title: The bovine teat canal: Its role in pathogen recognition and defence of the mammary gland

authors: Smolenski, Grant A.

subjects: Teat canal

abstract: The bovine mammary gland is remarkable in that it produces over three litres of milk daily as an exocrine secretion, which passes through the teat into the external environment. Despite this substantial volume of fluid flow and that milk is one of the most nutritional mediums in which microorganisms can thrive, for the most part, this process occurs without colonisation of pathogens in the interior of the gland. Nevertheless, mastitis, when it does occur, is a significant dairy management problem. The major factor restricting ingress of pathogens into the gland has been assumed by most researchers in the field to be the length and diameter of the teat canal and the tightness of the teat sphincter. However, it has become increasingly clear in recent years that epithelial tissues have considerable innate immune functionality that contributes significantly to host defence. The presence of innate immune components within the teat end tissues has been only very superficially described to date. The presence of antimicrobial activity in the protein fraction of the teat canal lining has been previously demonstrated, as well as the presence of immune cells within some teat-end tissues, however, a detailed investigation into the identity of these proteins and cell types has not been undertaken.
The aims of this thesis are to firstly, characterise the protein component of the teat canal lining (Chapter 3) and secondly, identify key immune-related cells in healthy lactating dairy cows (Chapter 4).0 A third aim is to assess changes in the cell population and immune-related factors that occur within teat-end tissues during mammary involution (Chapter 5). The fourth and final aim is to begin to characterise the immediate localised inflammatory response within teat-end tissues to the presence of mastitis-causing pathogens (Chapter 6), a question that has never been previously addressed. The approach used to address these aims were to (i) apply proteomics methodologies to the characterisation of the proteins within the teat canal lining, and (ii) examination of teat-end tissues by fluorescence immunohistochemistry using antibodies directed against known immune cell markers.
The results revealed that aside from the major keratin proteins, the teat canal lining contained several other proteins and protein families (e.g. the S100 and serpin families) that differed from that of the cornified layer of the surrounding teat skin (Chapter 3). Immunofluorescent analysis revealed that there were substantial differences in the density and distribution of immune cells between the teat-end tissues. The Fürstenberg’s rosette is especially rich in antigen-presenting cells (Chapter 4). Drying-off of the udder (mammary involution) was associated with an increase in some immune cell types in the teat sinus, and an increased abundance of some antimicrobial proteins in the teat canal lining, but relatively few and minor additional changes (Chapter 5). The introduction of pathogens into the teat canal resulted in similar changes in the abundance of teat canal lining proteins, but no obvious changes in localised immune cell abundance or distribution after 24 hours exposure (Chapter 6).
The presence of specific antimicrobial proteins in the teat canal lining, and the presence of immune cells within the Fürstenberg’s rosette and teat sinus epithelia demonstrate that these tissues play an active role in host defence. Thus, the research presented in this thesis has laid the foundation for a more complete understanding of host-defence functionality in the teat. This has implications for devising novel approaches to reducing susceptibility to mastitis in dairy cows.

text: The bovine teat canal: Its role in pathogen recognition and defence of the mammary gland The bovine mammary gland is remarkable in that it produces over three litres of milk daily as an exocrine secretion, which passes through the teat into the external environment. Despite this substantial volume of fluid flow and that milk is one of the most nutritional mediums in which microorganisms can thrive, for the most part, this process occurs without colonisation of pathogens in the interior of the gland. Nevertheless, mastitis, when it does occur, is a significant dairy management problem. The major factor restricting ingress of pathogens into the gland has been assumed by most researchers in the field to be the length and diameter of the teat canal and the tightness of the teat sphincter. However, it has become increasingly clear in recent years that epithelial tissues have considerable innate immune functionality that contributes significantly to host defence. The presence of innate immune components within the teat end tissues has been only very superficially described to date. The presence of antimicrobial activity in the protein fraction of the teat canal lining has been previously demonstrated, as well as the presence of immune cells within some teat-end tissues, however, a detailed investigation into the identity of these proteins and cell types has not been undertaken.
The aims of this thesis are to firstly, characterise the protein component of the teat canal lining (Chapter 3) and secondly, identify key immune-related cells in healthy lactating dairy cows (Chapter 4).0 A third aim is to assess changes in the cell population and immune-related factors that occur within teat-end tissues during mammary involution (Chapter 5). The fourth and final aim is to begin to characterise the immediate localised inflammatory response within teat-end tissues to the presence of mastitis-causing pathogens (Chapter 6), a question that has never been previously addressed. The approach used to address these aims were to (i) apply proteomics methodologies to the characterisation of the proteins within the teat canal lining, and (ii) examination of teat-end tissues by fluorescence immunohistochemistry using antibodies directed against known immune cell markers.
The results revealed that aside from the major keratin proteins, the teat canal lining contained several other proteins and protein families (e.g. the S100 and serpin families) that differed from that of the cornified layer of the surrounding teat skin (Chapter 3). Immunofluorescent analysis revealed that there were substantial differences in the density and distribution of immune cells between the teat-end tissues. The Fürstenberg’s rosette is especially rich in antigen-presenting cells (Chapter 4). Drying-off of the udder (mammary involution) was associated with an increase in some immune cell types in the teat sinus, and an increased abundance of some antimicrobial proteins in the teat canal lining, but relatively few and minor additional changes (Chapter 5). The introduction of pathogens into the teat canal resulted in similar changes in the abundance of teat canal lining proteins, but no obvious changes in localised immune cell abundance or distribution after 24 hours exposure (Chapter 6).
The presence of specific antimicrobial proteins in the teat canal lining, and the presence of immune cells within the Fürstenberg’s rosette and teat sinus epithelia demonstrate that these tissues play an active role in host defence. Thus, the research presented in this thesis has laid the foundation for a more complete understanding of host-defence functionality in the teat. This has implications for devising novel approaches to reducing susceptibility to mastitis in dairy cows.

year: 2018

title: Charles Gallagher; an investor in mining

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: Charles Gallagher, born in Ireland, for a time prospered when working on American silver mining fields. After arriving in New Zealand in 1883 with his Irish wife and young children, he settled at Thames, where for a while he was a publican and invested in mining as well as doing some prospecting. As so often, he was involved in arguments over the ownership of a silver-bearing claim.
In 1884, the family settled at Te Aroha, where he erected two houses, expensively furnished. Once again, he prospected for silver, unsuccessfully, wasting considerable sums on this endeavour. His financial state was secure until, when he was ill, he settled his money on his wife, and afterwards was angered when she refused to return it because of his ‘intemperate’ habits. The consequence was that while she was in comfortable circumstances, even able to share the ownership of a steamer, he would die penniless.
His private life was increasingly unhappy, marked by heavy drinking and violence against others, especially his wife. He was pathologically jealous of his long-suffering but faithful wife, with tragic consequences on Christmas Day, 1890.

text: Charles Gallagher; an investor in mining Charles Gallagher, born in Ireland, for a time prospered when working on American silver mining fields. After arriving in New Zealand in 1883 with his Irish wife and young children, he settled at Thames, where for a while he was a publican and invested in mining as well as doing some prospecting. As so often, he was involved in arguments over the ownership of a silver-bearing claim.
In 1884, the family settled at Te Aroha, where he erected two houses, expensively furnished. Once again, he prospected for silver, unsuccessfully, wasting considerable sums on this endeavour. His financial state was secure until, when he was ill, he settled his money on his wife, and afterwards was angered when she refused to return it because of his ‘intemperate’ habits. The consequence was that while she was in comfortable circumstances, even able to share the ownership of a steamer, he would die penniless.
His private life was increasingly unhappy, marked by heavy drinking and violence against others, especially his wife. He was pathologically jealous of his long-suffering but faithful wife, with tragic consequences on Christmas Day, 1890.

year: 2016

title: Adam Porter: a miner who became a ‘self-made man’

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: Adam Porter won the accolade of being a ‘self-made man’ because of rising from humble beginnings in Scotland. After arriving in New Zealand, aged 12, and working hard for some years, he joined the South Island gold rushes from 1861 onwards, sometimes as a miner and sometimes as an investor, storekeeper and publican. Even as a young man he was involved in local politics. After settling at Thames after the goldfield opened there, he concentrated on prospecting in Ohinemuri and in promoting the interests of the mining industry generally. From 1875 onwards he would be a director of many mining companies, and would encourage the prospecting of new districts, especially in his capacity as an Ohinemuri representative on the county council. Amongst his many policies designed to benefit the community was the promotion of education, including secondary education. By the late 1870s he was based in Auckland.
From 1878 onwards he claimed to know that gold was to be found at Te Aroha, and urged the government to acquire Maori land there for Pakeha farmers and prospectors. In mid-1880 he arranged for a government-subsidized prospecting party to examine the mountain under the leadership of Hone Werahiko, and liaised with both the warden and the government on the latter’s behalf, on occasions implying that he had shared in the discovery of gold. He may have tried to obtain control over the new find, but despite this he remained Werahiko’s agent and would be the executor of his estate. As well as investing in the Te Aroha and Waiorongomai fields, he was involved in the development of mines throughout Hauraki in the 1880s. 
Over time he took an increasingly leading role in promoting the mining industry, as for example a member of the Thames Drainage Board and of the Auckland Chamber of Commerce. For many years he attempted to obtain government assistance for mining, and was also interested in new mining technology. In his last years he was a leading member of the Auckland business community, investing in non-mining ventures and being a good employer (though critics disagreed). He also became involved in local government issues and the temperance movement before speaking his mind on national issues, finally standing for parliament as an independent-minded supporter of his old friend from his West Coast days, Richard John Seddon. 
Harsh working conditions on the West Coast led to poor health and an early death. He left his family a comfortably legacy, and was remembered as having a genial, kindly, and witty personality but also having a good sense of his own importance. He seized opportunities, sometimes in a manner that offended others, but tried to benefit not only himself but also the wider community.

text: Adam Porter: a miner who became a ‘self-made man’ Adam Porter won the accolade of being a ‘self-made man’ because of rising from humble beginnings in Scotland. After arriving in New Zealand, aged 12, and working hard for some years, he joined the South Island gold rushes from 1861 onwards, sometimes as a miner and sometimes as an investor, storekeeper and publican. Even as a young man he was involved in local politics. After settling at Thames after the goldfield opened there, he concentrated on prospecting in Ohinemuri and in promoting the interests of the mining industry generally. From 1875 onwards he would be a director of many mining companies, and would encourage the prospecting of new districts, especially in his capacity as an Ohinemuri representative on the county council. Amongst his many policies designed to benefit the community was the promotion of education, including secondary education. By the late 1870s he was based in Auckland.
From 1878 onwards he claimed to know that gold was to be found at Te Aroha, and urged the government to acquire Maori land there for Pakeha farmers and prospectors. In mid-1880 he arranged for a government-subsidized prospecting party to examine the mountain under the leadership of Hone Werahiko, and liaised with both the warden and the government on the latter’s behalf, on occasions implying that he had shared in the discovery of gold. He may have tried to obtain control over the new find, but despite this he remained Werahiko’s agent and would be the executor of his estate. As well as investing in the Te Aroha and Waiorongomai fields, he was involved in the development of mines throughout Hauraki in the 1880s. 
Over time he took an increasingly leading role in promoting the mining industry, as for example a member of the Thames Drainage Board and of the Auckland Chamber of Commerce. For many years he attempted to obtain government assistance for mining, and was also interested in new mining technology. In his last years he was a leading member of the Auckland business community, investing in non-mining ventures and being a good employer (though critics disagreed). He also became involved in local government issues and the temperance movement before speaking his mind on national issues, finally standing for parliament as an independent-minded supporter of his old friend from his West Coast days, Richard John Seddon. 
Harsh working conditions on the West Coast led to poor health and an early death. He left his family a comfortably legacy, and was remembered as having a genial, kindly, and witty personality but also having a good sense of his own importance. He seized opportunities, sometimes in a manner that offended others, but tried to benefit not only himself but also the wider community.

year: 2016