title: Tanzania: Civil-military relations and nationalism

authors: Zirker, Daniel

subjects: civil–military relations

abstract: Why have there been no successful military interventions or civil wars in Tanzania’s nearly 60 years of independence? This one historical accomplishment, by itself striking in an African context, distinguishes Tanzania from most of the other post-1960 independent African countries and focuses attention on the possibilities and nature of successful civil–military relations in sub-Saharan Africa. Contrary to most civil–military relations theory, rather than isolating the military in order to achieve civilian oversight, Tanzania integrated the military, the dominant political party, and civil society in what one observer called a combination of “political militancy” and “antimilitarism,” somewhat akin, perhaps, to the Chinese model. China did provide intensive military training for the Tanzanians beginning in the 1960s, although this could in no way have been expected to ensure successful integration of the military with civil society, nor could it ensure peaceful civil–military relations.

Eight potentially causal and overlapping conditions have been outlined to explain this unique absence of civil–military strife in an African country. Relevant but admittedly partial explanations are: the largely salutary and national developmental role of the founding president, Julius Nyerere; the caution and long-term fear of military intervention engendered by the 1964 East African mutinies; Tanzania’s radical foreign policy as a Frontline State; its ongoing territorial disputes with Uganda and Malawi; concerted efforts at coup-proofing through the co-opting of senior military commanders; and the country’s striking ethnic heterogeneity, in which none of the 125 plus ethnolinguistic tribes had the capacity to assume a hegemonic dominance. Each factor has a role in explaining Tanzania’s unique civil–military history, and together they may comprise a plausible explanation of the over 50 years of peaceful civil–military relations. They do not, however, provide a hopeful prognosis for future civil–military relations in a system that is increasingly challenging the dominant-party state, nor do they account for Tanzania’s subsequent democratic deficit.

text: Tanzania: Civil-military relations and nationalism Why have there been no successful military interventions or civil wars in Tanzania’s nearly 60 years of independence? This one historical accomplishment, by itself striking in an African context, distinguishes Tanzania from most of the other post-1960 independent African countries and focuses attention on the possibilities and nature of successful civil–military relations in sub-Saharan Africa. Contrary to most civil–military relations theory, rather than isolating the military in order to achieve civilian oversight, Tanzania integrated the military, the dominant political party, and civil society in what one observer called a combination of “political militancy” and “antimilitarism,” somewhat akin, perhaps, to the Chinese model. China did provide intensive military training for the Tanzanians beginning in the 1960s, although this could in no way have been expected to ensure successful integration of the military with civil society, nor could it ensure peaceful civil–military relations.

Eight potentially causal and overlapping conditions have been outlined to explain this unique absence of civil–military strife in an African country. Relevant but admittedly partial explanations are: the largely salutary and national developmental role of the founding president, Julius Nyerere; the caution and long-term fear of military intervention engendered by the 1964 East African mutinies; Tanzania’s radical foreign policy as a Frontline State; its ongoing territorial disputes with Uganda and Malawi; concerted efforts at coup-proofing through the co-opting of senior military commanders; and the country’s striking ethnic heterogeneity, in which none of the 125 plus ethnolinguistic tribes had the capacity to assume a hegemonic dominance. Each factor has a role in explaining Tanzania’s unique civil–military history, and together they may comprise a plausible explanation of the over 50 years of peaceful civil–military relations. They do not, however, provide a hopeful prognosis for future civil–military relations in a system that is increasingly challenging the dominant-party state, nor do they account for Tanzania’s subsequent democratic deficit.

year: 2020

title: Income Stereotype Threat and the Consequences for Consumer Behaviour

authors: East, Talia

subjects: stereotype

abstract: Stereotype threat, the process in which we are vulnerable to the possibility of other people ascribing negative stereotypical characteristics unto us, is an increasingly popular psychological phenomenon. We are all affected by this threat, regardless of what social groups we are members of and what stereotypes are associated with them.
Existing research into stereotype threat has closely examined how gender, age and race stereotypes have affected their targets, often discovering that academic performance and internal states such as self-esteem and anxiety are negatively impacted. While these studies have provided adequate explanation for individual failures across a range of academic fields, there is an apparent lack of research concerning stereotype threat in the marketplace and how marketing efforts may be encouraging this phenomenon to occur. There is also an absence of studies delving into the area of wealth and income stereotypes. Literature has shown wealth and income stereotypes to be of great importance within society, yet no current research has examined the possibility of income stereotype threat taking place, particularly within the domain of consumer behaviour.
The purpose of the present study is to examine when and how income stereotype threat occurs within a retail environment, and how consumer and marketers may be affected. Using a quantitative approach, an online survey was conducted in order to discover what can trigger a consumer to experience income stereotype threat and the negative outcomes marketers face as a result of consumers experiencing this threat. 
The study revealed that income stereotype threat occurs when consumers make upward comparisons to another shopper who is seemingly wealthier than they are. As a result, purchasing likelihood, store return likelihood and perceptions of store quality all decrease in response to the threat. It was also discovered that interacting with a store shop assistant has no effect on the outcomes of stereotype threat, regardless of how helpful or friendly they are to the shopper. While an argument is also made for income stereotype lift in this study, this effect was not present, thus future research is suggested in order to gain a better understanding of when and if income stereotype lift is possible. Future research should also aim to understand what internal states mediate income stereotype threat as this will provide a deeper understanding of the threat and its effects on individuals.

text: Income Stereotype Threat and the Consequences for Consumer Behaviour Stereotype threat, the process in which we are vulnerable to the possibility of other people ascribing negative stereotypical characteristics unto us, is an increasingly popular psychological phenomenon. We are all affected by this threat, regardless of what social groups we are members of and what stereotypes are associated with them.
Existing research into stereotype threat has closely examined how gender, age and race stereotypes have affected their targets, often discovering that academic performance and internal states such as self-esteem and anxiety are negatively impacted. While these studies have provided adequate explanation for individual failures across a range of academic fields, there is an apparent lack of research concerning stereotype threat in the marketplace and how marketing efforts may be encouraging this phenomenon to occur. There is also an absence of studies delving into the area of wealth and income stereotypes. Literature has shown wealth and income stereotypes to be of great importance within society, yet no current research has examined the possibility of income stereotype threat taking place, particularly within the domain of consumer behaviour.
The purpose of the present study is to examine when and how income stereotype threat occurs within a retail environment, and how consumer and marketers may be affected. Using a quantitative approach, an online survey was conducted in order to discover what can trigger a consumer to experience income stereotype threat and the negative outcomes marketers face as a result of consumers experiencing this threat. 
The study revealed that income stereotype threat occurs when consumers make upward comparisons to another shopper who is seemingly wealthier than they are. As a result, purchasing likelihood, store return likelihood and perceptions of store quality all decrease in response to the threat. It was also discovered that interacting with a store shop assistant has no effect on the outcomes of stereotype threat, regardless of how helpful or friendly they are to the shopper. While an argument is also made for income stereotype lift in this study, this effect was not present, thus future research is suggested in order to gain a better understanding of when and if income stereotype lift is possible. Future research should also aim to understand what internal states mediate income stereotype threat as this will provide a deeper understanding of the threat and its effects on individuals.

year: 2016

title: Mobile app development: Work-integrated learning collaborations with Māori and Fijian partners

authors: Yeo, Alvin

subjects: computer science

abstract: Only a few information and communication technology (ICT) work-integrated learning (WIL) projects involving universities and Indigenous partners are being reported and very little is known about the approaches that are followed. This article reports on successful student work placements in Indigenous communities when codeveloping software for the community. We provide two case studies of projects which involved work-integrated learning students and researchers from a university, as well as researchers and practitioners from Indigenous communities in New Zealand and Fiji. Two independent app development projects were the central focus of the collaborations with these two communities including placement students. The article describes the learning and insights from these WIL projects and provides recommendations for creating successful WIL opportunities with Indigenous communities.

text: Mobile app development: Work-integrated learning collaborations with Māori and Fijian partners Only a few information and communication technology (ICT) work-integrated learning (WIL) projects involving universities and Indigenous partners are being reported and very little is known about the approaches that are followed. This article reports on successful student work placements in Indigenous communities when codeveloping software for the community. We provide two case studies of projects which involved work-integrated learning students and researchers from a university, as well as researchers and practitioners from Indigenous communities in New Zealand and Fiji. Two independent app development projects were the central focus of the collaborations with these two communities including placement students. The article describes the learning and insights from these WIL projects and provides recommendations for creating successful WIL opportunities with Indigenous communities.

year: 2022