title: An investigation of how changes to corporate governance in Nepalese microfinance institutions may increase outreach while maintaining their financial performance.

authors: Jha, Dilip Kumar

subjects: Corporate governance

abstract: Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) traditionally have a mission to provide credit to the poorest of the poor and promote sustainable pathways towards a better tomorrow. Importantly, promoting financial inclusion by providing services as alternatives to the informal financial sector of moneylenders, MFIs assist in economic and social growth.
In Nepal, the increasing demand for cash to meet social and religious obligations in largely subsistent village economies is increasingly supported by short-term seasonal migration. The removal of working-age males from communities produces a range of unanticipated and not necessarily desirable outcomes. MFIs, it is suggested, can ameliorate the problem and positively contribute to improved sustainable development outcomes. Potentially, significant gains in outreach are realistically achievable in the context of remote village settings where there is currently little access to cash. It is observed that cash requirements among the rural poor are increasing as more and more activities, such as the purchase of chattels and livestock plus other transactions such as religious festivals and weddings, now require money.
This study examines the impact of corporate governance practices on MFIs’ outreach and financial performance in Nepal. In particular, it examines the relationship between corporate governance mechanisms in MFIs and their outreach and financial performance. How the Nepalese central bank, Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB), through its corporate governance directives for Banking and Financial Institutions (BFIs) influences corporate governance practices of MFIs is analysed in this study. 
The good governance practices may enable the MFIs to perform better and increase MFIs’ social mission as well as their sustainability. Good governance practices can reduce the hierarchical time-consuming bureaucracy and wasteful utilization of resources necessarily diverted from MFIs’ mission. Defined structures of governance clarify the responsibilities and accountability that encourage transparency, contributing to a reduction in corruption, freeing available funds for MFIs’ mission. Nevertheless, it is debatable what forms of governance practice increase MFIs’ performance. Bankruptcy of firms around the world, especially in mature western economies, has raised concerns about governance practices. The extent to which promulgated guidelines, flowing from these failures, are applicable in low-income countries (LICs), and Nepal in particular, is not obvious and requires examination. The standard format of governance structure in developed economic countries may not work the same in a developing economic country like Nepal, which has strong hierarchical social structures and beliefs. The best fit MFI governance structure in Nepal will arise from evidence-based research in Nepal. 
This thesis makes a number of contributions to the existing knowledge of corporate governance and MFI performance in several ways. First, it provides evidence of corporate governance factors and how respective individual components influence MFI outreach and financial performance. Second, this study uses non-parametric quantile regression to analyse the data. This method is the most appropriate, based on careful diagnostic testing of the data. The non-parametric regression results differ from results noted in some prior research. Reconciling these differences illuminates some key social, ethnic and regional issues. Third, this is the first direct study on corporate governance practices and MFIs’ outreach and financial performance in Nepal. Finally, the potential for future research opened by the findings in the current study are noted. 
The relationship of corporate governance and MFIs’ outreach and financial performance is examined based on available data. Initial efforts to obtain data from NRB and the Rural Microfinance Development Centre (RMDC), relating to MFIs enjoyed minimal success. The Mix Market database provides the basic input for creating an unbalanced data panel. The time period for which reasonable coverage is available commences in 2002, post cessation of the Maoist insurgency, and finishes with 2012, prior to the major earthquake. Department of Labour (DOL) and Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) provide information relating to labour movements and employment. Reports and publications from the Centre for Financial Inclusion (CFI), Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) and World Bank (WB) are used and provide useful robustness checks on data. Additional data on the corporate governance of MFIs are collected through the self-reported annual financial statement and reports, and individual MFI’s websites. The study includes regulated MFIs as those outside the oversight of NRB report even less information. 
The final panel assembled, after careful diagnostic checking, did not satisfy the “poolability” requirements. Cross-sectional quantile regressions are used to examine nine core performance variables. The five outreach proxies, used were depth, breadth, average loan size, number of depositors and percentage of female borrowers as measures of social value creation. Four financial proxies, return on asset, return on equity, debt to equity ratio and operational self-sufficiency were used to inform consideration of sustainable financial performance. The findings illustrate that various governance variables impact differently across the quantiles for both outreach and financial performance measures. 
These differences in the impact of governance variables are significant, with the sign of explanatory variables changing with the independent factors. The results indicate that MFIs with bigger boards, more directors that are independent, high gender diversity, and high caste diversity have less outreach in terms of the number of credit clients. Improvement in staff productivity, larger sized MFIs, maturity of MFIs, and number of employees increase an ability to serve more borrowers. Loan size become larger with the presence of independent directors and higher gender diversity on the board, and diminish with CEO duality, staff productivity, maturity of firm, and number of employees. The range of statistically significant governance variables affecting the performance output proxies points to changes that are likely to encourage MFIs in their missions and benefits individual and the nation overall. 
This study can assist Nepalese MFIs to adjust their governance structures to improve their outreach and financial performance. The regulatory environment, including endemic corruption, can change to improve outcomes. The negative impact of the mandatory governance factors on MFIs outreach and financial performance indicates the need for preparing governance mechanisms for MFIs founded on country specific characteristics rather than compelling the code of practice of corporate governance mechanisms from other countries. Key principles like ethical behaviour and transparency underpin good governance but local factors are underweighted in prior research. 
The robust findings of this study emphasise the need for regulatory bodies, viz.: NRB, RMDC and other related organizations, to work together to formulate and develop the policies for MFIs industry. The underlying goal is to enhance financial capability to sustain a mission of outreach to uplift the poorest of the poor. The Nepalese MFIs industry needs a better regulatory framework that will enhance corporate governance to yield enhanced outcomes and MFIs industry growth. A more efficacious framework with less emphasis on rules and more enablement of sound policy formulation may flourish under the correct conditions. NRB’s Department of Microfinance Promotion and Supervision (DMPS) may be a key enabler of improved MFIs’ performance. The regulators and the MFIs industry may encourage the private MFIs into synergy with the not-for-profit MFIs, which will enhance the capability of the MFIs to reach to the poorest of the poor in the rural areas in difficult geographical region in Nepal.
This study is unique to MFIs in Nepal and further research opportunities for other developing nations will promote components supporting more generalized evidence to further empower MFIs. MFIs with different governance systems in different countries may impact MFIs’ financial and social mission achievements differently. MFIs in other similar economic countries, operating with the same financial sustainability and social mission, are to be measured before any generalization.

text: An investigation of how changes to corporate governance in Nepalese microfinance institutions may increase outreach while maintaining their financial performance. Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) traditionally have a mission to provide credit to the poorest of the poor and promote sustainable pathways towards a better tomorrow. Importantly, promoting financial inclusion by providing services as alternatives to the informal financial sector of moneylenders, MFIs assist in economic and social growth.
In Nepal, the increasing demand for cash to meet social and religious obligations in largely subsistent village economies is increasingly supported by short-term seasonal migration. The removal of working-age males from communities produces a range of unanticipated and not necessarily desirable outcomes. MFIs, it is suggested, can ameliorate the problem and positively contribute to improved sustainable development outcomes. Potentially, significant gains in outreach are realistically achievable in the context of remote village settings where there is currently little access to cash. It is observed that cash requirements among the rural poor are increasing as more and more activities, such as the purchase of chattels and livestock plus other transactions such as religious festivals and weddings, now require money.
This study examines the impact of corporate governance practices on MFIs’ outreach and financial performance in Nepal. In particular, it examines the relationship between corporate governance mechanisms in MFIs and their outreach and financial performance. How the Nepalese central bank, Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB), through its corporate governance directives for Banking and Financial Institutions (BFIs) influences corporate governance practices of MFIs is analysed in this study. 
The good governance practices may enable the MFIs to perform better and increase MFIs’ social mission as well as their sustainability. Good governance practices can reduce the hierarchical time-consuming bureaucracy and wasteful utilization of resources necessarily diverted from MFIs’ mission. Defined structures of governance clarify the responsibilities and accountability that encourage transparency, contributing to a reduction in corruption, freeing available funds for MFIs’ mission. Nevertheless, it is debatable what forms of governance practice increase MFIs’ performance. Bankruptcy of firms around the world, especially in mature western economies, has raised concerns about governance practices. The extent to which promulgated guidelines, flowing from these failures, are applicable in low-income countries (LICs), and Nepal in particular, is not obvious and requires examination. The standard format of governance structure in developed economic countries may not work the same in a developing economic country like Nepal, which has strong hierarchical social structures and beliefs. The best fit MFI governance structure in Nepal will arise from evidence-based research in Nepal. 
This thesis makes a number of contributions to the existing knowledge of corporate governance and MFI performance in several ways. First, it provides evidence of corporate governance factors and how respective individual components influence MFI outreach and financial performance. Second, this study uses non-parametric quantile regression to analyse the data. This method is the most appropriate, based on careful diagnostic testing of the data. The non-parametric regression results differ from results noted in some prior research. Reconciling these differences illuminates some key social, ethnic and regional issues. Third, this is the first direct study on corporate governance practices and MFIs’ outreach and financial performance in Nepal. Finally, the potential for future research opened by the findings in the current study are noted. 
The relationship of corporate governance and MFIs’ outreach and financial performance is examined based on available data. Initial efforts to obtain data from NRB and the Rural Microfinance Development Centre (RMDC), relating to MFIs enjoyed minimal success. The Mix Market database provides the basic input for creating an unbalanced data panel. The time period for which reasonable coverage is available commences in 2002, post cessation of the Maoist insurgency, and finishes with 2012, prior to the major earthquake. Department of Labour (DOL) and Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) provide information relating to labour movements and employment. Reports and publications from the Centre for Financial Inclusion (CFI), Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) and World Bank (WB) are used and provide useful robustness checks on data. Additional data on the corporate governance of MFIs are collected through the self-reported annual financial statement and reports, and individual MFI’s websites. The study includes regulated MFIs as those outside the oversight of NRB report even less information. 
The final panel assembled, after careful diagnostic checking, did not satisfy the “poolability” requirements. Cross-sectional quantile regressions are used to examine nine core performance variables. The five outreach proxies, used were depth, breadth, average loan size, number of depositors and percentage of female borrowers as measures of social value creation. Four financial proxies, return on asset, return on equity, debt to equity ratio and operational self-sufficiency were used to inform consideration of sustainable financial performance. The findings illustrate that various governance variables impact differently across the quantiles for both outreach and financial performance measures. 
These differences in the impact of governance variables are significant, with the sign of explanatory variables changing with the independent factors. The results indicate that MFIs with bigger boards, more directors that are independent, high gender diversity, and high caste diversity have less outreach in terms of the number of credit clients. Improvement in staff productivity, larger sized MFIs, maturity of MFIs, and number of employees increase an ability to serve more borrowers. Loan size become larger with the presence of independent directors and higher gender diversity on the board, and diminish with CEO duality, staff productivity, maturity of firm, and number of employees. The range of statistically significant governance variables affecting the performance output proxies points to changes that are likely to encourage MFIs in their missions and benefits individual and the nation overall. 
This study can assist Nepalese MFIs to adjust their governance structures to improve their outreach and financial performance. The regulatory environment, including endemic corruption, can change to improve outcomes. The negative impact of the mandatory governance factors on MFIs outreach and financial performance indicates the need for preparing governance mechanisms for MFIs founded on country specific characteristics rather than compelling the code of practice of corporate governance mechanisms from other countries. Key principles like ethical behaviour and transparency underpin good governance but local factors are underweighted in prior research. 
The robust findings of this study emphasise the need for regulatory bodies, viz.: NRB, RMDC and other related organizations, to work together to formulate and develop the policies for MFIs industry. The underlying goal is to enhance financial capability to sustain a mission of outreach to uplift the poorest of the poor. The Nepalese MFIs industry needs a better regulatory framework that will enhance corporate governance to yield enhanced outcomes and MFIs industry growth. A more efficacious framework with less emphasis on rules and more enablement of sound policy formulation may flourish under the correct conditions. NRB’s Department of Microfinance Promotion and Supervision (DMPS) may be a key enabler of improved MFIs’ performance. The regulators and the MFIs industry may encourage the private MFIs into synergy with the not-for-profit MFIs, which will enhance the capability of the MFIs to reach to the poorest of the poor in the rural areas in difficult geographical region in Nepal.
This study is unique to MFIs in Nepal and further research opportunities for other developing nations will promote components supporting more generalized evidence to further empower MFIs. MFIs with different governance systems in different countries may impact MFIs’ financial and social mission achievements differently. MFIs in other similar economic countries, operating with the same financial sustainability and social mission, are to be measured before any generalization.

year: 2017

title: Differentiating the temperature response of soil fungi and bacteria

authors: Ray, Seager

subjects: Soil Biochemistry

abstract: The decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) may be accelerated under increasing temperatures from climate change, which could create feedback loops that result in the loss of soil carbon (C) stocks. Fungi and bacteria regulate the decomposition of SOM, each having their own unique adaptations that allow them to fulfill different roles in the decomposition process. However, fungi and bacteria may respond to temperature differently which could complicate soil C cycling dynamics. To date, few studies have attempted to differentiate the temperature response of fungal and bacterial respiration.

The aim of this research was to differentiate the temperature optima (Tₒₚₜ) and inflection point temperatures (Tᵢₙբ) of fungal and bacterial respiration. The Tₒₚₜ is the temperature at  which respiration is maximal whereas the Tinf is the point at which respiration is most sensitive to temperature.

Soils were collected from different locations along a geothermal temperature gradient (that had average temperatures between ~13-39 °C). The selective inhibition method was used to differentiate the temperature response of fungal and bacterial respiration by treating soils with streptomycin and cycloheximide, respectively. Soils were also treated with and without glucose to determine the non-substrate limited respiration response of fungal and bacterial respiration. Treated soils were incubated in a temperature block that allowed the incubation of soils at temperatures ranging between ~5-52 °C for five hours. Headspace samples were taken from each treatment tube and injected into an infrared gas analyser (IRGA) to measure carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations and respiration rates. Macromolecular rate theory (MMRT) was used to model the temperature response of the respiration curves to derive the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of fungal and bacterial respiration, allowing the comparison of the temperature responses of fungal and bacterial respiration.

An additional aim of this research was to measure changes in fungal and bacterial biomass along the geothermal temperature gradient using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. Soil samples were collected from the same sampling locations along the geothermal temperature gradient as those used in the selective inhibition experiments. A modified Bligh and Dyer method was used to extract phospholipids from soil samples, which were used as biomarkers to differentiate the biomass of different fungal and bacterial groups.

Results from selective inhibition experiments showed that respiration rates decreased from streptomycin and cycloheximide treatment, allowing an estimation of fungal and bacterial contributions to total soil respiration, respectively. Fungal contributions to soil respiration (~55%) were greater than bacterial contributions (~21%), suggesting that fungi contribute more to soil C decomposition than bacteria. Furthermore, the Tₒₚₜ of fungal respiration was found to decrease with environmental temperature at a rate of -0.396 °C °C-1 whereas the Tₒₚₜ of bacteria and the microbial community was not correlated with environmental temperature. Additionally, the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of fungal respiration (38.6 °C and 22.1 °C, respectively) was not significantly different from the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of microbial respiration (37.0 °C and 21.7 °C, respectively) but was significantly greater than the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of bacterial respiration (30.4 °C and 19.0 °C, respectively). Results from PLFA analysis showed that gram-positive bacteria and general bacteria dominated total microbial biomass and biomass from identified fungal and bacterial groups peaked at ~19-21 °C. Fungal-to-bacterial (F:B) ratios decreased with increasing environmental temperature, indicating a proportional decrease in fungal biomass relative to bacteria at higher temperatures. These results suggest that fungi were excluded with increasing environmental temperature as they were unable to adapt their metabolism and growth as environmental temperatures increased.

The selective inhibition method presented a range of limitations that may have constrained interpretation of the results. First, inhibitors were not equally effective across the range of incubation temperatures. Inhibition from cycloheximide showed a clear temperature optimum where inhibition was greatest within ~45-50 °C. In contrast, inhibition from streptomycin declined at temperatures above ~30 °C. Secondly, percent inhibition of microbial respiration from streptomycin increased as total bacterial biomass increased, providing evidence that streptomycin was effective in targeting bacteria. In contrast, percent inhibition of microbial respiration from cycloheximide was not correlated with fungal biomass, indicating that cycloheximide may not have been effective in selectively targeting fungi.

Overall, these results indicate that fungi may be more at risk from increasing temperatures under climate change, though it is unknown as to how this could translate to soil C stocks. This was likely the first study that attempted to differentiate the temperature response of fungi and bacteria by selectively inhibiting fungi and bacteria and incubating them across a range of temperatures. However, caution should be taken when interpreting results as a range of methodological constraints were uncovered regarding the veracity of the selective inhibition method. While previous studies have reported some limitations of the selective inhibition method, these issues have likely been under-reported as researchers may not publish inconclusive or negative results. Therefore, this study also highlights the importance of critically assessing methods that may be ineffectual.

text: Differentiating the temperature response of soil fungi and bacteria The decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM) may be accelerated under increasing temperatures from climate change, which could create feedback loops that result in the loss of soil carbon (C) stocks. Fungi and bacteria regulate the decomposition of SOM, each having their own unique adaptations that allow them to fulfill different roles in the decomposition process. However, fungi and bacteria may respond to temperature differently which could complicate soil C cycling dynamics. To date, few studies have attempted to differentiate the temperature response of fungal and bacterial respiration.

The aim of this research was to differentiate the temperature optima (Tₒₚₜ) and inflection point temperatures (Tᵢₙբ) of fungal and bacterial respiration. The Tₒₚₜ is the temperature at  which respiration is maximal whereas the Tinf is the point at which respiration is most sensitive to temperature.

Soils were collected from different locations along a geothermal temperature gradient (that had average temperatures between ~13-39 °C). The selective inhibition method was used to differentiate the temperature response of fungal and bacterial respiration by treating soils with streptomycin and cycloheximide, respectively. Soils were also treated with and without glucose to determine the non-substrate limited respiration response of fungal and bacterial respiration. Treated soils were incubated in a temperature block that allowed the incubation of soils at temperatures ranging between ~5-52 °C for five hours. Headspace samples were taken from each treatment tube and injected into an infrared gas analyser (IRGA) to measure carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations and respiration rates. Macromolecular rate theory (MMRT) was used to model the temperature response of the respiration curves to derive the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of fungal and bacterial respiration, allowing the comparison of the temperature responses of fungal and bacterial respiration.

An additional aim of this research was to measure changes in fungal and bacterial biomass along the geothermal temperature gradient using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis. Soil samples were collected from the same sampling locations along the geothermal temperature gradient as those used in the selective inhibition experiments. A modified Bligh and Dyer method was used to extract phospholipids from soil samples, which were used as biomarkers to differentiate the biomass of different fungal and bacterial groups.

Results from selective inhibition experiments showed that respiration rates decreased from streptomycin and cycloheximide treatment, allowing an estimation of fungal and bacterial contributions to total soil respiration, respectively. Fungal contributions to soil respiration (~55%) were greater than bacterial contributions (~21%), suggesting that fungi contribute more to soil C decomposition than bacteria. Furthermore, the Tₒₚₜ of fungal respiration was found to decrease with environmental temperature at a rate of -0.396 °C °C-1 whereas the Tₒₚₜ of bacteria and the microbial community was not correlated with environmental temperature. Additionally, the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of fungal respiration (38.6 °C and 22.1 °C, respectively) was not significantly different from the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of microbial respiration (37.0 °C and 21.7 °C, respectively) but was significantly greater than the Tₒₚₜ and Tᵢₙբ of bacterial respiration (30.4 °C and 19.0 °C, respectively). Results from PLFA analysis showed that gram-positive bacteria and general bacteria dominated total microbial biomass and biomass from identified fungal and bacterial groups peaked at ~19-21 °C. Fungal-to-bacterial (F:B) ratios decreased with increasing environmental temperature, indicating a proportional decrease in fungal biomass relative to bacteria at higher temperatures. These results suggest that fungi were excluded with increasing environmental temperature as they were unable to adapt their metabolism and growth as environmental temperatures increased.

The selective inhibition method presented a range of limitations that may have constrained interpretation of the results. First, inhibitors were not equally effective across the range of incubation temperatures. Inhibition from cycloheximide showed a clear temperature optimum where inhibition was greatest within ~45-50 °C. In contrast, inhibition from streptomycin declined at temperatures above ~30 °C. Secondly, percent inhibition of microbial respiration from streptomycin increased as total bacterial biomass increased, providing evidence that streptomycin was effective in targeting bacteria. In contrast, percent inhibition of microbial respiration from cycloheximide was not correlated with fungal biomass, indicating that cycloheximide may not have been effective in selectively targeting fungi.

Overall, these results indicate that fungi may be more at risk from increasing temperatures under climate change, though it is unknown as to how this could translate to soil C stocks. This was likely the first study that attempted to differentiate the temperature response of fungi and bacteria by selectively inhibiting fungi and bacteria and incubating them across a range of temperatures. However, caution should be taken when interpreting results as a range of methodological constraints were uncovered regarding the veracity of the selective inhibition method. While previous studies have reported some limitations of the selective inhibition method, these issues have likely been under-reported as researchers may not publish inconclusive or negative results. Therefore, this study also highlights the importance of critically assessing methods that may be ineffectual.

year: 2022

title: Kōtuku Kai Whakaata

authors: Jacob, Casey-Anne Roimata-Aroha

subjects: Tumuakitanga

abstract: He iwi a Ngāti Hauā nō roto o Tainui waka, ā, ko tōna rohenga kei te rāwhiti o te rohe o Waikato. Mai anō ka mau tonu a Ngāti Hauā ki tōna arikitanga, nō runga i te whakapapa kia kawea te iwi kia puritia e Ngāti Hauā tōna arikitanga me tōna mana motuhake. Ko tā tēnei tuhikura, ko te whakatōmene i te kukuwhatanga o te rangatiratanga o Ngāti Hauā mā ngā pūrākau o ngā ariki tekau, nāna anō i pīkau i te arikitanga o Ngāti Hauā. Ka puritia e rātou te moemoeā o tō rātou tupuna a Tarapīpipi, te Pou whakawahi Kīngi tuatahi. Nā te moemoeā o ngā ariki, o ngā iwi o taua wā ka tū mai a Tarapīpipi ki te whakapou i te Kīngi tuatahi i te tau 1858. Hei whakapūaho i te whakatairitenga o te ao kōhatu o te Māori me te nohonga o te Pākehā ki Aotearoa nei, ka tīmata tēnei rangahau ki te pāpā o Tarapīpipi, ki a Te Waharoa. Ka whakatakina ai i ngā ariki o Ngāti Hauā, ngā uri tākerekere o Te Waharoa. Ko ia pūrākau o tēnā Tumuaki, o tēnā Tumuaki he tirohanga ki ngā piki me ngā heke o ia reanga mai i te tāmitanga o te Māori, ā, he manatu ki te mana o te tino rangatiratanga me kotahitanga. Ko te pakirehua matua o te rangahau e whakautua ai e tēnei tuhikura, koia tēnei: He aha te Tumuakitanga? Ko tāna urupounamu hāpai, he aha ngā pūrākau o tēnā ariki, o tēnā Tumuaki o Ngāti Hauā?

Ngāti Hauā is an iwi (tribe) of the Waikato-Tainui confederation based in the eastern Waikato area. For over 200 years, Ngāti Hauā has maintained the role of ariki, based on whakapapa, to lead the iwi into prosperity. This thesis seeks to explore the evolution of the leadership of Ngāti Hauā through the pūrākau of eleven of its ariki who have carried the chieftainship of Ngāti Hauā since the 19th century. They have all maintained the vision of their ancestor Tarapīpipi, the inaugural Kingmaker. A collective vision of unity, prosperity, and peace by ariki and iwi of that time, culminated in Tarapīpipi crowning the first Māori monarch in 1858. To elucidate the juxtaposition of an ancient Māori world and the settlement of Pākehā in Aotearoa, this research starts with the father of Tarapīpipi, Te Waharoa. It then traces each consecutive ariki of Ngāti Hauā who all are direct descendants of Te Waharoa, through the medium of pūrākau (story). Each story is an insight into the struggles and triumphs of each generation since the colonisation of Aotearoa and is a powerful reminder of self-determination and unity. The principal question this thesis aims to answer is: What is the Tumuakitanga? It’s subsidiary question is, what are the stories of each paramount chief of Ngāti Hauā?

text: Kōtuku Kai Whakaata He iwi a Ngāti Hauā nō roto o Tainui waka, ā, ko tōna rohenga kei te rāwhiti o te rohe o Waikato. Mai anō ka mau tonu a Ngāti Hauā ki tōna arikitanga, nō runga i te whakapapa kia kawea te iwi kia puritia e Ngāti Hauā tōna arikitanga me tōna mana motuhake. Ko tā tēnei tuhikura, ko te whakatōmene i te kukuwhatanga o te rangatiratanga o Ngāti Hauā mā ngā pūrākau o ngā ariki tekau, nāna anō i pīkau i te arikitanga o Ngāti Hauā. Ka puritia e rātou te moemoeā o tō rātou tupuna a Tarapīpipi, te Pou whakawahi Kīngi tuatahi. Nā te moemoeā o ngā ariki, o ngā iwi o taua wā ka tū mai a Tarapīpipi ki te whakapou i te Kīngi tuatahi i te tau 1858. Hei whakapūaho i te whakatairitenga o te ao kōhatu o te Māori me te nohonga o te Pākehā ki Aotearoa nei, ka tīmata tēnei rangahau ki te pāpā o Tarapīpipi, ki a Te Waharoa. Ka whakatakina ai i ngā ariki o Ngāti Hauā, ngā uri tākerekere o Te Waharoa. Ko ia pūrākau o tēnā Tumuaki, o tēnā Tumuaki he tirohanga ki ngā piki me ngā heke o ia reanga mai i te tāmitanga o te Māori, ā, he manatu ki te mana o te tino rangatiratanga me kotahitanga. Ko te pakirehua matua o te rangahau e whakautua ai e tēnei tuhikura, koia tēnei: He aha te Tumuakitanga? Ko tāna urupounamu hāpai, he aha ngā pūrākau o tēnā ariki, o tēnā Tumuaki o Ngāti Hauā?

Ngāti Hauā is an iwi (tribe) of the Waikato-Tainui confederation based in the eastern Waikato area. For over 200 years, Ngāti Hauā has maintained the role of ariki, based on whakapapa, to lead the iwi into prosperity. This thesis seeks to explore the evolution of the leadership of Ngāti Hauā through the pūrākau of eleven of its ariki who have carried the chieftainship of Ngāti Hauā since the 19th century. They have all maintained the vision of their ancestor Tarapīpipi, the inaugural Kingmaker. A collective vision of unity, prosperity, and peace by ariki and iwi of that time, culminated in Tarapīpipi crowning the first Māori monarch in 1858. To elucidate the juxtaposition of an ancient Māori world and the settlement of Pākehā in Aotearoa, this research starts with the father of Tarapīpipi, Te Waharoa. It then traces each consecutive ariki of Ngāti Hauā who all are direct descendants of Te Waharoa, through the medium of pūrākau (story). Each story is an insight into the struggles and triumphs of each generation since the colonisation of Aotearoa and is a powerful reminder of self-determination and unity. The principal question this thesis aims to answer is: What is the Tumuakitanga? It’s subsidiary question is, what are the stories of each paramount chief of Ngāti Hauā?

year: 2023