title: Oral corrective feedback in a blended learning environment:  Challenges and contradictions faced by teachers in a Vietnamese university

authors: Nguyen, Thi Huong

subjects: delayed feedback

abstract: Although much research has investigated oral correction feedback (OCF), little has addressed EFL teachers’ cognition and practices about OCF provision in blended learning environments. This qualitative case study aims to occupy this gap. This study explores four issues: teachers’ beliefs about giving OCF; their practices; convergences and divergences between their beliefs and practices; and the key factors influencing these relationships. 
Data were collected from six teachers teaching in a blended learning programme in a Vietnamese university. The data collection process began with semi-structured interviews, classroom observations followed by stimulated recall sessions, then focus group discussions, and narrative frames. All data were subjected to a process of grounded analysis.
A key issue that the findings revealed was the appropriate balance between providing immediate feedback and delaying the feedback. Much research has focussed on the former (e.g., Brown, 2016; Li, 2010; Lyster & Saito, 2010; Lyster, Saito, & Sato, 2013; Mackey & Goo, 2007; Russell & Spada, 2006), and much less attention has been paid to delaying feedback (e.g., Li, 2018; Quin, 2014; Rolin-Ianziti, 2010).
On the whole, there were more convergences than divergences between the teachers’ beliefs and practices. The teachers rarely provided immediate correction while students were performing in pairs or groups: much more often, they delayed their error treatment until the students had finished their performances in front of the whole class. This was because they believed that doing so would promote the students’ confidence and fluency and avoid demotivating them. Furthermore, it was found that they mainly corrected the errors in the whole-class setting as they believed that other students could learn from hearing the teachers and peers correct the other student’s error and then avoid committing the same mistakes. Although they would like the students to correct the errors, they could not transfer this into their practice. Such approaches to error correction perhaps led to limited improvement in the students’ fluency. 
The teachers’ cognition and practices were also viewed through the lens of principles of scaffolding and the framework of Cultural Historical Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987). Findings indicated the teachers did not fully apply van Lier’s (1996) six principles of successful scaffolding; therefore, impeding the students’ learning. In addition, findings revealed different levels of contradictions (Engeström, 1987). Primary contradictions occurred between teachers’ cognitions, emotions and practices due to cognitive and emotional dissonance. Secondary level contradictions took place between teachers’ cognitions, emotions, practices and learning outcome mainly due to: (1) the absence of expert knowledge within the academic community; (2) students’ low proficiency level, motivation and autonomy; (3) institutional constraints, such as large size class, time limits, and ineffective regulatory guidelines; and (4) a teacher-led convention. Quaternary contradictions emerged between the central activity (OCF) and its concurrent activity (online learning) because of little cross-referencing between face-to-face and online tasks and lack of online tools for teachers to facilitate students’ online learning.    
To improve students’ learning outcome, the study suggests expansive learning including a transformative change in the activity of OCF and the provision of conditions for boundary crossing to take place, such as relevant teacher professional development/learning.

text: Oral corrective feedback in a blended learning environment:  Challenges and contradictions faced by teachers in a Vietnamese university Although much research has investigated oral correction feedback (OCF), little has addressed EFL teachers’ cognition and practices about OCF provision in blended learning environments. This qualitative case study aims to occupy this gap. This study explores four issues: teachers’ beliefs about giving OCF; their practices; convergences and divergences between their beliefs and practices; and the key factors influencing these relationships. 
Data were collected from six teachers teaching in a blended learning programme in a Vietnamese university. The data collection process began with semi-structured interviews, classroom observations followed by stimulated recall sessions, then focus group discussions, and narrative frames. All data were subjected to a process of grounded analysis.
A key issue that the findings revealed was the appropriate balance between providing immediate feedback and delaying the feedback. Much research has focussed on the former (e.g., Brown, 2016; Li, 2010; Lyster & Saito, 2010; Lyster, Saito, & Sato, 2013; Mackey & Goo, 2007; Russell & Spada, 2006), and much less attention has been paid to delaying feedback (e.g., Li, 2018; Quin, 2014; Rolin-Ianziti, 2010).
On the whole, there were more convergences than divergences between the teachers’ beliefs and practices. The teachers rarely provided immediate correction while students were performing in pairs or groups: much more often, they delayed their error treatment until the students had finished their performances in front of the whole class. This was because they believed that doing so would promote the students’ confidence and fluency and avoid demotivating them. Furthermore, it was found that they mainly corrected the errors in the whole-class setting as they believed that other students could learn from hearing the teachers and peers correct the other student’s error and then avoid committing the same mistakes. Although they would like the students to correct the errors, they could not transfer this into their practice. Such approaches to error correction perhaps led to limited improvement in the students’ fluency. 
The teachers’ cognition and practices were also viewed through the lens of principles of scaffolding and the framework of Cultural Historical Activity Theory (Engeström, 1987). Findings indicated the teachers did not fully apply van Lier’s (1996) six principles of successful scaffolding; therefore, impeding the students’ learning. In addition, findings revealed different levels of contradictions (Engeström, 1987). Primary contradictions occurred between teachers’ cognitions, emotions and practices due to cognitive and emotional dissonance. Secondary level contradictions took place between teachers’ cognitions, emotions, practices and learning outcome mainly due to: (1) the absence of expert knowledge within the academic community; (2) students’ low proficiency level, motivation and autonomy; (3) institutional constraints, such as large size class, time limits, and ineffective regulatory guidelines; and (4) a teacher-led convention. Quaternary contradictions emerged between the central activity (OCF) and its concurrent activity (online learning) because of little cross-referencing between face-to-face and online tasks and lack of online tools for teachers to facilitate students’ online learning.    
To improve students’ learning outcome, the study suggests expansive learning including a transformative change in the activity of OCF and the provision of conditions for boundary crossing to take place, such as relevant teacher professional development/learning.

year: 2019

title: Consolidation of Al-TiO₂ and Ti₃Al-Ai₂O₃ composite powders

authors: Han, Ching Zen

abstract: Pressureless sintering, hot pressing and sinter-HIP of Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ and Al-TiO₂ composite powders have been carried out under inert atmospheres. The Al-TiO₂ composite powders were produced by discus milling Al/TiO₂  powder mixtures followed by ball milling. The Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powders were produced by heating Al/TiO₂ powder mixtures. Densification, sintering behaviour, microstructural development and mechanical properties of the composites were investigated for the variables of pressure and temperature at different powder particle sizes. It was shown that higher bulk density and lower porosity were obtained by hot pressing compared to pressureless sintering. A temperature of 1600°C is required to achieve >95% theoretical density of the composites when fabricated by pressureless sintering Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powder. However, fully densified composites could be fabricated by hot pressing l.2μm Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powder at 1474°C under vacuum for a one hour holding period. The growth of Al₂O₃ particle size and the development of microcracks at the Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ interfaces were evident with the increasing temperature above 1500°C for the composites produced by pressureless sintering and hot pressing. 

Near fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites (96% of theoretical density) with ≤4μm Al₂O₃ particle size in the composites could be achieved by pressureless sintering Al-TiO₂ composite powder at 1480°C in argon for 4-5 hours of holding period. Fully dense Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite microstructures could be achieved by hot pressing four hours discus milled composite powder subjected to 24 hours of ball milling giving a starting median particle diameter of 7μm, at 1387°C under vacuum. The XRD traces show that the Ti₃Al phase in the Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites is maintained above 50% XRD peak intensity up to 1500°C. The composite microstructure demonstrates that both the Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al phases are continuous and exhibit an interpenetrating network. 

Near fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites (≤98% of theoretical density) were fabricated by sinter-HIP of Al-TiO₂ composite powders with a starting median particle diameter of 7.7μm. The coarsening of the Al₂O₃ particles was suppressed after hot isostatic pressing at 1350°C in argon for two hours at 200MPa for the Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites prepared by pressureless sintering Al-TiO₂ composite powder at 1480°C. 

Vickers hardness of the composites increased with increasing densification and increased Ah03 ceramic phase content. Vickers hardness of ≤17.5GPa was achieved for the fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composite whereas Vickers hardness of ≤15GPa was achieved for the fully densified Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites with Ah03 particle size of ≤4μm. In the sinter-HIP experiments, the Vickers hardness increased by up to 2GPa due to the decreased total porosity after hot isostatic pressing of the pre-sintered Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites with 96% theoretical density. Biaxial strength of ≤350MPa and ≤278MPa were achieved for Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃  composites, respectively. In this study, fracture toughness as high as 7.5±0.8MPa.m½ was obtained when the phase structure exhibited fine (:'.S4μm) and homogeneous microstructure with 50% XRD peak intensity of Ti₃Al ductile phase in
the matrix.

text: Consolidation of Al-TiO₂ and Ti₃Al-Ai₂O₃ composite powders Pressureless sintering, hot pressing and sinter-HIP of Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ and Al-TiO₂ composite powders have been carried out under inert atmospheres. The Al-TiO₂ composite powders were produced by discus milling Al/TiO₂  powder mixtures followed by ball milling. The Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powders were produced by heating Al/TiO₂ powder mixtures. Densification, sintering behaviour, microstructural development and mechanical properties of the composites were investigated for the variables of pressure and temperature at different powder particle sizes. It was shown that higher bulk density and lower porosity were obtained by hot pressing compared to pressureless sintering. A temperature of 1600°C is required to achieve >95% theoretical density of the composites when fabricated by pressureless sintering Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powder. However, fully densified composites could be fabricated by hot pressing l.2μm Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite powder at 1474°C under vacuum for a one hour holding period. The growth of Al₂O₃ particle size and the development of microcracks at the Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ interfaces were evident with the increasing temperature above 1500°C for the composites produced by pressureless sintering and hot pressing. 

Near fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites (96% of theoretical density) with ≤4μm Al₂O₃ particle size in the composites could be achieved by pressureless sintering Al-TiO₂ composite powder at 1480°C in argon for 4-5 hours of holding period. Fully dense Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composite microstructures could be achieved by hot pressing four hours discus milled composite powder subjected to 24 hours of ball milling giving a starting median particle diameter of 7μm, at 1387°C under vacuum. The XRD traces show that the Ti₃Al phase in the Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites is maintained above 50% XRD peak intensity up to 1500°C. The composite microstructure demonstrates that both the Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al phases are continuous and exhibit an interpenetrating network. 

Near fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites (≤98% of theoretical density) were fabricated by sinter-HIP of Al-TiO₂ composite powders with a starting median particle diameter of 7.7μm. The coarsening of the Al₂O₃ particles was suppressed after hot isostatic pressing at 1350°C in argon for two hours at 200MPa for the Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites prepared by pressureless sintering Al-TiO₂ composite powder at 1480°C. 

Vickers hardness of the composites increased with increasing densification and increased Ah03 ceramic phase content. Vickers hardness of ≤17.5GPa was achieved for the fully densified Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composite whereas Vickers hardness of ≤15GPa was achieved for the fully densified Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃ composites with Ah03 particle size of ≤4μm. In the sinter-HIP experiments, the Vickers hardness increased by up to 2GPa due to the decreased total porosity after hot isostatic pressing of the pre-sintered Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ composites with 96% theoretical density. Biaxial strength of ≤350MPa and ≤278MPa were achieved for Ti₃Al-TiO-Al₂O₃ and Ti₃Al-Al₂O₃  composites, respectively. In this study, fracture toughness as high as 7.5±0.8MPa.m½ was obtained when the phase structure exhibited fine (:'.S4μm) and homogeneous microstructure with 50% XRD peak intensity of Ti₃Al ductile phase in
the matrix.

year: 2005

title: Māori education as justice and reckoning

authors: Hemi, Keakaokawai Varner

abstract: Hypothetical musings on what constitutes justice have been taking place at least since the ancient Greek philosopher Plato recorded the above debate between Socrates and Cephalus in Republic circa 380 BCE. Modem philosophical notions of justice have also often been heady stuff relying on heuristic "device[ s] of representation"², "thick and thin"³ theories and other abstract conceptions to untangle real-world inequalities. In comparison, current questions of access to justice are earthy, grunty and real. Increasingly vociferous access to justice claims cite the actual injustice-laden histories of particular groups, speak in terms of harm already inflicted and call for reparative, restorative or healing justice. Indigenous peoples, African-Americans and other disenfranchised, excluded and oppressed groups quote dates, casualty numbers and the legislative section or treaty responsible. For many indigenous people, any single incident is always just one among many in the collective memory; there are always more dates, cases,⁴ facts and figures in the "litany of injustices"⁵ which evidence denial of justice. Gritty statistics in one area of well-being flow into another and over generations. This is justice in the trenches, a place where numbers and statistics are what they are.

text: Māori education as justice and reckoning Hypothetical musings on what constitutes justice have been taking place at least since the ancient Greek philosopher Plato recorded the above debate between Socrates and Cephalus in Republic circa 380 BCE. Modem philosophical notions of justice have also often been heady stuff relying on heuristic "device[ s] of representation"², "thick and thin"³ theories and other abstract conceptions to untangle real-world inequalities. In comparison, current questions of access to justice are earthy, grunty and real. Increasingly vociferous access to justice claims cite the actual injustice-laden histories of particular groups, speak in terms of harm already inflicted and call for reparative, restorative or healing justice. Indigenous peoples, African-Americans and other disenfranchised, excluded and oppressed groups quote dates, casualty numbers and the legislative section or treaty responsible. For many indigenous people, any single incident is always just one among many in the collective memory; there are always more dates, cases,⁴ facts and figures in the "litany of injustices"⁵ which evidence denial of justice. Gritty statistics in one area of well-being flow into another and over generations. This is justice in the trenches, a place where numbers and statistics are what they are.

year: 2017