title: Evidence-based interventions for primary-aged children exhibiting externalising behaviours: A systematic literature review

authors: Powell, Gina

abstract: Background: Externalising disorders (EDs) are among the most common behavioural problems in childhood, with disruptive behaviours in Aotearoa New Zealand schools recently identified as a major concern. Despite widespread implementation of interventions, uncertainty remains about their effectiveness and alignment with developmental theory. 

Objectives: This systematic review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions for primary-aged children (5–14 years) exhibiting EDs, assess the certainty of evidence, examine moderating factors of intervention outcomes, and consider implications for practice in the Aotearoa context. 

Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, eight databases and trial registries were searched. Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of interventions targeting EDs in primary-aged children. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2.0 tool, and findings were synthesised narratively given heterogeneity across interventions and outcomes. 

Results: Twenty-three RCTs met inclusion criteria, yielding 148 outcome measures. The majority (77.7%) were at high risk of bias, largely due to reliance on unblinded raters, insufficient reporting, and baseline imbalances. Sensitivity analyses excluding very low-certainty studies left only 17 outcomes, of which eight were rated as high certainty. Behavioural outcomes were heavily over-represented (67.5%), with relational and environmental outcomes underexplored. Moderator analyses indicated that interventions targeting single subgroups produced more favourable outcomes than multisystem approaches, though overall evidence quality limited confidence in these findings. 

Conclusions: Current RCT evidence for ED interventions in primary-aged children is of low quality, restricting firm conclusions about effectiveness. The imbalance in outcome domains and mechanisms suggests an overemphasis on behaviourist approaches at the expense of relational and ecological factors. High-quality, large-scale RCTs are urgently needed, particularly those addressing classroom environments, relational mechanisms, and culturally grounded approaches relevant to Aotearoa. 

Registration: The protocol for this review was registered with the Open Science Framework (OSF). https://osf.io/9afzx/

text: Evidence-based interventions for primary-aged children exhibiting externalising behaviours: A systematic literature review Background: Externalising disorders (EDs) are among the most common behavioural problems in childhood, with disruptive behaviours in Aotearoa New Zealand schools recently identified as a major concern. Despite widespread implementation of interventions, uncertainty remains about their effectiveness and alignment with developmental theory. 

Objectives: This systematic review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions for primary-aged children (5–14 years) exhibiting EDs, assess the certainty of evidence, examine moderating factors of intervention outcomes, and consider implications for practice in the Aotearoa context. 

Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, eight databases and trial registries were searched. Eligible studies were randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of interventions targeting EDs in primary-aged children. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane RoB 2.0 tool, and findings were synthesised narratively given heterogeneity across interventions and outcomes. 

Results: Twenty-three RCTs met inclusion criteria, yielding 148 outcome measures. The majority (77.7%) were at high risk of bias, largely due to reliance on unblinded raters, insufficient reporting, and baseline imbalances. Sensitivity analyses excluding very low-certainty studies left only 17 outcomes, of which eight were rated as high certainty. Behavioural outcomes were heavily over-represented (67.5%), with relational and environmental outcomes underexplored. Moderator analyses indicated that interventions targeting single subgroups produced more favourable outcomes than multisystem approaches, though overall evidence quality limited confidence in these findings. 

Conclusions: Current RCT evidence for ED interventions in primary-aged children is of low quality, restricting firm conclusions about effectiveness. The imbalance in outcome domains and mechanisms suggests an overemphasis on behaviourist approaches at the expense of relational and ecological factors. High-quality, large-scale RCTs are urgently needed, particularly those addressing classroom environments, relational mechanisms, and culturally grounded approaches relevant to Aotearoa. 

Registration: The protocol for this review was registered with the Open Science Framework (OSF). https://osf.io/9afzx/

year: 2025

title: Semi-mechanistic modelling in nonlinear regression: a case study

authors: Domijan, Katarina

subjects: statistics

abstract: This paper discusses the use of highly parameterized semi-mechanistic nonlinear models with particular reference to the PARJIB crop response model of Reid (2002)[Yield response to nutrient supply across a wide range of conditions 1. Model derivation. Field Crops Research77, 161–171]. Compared to empirical linear approaches, such models promise improved generality of application but present considerable challenges for estimation. Some success has been achieved with a fitting approach that uses a Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm starting from initial values determined by a genetic algorithm. Attention must be paid, however, to correlations between parameter estimates and an approach is described to identify these based on large simulated datasets. This work illustrates the value for the scientist in exploring the correlation structure in mechanistic or semi-mechanistic models. Such information might be used to reappraise the structure of the model itself, especially if the experimental evidence is not strong enough to allow estimation of a parameter free of assumptions about the values of others. Thus statistical modelling and analysis can complement mechanistic studies, making more explicit what is known and what is not known about the processes being modelled and guiding further research.

text: Semi-mechanistic modelling in nonlinear regression: a case study This paper discusses the use of highly parameterized semi-mechanistic nonlinear models with particular reference to the PARJIB crop response model of Reid (2002)[Yield response to nutrient supply across a wide range of conditions 1. Model derivation. Field Crops Research77, 161–171]. Compared to empirical linear approaches, such models promise improved generality of application but present considerable challenges for estimation. Some success has been achieved with a fitting approach that uses a Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm starting from initial values determined by a genetic algorithm. Attention must be paid, however, to correlations between parameter estimates and an approach is described to identify these based on large simulated datasets. This work illustrates the value for the scientist in exploring the correlation structure in mechanistic or semi-mechanistic models. Such information might be used to reappraise the structure of the model itself, especially if the experimental evidence is not strong enough to allow estimation of a parameter free of assumptions about the values of others. Thus statistical modelling and analysis can complement mechanistic studies, making more explicit what is known and what is not known about the processes being modelled and guiding further research.

year: 2006

title: In your face: wearing Moko - Maori facial marking in today's world

authors: Nikora, Linda Waimarie

subjects: Moko

abstract: The early voyagers, missionaries, settlers all reacted to the pukanohi, to the marked
faces of the Maori people during the period of first contact, and the century following
it. Their accounts are vivid, judgemental, revealing, telling us as much about them, as
it does about the people they described. Curiosity and horror are mixed with a
genuine fascination; where sternly evangelizing words failed, armed confrontation
occurred; and we now live with the results, te ao hou, a new world.
In this world, today, wahine mau kauae, tangata mau moko, pukanohi - wearers - are
speaking for themselves, about themselves, and commenting on how others view
them. Unanimously, they insist the decision to take the marking is about continuity,
affirmation, identity, and commitment. It is also about wearing those ancestors,
carrying them into the future; as their moko become a companion, a salient being with
its own life force, its own integrity and power, beyond the face.

text: In your face: wearing Moko - Maori facial marking in today's world The early voyagers, missionaries, settlers all reacted to the pukanohi, to the marked
faces of the Maori people during the period of first contact, and the century following
it. Their accounts are vivid, judgemental, revealing, telling us as much about them, as
it does about the people they described. Curiosity and horror are mixed with a
genuine fascination; where sternly evangelizing words failed, armed confrontation
occurred; and we now live with the results, te ao hou, a new world.
In this world, today, wahine mau kauae, tangata mau moko, pukanohi - wearers - are
speaking for themselves, about themselves, and commenting on how others view
them. Unanimously, they insist the decision to take the marking is about continuity,
affirmation, identity, and commitment. It is also about wearing those ancestors,
carrying them into the future; as their moko become a companion, a salient being with
its own life force, its own integrity and power, beyond the face.

year: 2003-08-01