title: The Māori precariat: A silhouette

authors: Stubbs, Thomas

abstract: Recent financial crises and a host of punitive labour and welfare reforms have intensified socio-economic divisions across advanced nations. In Aotearoa New Zealand, the indigenous Maori peoples are subject to systemic labour market disadvantages, and are thus more likely to be affected by increased inequalities in times of economic downturn. Despite the legacies of systematic economic exclusion and discrimination in the economy, the majority of Maori demonstrate a resounding level of social resilience in the face of this hostile context. Even so, there is evidence to suggest that an unacceptable number of Maori still struggle to overcome these challenges. For instance, 13.0 per cent of Maori are in temporary work compared to 8.2 per cent of Pakeha,1 and 12.4 per cent of Maori are experiencing unemployment against 4.4 per cent. of Pakeha.2 These trends contribute to a range of socio-economic challenges, to which mainstream and Maori service providers are struggling to respond.
In this chapter, we develop a demographic silhouette to seek an understanding of socio-economically marginalised - or 'precariat' - Maori. Although we are wary of portraying Maori in an unduly negative light, we also submit that an appreciation of the extent of the issues faced by this group is necessary if our analysis is to be useful in the development of an effective response. We begin by defining the precariat. Using data obtained from Statistics New Zealand's Te Kupenga survey of Maori wellbeing, we then outline the prevalence and composition of the Maori precariat in Aotearoa New Zealand. Overall, we find that the Maori precariat comprises a substantial portion of the Maori population, particularly among females, younger age groups, and those with low or no qualifications. They are predominantly located-in regions that have high levels of seasonal employment, and in more deprived areas. We also find the value attached to Maori culture and experiences of stigma for this group are, for the most part, similar to those among the Maori non-precariat.

text: The Māori precariat: A silhouette Recent financial crises and a host of punitive labour and welfare reforms have intensified socio-economic divisions across advanced nations. In Aotearoa New Zealand, the indigenous Maori peoples are subject to systemic labour market disadvantages, and are thus more likely to be affected by increased inequalities in times of economic downturn. Despite the legacies of systematic economic exclusion and discrimination in the economy, the majority of Maori demonstrate a resounding level of social resilience in the face of this hostile context. Even so, there is evidence to suggest that an unacceptable number of Maori still struggle to overcome these challenges. For instance, 13.0 per cent of Maori are in temporary work compared to 8.2 per cent of Pakeha,1 and 12.4 per cent of Maori are experiencing unemployment against 4.4 per cent. of Pakeha.2 These trends contribute to a range of socio-economic challenges, to which mainstream and Maori service providers are struggling to respond.
In this chapter, we develop a demographic silhouette to seek an understanding of socio-economically marginalised - or 'precariat' - Maori. Although we are wary of portraying Maori in an unduly negative light, we also submit that an appreciation of the extent of the issues faced by this group is necessary if our analysis is to be useful in the development of an effective response. We begin by defining the precariat. Using data obtained from Statistics New Zealand's Te Kupenga survey of Maori wellbeing, we then outline the prevalence and composition of the Maori precariat in Aotearoa New Zealand. Overall, we find that the Maori precariat comprises a substantial portion of the Maori population, particularly among females, younger age groups, and those with low or no qualifications. They are predominantly located-in regions that have high levels of seasonal employment, and in more deprived areas. We also find the value attached to Maori culture and experiences of stigma for this group are, for the most part, similar to those among the Maori non-precariat.

year: 2017

title: William Nicholls, Hera Te Whakaawa, and their children

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: Two years after arriving in New Zealand in 1840, William Nicholls married Hera Te Whakaawa, who had an illustrious whakapapa. For the rest of his life he lived as a Pakeha Maori, trading and farming on land owned by his wife. Like other Pakeha, he was excited by the discoveries of gold, and was involved in a minor way with the Coromandel and Thames goldfields and at Te Aroha, near where he was living, where he and one of his sons did some prospecting. The penultimate Pakeha Maori to die in the Te Aroha district, he was a well-respected member of the community.
Nicholls ensured that his children were well educated, and in most cases they did well in Pakeha society and made ‘good’ marriages: the daughters to Pakeha and the sons to Maori. The lives of three of his children are summarized; the others are dealt with in other papers.

text: William Nicholls, Hera Te Whakaawa, and their children Two years after arriving in New Zealand in 1840, William Nicholls married Hera Te Whakaawa, who had an illustrious whakapapa. For the rest of his life he lived as a Pakeha Maori, trading and farming on land owned by his wife. Like other Pakeha, he was excited by the discoveries of gold, and was involved in a minor way with the Coromandel and Thames goldfields and at Te Aroha, near where he was living, where he and one of his sons did some prospecting. The penultimate Pakeha Maori to die in the Te Aroha district, he was a well-respected member of the community.
Nicholls ensured that his children were well educated, and in most cases they did well in Pakeha society and made ‘good’ marriages: the daughters to Pakeha and the sons to Maori. The lives of three of his children are summarized; the others are dealt with in other papers.

year: 2016

title: Basin analysis of the late Eocene - Oligocene Te Kuiti Group, western North Island, New Zealand

authors: Tripathi, Anand Ratnakar Prasad

subjects: Te Kuiti Group

abstract: The Late Eocene - Oligocene Te Kuiti Group crops out extensively in central-western North Island between Port Waikato and Awakino, providing a useful window for examination of a broadly transgressive shelfal to upper bathyal mixed carbonate-siliciclastic basin fill succession.  The group accumulated during initiation of Cenozoic glaciations on Antarctica when there may have been associated eustatic changes in sea- level changes, and during the initiation of the Australia-Pacific plate boundary through the New Zealand region, which might also have caused relative changes in sea level in the Waikato Basin.

As part of this study Te Kuiti lithostratigraphy in central-western North Island has been reviewed and rationalized. Special emphasis has been given to correlation of the significant stratigraphic discontinuities (erosional unconformities, depositional hiatuses) between units. Combined with a review of the foraminiferal biostratigraphy and new Sr isotope ages for the group, lithologically diverse formations have been able to be correlated across and along the outcrop belt.   In the revised stratigraphic scheme, seven formations and 24 members of Kaiatian to Waitakian (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene) age are identified.  The Te Kuiti Group is subdivided into two subgroups, a lower Okoko Subgroup, and an upper Castle Craig Subgroup. The Okoko Subgroup is dominated by calcareous siltstone and sandstone members, with limestone members commonly occurring at the base of formations, whereas the Castle Craig Subgroup is almost entirely comprised of limestone in the south and by calcareous siltstone in the northern parts of the basin. 

Six unconformity-bound sequences (TK1 - TK6) have been identified and mapped within the Te Kuiti Group using sequence stratigraphic principles.  For several of these sequences (TK2, TK4, TK5  TK6) detailed facies and sequence analyses have been undertaken based on field characteristics, complemented with laboratory grain size and compositional (carbonate % and thin-section) data.  The depositional paleoenvironments have been interpreted for these sequences, with the basin evolution for all sequences summarised in a series of 13 paleogeographic maps representing multiple horizons within the Te Kuiti Group.

TK1 strata are mostly terrestrial coal measures (Waikato Coal Measures) of Late Eocene to earliest Oligocene age that accumulated in paleovalleys concurrent with minor extensional faulting.  The upper beds are marginal marine and consist primarily of estuarine and shallow shelf mudstone (Mangakotuku Formation). The Early Oligocene (lower Whaingaroan) Glen Massey Formation (TK2) is entirely marine in origin, its lowermost member (Elgood Limestone Member) marking a significant marine flooding event across the basin with a landward shift in the position of stratal onlap.  Whaingaroa Formation (TK3) comprises predominantly siltstone with some limestone (Awaroa Limestone Member) at its base in the south, which reflects expansion of a southern shelf area. 

An extensive subaerial unconformity between Whaingaroa Formation (TK3) and Aotea Formation (TK4), combined with a basinward shift in the position of onlap for sequence TK4, indicates a dramatic mid-upper Whaingaroan (c. 29 Ma) change in stratigraphic development and basin dynamics inferred to result from the start of reverse displacement on Taranaki Fault along the basin's western margin.  Aotea Formation comprises lithologically diverse facies dominated by limestone (Waimai Limestone Member) in the north, calcareous sandstone (Hauturu Sandstone Member) in the southwest and muddy sandstone (Kihi Sandstone Member) in south-central and eastern areas.  A condensed section in the upper parts of Aotea Formation, especially in the north, records relative deepening and reduction of clastic sediment supply into sediment-starved northern parts of the basin. 

A major erosional unconformity at the base of the Castle Craig Subgroup in the south and a depositional hiatus in the north reflects a second phase of inversion along the southwestern margin of the basin and reverse displacement on Manganui Fault at c. 27 Ma.  The rocky shorelines that consequently formed along the eastern side of the Herangi High supported carbonate factories supplying reworked carbonate to the adjacent shelf (Orahiri Formation and Otorohanga Limestone).  These formations pass northward into outer shelf-upper bathyal micritic limestone (Raglan Limestone Member) and calcareous siltstone (marl).  Several additional phases of unconformity development are recorded in the Castle Craig Group, but these unconformities had limited extent in the basin, being mainly restricted to the area immediately west of the Herangi High.

Early Miocene Waitemata Group strata unconformably overlie the Te Kuiti Group in the north, reflecting basin inversion and erosion driven from a developing subduction zone to the northeast, whereas early Miocene Mahoenui Group strata in southern parts of the basin are mostly conformable on the Te Kuiti Group, having accumulated in a piggy-back basin carried westward on underlying Taranaki and related faults.  Tectonic movements and cycles of subsidence and subtle basin inversion driven by the alternate accumulation and release of strain on Taranaki and related fault are regarded as the primary control on relative sea-level changes within the Te Kuiti Group, which led to sequences TK4-TK6.  The accumulation of sequences TK1-TK3 resulted from tectonic subsidence in the Waikato region as the zone of extension widened to the east of Taranaki Basin coupled with progressive landward shifts in the position of coastal onlap.  Glacio-eustatic sea- level changes driven from glaciations in Antarctica are not regarded as having generated sea-level changes of sufficient magnitude to impact upon the dynamics of late Eocene and Oligocene sedimentation in the Waikato Basin when the Te Kuiti Group accumulated.

text: Basin analysis of the late Eocene - Oligocene Te Kuiti Group, western North Island, New Zealand The Late Eocene - Oligocene Te Kuiti Group crops out extensively in central-western North Island between Port Waikato and Awakino, providing a useful window for examination of a broadly transgressive shelfal to upper bathyal mixed carbonate-siliciclastic basin fill succession.  The group accumulated during initiation of Cenozoic glaciations on Antarctica when there may have been associated eustatic changes in sea- level changes, and during the initiation of the Australia-Pacific plate boundary through the New Zealand region, which might also have caused relative changes in sea level in the Waikato Basin.

As part of this study Te Kuiti lithostratigraphy in central-western North Island has been reviewed and rationalized. Special emphasis has been given to correlation of the significant stratigraphic discontinuities (erosional unconformities, depositional hiatuses) between units. Combined with a review of the foraminiferal biostratigraphy and new Sr isotope ages for the group, lithologically diverse formations have been able to be correlated across and along the outcrop belt.   In the revised stratigraphic scheme, seven formations and 24 members of Kaiatian to Waitakian (Late Oligocene to Early Miocene) age are identified.  The Te Kuiti Group is subdivided into two subgroups, a lower Okoko Subgroup, and an upper Castle Craig Subgroup. The Okoko Subgroup is dominated by calcareous siltstone and sandstone members, with limestone members commonly occurring at the base of formations, whereas the Castle Craig Subgroup is almost entirely comprised of limestone in the south and by calcareous siltstone in the northern parts of the basin. 

Six unconformity-bound sequences (TK1 - TK6) have been identified and mapped within the Te Kuiti Group using sequence stratigraphic principles.  For several of these sequences (TK2, TK4, TK5  TK6) detailed facies and sequence analyses have been undertaken based on field characteristics, complemented with laboratory grain size and compositional (carbonate % and thin-section) data.  The depositional paleoenvironments have been interpreted for these sequences, with the basin evolution for all sequences summarised in a series of 13 paleogeographic maps representing multiple horizons within the Te Kuiti Group.

TK1 strata are mostly terrestrial coal measures (Waikato Coal Measures) of Late Eocene to earliest Oligocene age that accumulated in paleovalleys concurrent with minor extensional faulting.  The upper beds are marginal marine and consist primarily of estuarine and shallow shelf mudstone (Mangakotuku Formation). The Early Oligocene (lower Whaingaroan) Glen Massey Formation (TK2) is entirely marine in origin, its lowermost member (Elgood Limestone Member) marking a significant marine flooding event across the basin with a landward shift in the position of stratal onlap.  Whaingaroa Formation (TK3) comprises predominantly siltstone with some limestone (Awaroa Limestone Member) at its base in the south, which reflects expansion of a southern shelf area. 

An extensive subaerial unconformity between Whaingaroa Formation (TK3) and Aotea Formation (TK4), combined with a basinward shift in the position of onlap for sequence TK4, indicates a dramatic mid-upper Whaingaroan (c. 29 Ma) change in stratigraphic development and basin dynamics inferred to result from the start of reverse displacement on Taranaki Fault along the basin's western margin.  Aotea Formation comprises lithologically diverse facies dominated by limestone (Waimai Limestone Member) in the north, calcareous sandstone (Hauturu Sandstone Member) in the southwest and muddy sandstone (Kihi Sandstone Member) in south-central and eastern areas.  A condensed section in the upper parts of Aotea Formation, especially in the north, records relative deepening and reduction of clastic sediment supply into sediment-starved northern parts of the basin. 

A major erosional unconformity at the base of the Castle Craig Subgroup in the south and a depositional hiatus in the north reflects a second phase of inversion along the southwestern margin of the basin and reverse displacement on Manganui Fault at c. 27 Ma.  The rocky shorelines that consequently formed along the eastern side of the Herangi High supported carbonate factories supplying reworked carbonate to the adjacent shelf (Orahiri Formation and Otorohanga Limestone).  These formations pass northward into outer shelf-upper bathyal micritic limestone (Raglan Limestone Member) and calcareous siltstone (marl).  Several additional phases of unconformity development are recorded in the Castle Craig Group, but these unconformities had limited extent in the basin, being mainly restricted to the area immediately west of the Herangi High.

Early Miocene Waitemata Group strata unconformably overlie the Te Kuiti Group in the north, reflecting basin inversion and erosion driven from a developing subduction zone to the northeast, whereas early Miocene Mahoenui Group strata in southern parts of the basin are mostly conformable on the Te Kuiti Group, having accumulated in a piggy-back basin carried westward on underlying Taranaki and related faults.  Tectonic movements and cycles of subsidence and subtle basin inversion driven by the alternate accumulation and release of strain on Taranaki and related fault are regarded as the primary control on relative sea-level changes within the Te Kuiti Group, which led to sequences TK4-TK6.  The accumulation of sequences TK1-TK3 resulted from tectonic subsidence in the Waikato region as the zone of extension widened to the east of Taranaki Basin coupled with progressive landward shifts in the position of coastal onlap.  Glacio-eustatic sea- level changes driven from glaciations in Antarctica are not regarded as having generated sea-level changes of sufficient magnitude to impact upon the dynamics of late Eocene and Oligocene sedimentation in the Waikato Basin when the Te Kuiti Group accumulated.

year: 2008