title: Underlying and state-level contextual determinants of early childhood mortality in Nigeria

authors: Umesi, Love Ugonna

subjects: Under-five mortality

abstract: Early childhood mortality has remained stubbornly high in Nigeria, even compared with other sub-Saharan African countries. Tragically, one in every eight children in Nigeria die before their fifth birthday and more than half of those deaths are from preventable causes. Nigeria’s high under-five mortality is indicative of the poor quality of health for the average Nigerian. Sub-national under-five mortality is even more worrisome given the vast differences in survivorship, ranging from a high of 252 deaths per 1,000 live births in Kebbi state (North West) to a low of 30 deaths per 1,000 live births in Ogun state (South West). These sub-national disparities highlight the importance of accounting for the hitherto unexplored impacts of community level background characteristics.

This study conducted an in-depth analysis of the determinants of under-five mortality in Nigeria from 2008 to 2018, focusing on the direct and indirect impacts of community context and socio-economic change. This approach is novel as most studies of under-five mortality in Africa have focused on individual and household factors. Using data from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), I examined persistent inequalities in under five-mortality between states and within socio-economic groups. Analyses were carried out in three stages. Trends and patterns of under-five deaths in Nigeria, alongside individual/household level factors associated with it was done using 2008, 2013, and 2018 NDHS. Then data from 2018 NDHS was used to explore child survival function, incidence rates of death, and determinants of under-five mortality using Cox proportional hazards regression. While still focusing on the 2018 NDHS, the study was further extended to a multilevel analysis to investigate the community-level contextual factors associated with under-five mortality in Nigeria using mixed-effects logistics regression and Cox proportional hazards regression with random effects.

The results showed that under-five mortality in Nigeria was persistently high over the focal period. Generally, the hazard rate of death was highest at birth and in the first month of life. The study found that the composition of the community at the individual/household level, together with community level contextual factors were predisposing factors to under-five mortality. Hence, residence in different community context in Nigeria appear to significantly influence variations in under-five mortality between and across communities, geo-political zones, and states. More specifically, the proportion of hospital deliveries and proportion of children fully immunized in the community influenced early childhood survival. Child survival estimates and incidence of death also confirmed that under-five children in the North East and North West had lower survival probabilities than their counterparts in other geo-political zones. The findings suggest that effective measures to improve early childhood survival should look further than individual and household-level interventions to also address pertinent community contextual factors.

text: Underlying and state-level contextual determinants of early childhood mortality in Nigeria Early childhood mortality has remained stubbornly high in Nigeria, even compared with other sub-Saharan African countries. Tragically, one in every eight children in Nigeria die before their fifth birthday and more than half of those deaths are from preventable causes. Nigeria’s high under-five mortality is indicative of the poor quality of health for the average Nigerian. Sub-national under-five mortality is even more worrisome given the vast differences in survivorship, ranging from a high of 252 deaths per 1,000 live births in Kebbi state (North West) to a low of 30 deaths per 1,000 live births in Ogun state (South West). These sub-national disparities highlight the importance of accounting for the hitherto unexplored impacts of community level background characteristics.

This study conducted an in-depth analysis of the determinants of under-five mortality in Nigeria from 2008 to 2018, focusing on the direct and indirect impacts of community context and socio-economic change. This approach is novel as most studies of under-five mortality in Africa have focused on individual and household factors. Using data from the Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS), I examined persistent inequalities in under five-mortality between states and within socio-economic groups. Analyses were carried out in three stages. Trends and patterns of under-five deaths in Nigeria, alongside individual/household level factors associated with it was done using 2008, 2013, and 2018 NDHS. Then data from 2018 NDHS was used to explore child survival function, incidence rates of death, and determinants of under-five mortality using Cox proportional hazards regression. While still focusing on the 2018 NDHS, the study was further extended to a multilevel analysis to investigate the community-level contextual factors associated with under-five mortality in Nigeria using mixed-effects logistics regression and Cox proportional hazards regression with random effects.

The results showed that under-five mortality in Nigeria was persistently high over the focal period. Generally, the hazard rate of death was highest at birth and in the first month of life. The study found that the composition of the community at the individual/household level, together with community level contextual factors were predisposing factors to under-five mortality. Hence, residence in different community context in Nigeria appear to significantly influence variations in under-five mortality between and across communities, geo-political zones, and states. More specifically, the proportion of hospital deliveries and proportion of children fully immunized in the community influenced early childhood survival. Child survival estimates and incidence of death also confirmed that under-five children in the North East and North West had lower survival probabilities than their counterparts in other geo-political zones. The findings suggest that effective measures to improve early childhood survival should look further than individual and household-level interventions to also address pertinent community contextual factors.

year: 2023

title: Simple harmonic error cancellation in time of flight range imaging

authors: Streeter, Lee

subjects: Three-dimensional image acquisition

abstract: Amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) time of flight (ToF) range imaging provides a full field of distance measurement, but common hardware is implemented with digital technology which leads to unwanted harmonic content, a principle source of error in the distance measurements. Existing strategies for correction of harmonics require auxiliary measurements and amplify noise. A small modification of the data acquisition procedure is described which, intrinsically, is invariant to at least one harmonic. The third harmonic, the main cause of harmonic error, is targeted. Compared to traditional measurements the third harmonic is eliminated with no significant increase in noise variance observed.

text: Simple harmonic error cancellation in time of flight range imaging Amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) time of flight (ToF) range imaging provides a full field of distance measurement, but common hardware is implemented with digital technology which leads to unwanted harmonic content, a principle source of error in the distance measurements. Existing strategies for correction of harmonics require auxiliary measurements and amplify noise. A small modification of the data acquisition procedure is described which, intrinsically, is invariant to at least one harmonic. The third harmonic, the main cause of harmonic error, is targeted. Compared to traditional measurements the third harmonic is eliminated with no significant increase in noise variance observed.

year: 2015

title: The Unmet Legal, Social and Cultural Needs of Māori with Disabilities

authors: Hickey, Susan Jane

subjects: Māori

abstract: There is little work done in the area of indigenous disability identity issues and how they are recognised in domestic and international human rights laws. The discourse of disability has always been based on social constructionism and without it, there is no identity. I discuss its relevance to indigenous (Māori) with disabilities and how the multiplicitous nature of the identity of  other  has a particular impact when indigenous, gender and disability are all identified from marginalised groups. I also explore the impact of westernised thinking around impairment, in particular the models of disabilities on indigenous well-being. The issues of family (whānau), whakawhanaungatanga (family relationships), interdependence (community) and collectivity identities central to indigenous thinking are largely ignored by law and policy, yet central to indigenous identity. This ignorance in policy has led to the disparities that continue to remain for indigenous persons with disabilities, particularly those from within thematic identity groups.

text: The Unmet Legal, Social and Cultural Needs of Māori with Disabilities There is little work done in the area of indigenous disability identity issues and how they are recognised in domestic and international human rights laws. The discourse of disability has always been based on social constructionism and without it, there is no identity. I discuss its relevance to indigenous (Māori) with disabilities and how the multiplicitous nature of the identity of  other  has a particular impact when indigenous, gender and disability are all identified from marginalised groups. I also explore the impact of westernised thinking around impairment, in particular the models of disabilities on indigenous well-being. The issues of family (whānau), whakawhanaungatanga (family relationships), interdependence (community) and collectivity identities central to indigenous thinking are largely ignored by law and policy, yet central to indigenous identity. This ignorance in policy has led to the disparities that continue to remain for indigenous persons with disabilities, particularly those from within thematic identity groups.

year: 2008