copper, and lead in some soils and particularly orchard soils exceeded soil criteria for the protection of ecological receptors and/or human health. Additional analyses undertaken on the Auckland region samples infrequently detected organophosphorus and organonitrogen pesticides and at levels generally less than 1 mg kt1 in horticultural soils. Acidic herbicides were not detected in the Auckland samples. 
p,p '-DDE and p,p '-DDT were the predominant DDT residues measured in horticultural soils. The p,p'-DDE:p,p'-DDT ratios in the measured horticultural soils ranged from 0.4 to 9.7. Significant negative correlations were found between the p,p '-DDE:p,p '-DDT ratios and copper in the Auckland (p<0.001) and Waikato (p<0.02) orchard soils. These results suggest that copper may be a contributing factor to inhibited degradation of p,p'-DDT to p,p'-DDE in orchard soils and that the ratio of p,p '-DDE:p,p '-DDT in horticultural soils, especially orchard soils, should not be used as an indicator ofrecent use ofp,p'-DDT. 
A persulfate oxidation method was used to estimate the fraction of p,p '-DDT in orchard soils available for microbial degradation. The proportion of p,p '-DDT oxidised by the persulfate ranged from 4 to 3 7% indicating that a significant proportion of the p,p '-DDT in the orchard soils (up to 96% in some cases) may not be available for degradation by soil micro-organisms. 
The availability and toxicity of aged LDDT and trace element residues in orchard and grazing soils to the endogenous earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Lumbricidae) was assessed using a 28 day laboratory assay. The worms bioaccumulated the aged DDT residues by up to a factor of 3 with concentrations of LDDT in worm tissue increasing with increasing soil concentration (p<0.001). Worm tissue concentrations ofLDDT correlated with the amount ofLDDT desorbed from soil by two biomimetic extraction techniques, Tenax resin and C-18 disks, indicating that these methods may be suitable for determining the availability of aged LDDT residues to A. caliginosa. Concentrations of arsenic, copper and lead in worm tissue increased with increasing soil concentration of these trace elements (p<0.01). Cocoon production decreased with increasing soil and earthworm tissue copper concentrations (p<0.05). 
A glasshouse study was undertaken to assess uptake of LDDT, arsenic, cadmium, copper and lead into lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and radish (Raphanus sativus) from 10 soils containing typical contaminant concentrations. LDDT concentrations in the assayed soils ranged from 0.02 to 12 mg kg· 1 • The maximum plant tissue LDDT concentrations (DW) followed the order radish hypocotyl (190 µg kg- 1 ) >radish leaf (77 µg kg- 1 ) >lettuce (28 µg kg-1 ) and there were significant correlations between all plant tissue types and the soil concentrationofLDDT andp,p'-DDE (p<0.01). 
Concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc in lettuce, copper in radish hypocotyls, and copper and zinc in radish leaves increased with increasing soil trace element concentration (p<0.02). Lettuce cadmium concentrations for plants grown on four out of ten assayed soils were equivalent to or exceeded the NZ food standard for leafy vegetables of 0.1 mg kg"1 FW. Lead concentrations in radish hypocotyls grown in three out of eight soils were equivalent to or exceeded half of the NZ food standard for lead in root vegetables of 0.1 mg kg·1 FW. Phytotoxicity was determined by measuring the dry mass yield of lettuce and radish, and by a five day seedling emergence and root elongation assay for lettuce and ryegrass (Lolium perenne). The radish leaf yield and the root length of lettuce seedlings grown in orchard soils for five days decreased with increasing soil copper concentration (total and/or neutral salt extractable). 
A simulated gastric extraction method was used to determine the bioaccessible fraction of arsenic, cadmium and lead in soil. The maximum percent bioaccessible fraction for the trace elements followed the order arsenic (45%)<lead (83%)<cadmium(100%). Likely human exposures to LDDT, arsenic, cadmium and lead in residential settings under two home grown produce consumption scenarios (10 and 50%) were estimated using methodology generally consistent with current NZ government policy. 
Estimated daily intakes of LDDT, arsenic, cadmium and lead for lifetime exposures in residential settings did not exceed the WHO tolerable intakes under the 10% homegrown produce scenario. Similarly, the estimated LDDT and arsenic intakes for the 50% homegrown produce scenario did not exceed their respective WHO tolerable intakes. Estimated cadmium daily intakes for the 50% home grown produce consumption scenario exceeded the WHO tolerable intake for cadmium at soil concentrations greater than 0.75 mg kg- 1 for a child and 1 mg kt1 for the lifetime exposure. Estimated child lead intakes exceeded the WHO tolerable intake at soil concentrations greater than 450 mg kg- 1.
The results presented in this thesis have implications for on going applications of agrichemicals and soil amendments to horticultural land as well as residential subdivision of former horticultural land. Trace element concentrations on some· properties have already reached concentrations where negative effects on terrestrial organisms have been demonstrated to occur. The results in this thesis suggest that a precautionary approach should be adopted to subdividing former horticultural sites. Horticultural land being subdivided in particular for lifestyle blocks should be assessed prior to subdivision to ensure that thresholds for acceptable human exposures are not exceeded.

text: Persistence and availability of agrichemical residues in New Zealand horticultural soils ﻿New Zealand has a long history of intensive horticulture and many of the greenfield sites designated for residential development have previously been extensively used for horticulture. Currently there is limited information on the potential levels and likely effects of agrichemical residues in horticultural soils available to regulatory authorities with a mandate to manage contaminants in soil. A series of investigations were undertaken to identify the key contaminants present in horticultural soils, to determine the availability and toxicity of contaminants to plants and earthworms, and to estimate likely human exposures to selected contaminants in residential settings. 
Trace element and selected organochlorine pesticide concentrations were measured in soil samples collected from horticultural and grazing properties in three regions of New Zealand (Auckland, Tasman and Waikato). Elevated levels of arsenic ( <2-58 mg kg- 1 ), cadmium (<0.1-1.5 mg kg- 1 ), copper (5-523 mg kg-1), lead (5-243 mg kt1 ) and LDDT (<0.03-34.5 mg kt1 ) were detected in horticultural soils from all three regions. With the exception of cadmium and zinc, significantly higher levels of contaminants were generally detected in horticultural soils than in grazing soils (p<0.05). Concentrations ofLDDT, arsenic, cadmium, copper, and lead in some soils and particularly orchard soils exceeded soil criteria for the protection of ecological receptors and/or human health. Additional analyses undertaken on the Auckland region samples infrequently detected organophosphorus and organonitrogen pesticides and at levels generally less than 1 mg kt1 in horticultural soils. Acidic herbicides were not detected in the Auckland samples. 
p,p '-DDE and p,p '-DDT were the predominant DDT residues measured in horticultural soils. The p,p'-DDE:p,p'-DDT ratios in the measured horticultural soils ranged from 0.4 to 9.7. Significant negative correlations were found between the p,p '-DDE:p,p '-DDT ratios and copper in the Auckland (p<0.001) and Waikato (p<0.02) orchard soils. These results suggest that copper may be a contributing factor to inhibited degradation of p,p'-DDT to p,p'-DDE in orchard soils and that the ratio of p,p '-DDE:p,p '-DDT in horticultural soils, especially orchard soils, should not be used as an indicator ofrecent use ofp,p'-DDT. 
A persulfate oxidation method was used to estimate the fraction of p,p '-DDT in orchard soils available for microbial degradation. The proportion of p,p '-DDT oxidised by the persulfate ranged from 4 to 3 7% indicating that a significant proportion of the p,p '-DDT in the orchard soils (up to 96% in some cases) may not be available for degradation by soil micro-organisms. 
The availability and toxicity of aged LDDT and trace element residues in orchard and grazing soils to the endogenous earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Lumbricidae) was assessed using a 28 day laboratory assay. The worms bioaccumulated the aged DDT residues by up to a factor of 3 with concentrations of LDDT in worm tissue increasing with increasing soil concentration (p<0.001). Worm tissue concentrations ofLDDT correlated with the amount ofLDDT desorbed from soil by two biomimetic extraction techniques, Tenax resin and C-18 disks, indicating that these methods may be suitable for determining the availability of aged LDDT residues to A. caliginosa. Concentrations of arsenic, copper and lead in worm tissue increased with increasing soil concentration of these trace elements (p<0.01). Cocoon production decreased with increasing soil and earthworm tissue copper concentrations (p<0.05). 
A glasshouse study was undertaken to assess uptake of LDDT, arsenic, cadmium, copper and lead into lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and radish (Raphanus sativus) from 10 soils containing typical contaminant concentrations. LDDT concentrations in the assayed soils ranged from 0.02 to 12 mg kg· 1 • The maximum plant tissue LDDT concentrations (DW) followed the order radish hypocotyl (190 µg kg- 1 ) >radish leaf (77 µg kg- 1 ) >lettuce (28 µg kg-1 ) and there were significant correlations between all plant tissue types and the soil concentrationofLDDT andp,p'-DDE (p<0.01). 
Concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead and zinc in lettuce, copper in radish hypocotyls, and copper and zinc in radish leaves increased with increasing soil trace element concentration (p<0.02). Lettuce cadmium concentrations for plants grown on four out of ten assayed soils were equivalent to or exceeded the NZ food standard for leafy vegetables of 0.1 mg kg"1 FW. Lead concentrations in radish hypocotyls grown in three out of eight soils were equivalent to or exceeded half of the NZ food standard for lead in root vegetables of 0.1 mg kg·1 FW. Phytotoxicity was determined by measuring the dry mass yield of lettuce and radish, and by a five day seedling emergence and root elongation assay for lettuce and ryegrass (Lolium perenne). The radish leaf yield and the root length of lettuce seedlings grown in orchard soils for five days decreased with increasing soil copper concentration (total and/or neutral salt extractable). 
A simulated gastric extraction method was used to determine the bioaccessible fraction of arsenic, cadmium and lead in soil. The maximum percent bioaccessible fraction for the trace elements followed the order arsenic (45%)<lead (83%)<cadmium(100%). Likely human exposures to LDDT, arsenic, cadmium and lead in residential settings under two home grown produce consumption scenarios (10 and 50%) were estimated using methodology generally consistent with current NZ government policy. 
Estimated daily intakes of LDDT, arsenic, cadmium and lead for lifetime exposures in residential settings did not exceed the WHO tolerable intakes under the 10% homegrown produce scenario. Similarly, the estimated LDDT and arsenic intakes for the 50% homegrown produce scenario did not exceed their respective WHO tolerable intakes. Estimated cadmium daily intakes for the 50% home grown produce consumption scenario exceeded the WHO tolerable intake for cadmium at soil concentrations greater than 0.75 mg kg- 1 for a child and 1 mg kt1 for the lifetime exposure. Estimated child lead intakes exceeded the WHO tolerable intake at soil concentrations greater than 450 mg kg- 1.
The results presented in this thesis have implications for on going applications of agrichemicals and soil amendments to horticultural land as well as residential subdivision of former horticultural land. Trace element concentrations on some· properties have already reached concentrations where negative effects on terrestrial organisms have been demonstrated to occur. The results in this thesis suggest that a precautionary approach should be adopted to subdividing former horticultural sites. Horticultural land being subdivided in particular for lifestyle blocks should be assessed prior to subdivision to ensure that thresholds for acceptable human exposures are not exceeded.

year: 2006

title: Māori whānau experiences of a neonatal intensive care unit: Waikato hospital

authors: Thompson, Keri

subjects: Maori whanau narratives

abstract: This thesis topic emerged from my personal experience of having a premature baby in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) at Waikato hospital.  My whānau and I felt like aliens; culturally inept, and totally alone during our time in the NICU.  It was not until I spoke to other Māori mothers that I realised our stories were similar.   

I sought to understand how other Māori whānau members made sense of their own experiences, how they coped/adjusted to the experience of having a premature baby in an NICU and at home, and the sources of support they utilised. This study did not seek to delineate parents' experiences but attempted to allow whānau members to share their stories and explore their experiences of having a premature or special-care baby in an NICU.

The event of childbirth and the placing of a natural event into a pathological illness model through necessity has repercussions for the ways in which women experience and make sense of the event.  Knowing this, six whānau stories were collected comprising of four individual interviews with the mothers and two whānau hui (focus groups).  My use of a narrative methodology and kaupapa Māori approach enabled all the participants the opportunity to share their stories on how they make sense of their own experiences without the frame of pathological illness. 

The findings present each whānau story autonomously, to highlight the key events that   occur once the birth of a premature/special-care infant is admitted into an NICU. The participants' narratives followed their transitions through an NICU and return home. The narrative analysis and discussion confirmed that this research had been successful in creating a space for the mothers and their whānau members to share their stories.  The discussion combined their narratives to reveal that the effective coping strategies did not remove the sources of stress but rather lessened the impact of the stresses.  In situations where sources of stress were unable to be removed or reduced, participants perceptions of ineffective coping translated into narratives of negative perceptions of the NICU, and birthing experience. 

The importance of positive relationships within an NICU, and in particular, the role of the nurse as a key facilitator, highlighted that efficacious communication resulted in positive experiences for Māori whānau.  Whānau support was identified as one of the most important coping strategies for mothers in the NICU.  Those participants who were encouraged to maintain connections with whānau members reported more positive experiences overall.

Three levels of implications were identified in this research. Firstly, that the participants'narratives provided a range of coping strategies for future Māori parents and their whānau who enter an NICU.  Secondly, there are implications for NICU policy, and best practice particularly when supporting Māori in an NICU environment.  Lastly, the narratives provided meaningful insights that contribute to gaps in local, national, and international literature.  Overall, I realised that just like me, these mothers, and other whānau members, constructed narratives that are meaningful accounts to be shared with others.

text: Māori whānau experiences of a neonatal intensive care unit: Waikato hospital This thesis topic emerged from my personal experience of having a premature baby in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) at Waikato hospital.  My whānau and I felt like aliens; culturally inept, and totally alone during our time in the NICU.  It was not until I spoke to other Māori mothers that I realised our stories were similar.   

I sought to understand how other Māori whānau members made sense of their own experiences, how they coped/adjusted to the experience of having a premature baby in an NICU and at home, and the sources of support they utilised. This study did not seek to delineate parents' experiences but attempted to allow whānau members to share their stories and explore their experiences of having a premature or special-care baby in an NICU.

The event of childbirth and the placing of a natural event into a pathological illness model through necessity has repercussions for the ways in which women experience and make sense of the event.  Knowing this, six whānau stories were collected comprising of four individual interviews with the mothers and two whānau hui (focus groups).  My use of a narrative methodology and kaupapa Māori approach enabled all the participants the opportunity to share their stories on how they make sense of their own experiences without the frame of pathological illness. 

The findings present each whānau story autonomously, to highlight the key events that   occur once the birth of a premature/special-care infant is admitted into an NICU. The participants' narratives followed their transitions through an NICU and return home. The narrative analysis and discussion confirmed that this research had been successful in creating a space for the mothers and their whānau members to share their stories.  The discussion combined their narratives to reveal that the effective coping strategies did not remove the sources of stress but rather lessened the impact of the stresses.  In situations where sources of stress were unable to be removed or reduced, participants perceptions of ineffective coping translated into narratives of negative perceptions of the NICU, and birthing experience. 

The importance of positive relationships within an NICU, and in particular, the role of the nurse as a key facilitator, highlighted that efficacious communication resulted in positive experiences for Māori whānau.  Whānau support was identified as one of the most important coping strategies for mothers in the NICU.  Those participants who were encouraged to maintain connections with whānau members reported more positive experiences overall.

Three levels of implications were identified in this research. Firstly, that the participants'narratives provided a range of coping strategies for future Māori parents and their whānau who enter an NICU.  Secondly, there are implications for NICU policy, and best practice particularly when supporting Māori in an NICU environment.  Lastly, the narratives provided meaningful insights that contribute to gaps in local, national, and international literature.  Overall, I realised that just like me, these mothers, and other whānau members, constructed narratives that are meaningful accounts to be shared with others.

year: 2009