title: Canine scent detection: A new approach to detect invasive freshwater fish

authors: Collins, Melissa Anne

subjects: Canine

abstract: Koi carp (Cyprinus rubrofuscus) were first introduced to New Zealand in the early 1960s. Since their introduction, they have contributed to the decline of New Zealand’s freshwater ecosystems through resuspension of sediment from their feeding behaviour and through competition with native species. Methods such as netting, electrofishing, and environmental DNA (eDNA) are used to detect and monitor invasive fish species. However, these methods can be labour intensive, expensive, and can have low sensitivity when fish are rare or elusive. Although scent-detection dogs have been used to detect a wide range of substances, diseases, and animals, there is limited information on dogs’ ability to detect aquatic species. This thesis aimed to determine if laboratory-based dogs could be used as a viable survey technique for invasive carp. Three studies were performed to investigate this aim. 
The first study (Chapter 2) investigated dogs’ sensitivity and specificity to carp scent using a multiple probe design experiment to determine if dogs had the potential to detect a low biomass of carp. A single dog was trained to use an automated carousel independently of its handler and assessed water samples from aquaria containing either no fish scent (non-target, n = 3), goldfish (Carassius auratus) scent (non-target, n = 5) or carp (target, n = 9) scent. The goldfish samples and six of the target samples were presented to the dog at a standard fish biomass concentration of 15.5 mg/L (equivalent to 310 kg fish/ha). The remaining three target samples (probes) were diluted to determine the dog’s detection threshold. Results showed that the dog could detect carp down to a dilution equivalent to a biomass of 9.3 kg/ha (i.e., 0.5 mg carp/L), well below the biomass threshold of carp known to cause significant ecological impacts (i.e., >100 kg/ha). The dog’s performance was then compared with eDNA, an existing survey method. Quantitative PCR conducted on DNA extracted from laboratory aquaria revealed that the species-specific primer could detect carp at 9.3 kg/ha, but amplification rates at this dilution were low, as were all dilutions below the limit of quantification (≈160 kg/ha). Collectively, these results suggest that laboratory-based dogs could, with further research, provide a highly sensitive method of carp detection.
Depending on the location of the field site it could take hours or even days for water samples to reach the laboratory and be assessed by dogs. Without effective preservation the olfactory profile of the scent could change, making it unrecognisable to the dogs. While preservation of scent samples is commonly practiced in the literature, very few studies have investigated the impacts preservation methods can have on dogs’ ability to detect the target scent. The second study of this thesis (Chapter 3) used an ABACADA reversal design to determine if refrigeration, freezing or potassium sorbate could be used as water sample preservation methods. To assess this, the dogs (n = 2-4) performed a baseline evaluation (A) of unpreserved water samples from aquaria containing carp (target scent; n = 7), goldfish (non-target scent; n = 5), or no fish (non-target scent; n = 5) before preservation treatments were applied to the samples. The treatment phases (B = refrigeration, C = freezing, and D = room temperature with potassium sorbate) involved applying a different preservation method to the water samples seven or eight days prior to assessment by the dogs. The results indicated that freezing and potassium sorbate have potential as scent sample preservatives. However, further research, testing longer storage durations with a larger sample size, is required to determine the full efficacy of these preservation techniques. 
The final study in this thesis (Chapter 4) evaluated dogs’ ability to detect carp in lake water. The first experiment in this study was a proof-of-concept experiment to determine if dogs could detect a common biomass of carp in lake water, which likely contains more background odours than aquaria water. Results from this experiment revealed that dogs could accurately detect a standard biomass of carp (i.e., 310 kg carp/ha) in samples from three lakes with varying water qualities; Taupō, Rotoroa and Rotoehu. All dogs achieved sensitivity values >83.6% and specificity values >77.3% on all lakes tested. Experiment Two tested dogs' ability to generalise carp scent across lake samples that varied in novelty, trophic state, and carp biomass. The results from this experiment revealed that dogs' mean detection performance was above chance on some, but not all, lakes. To compare the dogs' detection performance to an existing survey technique, eDNA analysis was performed on water samples assessed by the dogs. Interestingly, the multispecies assay only detected carp in three out of five lakes. Quantitative PCR improved detection of carp but still failed to detect carp in a lake known to contain naturalised populations. These results indicated that dogs have the ability to detect carp in naturally sourced water. However, further research is necessary to determine the scope of their generalisation abilities given the limitations imposed by COVID-19 and their inconsistent performances during Experiment Two. 
The findings from this thesis provide evidence that laboratory-based scent detection dogs may have potential to be used as an invasive carp detection method. In addition to demonstrating that dogs and eDNA have comparable levels of sensitivity to carp in aquaria water and that freezing, and potassium sorbate have potential as water sample preservatives, this thesis has also indicated that dogs may be able to detect and discriminate carp in water sourced from natural aquatic systems. The use of laboratory-based dogs could provide researchers with a timely and cost-efficient method of invasive fish detection, potentially enhancing their ability to regularly and extensively monitor freshwater ecosystems for new incursions of invasive species.

text: Canine scent detection: A new approach to detect invasive freshwater fish Koi carp (Cyprinus rubrofuscus) were first introduced to New Zealand in the early 1960s. Since their introduction, they have contributed to the decline of New Zealand’s freshwater ecosystems through resuspension of sediment from their feeding behaviour and through competition with native species. Methods such as netting, electrofishing, and environmental DNA (eDNA) are used to detect and monitor invasive fish species. However, these methods can be labour intensive, expensive, and can have low sensitivity when fish are rare or elusive. Although scent-detection dogs have been used to detect a wide range of substances, diseases, and animals, there is limited information on dogs’ ability to detect aquatic species. This thesis aimed to determine if laboratory-based dogs could be used as a viable survey technique for invasive carp. Three studies were performed to investigate this aim. 
The first study (Chapter 2) investigated dogs’ sensitivity and specificity to carp scent using a multiple probe design experiment to determine if dogs had the potential to detect a low biomass of carp. A single dog was trained to use an automated carousel independently of its handler and assessed water samples from aquaria containing either no fish scent (non-target, n = 3), goldfish (Carassius auratus) scent (non-target, n = 5) or carp (target, n = 9) scent. The goldfish samples and six of the target samples were presented to the dog at a standard fish biomass concentration of 15.5 mg/L (equivalent to 310 kg fish/ha). The remaining three target samples (probes) were diluted to determine the dog’s detection threshold. Results showed that the dog could detect carp down to a dilution equivalent to a biomass of 9.3 kg/ha (i.e., 0.5 mg carp/L), well below the biomass threshold of carp known to cause significant ecological impacts (i.e., >100 kg/ha). The dog’s performance was then compared with eDNA, an existing survey method. Quantitative PCR conducted on DNA extracted from laboratory aquaria revealed that the species-specific primer could detect carp at 9.3 kg/ha, but amplification rates at this dilution were low, as were all dilutions below the limit of quantification (≈160 kg/ha). Collectively, these results suggest that laboratory-based dogs could, with further research, provide a highly sensitive method of carp detection.
Depending on the location of the field site it could take hours or even days for water samples to reach the laboratory and be assessed by dogs. Without effective preservation the olfactory profile of the scent could change, making it unrecognisable to the dogs. While preservation of scent samples is commonly practiced in the literature, very few studies have investigated the impacts preservation methods can have on dogs’ ability to detect the target scent. The second study of this thesis (Chapter 3) used an ABACADA reversal design to determine if refrigeration, freezing or potassium sorbate could be used as water sample preservation methods. To assess this, the dogs (n = 2-4) performed a baseline evaluation (A) of unpreserved water samples from aquaria containing carp (target scent; n = 7), goldfish (non-target scent; n = 5), or no fish (non-target scent; n = 5) before preservation treatments were applied to the samples. The treatment phases (B = refrigeration, C = freezing, and D = room temperature with potassium sorbate) involved applying a different preservation method to the water samples seven or eight days prior to assessment by the dogs. The results indicated that freezing and potassium sorbate have potential as scent sample preservatives. However, further research, testing longer storage durations with a larger sample size, is required to determine the full efficacy of these preservation techniques. 
The final study in this thesis (Chapter 4) evaluated dogs’ ability to detect carp in lake water. The first experiment in this study was a proof-of-concept experiment to determine if dogs could detect a common biomass of carp in lake water, which likely contains more background odours than aquaria water. Results from this experiment revealed that dogs could accurately detect a standard biomass of carp (i.e., 310 kg carp/ha) in samples from three lakes with varying water qualities; Taupō, Rotoroa and Rotoehu. All dogs achieved sensitivity values >83.6% and specificity values >77.3% on all lakes tested. Experiment Two tested dogs' ability to generalise carp scent across lake samples that varied in novelty, trophic state, and carp biomass. The results from this experiment revealed that dogs' mean detection performance was above chance on some, but not all, lakes. To compare the dogs' detection performance to an existing survey technique, eDNA analysis was performed on water samples assessed by the dogs. Interestingly, the multispecies assay only detected carp in three out of five lakes. Quantitative PCR improved detection of carp but still failed to detect carp in a lake known to contain naturalised populations. These results indicated that dogs have the ability to detect carp in naturally sourced water. However, further research is necessary to determine the scope of their generalisation abilities given the limitations imposed by COVID-19 and their inconsistent performances during Experiment Two. 
The findings from this thesis provide evidence that laboratory-based scent detection dogs may have potential to be used as an invasive carp detection method. In addition to demonstrating that dogs and eDNA have comparable levels of sensitivity to carp in aquaria water and that freezing, and potassium sorbate have potential as water sample preservatives, this thesis has also indicated that dogs may be able to detect and discriminate carp in water sourced from natural aquatic systems. The use of laboratory-based dogs could provide researchers with a timely and cost-efficient method of invasive fish detection, potentially enhancing their ability to regularly and extensively monitor freshwater ecosystems for new incursions of invasive species.

year: 2024

title: Virtue and self-interest

authors: Hardwicke, Tery Vance

subjects: Egoism

abstract: Why be moral? One possible, and compelling answer is that to act morally is in an agent's self-interest. Such an answer can be either elevationist (broadly speaking the Aristotelian/Platonic approach) where self-interest is elevated to coincide with living the good life, or reductionist where morality is defined as acting in an agent's self-interest.

Elevationist moral theories appear flawed. If you are in possession of information that, if divulged, will bring about the deaths of others then it may be virtuous to stay silent. However, if staying silent results in you being slowly tortured to death in an effort to extract the information then it seems bizarre to suggest that in doing so you are flourishing, happy, or acting out of self-interest.

Reductionist moral theories, acting for the 'good of self' rather than the 'good of others', are widely considered to be the antithesis of morality. Moral philosophers tend to attack such positions claiming that the doctrine of egoism is unworkable. It is commonly claimed that any theory which recommends 'an agent do x if x is in the agent's best interest' is inconsistent, incoherent, or contradictory and fails to meet the basic requirements of a moral theory (notably the requirement of universalisability).

I begin this thesis with an examination of ethical egoism in its most widely known consequentialist form; i.e. an agent ought to act so as to bring about the best consequences for that agent. I examine the major criticisms of this theory and demonstrate that the axioms of egoism can be developed so as to overcome these criticisms. I argue that consequentialist based ethical egoism is coherent, consistent and noncontradictory. However, I go on to argue that while egoism can be formulated in a manner that overcomes all the aforementioned analytic criticisms it is a flawed moral theory in that within certain contexts the action deemed morally correct by egoism is, as a matter of fact, morally pernicious. That a theory contains a flaw is not reason enough to discard the entire theory and I go on to contend that the problem with egoism is the consequentialist approach, not the fact that it is based on self-interest.
In Part 2 of the thesis I abandon the consequentialist approach and examine the possibility of a flourishing-based form of ethical egoism. I further develop the axioms of egoism established in Part 1 through an examination of the concept of flourishing (as commonly associated with virtue ethics). Ultimately I tread a path between the consequentialist and elevationist positions. While I do not elevate self-interest to acting virtuously I do contend that an egoist must adopt certain virtues if that egoist is to have the best possibility to flourish. However, I further contend that an egoist ought to act so as to promote that which the egoist values and that this agent-relative hierarchy of values, which necessarily contains certain virtues, determines the manner in which an egoist ought to act.

text: Virtue and self-interest Why be moral? One possible, and compelling answer is that to act morally is in an agent's self-interest. Such an answer can be either elevationist (broadly speaking the Aristotelian/Platonic approach) where self-interest is elevated to coincide with living the good life, or reductionist where morality is defined as acting in an agent's self-interest.

Elevationist moral theories appear flawed. If you are in possession of information that, if divulged, will bring about the deaths of others then it may be virtuous to stay silent. However, if staying silent results in you being slowly tortured to death in an effort to extract the information then it seems bizarre to suggest that in doing so you are flourishing, happy, or acting out of self-interest.

Reductionist moral theories, acting for the 'good of self' rather than the 'good of others', are widely considered to be the antithesis of morality. Moral philosophers tend to attack such positions claiming that the doctrine of egoism is unworkable. It is commonly claimed that any theory which recommends 'an agent do x if x is in the agent's best interest' is inconsistent, incoherent, or contradictory and fails to meet the basic requirements of a moral theory (notably the requirement of universalisability).

I begin this thesis with an examination of ethical egoism in its most widely known consequentialist form; i.e. an agent ought to act so as to bring about the best consequences for that agent. I examine the major criticisms of this theory and demonstrate that the axioms of egoism can be developed so as to overcome these criticisms. I argue that consequentialist based ethical egoism is coherent, consistent and noncontradictory. However, I go on to argue that while egoism can be formulated in a manner that overcomes all the aforementioned analytic criticisms it is a flawed moral theory in that within certain contexts the action deemed morally correct by egoism is, as a matter of fact, morally pernicious. That a theory contains a flaw is not reason enough to discard the entire theory and I go on to contend that the problem with egoism is the consequentialist approach, not the fact that it is based on self-interest.
In Part 2 of the thesis I abandon the consequentialist approach and examine the possibility of a flourishing-based form of ethical egoism. I further develop the axioms of egoism established in Part 1 through an examination of the concept of flourishing (as commonly associated with virtue ethics). Ultimately I tread a path between the consequentialist and elevationist positions. While I do not elevate self-interest to acting virtuously I do contend that an egoist must adopt certain virtues if that egoist is to have the best possibility to flourish. However, I further contend that an egoist ought to act so as to promote that which the egoist values and that this agent-relative hierarchy of values, which necessarily contains certain virtues, determines the manner in which an egoist ought to act.

year: 2007

title: Ūropi Tauhokohoko Ka Taea: New Zealand-European Union Free Trade Agreement: An Independent Assessment of the Impacts for Mãori

authors: Mika, Jason

abstract: This report, entitled Ūropi tauhokohoko ka taea, which means ‘the enabling of trade with Europe,’ represents an independent assessment of the New Zealand-European Union free trade agreement (NZ-EU FTA) commissioned by Manatū Aorere—Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) as part of a National Interest Analysis (NIA). An NIA is an important way in which parliament can be assured that international treaties, like FTAs, that Aotearoa New Zealand intends to enter into are done so with confidence about their contents and how New Zealanders are affected. As the government’s lead agency on trade policy, Manatū Aorere prepares NIAs, but the Trade for All Advisory Board suggested the need for more independent analysis. This report was prepared by an independent advisor who is familiar with the issues, having previously conducted similar work. Concluded in June 2022, the NZ-EU FTA is expected to come into force in 2024. When this happens, 91% of tariffs are immediately eliminated, with eventual tariff savings of $100m per annum adding to the $17.5 billion in two-way trade.  The purpose of this report was to assess key outcomes of the NZ-EU FTA for Māori, with a focus on aspects of strong interest to Māori, including key sectors of the Māori economy, as well as particular interests in services and investment, geographical indications, digital trade, and the Māori trade chapter. In keeping with the independent nature of this assessment, a holistic kaupapa Māori framework was devised consisting of four dimensions—te ao Māori (Māori world view), te Tiriti o Waitangi (Treaty of Waitangi), te ōhanga (economy), and te taiao (environment)—on which to frame the assessment. The assessment involved a five-stage process of whanaungatanga (relationships), whai hua (document analysis), whai rawa (modelling), whai whakaaro (interviews), and whakamārama (discussion). The assessment relied on available documents, existing modelling, and official information.  In terms of whai hua (documents), the assessment found that benefits for Māori include tariff elimination on Māori goods, the treaty exception, a Māori trade chapter, references to mātauranga Māori, treaty partner engagement, and representation on groups formed under the NZ-EU FTA. Reviewed documents indicate, however, that reservations remain about protection of Māori treaty rights, the softening of benefits to Māori because of pre-existing vulnerabilities, and the size of Māori economic gains. Under whai rawa (economy), while the NZ-EU FTA is forecast to add $1.4 billion to Aotearoa New Zealand’s gross domestic product (GDP) annually, the Māori economy’s share of this gain is unknown. By emulating existing modelling, the economic impact for Māori is estimated to range from NZ$80 million (low) to NZ$150 million (high) in real GDP accruing to the Māori economy as a result of the NZ-EU FTA, with $110 million per annum the most likely scenario. This assumes an 8% growth rate in the Māori economy. Distributional effects were not assessed. Under whai whakaaro (interviews with 26 individuals), the assessment found that three of the four treaty partners (Federation of Māori Authorities, Te Taumata, Iwi Chairs Forum) were buoyant about the prospects for Māori trade with the European Union (EU). Ngā Toki Whakarururanga in their assessment identified limitations in the level of protection of Māori treaty rights and the efficacy of the treaty exception. They also desire tiriti-based negotiation. Officials provided candid reflections on the NZ-EU FTA outcomes for Māori, which are included here. Implementation success will depend on continued treaty partner engagement, adequate resourcing of the same, Māoricentred trade facilitation, and advancing domestic policy work to protect Māori treaty rights in the NZ-EU FTA.

text: Ūropi Tauhokohoko Ka Taea: New Zealand-European Union Free Trade Agreement: An Independent Assessment of the Impacts for Mãori This report, entitled Ūropi tauhokohoko ka taea, which means ‘the enabling of trade with Europe,’ represents an independent assessment of the New Zealand-European Union free trade agreement (NZ-EU FTA) commissioned by Manatū Aorere—Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) as part of a National Interest Analysis (NIA). An NIA is an important way in which parliament can be assured that international treaties, like FTAs, that Aotearoa New Zealand intends to enter into are done so with confidence about their contents and how New Zealanders are affected. As the government’s lead agency on trade policy, Manatū Aorere prepares NIAs, but the Trade for All Advisory Board suggested the need for more independent analysis. This report was prepared by an independent advisor who is familiar with the issues, having previously conducted similar work. Concluded in June 2022, the NZ-EU FTA is expected to come into force in 2024. When this happens, 91% of tariffs are immediately eliminated, with eventual tariff savings of $100m per annum adding to the $17.5 billion in two-way trade.  The purpose of this report was to assess key outcomes of the NZ-EU FTA for Māori, with a focus on aspects of strong interest to Māori, including key sectors of the Māori economy, as well as particular interests in services and investment, geographical indications, digital trade, and the Māori trade chapter. In keeping with the independent nature of this assessment, a holistic kaupapa Māori framework was devised consisting of four dimensions—te ao Māori (Māori world view), te Tiriti o Waitangi (Treaty of Waitangi), te ōhanga (economy), and te taiao (environment)—on which to frame the assessment. The assessment involved a five-stage process of whanaungatanga (relationships), whai hua (document analysis), whai rawa (modelling), whai whakaaro (interviews), and whakamārama (discussion). The assessment relied on available documents, existing modelling, and official information.  In terms of whai hua (documents), the assessment found that benefits for Māori include tariff elimination on Māori goods, the treaty exception, a Māori trade chapter, references to mātauranga Māori, treaty partner engagement, and representation on groups formed under the NZ-EU FTA. Reviewed documents indicate, however, that reservations remain about protection of Māori treaty rights, the softening of benefits to Māori because of pre-existing vulnerabilities, and the size of Māori economic gains. Under whai rawa (economy), while the NZ-EU FTA is forecast to add $1.4 billion to Aotearoa New Zealand’s gross domestic product (GDP) annually, the Māori economy’s share of this gain is unknown. By emulating existing modelling, the economic impact for Māori is estimated to range from NZ$80 million (low) to NZ$150 million (high) in real GDP accruing to the Māori economy as a result of the NZ-EU FTA, with $110 million per annum the most likely scenario. This assumes an 8% growth rate in the Māori economy. Distributional effects were not assessed. Under whai whakaaro (interviews with 26 individuals), the assessment found that three of the four treaty partners (Federation of Māori Authorities, Te Taumata, Iwi Chairs Forum) were buoyant about the prospects for Māori trade with the European Union (EU). Ngā Toki Whakarururanga in their assessment identified limitations in the level of protection of Māori treaty rights and the efficacy of the treaty exception. They also desire tiriti-based negotiation. Officials provided candid reflections on the NZ-EU FTA outcomes for Māori, which are included here. Implementation success will depend on continued treaty partner engagement, adequate resourcing of the same, Māoricentred trade facilitation, and advancing domestic policy work to protect Māori treaty rights in the NZ-EU FTA.

year: 2023-05-05