title: Effects of a pre-flower phloem girdle on root pressure and partitioning of carbohydrate in Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa 'Hayward'

authors: Haisman, Nicola Ann

subjects: kiwifruit

abstract: The objective of this research is to understand the impacts of applying a pre-flower trunk girdle to the kiwifruit cultivar ‘Hayward’ (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa).  The pre-flower girdle is a recent addition to the management of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit orchards since it was discovered that it can reduce flower budrot. However, the effects of a trunk girdle in early spring on the partitioning of resources through the vine and the impacts on vine growth are unknown. 
Two approaches were used to address the objective. The first approach was to  use mature ‘Hayward’ vines at the Plant and Food Research Orchard, Te Puke in the Bay of Plenty.  The aims were to determine if xylem mobile sugars are important in the development of spring root pressure, and to define the impacts of a pre-flower girdle on root pressure, carbohydrate partitioning and storage, and vine phenology within the vine.  The second section of research used the detection of Bremmstrahlung radiation to trace the in vivo movement of radiolabelled photosynthate through ‘Hayward’ scions recently grafted onto Bruno rootstocks. The aim was to understand how stem girdling effects the movement of carbohydrate between source and sink tissues of young developing vines. 
Key results of this research were that the refilling of xylem vessels and the establishment of hydrostatic pressure in early spring occurs gradually from the roots up the trunk of the vine.  Fructose in the fine roots was identified as a key carbohydrate in the generation of the hydrostatic pressure required to refill xylem conduits after winter dormancy.  After a pre-flower trunk phloem girdle was applied there was a loss of xylem pressure that lasted for two weeks. The cause has not been resolved though results from this study suggest a relationship with loss of phloem flow, or cavitation induced air embolisms in the xylem preventing xylem pressure recovery.  
Leaves from girdled vines exported less carbohydrate than non-girdled vines which suggests a delayed transition to an autotrophic status.  Root and trunk carbohydrates showed little short-term effect of the pre-flower girdle.  However, there was a location effect seen with the trunk bark carbohydrates that suggest the utilisation of ‘local’ reserves is exploited in preference to long-distant transport of reserves.  There was no detectable short-term impacts of the pre-flower girdle on phenology. 
Further research is proposed to understand the long-term impacts of a pre-flower girdle on root pressure, carbohydrate storage and the development of seasonal organs.

text: Effects of a pre-flower phloem girdle on root pressure and partitioning of carbohydrate in Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa 'Hayward' The objective of this research is to understand the impacts of applying a pre-flower trunk girdle to the kiwifruit cultivar ‘Hayward’ (Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa).  The pre-flower girdle is a recent addition to the management of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit orchards since it was discovered that it can reduce flower budrot. However, the effects of a trunk girdle in early spring on the partitioning of resources through the vine and the impacts on vine growth are unknown. 
Two approaches were used to address the objective. The first approach was to  use mature ‘Hayward’ vines at the Plant and Food Research Orchard, Te Puke in the Bay of Plenty.  The aims were to determine if xylem mobile sugars are important in the development of spring root pressure, and to define the impacts of a pre-flower girdle on root pressure, carbohydrate partitioning and storage, and vine phenology within the vine.  The second section of research used the detection of Bremmstrahlung radiation to trace the in vivo movement of radiolabelled photosynthate through ‘Hayward’ scions recently grafted onto Bruno rootstocks. The aim was to understand how stem girdling effects the movement of carbohydrate between source and sink tissues of young developing vines. 
Key results of this research were that the refilling of xylem vessels and the establishment of hydrostatic pressure in early spring occurs gradually from the roots up the trunk of the vine.  Fructose in the fine roots was identified as a key carbohydrate in the generation of the hydrostatic pressure required to refill xylem conduits after winter dormancy.  After a pre-flower trunk phloem girdle was applied there was a loss of xylem pressure that lasted for two weeks. The cause has not been resolved though results from this study suggest a relationship with loss of phloem flow, or cavitation induced air embolisms in the xylem preventing xylem pressure recovery.  
Leaves from girdled vines exported less carbohydrate than non-girdled vines which suggests a delayed transition to an autotrophic status.  Root and trunk carbohydrates showed little short-term effect of the pre-flower girdle.  However, there was a location effect seen with the trunk bark carbohydrates that suggest the utilisation of ‘local’ reserves is exploited in preference to long-distant transport of reserves.  There was no detectable short-term impacts of the pre-flower girdle on phenology. 
Further research is proposed to understand the long-term impacts of a pre-flower girdle on root pressure, carbohydrate storage and the development of seasonal organs.

year: 2019

title: Waiorongomai Township

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: When gold was discovered at Waiorongomai, a settlement was quickly established, to the delight of the Thames High School Governors, who anticipated a good return from their swampy farmland. Shops, hotels, and a school were erected, but the growth soon tailed off, and apart from brief mining revivals the settlement declined steadily until totally vanishing in the twentieth century: so much for its hopes of being larger than Te Aroha.
Typically, residents struggled with poor access, poor roads, and poor footpaths – although they did have one of the first telephone lines in New Zealand. There were regular complaints that the school board neglected the settlement, and for a time there was much debate about whether to join Te Aroha in a new borough. During the nineteenth century, pigs in particular were complained about, and in the next century noxious weeds spread across abandoned residence and business sites. When this happened, local farmers sought to acquire these sections, but as a few miners insisted that mining would revive, some were retained for the anticipated miners (who never came). 
During its existence, residents enjoyed quite an active social life, with sports, meetings, ‘rinking’, dances, and concerts and other entertainments in the public hall. Locals organized most of these activities, but occasional visitors provided some – and as Te Aroha was so close it was easy to attend entertainments there. But by the early twentieth century this social life faded away as the settlement did.

text: Waiorongomai Township When gold was discovered at Waiorongomai, a settlement was quickly established, to the delight of the Thames High School Governors, who anticipated a good return from their swampy farmland. Shops, hotels, and a school were erected, but the growth soon tailed off, and apart from brief mining revivals the settlement declined steadily until totally vanishing in the twentieth century: so much for its hopes of being larger than Te Aroha.
Typically, residents struggled with poor access, poor roads, and poor footpaths – although they did have one of the first telephone lines in New Zealand. There were regular complaints that the school board neglected the settlement, and for a time there was much debate about whether to join Te Aroha in a new borough. During the nineteenth century, pigs in particular were complained about, and in the next century noxious weeds spread across abandoned residence and business sites. When this happened, local farmers sought to acquire these sections, but as a few miners insisted that mining would revive, some were retained for the anticipated miners (who never came). 
During its existence, residents enjoyed quite an active social life, with sports, meetings, ‘rinking’, dances, and concerts and other entertainments in the public hall. Locals organized most of these activities, but occasional visitors provided some – and as Te Aroha was so close it was easy to attend entertainments there. But by the early twentieth century this social life faded away as the settlement did.

year: 2016

title: Quantifying relationships between kōura  (Paranephrops planifrons) abundance and micro-habitat features in Waikato hill-country streams

authors: Parata, Riki Neihana

subjects: kōura

abstract: Kōura (Paranephrops planifrons) is considered a taonga species by Māori and was once an abundant traditional fishery harvested throughout New Zealand. Kōura populations are under pressure in Waikato hill-country streams due to a range of factors including habitat loss and water quality degradation. Now that stakeholders have been engaging in collaborative decision-making and practices to restore/enhance biodiversity and ecosystem health within the Waikato catchment, there is opportunity to implement measures specifically targeted at kōura. Information on kōura habitat requirements to assist with the development of habitat enhancement work is therefore timely.
This research comprised two discrete studies which, in combination, provide important insights into daytime habitat use by kōura in Waikato hill-country streams. The first study was a field survey that examined in-stream habitat characteristics affecting kōura density and size, with a focus on juveniles ≤ 8 mm orbital carapace length (OCL), across a range of scales ranging from habitat patches to streams with contrasting catchment and riparian vegetation treatments – pasture, early or late riparian planting, and native forest. Micro-habitat variables related to kōura density included water depth and velocity, substrate size, and the area of bank undercuts and organic cover types, with root mat area significantly and positively related to juvenile densities across all scales. Although there was no significant effect of treatment type, there were strong associations between kōura and ponga logs, root systems, and coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) across scales within and between streams.
The second study was a habitat manipulation experiment conducted to investigate whether kōura abundances, in particular juveniles, could be enhanced by additions of organic habitat consisting of 0.5 m² coconut fibre matting to simulate ponga (Cyathea dealbata) root systems that occur on the stream bank, and 1 m² ponga frond bundles to simulate the natural habitat structures formed in native forested areas. These two artificial habitats were compared with natural in-stream cobble habitats. Kōura and toi toi (Gobiomorphus spp.), both showed a preference for ponga frond habitats which were predicted to provide submerged habitat for more than 200 days. Although the coconut fibre matting was predicted to outlast ponga frond bundles by up to 107 days, it was more susceptible to sedimentation and did not provide adequate habitat for kōura due to its dense structure.
This study highlighted the influence of riparian treatments, hydrological processes, and inorganic and organic habitats on kōura populations. Information from this study can provide restoration managers with guidance on how to enhance in-stream and stream edge habitat suitability for kōura and can be used with existing mātauranga Māori, and western and community science, to determine suitable vegetation for riparian planting, assess what factors and drivers contribute to in-stream habitat availability and sustainability, and identify important habitat features that relate to kōura when conducting habitat restoration.

text: Quantifying relationships between kōura  (Paranephrops planifrons) abundance and micro-habitat features in Waikato hill-country streams Kōura (Paranephrops planifrons) is considered a taonga species by Māori and was once an abundant traditional fishery harvested throughout New Zealand. Kōura populations are under pressure in Waikato hill-country streams due to a range of factors including habitat loss and water quality degradation. Now that stakeholders have been engaging in collaborative decision-making and practices to restore/enhance biodiversity and ecosystem health within the Waikato catchment, there is opportunity to implement measures specifically targeted at kōura. Information on kōura habitat requirements to assist with the development of habitat enhancement work is therefore timely.
This research comprised two discrete studies which, in combination, provide important insights into daytime habitat use by kōura in Waikato hill-country streams. The first study was a field survey that examined in-stream habitat characteristics affecting kōura density and size, with a focus on juveniles ≤ 8 mm orbital carapace length (OCL), across a range of scales ranging from habitat patches to streams with contrasting catchment and riparian vegetation treatments – pasture, early or late riparian planting, and native forest. Micro-habitat variables related to kōura density included water depth and velocity, substrate size, and the area of bank undercuts and organic cover types, with root mat area significantly and positively related to juvenile densities across all scales. Although there was no significant effect of treatment type, there were strong associations between kōura and ponga logs, root systems, and coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) across scales within and between streams.
The second study was a habitat manipulation experiment conducted to investigate whether kōura abundances, in particular juveniles, could be enhanced by additions of organic habitat consisting of 0.5 m² coconut fibre matting to simulate ponga (Cyathea dealbata) root systems that occur on the stream bank, and 1 m² ponga frond bundles to simulate the natural habitat structures formed in native forested areas. These two artificial habitats were compared with natural in-stream cobble habitats. Kōura and toi toi (Gobiomorphus spp.), both showed a preference for ponga frond habitats which were predicted to provide submerged habitat for more than 200 days. Although the coconut fibre matting was predicted to outlast ponga frond bundles by up to 107 days, it was more susceptible to sedimentation and did not provide adequate habitat for kōura due to its dense structure.
This study highlighted the influence of riparian treatments, hydrological processes, and inorganic and organic habitats on kōura populations. Information from this study can provide restoration managers with guidance on how to enhance in-stream and stream edge habitat suitability for kōura and can be used with existing mātauranga Māori, and western and community science, to determine suitable vegetation for riparian planting, assess what factors and drivers contribute to in-stream habitat availability and sustainability, and identify important habitat features that relate to kōura when conducting habitat restoration.

year: 2019