title: Perceptual outcomes as reinforcers

authors: Sumpter, Catherine E.

subjects: psychology

abstract: The paucity of basic behavioral research with humans was highlighted almost 40 years ago (Findley, 1966). A recent search of the basic behavioral research journals by the present authors indicated that this situation remains, with only approximately 15% of the research using human participants. It may seem surprising that so few studies use human participants given the apparent practical advantages of doing so. Human participants are readily available, extensively pre-trained, can use a range of complex apparatus and require no feeding or housing. In reality, however, the use of human participants involves a number of practical difficulties: humans generally will not agree to participate in research involving a large number of sessions or sessions lasting more than two to three hours; it is difficult to gain within-session compliance as a result of the often repetitive and simplistic nature of the tasks; and it is often unclear whether the experimental results are a product of the experimentally-arranged contingencies or the instructions given to the participants. Another difficulty, that which is addressed here, lies in the identification of a suitable experimental outcome that will serve as a reinforcer.

text: Perceptual outcomes as reinforcers The paucity of basic behavioral research with humans was highlighted almost 40 years ago (Findley, 1966). A recent search of the basic behavioral research journals by the present authors indicated that this situation remains, with only approximately 15% of the research using human participants. It may seem surprising that so few studies use human participants given the apparent practical advantages of doing so. Human participants are readily available, extensively pre-trained, can use a range of complex apparatus and require no feeding or housing. In reality, however, the use of human participants involves a number of practical difficulties: humans generally will not agree to participate in research involving a large number of sessions or sessions lasting more than two to three hours; it is difficult to gain within-session compliance as a result of the often repetitive and simplistic nature of the tasks; and it is often unclear whether the experimental results are a product of the experimentally-arranged contingencies or the instructions given to the participants. Another difficulty, that which is addressed here, lies in the identification of a suitable experimental outcome that will serve as a reinforcer.

year: 2003

title: Investigating state-trait distinction in scales of resilience: Application of generalisability theory

authors: Child, Lucy E.

subjects: Resilience

abstract: Psychological resilience has been linked to a range of positive psychological outcomes, notably as a protective factor against the harmful effects of stress and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Resilience is also a proven asset for students, workers, and organisations. Despite a general academic consensus of resilience as both dynamic and developable, interventions to develop it have proven largely ineffective. Interventions designed to enhance resilience should be focused on aspects of resilience that are dynamic and thus amenable to change. Accordingly, accurate assessment of resilience, and formation of effective resilience training interventions necessitates clear delineation between stable and dynamic aspects of resilience. Without this distinction, changes in state and trait resilience are likely to be conflated, resulting in imprecise measurement of resilience and inadequate design of interventions. Generalisability Theory (G-theory) has been recommended as the most robust and appropriate statistical model to evaluate state-trait distinction, reliability, and sources of measurement errors. 

This study investigated five major psychometric scales of resilience and the individual items within these scales to ascertain whether they were reliable measures of either stable or dynamic features of resilience. G-theory methodology was implemented to discriminate between state and trait features of resilience, and to assess the reliability of five scales of resilience measurement over a period of several weeks. Longitudinal measurement design was applied to an adequate sample of 94 participants, assessed at 3 time points with one-week intervals on five resilience scales. 

All analysed scales demonstrated a high generalisability of scores across occasions and the sample population (G > 0.90), consistent with expectations for a trait measure. Eleven state-items were identified in four resilience scales and consolidated into eight dynamic aspects of resilience. These dynamic aspects of resilience include adaptation to change, perseverance, self-confidence in the face of adversity, self-efficacy, trust in instincts, ability to follow plans, ability to plan, and non-reactivity. These resilience facets are the most modifiable and therefore should be the primary target of interventions to enhance resilience in people. This research established the overall reliability of all five psychometric scales for the assessment of trait resilience. Therefore, these validated scales are useful to assess long-lasting changes in resilience but lack the sensitivity required to detect temporal changes, warranting the development of a state-resilience scale.

text: Investigating state-trait distinction in scales of resilience: Application of generalisability theory Psychological resilience has been linked to a range of positive psychological outcomes, notably as a protective factor against the harmful effects of stress and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Resilience is also a proven asset for students, workers, and organisations. Despite a general academic consensus of resilience as both dynamic and developable, interventions to develop it have proven largely ineffective. Interventions designed to enhance resilience should be focused on aspects of resilience that are dynamic and thus amenable to change. Accordingly, accurate assessment of resilience, and formation of effective resilience training interventions necessitates clear delineation between stable and dynamic aspects of resilience. Without this distinction, changes in state and trait resilience are likely to be conflated, resulting in imprecise measurement of resilience and inadequate design of interventions. Generalisability Theory (G-theory) has been recommended as the most robust and appropriate statistical model to evaluate state-trait distinction, reliability, and sources of measurement errors. 

This study investigated five major psychometric scales of resilience and the individual items within these scales to ascertain whether they were reliable measures of either stable or dynamic features of resilience. G-theory methodology was implemented to discriminate between state and trait features of resilience, and to assess the reliability of five scales of resilience measurement over a period of several weeks. Longitudinal measurement design was applied to an adequate sample of 94 participants, assessed at 3 time points with one-week intervals on five resilience scales. 

All analysed scales demonstrated a high generalisability of scores across occasions and the sample population (G > 0.90), consistent with expectations for a trait measure. Eleven state-items were identified in four resilience scales and consolidated into eight dynamic aspects of resilience. These dynamic aspects of resilience include adaptation to change, perseverance, self-confidence in the face of adversity, self-efficacy, trust in instincts, ability to follow plans, ability to plan, and non-reactivity. These resilience facets are the most modifiable and therefore should be the primary target of interventions to enhance resilience in people. This research established the overall reliability of all five psychometric scales for the assessment of trait resilience. Therefore, these validated scales are useful to assess long-lasting changes in resilience but lack the sensitivity required to detect temporal changes, warranting the development of a state-resilience scale.

year: 2020

title: Kimihia, rangahaua ngā tikanga heke iho. He taonga huahua e riro mai: Exploring whakapapa as a tool towards a kaupapa Māori assessment framework in early childhood education

authors: Paki, Vanessa Anne

subjects: kaupapa Maori assessment

abstract: This study explores whakapapa as a tool, which can be used as a kaupapa Māori assessment framework in early childhood education, positioning kaupapa Māori theory as a paradigm base underpinning a philosophical and theoretical discourse towards assessment for children's learning. This thesis represents the culmination of a personal and professional journey, derived from the writer's longstanding interest in and commitment to kaupapa Māori early childhood education, and more specifically, philosophies and practices for assessment in this context. The study has canvassed a vast terrain of kaupapa Māori philosophy in its search for a theoretical grounding for a kaupapa Māori assessment framework for early childhood education.
Foundation to the study has been the premise that the notion of whakapapa serves as an overarching philosophical matrix, encompassing the interconnected realms of genealogy, spirituality, and knowledge that precede, surround, and embrace the Māori child. Throughout the thesis, diagrams are employed to demonstrate and model the whakapapa underpinning the conceptualisations being explored. After contextualising the study within a historical overview of the impact of colonisation of kaupapa Māori education and research, it is suggested that a re-examination of key concepts from tikanga Māori will illuminate transformative possibilities applicable to the study's focus on the development of a theoretical base for an assessment tool within kaupapa Māori early childhood settings. Drawing from the literature, the thesis re-positions the view of the Māori child to one of being nurtured within a philosophical construct underpinned and immersed in tikanga such as whakapapa, ira tangata, whanaungatanga, mana and tapu, and ako, providing a strongly Māori theoretical base for the envisioning of the assessment process. The outcome of this study is to propose an assessment framework, which embodies and reflects these core kaupapa Māori philosophies as praxis.

text: Kimihia, rangahaua ngā tikanga heke iho. He taonga huahua e riro mai: Exploring whakapapa as a tool towards a kaupapa Māori assessment framework in early childhood education This study explores whakapapa as a tool, which can be used as a kaupapa Māori assessment framework in early childhood education, positioning kaupapa Māori theory as a paradigm base underpinning a philosophical and theoretical discourse towards assessment for children's learning. This thesis represents the culmination of a personal and professional journey, derived from the writer's longstanding interest in and commitment to kaupapa Māori early childhood education, and more specifically, philosophies and practices for assessment in this context. The study has canvassed a vast terrain of kaupapa Māori philosophy in its search for a theoretical grounding for a kaupapa Māori assessment framework for early childhood education.
Foundation to the study has been the premise that the notion of whakapapa serves as an overarching philosophical matrix, encompassing the interconnected realms of genealogy, spirituality, and knowledge that precede, surround, and embrace the Māori child. Throughout the thesis, diagrams are employed to demonstrate and model the whakapapa underpinning the conceptualisations being explored. After contextualising the study within a historical overview of the impact of colonisation of kaupapa Māori education and research, it is suggested that a re-examination of key concepts from tikanga Māori will illuminate transformative possibilities applicable to the study's focus on the development of a theoretical base for an assessment tool within kaupapa Māori early childhood settings. Drawing from the literature, the thesis re-positions the view of the Māori child to one of being nurtured within a philosophical construct underpinned and immersed in tikanga such as whakapapa, ira tangata, whanaungatanga, mana and tapu, and ako, providing a strongly Māori theoretical base for the envisioning of the assessment process. The outcome of this study is to propose an assessment framework, which embodies and reflects these core kaupapa Māori philosophies as praxis.

year: 2007