title: Income Stereotype Threat and the Consequences for Consumer Behaviour

authors: East, Talia

subjects: stereotype

abstract: Stereotype threat, the process in which we are vulnerable to the possibility of other people ascribing negative stereotypical characteristics unto us, is an increasingly popular psychological phenomenon. We are all affected by this threat, regardless of what social groups we are members of and what stereotypes are associated with them.
Existing research into stereotype threat has closely examined how gender, age and race stereotypes have affected their targets, often discovering that academic performance and internal states such as self-esteem and anxiety are negatively impacted. While these studies have provided adequate explanation for individual failures across a range of academic fields, there is an apparent lack of research concerning stereotype threat in the marketplace and how marketing efforts may be encouraging this phenomenon to occur. There is also an absence of studies delving into the area of wealth and income stereotypes. Literature has shown wealth and income stereotypes to be of great importance within society, yet no current research has examined the possibility of income stereotype threat taking place, particularly within the domain of consumer behaviour.
The purpose of the present study is to examine when and how income stereotype threat occurs within a retail environment, and how consumer and marketers may be affected. Using a quantitative approach, an online survey was conducted in order to discover what can trigger a consumer to experience income stereotype threat and the negative outcomes marketers face as a result of consumers experiencing this threat. 
The study revealed that income stereotype threat occurs when consumers make upward comparisons to another shopper who is seemingly wealthier than they are. As a result, purchasing likelihood, store return likelihood and perceptions of store quality all decrease in response to the threat. It was also discovered that interacting with a store shop assistant has no effect on the outcomes of stereotype threat, regardless of how helpful or friendly they are to the shopper. While an argument is also made for income stereotype lift in this study, this effect was not present, thus future research is suggested in order to gain a better understanding of when and if income stereotype lift is possible. Future research should also aim to understand what internal states mediate income stereotype threat as this will provide a deeper understanding of the threat and its effects on individuals.

text: Income Stereotype Threat and the Consequences for Consumer Behaviour Stereotype threat, the process in which we are vulnerable to the possibility of other people ascribing negative stereotypical characteristics unto us, is an increasingly popular psychological phenomenon. We are all affected by this threat, regardless of what social groups we are members of and what stereotypes are associated with them.
Existing research into stereotype threat has closely examined how gender, age and race stereotypes have affected their targets, often discovering that academic performance and internal states such as self-esteem and anxiety are negatively impacted. While these studies have provided adequate explanation for individual failures across a range of academic fields, there is an apparent lack of research concerning stereotype threat in the marketplace and how marketing efforts may be encouraging this phenomenon to occur. There is also an absence of studies delving into the area of wealth and income stereotypes. Literature has shown wealth and income stereotypes to be of great importance within society, yet no current research has examined the possibility of income stereotype threat taking place, particularly within the domain of consumer behaviour.
The purpose of the present study is to examine when and how income stereotype threat occurs within a retail environment, and how consumer and marketers may be affected. Using a quantitative approach, an online survey was conducted in order to discover what can trigger a consumer to experience income stereotype threat and the negative outcomes marketers face as a result of consumers experiencing this threat. 
The study revealed that income stereotype threat occurs when consumers make upward comparisons to another shopper who is seemingly wealthier than they are. As a result, purchasing likelihood, store return likelihood and perceptions of store quality all decrease in response to the threat. It was also discovered that interacting with a store shop assistant has no effect on the outcomes of stereotype threat, regardless of how helpful or friendly they are to the shopper. While an argument is also made for income stereotype lift in this study, this effect was not present, thus future research is suggested in order to gain a better understanding of when and if income stereotype lift is possible. Future research should also aim to understand what internal states mediate income stereotype threat as this will provide a deeper understanding of the threat and its effects on individuals.

year: 2016

title: Mutually orthogonal binary frequency squares

authors: Britz, Thomas

abstract: A frequency square is a matrix in which each row and column is a permutation of the same multiset of symbols. We consider only binary frequency squares of order n with n/2 zeros and n/2 ones in each row and column. Two such frequency squares are orthogonal if, when superimposed, each of the 4 possible ordered pairs of entries occurs equally often. In this context we say that a set of k-MOFS (n) is a set of k binary frequency squares of order n in which each pair of squares is orthogonal.

A set of k-MOFS (n) must satisfy k≤(n−1)², and any set of MOFS achieving this bound is said to be complete. For any n for which there exists a Hadamard matrix of order n we show that there exists at least 2 ⁿ²/⁴−ᴼ ⁽ⁿˡᵒᵍⁿ ⁾ isomorphism classes of complete sets of MOFS (n). For 2<n≡2(mod 4) we show that there exists a set of 17-MOFS(n) but no complete set of MOFS(n).

A set of k –maxMOFS (n) is a set of k-MOFS(n) that is not contained in any set of (k+1)-MOFS(n). By computer enumeration, we establish that there exists a set of k-maxMOFS(6) if and only if k∈{1,17} or 5≤k≤15. We show that up to isomorphism there is a unique 1-maxMOFS(n) if n≡2(mod4), whereas no 1-maxMOFS(n) exists for n≡0(mod4). We also prove that there exists a set of 5-maxMOFS(n) for each order n≡2(mod4) where n≥6.

text: Mutually orthogonal binary frequency squares A frequency square is a matrix in which each row and column is a permutation of the same multiset of symbols. We consider only binary frequency squares of order n with n/2 zeros and n/2 ones in each row and column. Two such frequency squares are orthogonal if, when superimposed, each of the 4 possible ordered pairs of entries occurs equally often. In this context we say that a set of k-MOFS (n) is a set of k binary frequency squares of order n in which each pair of squares is orthogonal.

A set of k-MOFS (n) must satisfy k≤(n−1)², and any set of MOFS achieving this bound is said to be complete. For any n for which there exists a Hadamard matrix of order n we show that there exists at least 2 ⁿ²/⁴−ᴼ ⁽ⁿˡᵒᵍⁿ ⁾ isomorphism classes of complete sets of MOFS (n). For 2<n≡2(mod 4) we show that there exists a set of 17-MOFS(n) but no complete set of MOFS(n).

A set of k –maxMOFS (n) is a set of k-MOFS(n) that is not contained in any set of (k+1)-MOFS(n). By computer enumeration, we establish that there exists a set of k-maxMOFS(6) if and only if k∈{1,17} or 5≤k≤15. We show that up to isomorphism there is a unique 1-maxMOFS(n) if n≡2(mod4), whereas no 1-maxMOFS(n) exists for n≡0(mod4). We also prove that there exists a set of 5-maxMOFS(n) for each order n≡2(mod4) where n≥6.

year: 2020

title: Breaking the consensus: The politicisation of Maori affairs

authors: Barber, Keith

subjects: Tremewan

abstract: This article takes issue with the claim made by Tremewan (2005a) that the
New Zealand social sciences have been uncritical of neotraditionalist and
culturalist trends in social policy. It points out that at least since the 1980s
there has existed a significant body of social science literature critical of these trends. The article also takes issue with Tremewan’s attribution of increased political dissent in the area of Maori affairs to the culturalist ideological currents dominating social policy. The article provides an alternative explanation for this increase in political dissent by focusing upon the material conditions of existence and the opportunism of power-seeking politicians.

text: Breaking the consensus: The politicisation of Maori affairs This article takes issue with the claim made by Tremewan (2005a) that the
New Zealand social sciences have been uncritical of neotraditionalist and
culturalist trends in social policy. It points out that at least since the 1980s
there has existed a significant body of social science literature critical of these trends. The article also takes issue with Tremewan’s attribution of increased political dissent in the area of Maori affairs to the culturalist ideological currents dominating social policy. The article provides an alternative explanation for this increase in political dissent by focusing upon the material conditions of existence and the opportunism of power-seeking politicians.

year: 2006