title: Neoformalist Game Analysis A methodological exploration of single-player game violence

authors: Van Vught, Jasper Frans

subjects: Video Games

abstract: This thesis positions itself within the scholarly debate around videogame violence. However, other than focussing on the effects of game violence which dominates much of this debate, this thesis focuses on the formal characteristics of the game and asks: how does violence in single-player videogames work? This means that this thesis explores the different rules, style elements, and narrative components that make up and surround violent encounters in games and that structure our in-game behaviours and our perceptions of these violent actions. 

When seeking an approach to study these formal components, currently available ‘formalisms’ in game studies are found to be lacking. Ludology’s focus on rule systems in detriment of the game’s semantic layer does not allow for an adequate analysis of game violence since game violence is largely shaped by audiovisual cues. Furthermore, proceduralism’s focus on finding meaning becomes problematic since it does not account for the ludic function that components making up the game violence may (also) have. For a balanced analysis of rules, stylistic and narrative components, this thesis therefore borrows from, adapts, and expands on a neoformalist approach to films, and proposes a neoformalist approach to games as an alternative to both ludology and proceduralism. With a focus on the way that different devices function to structure a player’s response, this approach does not only prove helpful for an equal consideration of different formal game components but also helps to consider the player’s inherent role in actualising the perceptual, cognitive, emotional and behavioural effects. In fact, this approach functions as a poetics of game violence that takes player responses as departure points and asks which combination of devices are at work in cueing these responses. 

In exploring a range of different single-player videogames with a neoformalist approach to games, this thesis first shows how different components surrounding game violence can be there for ludic reasons (facilitating configurative behaviour), compositional reasons (creating narrative), realistic reasons (appealing to notions of the real world), transtextual reasons (appealing to knowledge of other works), and artistic reasons (contributing to the game’s abstract shape). Furthermore this thesis explores how these different reasons suggest different play responses by elaborating on the role of the player as both agent and spectator. The player as spectator is then triggered to evaluate the aesthetic or realistic quality of the violence, its relationship to other works, or the way the violence affects the wellbeing of an in-game character. The player as agent, on the other hand, is cued to focus on those elements that are facilitating the progress towards the game’s goal thereby also cognitively evaluating and emotionally responding to the violence in the context of game progress. These very different perceptual, cognitive and emotional focus points can thus have a significant impact on the experience of game violence. 

The neoformalist approach proposed in this thesis allows for some generalizable claims about the way players are cued to experience in-game violence by analysing the workings of the formal components that make up and contextualize that violence. This also means that asking how violence in videogames works is asking how violence works in relationship with the player. In response to the question of this thesis we can state that every violent encounter in single-player games works differently according to the different combinations of formal components that function together to cue certain play responses. Acknowledging this is important when one is trying to understand the experience of game violence and subsequently any potential after-effects. As this thesis suggests, such an analysis should start with a focus on the formal components of the violence to account for the many variations of that violence which will eventually help to specify any further player studies.

text: Neoformalist Game Analysis A methodological exploration of single-player game violence This thesis positions itself within the scholarly debate around videogame violence. However, other than focussing on the effects of game violence which dominates much of this debate, this thesis focuses on the formal characteristics of the game and asks: how does violence in single-player videogames work? This means that this thesis explores the different rules, style elements, and narrative components that make up and surround violent encounters in games and that structure our in-game behaviours and our perceptions of these violent actions. 

When seeking an approach to study these formal components, currently available ‘formalisms’ in game studies are found to be lacking. Ludology’s focus on rule systems in detriment of the game’s semantic layer does not allow for an adequate analysis of game violence since game violence is largely shaped by audiovisual cues. Furthermore, proceduralism’s focus on finding meaning becomes problematic since it does not account for the ludic function that components making up the game violence may (also) have. For a balanced analysis of rules, stylistic and narrative components, this thesis therefore borrows from, adapts, and expands on a neoformalist approach to films, and proposes a neoformalist approach to games as an alternative to both ludology and proceduralism. With a focus on the way that different devices function to structure a player’s response, this approach does not only prove helpful for an equal consideration of different formal game components but also helps to consider the player’s inherent role in actualising the perceptual, cognitive, emotional and behavioural effects. In fact, this approach functions as a poetics of game violence that takes player responses as departure points and asks which combination of devices are at work in cueing these responses. 

In exploring a range of different single-player videogames with a neoformalist approach to games, this thesis first shows how different components surrounding game violence can be there for ludic reasons (facilitating configurative behaviour), compositional reasons (creating narrative), realistic reasons (appealing to notions of the real world), transtextual reasons (appealing to knowledge of other works), and artistic reasons (contributing to the game’s abstract shape). Furthermore this thesis explores how these different reasons suggest different play responses by elaborating on the role of the player as both agent and spectator. The player as spectator is then triggered to evaluate the aesthetic or realistic quality of the violence, its relationship to other works, or the way the violence affects the wellbeing of an in-game character. The player as agent, on the other hand, is cued to focus on those elements that are facilitating the progress towards the game’s goal thereby also cognitively evaluating and emotionally responding to the violence in the context of game progress. These very different perceptual, cognitive and emotional focus points can thus have a significant impact on the experience of game violence. 

The neoformalist approach proposed in this thesis allows for some generalizable claims about the way players are cued to experience in-game violence by analysing the workings of the formal components that make up and contextualize that violence. This also means that asking how violence in videogames works is asking how violence works in relationship with the player. In response to the question of this thesis we can state that every violent encounter in single-player games works differently according to the different combinations of formal components that function together to cue certain play responses. Acknowledging this is important when one is trying to understand the experience of game violence and subsequently any potential after-effects. As this thesis suggests, such an analysis should start with a focus on the formal components of the violence to account for the many variations of that violence which will eventually help to specify any further player studies.

year: 2016

title: A 28,000 year old excavated painted rock from Nawarla Gabarnmang, northern Australia

authors: David, Bruno O.

subjects: AMS dating

abstract: We report new archaeological excavations from northern Australia revealing part of a charcoal design likely to be c. 28,000 years old (and chrono-stratigraphically constrained within the period 15,600-45,600 cal BP) on a small rock slab fallen from the ceiling at the rockshelter of Nawarla Gabarnmang in Jawoyn country, Arnhem Land. This represents the oldest confirmed pictograph in Australia.

text: A 28,000 year old excavated painted rock from Nawarla Gabarnmang, northern Australia We report new archaeological excavations from northern Australia revealing part of a charcoal design likely to be c. 28,000 years old (and chrono-stratigraphically constrained within the period 15,600-45,600 cal BP) on a small rock slab fallen from the ceiling at the rockshelter of Nawarla Gabarnmang in Jawoyn country, Arnhem Land. This represents the oldest confirmed pictograph in Australia.

year: 2013

title: Quantifying relationships between kōura  (Paranephrops planifrons) abundance and micro-habitat features in Waikato hill-country streams

authors: Parata, Riki Neihana

subjects: kōura

abstract: Kōura (Paranephrops planifrons) is considered a taonga species by Māori and was once an abundant traditional fishery harvested throughout New Zealand. Kōura populations are under pressure in Waikato hill-country streams due to a range of factors including habitat loss and water quality degradation. Now that stakeholders have been engaging in collaborative decision-making and practices to restore/enhance biodiversity and ecosystem health within the Waikato catchment, there is opportunity to implement measures specifically targeted at kōura. Information on kōura habitat requirements to assist with the development of habitat enhancement work is therefore timely.
This research comprised two discrete studies which, in combination, provide important insights into daytime habitat use by kōura in Waikato hill-country streams. The first study was a field survey that examined in-stream habitat characteristics affecting kōura density and size, with a focus on juveniles ≤ 8 mm orbital carapace length (OCL), across a range of scales ranging from habitat patches to streams with contrasting catchment and riparian vegetation treatments – pasture, early or late riparian planting, and native forest. Micro-habitat variables related to kōura density included water depth and velocity, substrate size, and the area of bank undercuts and organic cover types, with root mat area significantly and positively related to juvenile densities across all scales. Although there was no significant effect of treatment type, there were strong associations between kōura and ponga logs, root systems, and coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) across scales within and between streams.
The second study was a habitat manipulation experiment conducted to investigate whether kōura abundances, in particular juveniles, could be enhanced by additions of organic habitat consisting of 0.5 m² coconut fibre matting to simulate ponga (Cyathea dealbata) root systems that occur on the stream bank, and 1 m² ponga frond bundles to simulate the natural habitat structures formed in native forested areas. These two artificial habitats were compared with natural in-stream cobble habitats. Kōura and toi toi (Gobiomorphus spp.), both showed a preference for ponga frond habitats which were predicted to provide submerged habitat for more than 200 days. Although the coconut fibre matting was predicted to outlast ponga frond bundles by up to 107 days, it was more susceptible to sedimentation and did not provide adequate habitat for kōura due to its dense structure.
This study highlighted the influence of riparian treatments, hydrological processes, and inorganic and organic habitats on kōura populations. Information from this study can provide restoration managers with guidance on how to enhance in-stream and stream edge habitat suitability for kōura and can be used with existing mātauranga Māori, and western and community science, to determine suitable vegetation for riparian planting, assess what factors and drivers contribute to in-stream habitat availability and sustainability, and identify important habitat features that relate to kōura when conducting habitat restoration.

text: Quantifying relationships between kōura  (Paranephrops planifrons) abundance and micro-habitat features in Waikato hill-country streams Kōura (Paranephrops planifrons) is considered a taonga species by Māori and was once an abundant traditional fishery harvested throughout New Zealand. Kōura populations are under pressure in Waikato hill-country streams due to a range of factors including habitat loss and water quality degradation. Now that stakeholders have been engaging in collaborative decision-making and practices to restore/enhance biodiversity and ecosystem health within the Waikato catchment, there is opportunity to implement measures specifically targeted at kōura. Information on kōura habitat requirements to assist with the development of habitat enhancement work is therefore timely.
This research comprised two discrete studies which, in combination, provide important insights into daytime habitat use by kōura in Waikato hill-country streams. The first study was a field survey that examined in-stream habitat characteristics affecting kōura density and size, with a focus on juveniles ≤ 8 mm orbital carapace length (OCL), across a range of scales ranging from habitat patches to streams with contrasting catchment and riparian vegetation treatments – pasture, early or late riparian planting, and native forest. Micro-habitat variables related to kōura density included water depth and velocity, substrate size, and the area of bank undercuts and organic cover types, with root mat area significantly and positively related to juvenile densities across all scales. Although there was no significant effect of treatment type, there were strong associations between kōura and ponga logs, root systems, and coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) across scales within and between streams.
The second study was a habitat manipulation experiment conducted to investigate whether kōura abundances, in particular juveniles, could be enhanced by additions of organic habitat consisting of 0.5 m² coconut fibre matting to simulate ponga (Cyathea dealbata) root systems that occur on the stream bank, and 1 m² ponga frond bundles to simulate the natural habitat structures formed in native forested areas. These two artificial habitats were compared with natural in-stream cobble habitats. Kōura and toi toi (Gobiomorphus spp.), both showed a preference for ponga frond habitats which were predicted to provide submerged habitat for more than 200 days. Although the coconut fibre matting was predicted to outlast ponga frond bundles by up to 107 days, it was more susceptible to sedimentation and did not provide adequate habitat for kōura due to its dense structure.
This study highlighted the influence of riparian treatments, hydrological processes, and inorganic and organic habitats on kōura populations. Information from this study can provide restoration managers with guidance on how to enhance in-stream and stream edge habitat suitability for kōura and can be used with existing mātauranga Māori, and western and community science, to determine suitable vegetation for riparian planting, assess what factors and drivers contribute to in-stream habitat availability and sustainability, and identify important habitat features that relate to kōura when conducting habitat restoration.

year: 2019