title: The modern state and economic leadership: Canada, New Zealand and Australia’s trade and investment relations with Japan 1985-1998

authors: Holroyd, Carin Lee

abstract: Governments around the world are preoccupied with the confusing, uncertain and often chaotic influences of an expanding free market economy, increased globalization, major attempts to deregulate national regulatory systems, and the closely related development of powerful multi-national corporations. In the 1970s, free market western industrial nations partially, but by no means systematically, squared off against the USSR and China-led communist block, numerous socialist states, and a multitude of developing nations. Near the end of the 20ᵗʰ century, with communism in full-scale retreat and socialism largely politically discredited, the free market stands in the ascendency. While significant academic and political voices continue to express concern about a head-long rush into open markets, deregulation and business-driven economies, the rush of political and commercial sentiment appears to have shifted decisively away from government-led economic development.

The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of the state in the management of national economies in an area of state liberalism. In the post-war period, when many governments had faith in their ability to lead economic planning, departments and agencies attempted to manage and shape national and regional development. In the current age of neo-classical economics, where country after country has publicly indicated their greater confidence in the ability of the free market to determine the best economic opportunities, governments have surrendered some, if not all, of their responsibility for managing the shape, direction and character of the national economic and commercial system. By accepting this limited role, the argument will be advanced - western industrial governments have not provided leadership and direction in a time of dramatic economic change.

Testing the proposition proposed above requires an examination of the acceptance of neo-classical ideas of the state by a national government or national governments and an assessment of the impact of this approach to state affairs on economic policy and outcomes. This study considers how three western governments, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, reacted to the pressure to liberalize the state. Each government adopted, to a greater or lesser degree, the proposition that the role of government in the economy should be reduced. The study then examines how these three countries responded to a major shift in economic prospects and opportunities and how national choices affected economic activity. The specific case under investigation is that of changes in national trade with Japan in the period 1985 to the present. Japan was selected for two main reasons. First, it is the largest (in the case of Australia) or second largest (for Canada and New Zealand) trading partner of the three countries under investigation. Second, Japan has undergone major changes in its internal and economic trade relationships over the past fifteen years, creating risks and opportunities for countries relying on access to the Japanese market. The transitions in the Japanese economy provide an opportunity to gauge the responsiveness of national governments and their ability and willingness to translate international market intelligence and understanding into concrete national economic policy and action.

Canada, New Zealand and Australia embrace, to greater or lesser degrees, a neo-classical mindset which promotes limited governmental involvement in the economy. The actions and initiatives that these governments could undertake, therefore, were constrained by the bounds of an approach to political economy which dictates that economic decisions should be made by the marketplace and not by governments. While the investigation is rooted in a consideration of the intellectual debates surrounding state involvement in economic planning, it seeks to examine the practical, political and administrative issues associated with international trade, the mobilization of national government action, and the shifting ground that lies under the business-government relationship in the late 20ᵗʰ century global economy.

text: The modern state and economic leadership: Canada, New Zealand and Australia’s trade and investment relations with Japan 1985-1998 Governments around the world are preoccupied with the confusing, uncertain and often chaotic influences of an expanding free market economy, increased globalization, major attempts to deregulate national regulatory systems, and the closely related development of powerful multi-national corporations. In the 1970s, free market western industrial nations partially, but by no means systematically, squared off against the USSR and China-led communist block, numerous socialist states, and a multitude of developing nations. Near the end of the 20ᵗʰ century, with communism in full-scale retreat and socialism largely politically discredited, the free market stands in the ascendency. While significant academic and political voices continue to express concern about a head-long rush into open markets, deregulation and business-driven economies, the rush of political and commercial sentiment appears to have shifted decisively away from government-led economic development.

The primary purpose of this study is to examine the role of the state in the management of national economies in an area of state liberalism. In the post-war period, when many governments had faith in their ability to lead economic planning, departments and agencies attempted to manage and shape national and regional development. In the current age of neo-classical economics, where country after country has publicly indicated their greater confidence in the ability of the free market to determine the best economic opportunities, governments have surrendered some, if not all, of their responsibility for managing the shape, direction and character of the national economic and commercial system. By accepting this limited role, the argument will be advanced - western industrial governments have not provided leadership and direction in a time of dramatic economic change.

Testing the proposition proposed above requires an examination of the acceptance of neo-classical ideas of the state by a national government or national governments and an assessment of the impact of this approach to state affairs on economic policy and outcomes. This study considers how three western governments, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, reacted to the pressure to liberalize the state. Each government adopted, to a greater or lesser degree, the proposition that the role of government in the economy should be reduced. The study then examines how these three countries responded to a major shift in economic prospects and opportunities and how national choices affected economic activity. The specific case under investigation is that of changes in national trade with Japan in the period 1985 to the present. Japan was selected for two main reasons. First, it is the largest (in the case of Australia) or second largest (for Canada and New Zealand) trading partner of the three countries under investigation. Second, Japan has undergone major changes in its internal and economic trade relationships over the past fifteen years, creating risks and opportunities for countries relying on access to the Japanese market. The transitions in the Japanese economy provide an opportunity to gauge the responsiveness of national governments and their ability and willingness to translate international market intelligence and understanding into concrete national economic policy and action.

Canada, New Zealand and Australia embrace, to greater or lesser degrees, a neo-classical mindset which promotes limited governmental involvement in the economy. The actions and initiatives that these governments could undertake, therefore, were constrained by the bounds of an approach to political economy which dictates that economic decisions should be made by the marketplace and not by governments. While the investigation is rooted in a consideration of the intellectual debates surrounding state involvement in economic planning, it seeks to examine the practical, political and administrative issues associated with international trade, the mobilization of national government action, and the shifting ground that lies under the business-government relationship in the late 20ᵗʰ century global economy.

year: 1999

title: Designs efficiency for non-market valuation with choice modelling: how to measure it, what to report and why

authors: Rose, John M.

subjects: efficient experimental design

abstract: We review the basic principles for the evaluation of design efficiency in discrete choice modelling with a focus on efficiency of WTP estimates from the multinomial logit model. The discussion is developed under the realistic assumption that researchers can plausibly define a prior on the utility coefficients. Some new measures of design performance in applied studies are proposed and their rationale discussed. An empirical example based on the generation and comparison of fifteen separate designs from a common set of assumptions illustrates the relevant considerations to the context of non-market valuation, with particular emphasis placed on C-efficiency. Conclusions are drawn for the practice of reporting in non-market valuation and for future work on design research.

text: Designs efficiency for non-market valuation with choice modelling: how to measure it, what to report and why We review the basic principles for the evaluation of design efficiency in discrete choice modelling with a focus on efficiency of WTP estimates from the multinomial logit model. The discussion is developed under the realistic assumption that researchers can plausibly define a prior on the utility coefficients. Some new measures of design performance in applied studies are proposed and their rationale discussed. An empirical example based on the generation and comparison of fifteen separate designs from a common set of assumptions illustrates the relevant considerations to the context of non-market valuation, with particular emphasis placed on C-efficiency. Conclusions are drawn for the practice of reporting in non-market valuation and for future work on design research.

year: 2007-10

title: Hawaiki ora: Waka ama, it's a kind of magic

authors: Nuku, Michael

subjects: waka ama

abstract: Waka ama is a heterotopic social space deeply embedded in Te Ao Māori and is navigating transformative currents as it balances cultural integrity and the pursuit of performance excellence. This study investigated the magic of waka ama, namely the magnetic phenomenon that captivated participants, the lifestyle changes resulting from engagement and participants’ environmental perceptions. Magic is understood as the recognition of the enchanted amid modern pressures. A critical gap identified in the literature is the lack of recognition of the key elements that underpin positive participation in waka ama. By articulating and validating these key elements, this thesis lays a foundation for protecting and sustaining these cultural dimensions as waka ama grows in prominence and recognition as a high-performance sport. The study also raises concerns that increasing formalisation may risk eroding traditional values, underscoring the need for culturally responsive strategies to preserve the essence of waka ama for future generations. 
This Kaupapa Māori Research is rooted in Te Ao Māori, with Kaupapa Māori Theory maintaining a Māori lens for interpretation and positionality. It utilised the Waka Ama Rangahau conceptual framework, creating stability and rigour for this journey of discovery. It employed an in-depth review of literature and semi-structured interviews with 15 established kaihoe (paddlers) from across Aotearoa to gather data. It also included perspectives of a group of kaihoe that experienced waka ama from an unexplored viewpoint to add depth and breadth to the findings. Thematic analysis and the Whakaaro method were employed to analyse the data. The findings were then presented using Thematic Synthesis. The knowledge and experiences shared by kaihoe contributed towards answering the three research questions and establishing the Waka AMA (Āhuru Mōwai Aroha) Model for supportive environments that characterised the concept of āhuru mōwai. This study conceptualised the āhuru mōwai, Hawaiki Ora, inspired by historical discourse and interpretations of Hawaiki Nui. The spatio-temporal environment of waka ama cultivated Hawaiki Ora in ways that align with Te Ao Māori time and space, and are reinforced by Foucault’s concept of heterotopia and Lefebvre’s theory of social space, offering a unique, transformative space for identity, performance, connection, and care.  Within this environment, kaihoe collectively negotiate and uphold their ideals, forging unity and compromise over time. These findings underscore the necessity of preserving waka ama’s whānau-centric ethos to safeguard its cultural and spiritual essence against the encroachment of Eurocentric marginalisation commonly framed as modernity. 
The Waka AMA Model provides an environmental social construction plan to ensure a supportive and genuinely caring environment is available throughout challenging times and spaces. Crucially, this support must be ongoing and never taken for granted. Waka AMA supports Hawaiki Ora from the experiences, aspirations and rangatiratanga of kaihoe.

text: Hawaiki ora: Waka ama, it's a kind of magic Waka ama is a heterotopic social space deeply embedded in Te Ao Māori and is navigating transformative currents as it balances cultural integrity and the pursuit of performance excellence. This study investigated the magic of waka ama, namely the magnetic phenomenon that captivated participants, the lifestyle changes resulting from engagement and participants’ environmental perceptions. Magic is understood as the recognition of the enchanted amid modern pressures. A critical gap identified in the literature is the lack of recognition of the key elements that underpin positive participation in waka ama. By articulating and validating these key elements, this thesis lays a foundation for protecting and sustaining these cultural dimensions as waka ama grows in prominence and recognition as a high-performance sport. The study also raises concerns that increasing formalisation may risk eroding traditional values, underscoring the need for culturally responsive strategies to preserve the essence of waka ama for future generations. 
This Kaupapa Māori Research is rooted in Te Ao Māori, with Kaupapa Māori Theory maintaining a Māori lens for interpretation and positionality. It utilised the Waka Ama Rangahau conceptual framework, creating stability and rigour for this journey of discovery. It employed an in-depth review of literature and semi-structured interviews with 15 established kaihoe (paddlers) from across Aotearoa to gather data. It also included perspectives of a group of kaihoe that experienced waka ama from an unexplored viewpoint to add depth and breadth to the findings. Thematic analysis and the Whakaaro method were employed to analyse the data. The findings were then presented using Thematic Synthesis. The knowledge and experiences shared by kaihoe contributed towards answering the three research questions and establishing the Waka AMA (Āhuru Mōwai Aroha) Model for supportive environments that characterised the concept of āhuru mōwai. This study conceptualised the āhuru mōwai, Hawaiki Ora, inspired by historical discourse and interpretations of Hawaiki Nui. The spatio-temporal environment of waka ama cultivated Hawaiki Ora in ways that align with Te Ao Māori time and space, and are reinforced by Foucault’s concept of heterotopia and Lefebvre’s theory of social space, offering a unique, transformative space for identity, performance, connection, and care.  Within this environment, kaihoe collectively negotiate and uphold their ideals, forging unity and compromise over time. These findings underscore the necessity of preserving waka ama’s whānau-centric ethos to safeguard its cultural and spiritual essence against the encroachment of Eurocentric marginalisation commonly framed as modernity. 
The Waka AMA Model provides an environmental social construction plan to ensure a supportive and genuinely caring environment is available throughout challenging times and spaces. Crucially, this support must be ongoing and never taken for granted. Waka AMA supports Hawaiki Ora from the experiences, aspirations and rangatiratanga of kaihoe.

year: 2025