title: Introducing a new subject: The case of environmental education in Taiwanese junior high schools

authors: Yueh, Mei-Chun Michelle

subjects: environmental education

abstract: The introduction of environmental education in schools has been the focus of a long campaign worldwide since the late 1960s.  The difficulties in teaching environmental education, including the choice of curriculum models, and the obstacles to changing contemporary schooling patterns have been well documented.  The traditional process of new subject emergence has been detailed in the literature; whether or not environmental education should or could follow this traditional pattern of subject emergence in schools is the focus of this thesis.  

In Taiwan, the introduction of environmental education in junior high schools occurred as part of a nationwide curriculum change in 2002.  This research used an interpretive approach to explore the views and practices of staff in three typical Taiwanese junior high schools at this time.  The focus of the research was to study what happened at the level of classroom teaching and school development.  The research program was designed to interview both administrators and teachers before, during and after the first year (2002 school year) of curriculum implementation in each of the three case study schools.  Three rounds of interviews were conducted over a period of three years (Sept. 2001 - June 2004).  As well as interviews, national and school documents were collected; and announcements and decisions from the Ministry of Education and schools were documented.  Also, because the reform encouraged the development of school-based curriculum, a questionnaire was given to the one school which chose environmental education as their school-based curriculum in order to better understand the emergence of environmental education in this school.  

The findings show a paradox in Taiwanese junior high schooling: although each school placed considerable value on environmental education, the data showed that the introduction of environmental education via an infusion strategy during a time of national curriculum change had minimal impact in the three Taiwanese case study schools.  A cross-case analysis indicated the reason for this failure was the lack of effectiveness of eleven supporting themes often discussed in the emergence of a new subject: the possibility of gaining external examination credit and entry to a university department; the prioritising of the subject in school timetabling and programming; the development of a systematic syllabus; the presence of proactive support from central government leadership; the provision of teacher professional development; the inclusion in the informal as well as the formal curriculum in a school; the inclusion of environmental education in non-formal education in society; the presence of clear subject characteristics and definition; the presence of substantial school-based material interests; the gaining of support from an external constituency, especially parents; and the presence of an emergence process that couples internal value evolution with external compulsion.  The Taiwanese case studies raised three particular and additional themes for the emergence of environmental education, specifically: the need to set up long-term partnerships with local groups that have an interest in or responsibility for the local environment (e.g. societies, agencies and non-governmental organisations) to achieve local environment involvement; the need for a whole school approach through curriculum integration to achieve the transformative nature of environmental education; and the need to build up a sound cooperative network that includes people at all levels of the education system and society to achieve a national cooperation network.  These three particular themes derived from the nature of environmental education as a holistic, integrative and interdisciplinary subject.  In summary, the findings not only confirmed the themes important for the emergence of environmental education and other contemporary school subjects, but they also raised particular themes pertinent to the emergence of environmental education.  When these three particular themes are not taken into account, the effective emergence of environmental education in contemporary schooling, as exemplified by Taiwanese junior high schools, will be difficult to achieve in mainstream education.

text: Introducing a new subject: The case of environmental education in Taiwanese junior high schools The introduction of environmental education in schools has been the focus of a long campaign worldwide since the late 1960s.  The difficulties in teaching environmental education, including the choice of curriculum models, and the obstacles to changing contemporary schooling patterns have been well documented.  The traditional process of new subject emergence has been detailed in the literature; whether or not environmental education should or could follow this traditional pattern of subject emergence in schools is the focus of this thesis.  

In Taiwan, the introduction of environmental education in junior high schools occurred as part of a nationwide curriculum change in 2002.  This research used an interpretive approach to explore the views and practices of staff in three typical Taiwanese junior high schools at this time.  The focus of the research was to study what happened at the level of classroom teaching and school development.  The research program was designed to interview both administrators and teachers before, during and after the first year (2002 school year) of curriculum implementation in each of the three case study schools.  Three rounds of interviews were conducted over a period of three years (Sept. 2001 - June 2004).  As well as interviews, national and school documents were collected; and announcements and decisions from the Ministry of Education and schools were documented.  Also, because the reform encouraged the development of school-based curriculum, a questionnaire was given to the one school which chose environmental education as their school-based curriculum in order to better understand the emergence of environmental education in this school.  

The findings show a paradox in Taiwanese junior high schooling: although each school placed considerable value on environmental education, the data showed that the introduction of environmental education via an infusion strategy during a time of national curriculum change had minimal impact in the three Taiwanese case study schools.  A cross-case analysis indicated the reason for this failure was the lack of effectiveness of eleven supporting themes often discussed in the emergence of a new subject: the possibility of gaining external examination credit and entry to a university department; the prioritising of the subject in school timetabling and programming; the development of a systematic syllabus; the presence of proactive support from central government leadership; the provision of teacher professional development; the inclusion in the informal as well as the formal curriculum in a school; the inclusion of environmental education in non-formal education in society; the presence of clear subject characteristics and definition; the presence of substantial school-based material interests; the gaining of support from an external constituency, especially parents; and the presence of an emergence process that couples internal value evolution with external compulsion.  The Taiwanese case studies raised three particular and additional themes for the emergence of environmental education, specifically: the need to set up long-term partnerships with local groups that have an interest in or responsibility for the local environment (e.g. societies, agencies and non-governmental organisations) to achieve local environment involvement; the need for a whole school approach through curriculum integration to achieve the transformative nature of environmental education; and the need to build up a sound cooperative network that includes people at all levels of the education system and society to achieve a national cooperation network.  These three particular themes derived from the nature of environmental education as a holistic, integrative and interdisciplinary subject.  In summary, the findings not only confirmed the themes important for the emergence of environmental education and other contemporary school subjects, but they also raised particular themes pertinent to the emergence of environmental education.  When these three particular themes are not taken into account, the effective emergence of environmental education in contemporary schooling, as exemplified by Taiwanese junior high schools, will be difficult to achieve in mainstream education.

year: 2007

title: The role of biomorphodynamics in estuarine evolution in New Zealand

authors: van Maanen, Barend

subjects: biomorphodynamics

abstract: Biomorphodynamic interactions, the feedback loops that operate between physical processes, biology and morphology, affect the long-term evolution of estuaries. This paper outlines how consideration of such interactions and implementation through innovative modelling techniques can become the next crucial step needed to advance understanding of estuarine evolution.

text: The role of biomorphodynamics in estuarine evolution in New Zealand Biomorphodynamic interactions, the feedback loops that operate between physical processes, biology and morphology, affect the long-term evolution of estuaries. This paper outlines how consideration of such interactions and implementation through innovative modelling techniques can become the next crucial step needed to advance understanding of estuarine evolution.

year: 2008

title: Kaitiakitanga o te Taiao - Reconciling Legislative Provisions and Outcomes for Māori

authors: Kennedy, Nathan Charles Karaua

subjects: Kaitiakitanga

abstract: The Resource Management Act (1991) (RMA) was heralded as internationally ground-breaking for its integrated approach, and for cementing 'sustainable management' as its overarching purpose. It was ground-breaking also for its recognition of First Nations’ rights and values. This includes directing decision-makers to recognise and provide for the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters and treasured resources, to have particular regard to Māori customary practices, and to take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. The RMA provides for councils to transfer or delegate functions and powers to Māori, and for joint management arrangements.
In 16 years as environment officer for my iwi, I witnessed the failure of the RMA to protect Māori values and interests. This experience prompted me to undertake research to thoroughly investigate outcomes of the operation of the RMA for Māori. Two questions framed my research; the first asking whether kaitiaki have been empowered by the Māori provisions in the RMA, and the second seeking to determine overall outcomes for Māori from the Act.
Assessing such outcomes required an understanding of Māori values and interests, evaluation of the law, of the statutory plans that govern council administration of the RMA, implementation of these by councils and the Crown, and their treatment by the courts. To answer the two questions I present in this thesis a geographically focused study of two take (causes or significant issues) at Whangamatā, the construction of a marina, and the removal of mangroves.
I compare Ngāti Whanaunga experiences with those of Māori nationally. By doing so I provide the evidence base for an 'overall broad judgement' (as the RMA requires) that despite apparent empowerment by the Act and its statutory plans, Māori have suffered widespread and significantly negative outcomes under the RMA. Rather than being empowered, Māori struggle to participate in planning processes, and see ancestral values and interests eroded by waves of resource consent processes, in which effects on Māori are little considered.

text: Kaitiakitanga o te Taiao - Reconciling Legislative Provisions and Outcomes for Māori The Resource Management Act (1991) (RMA) was heralded as internationally ground-breaking for its integrated approach, and for cementing 'sustainable management' as its overarching purpose. It was ground-breaking also for its recognition of First Nations’ rights and values. This includes directing decision-makers to recognise and provide for the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with their ancestral lands, waters and treasured resources, to have particular regard to Māori customary practices, and to take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. The RMA provides for councils to transfer or delegate functions and powers to Māori, and for joint management arrangements.
In 16 years as environment officer for my iwi, I witnessed the failure of the RMA to protect Māori values and interests. This experience prompted me to undertake research to thoroughly investigate outcomes of the operation of the RMA for Māori. Two questions framed my research; the first asking whether kaitiaki have been empowered by the Māori provisions in the RMA, and the second seeking to determine overall outcomes for Māori from the Act.
Assessing such outcomes required an understanding of Māori values and interests, evaluation of the law, of the statutory plans that govern council administration of the RMA, implementation of these by councils and the Crown, and their treatment by the courts. To answer the two questions I present in this thesis a geographically focused study of two take (causes or significant issues) at Whangamatā, the construction of a marina, and the removal of mangroves.
I compare Ngāti Whanaunga experiences with those of Māori nationally. By doing so I provide the evidence base for an 'overall broad judgement' (as the RMA requires) that despite apparent empowerment by the Act and its statutory plans, Māori have suffered widespread and significantly negative outcomes under the RMA. Rather than being empowered, Māori struggle to participate in planning processes, and see ancestral values and interests eroded by waves of resource consent processes, in which effects on Māori are little considered.

year: 2017