title: Cooperation, incentives and punishment in common pool resource management

authors: Parsons, Oliver J.

subjects: non-point source pollution

abstract: Managing water quality is of critical interest to policy-makers in New Zealand and globally.  In particular, the management of diffuse nitrate losses from agriculture is a major policy challenge that remains largely unsolved.  In a policy environment with a strong emphasis on collaboration, consideration has been given to whether groups of resource users can address the issue collectively at a catchment scale. Although water quality is not a traditional common pool resource problem, in the presence of some form of external threat or regulation associated with degradation, the diffuse loss of nitrate to waterways is transformed into a common pool resource problem.  This social dilemma is characterised by strong incentives to defect and challenging levels of complexity.  However, these challenges are not insurmountable.

This study uses economic experiments to present groups of participants with a stylised version of the problem faced by resource users in the field.  Previous experiments in this area have found sanctions to be of limited effectiveness in this environment in the absence of communication.  We extend previous studies by adjusting the ratio of the cost of sanctions to their effectiveness, and by varying the overall payoff environment.  We find that more effective sanctions are able to improve environmental outcomes and stabilise the level of resource use over time, even in the absence of communication.  However, there are significant costs associated with the use of sanctions which mean that overall welfare is not enhanced in the absence of communication.

Due to the complexity of common pool resource management, communication and agreement about norms for resource use levels is important to support groups in optimising environmental outcomes and profitability.  Communication is a necessary condition for maximising welfare when navigating complexity.  However, communication is not necessary to improve environmental outcomes or sustain a level of resource use over time.

While some self-selected groups of highly-cooperative individuals may be able to sustain cooperation in the absence of sanctions, these arrangements are unlikely to be stable over time.  The presence of defectors means that some form of recourse to punishment is necessary to support the continued sustainable management of a resource. The strong incentives for defection in common pool resource management, including collective management of water quality, can be overcome by sufficiently strong sanctions.  

Our experimental findings suggest that sanctions administered by peers can be effective in improving environmental outcomes and stabilising the level of resource use over time, preventing the decline in cooperation that is evident where individuals are able to profit from defection.  The cost and effectiveness of sanctions has a strong interaction with the nature of the incentive environment.  In designing institutions for the collective management of nitrate loads to water bodies, regulators and groups of resource users must consider the incentives for defection that are driven by the degree of coupling of nitrate losses and profitability in farm systems.  In order to be successful, group members must have access to low-cost sanctions that are designed with the incentive environment in mind.  If institutions can be designed in such a way as to ensure that cheaters do not prosper from defection, the prospects for collective management of water quality are positive.

text: Cooperation, incentives and punishment in common pool resource management Managing water quality is of critical interest to policy-makers in New Zealand and globally.  In particular, the management of diffuse nitrate losses from agriculture is a major policy challenge that remains largely unsolved.  In a policy environment with a strong emphasis on collaboration, consideration has been given to whether groups of resource users can address the issue collectively at a catchment scale. Although water quality is not a traditional common pool resource problem, in the presence of some form of external threat or regulation associated with degradation, the diffuse loss of nitrate to waterways is transformed into a common pool resource problem.  This social dilemma is characterised by strong incentives to defect and challenging levels of complexity.  However, these challenges are not insurmountable.

This study uses economic experiments to present groups of participants with a stylised version of the problem faced by resource users in the field.  Previous experiments in this area have found sanctions to be of limited effectiveness in this environment in the absence of communication.  We extend previous studies by adjusting the ratio of the cost of sanctions to their effectiveness, and by varying the overall payoff environment.  We find that more effective sanctions are able to improve environmental outcomes and stabilise the level of resource use over time, even in the absence of communication.  However, there are significant costs associated with the use of sanctions which mean that overall welfare is not enhanced in the absence of communication.

Due to the complexity of common pool resource management, communication and agreement about norms for resource use levels is important to support groups in optimising environmental outcomes and profitability.  Communication is a necessary condition for maximising welfare when navigating complexity.  However, communication is not necessary to improve environmental outcomes or sustain a level of resource use over time.

While some self-selected groups of highly-cooperative individuals may be able to sustain cooperation in the absence of sanctions, these arrangements are unlikely to be stable over time.  The presence of defectors means that some form of recourse to punishment is necessary to support the continued sustainable management of a resource. The strong incentives for defection in common pool resource management, including collective management of water quality, can be overcome by sufficiently strong sanctions.  

Our experimental findings suggest that sanctions administered by peers can be effective in improving environmental outcomes and stabilising the level of resource use over time, preventing the decline in cooperation that is evident where individuals are able to profit from defection.  The cost and effectiveness of sanctions has a strong interaction with the nature of the incentive environment.  In designing institutions for the collective management of nitrate loads to water bodies, regulators and groups of resource users must consider the incentives for defection that are driven by the degree of coupling of nitrate losses and profitability in farm systems.  In order to be successful, group members must have access to low-cost sanctions that are designed with the incentive environment in mind.  If institutions can be designed in such a way as to ensure that cheaters do not prosper from defection, the prospects for collective management of water quality are positive.

year: 2016

title: Does plantarflexion fatigue influence running economy response to advanced footwear technology?

authors: Bidois, Ben

subjects: running

abstract: Background: Previous research found an average 4.0% increase in running economy (RE) with runners wearing shoes with advanced footwear technology (AFT), however there is large inter-individual variability. Serval speculations have arisen to explain this variability, one being runners needing strong enough plantarflexion strength to fully benefit from AFT shoes. Therefore, this study will investigate the effects of plantarflexion fatigue on RE response to AFT shoes. Methods: Sixty-four participants (age, 33.5 ± 15.6 y; sex, 32 male, 32 female; VO2peak, 49.4 ± 8.3 mL/kg/min) completed two sessions. Session one collected demographic information and conducted an incremental VO2peak test on a treadmill. Session two included a plantarflexion power test and four RE tests in the Control and AFT shoe in a counterbalanced mirrored crossover design. These RE tests were followed by two rounds of a plantarflexion fatigue protocol, including pre-plantarflexion (PRE) and post-plantarflexion (POST) power tests. Each fatigue protocol was followed with a calf muscle fatigue and soreness visual analogue scales, along with a RE test in a counterbalanced shoe condition. Results: RE improved 4.0 to 4.3% in the AFT compared to the Control shoe. Plantarflexion fatigue induced 1.6 to 2.4% decline in RE. There were no significant interaction between shoe conditions and time (P > 0.691). Baseline plantarflexion power did not significantly correlate to AFT response (P > 0.132), nor did the change in plantarflexion power (PRE to POST) to the change in AFT response (PRE to POST) (P > 0.930). Conclusion: Overall, AFT improved RE while plantarflexion fatigue negatively affected RE. Isolated plantarflexion fatigue did not alter AFT response and plantarflexion power was not linked to AFT response, refuting speculations that runners need strong enough plantarflexion strength to fully benefit from AFT. Since isolated plantarflexion fatigue is not generalisable to running induced fatigue, investigating the effects of running induced fatigue on RE response to AFT is recommended.

text: Does plantarflexion fatigue influence running economy response to advanced footwear technology? Background: Previous research found an average 4.0% increase in running economy (RE) with runners wearing shoes with advanced footwear technology (AFT), however there is large inter-individual variability. Serval speculations have arisen to explain this variability, one being runners needing strong enough plantarflexion strength to fully benefit from AFT shoes. Therefore, this study will investigate the effects of plantarflexion fatigue on RE response to AFT shoes. Methods: Sixty-four participants (age, 33.5 ± 15.6 y; sex, 32 male, 32 female; VO2peak, 49.4 ± 8.3 mL/kg/min) completed two sessions. Session one collected demographic information and conducted an incremental VO2peak test on a treadmill. Session two included a plantarflexion power test and four RE tests in the Control and AFT shoe in a counterbalanced mirrored crossover design. These RE tests were followed by two rounds of a plantarflexion fatigue protocol, including pre-plantarflexion (PRE) and post-plantarflexion (POST) power tests. Each fatigue protocol was followed with a calf muscle fatigue and soreness visual analogue scales, along with a RE test in a counterbalanced shoe condition. Results: RE improved 4.0 to 4.3% in the AFT compared to the Control shoe. Plantarflexion fatigue induced 1.6 to 2.4% decline in RE. There were no significant interaction between shoe conditions and time (P > 0.691). Baseline plantarflexion power did not significantly correlate to AFT response (P > 0.132), nor did the change in plantarflexion power (PRE to POST) to the change in AFT response (PRE to POST) (P > 0.930). Conclusion: Overall, AFT improved RE while plantarflexion fatigue negatively affected RE. Isolated plantarflexion fatigue did not alter AFT response and plantarflexion power was not linked to AFT response, refuting speculations that runners need strong enough plantarflexion strength to fully benefit from AFT. Since isolated plantarflexion fatigue is not generalisable to running induced fatigue, investigating the effects of running induced fatigue on RE response to AFT is recommended.

year: 2025-06

title: A Māori and Pacific lens on infant and toddler provision in early childhood education

authors: Rameka, Lesley Kay

abstract: While New Zealand has made major advances in educational provision, Mäori and Pacific chil- dren continue to lag behind other groups, achieving disproportionately lower results on national averages (Marriot & Sim, 2014). Key to educational success for Mäori and Pasifika children is the acknowledgement that they are culturally located and the recognition that effective education must embrace culture. Early childhood education has an important role in building strong learn- ing foundations for young children; however, achieving this is a complex process, especially with regard to Mäori and Pacific children in early childhood education. This article outlines findings from a 2014 nationwide online survey conducted with Mäori and Pacific teachers working in Mäori and Pacific early childhood services and language nests. Respondents were asked about traditional and contemporary caregiving practices for infants and toddlers and what barriers and enablers were faced in implementing these caregiving practices within their services.

text: A Māori and Pacific lens on infant and toddler provision in early childhood education While New Zealand has made major advances in educational provision, Mäori and Pacific chil- dren continue to lag behind other groups, achieving disproportionately lower results on national averages (Marriot & Sim, 2014). Key to educational success for Mäori and Pasifika children is the acknowledgement that they are culturally located and the recognition that effective education must embrace culture. Early childhood education has an important role in building strong learn- ing foundations for young children; however, achieving this is a complex process, especially with regard to Mäori and Pacific children in early childhood education. This article outlines findings from a 2014 nationwide online survey conducted with Mäori and Pacific teachers working in Mäori and Pacific early childhood services and language nests. Respondents were asked about traditional and contemporary caregiving practices for infants and toddlers and what barriers and enablers were faced in implementing these caregiving practices within their services.

year: 2015