title: Buddhism and Tourism at Pu-Tuo-Shan, China

authors: Wong, Un In Cora

subjects: Buddhism

abstract: This thesis is a study of pilgrimage and religious tourism in a Chinese Buddhist context, with a focus on both the host monastic community and visitors. The selected research site is Pu-Tuo-Shan, one of the Four Buddhist Sacred Mountains of China. While the Western literature on pilgrimage and religious tourism in the context of Buddhism in China remains thin and the many studies in Chinese have their research focus primarily on how to make use of religions to develop tourism and stimulate economic growth, this thesis aims to present the perceptions of Buddhist monks and nuns towards receiving visitors and tourism. The perceptions of religious hosts towards tourism development, and how they cope with the subsequent challenges created by tourism in China, are subjects that have not been studied. Additionally the thesis analyses data derived from a survey of 777 visitors to the island; the quantitative analysis sheds light on the profile of visitors. As elsewhere in the world, the religious sites of China attract not only believers, but also leisure and cultural tourists. The popularity of Pu-Tuo as a tourist destination inevitably disturbs the serenity of the monastic life of the approximately thousand monks and nuns who live there in their monasteries and nunneries. The first objective of this research is to generate a typology of visitors, and this was done through a quantitative approach grounded in post-positivism. The visitor survey was used to construct a visitor typology. The second objective of this thesis, to address how Buddhist monks and nuns perceive receiving visitors and tourism, and their ways to manage visitors’ behaviours, is achieved by adopting a qualitative approach grounded in an interpretive-constructivist paradigm. In-depth interviews with 25 monks and nuns were conducted to capture rich contextual data of their understandings. The two objectives of the thesis are related in the sense that the impact of the visitors on the monastic community and how the monks and nuns perceive their presence in Pu-Tuo depend on the visitors’ reasons for their visits, their behaviour and the strength of their belief in Buddhism. The findings provide insight into how the concepts of ‘pilgrimage’ and ‘pilgrim’ are understood from a Buddhist perspective. The attitudes of the Pu-Tuo Buddhist monks and nuns towards receiving visitors and tourism are found to be mostly welcoming and supportive. This contrasts with the literature on sites belonging to religions other than Buddhism which indicates that tourism is perceived by religious hosts as a burden and as a threat to the sanctity of their religious/sacred sites. Yet, there are challenges created by the visitors in Pu-Tuo and these are noted by the monks and nuns. Their ‘Buddhist way’ of undertaking visitor management is found to be different from what is described in the existing literature about non-Buddhist sites. It is suggested that the empathetic nature of Buddhism is at the root of the visitor management strategies adopted at Pu-Tuo. The findings thereby contribute to the existing scholarly knowledge of how Buddhist sites are managed in the Buddhist way.

text: Buddhism and Tourism at Pu-Tuo-Shan, China This thesis is a study of pilgrimage and religious tourism in a Chinese Buddhist context, with a focus on both the host monastic community and visitors. The selected research site is Pu-Tuo-Shan, one of the Four Buddhist Sacred Mountains of China. While the Western literature on pilgrimage and religious tourism in the context of Buddhism in China remains thin and the many studies in Chinese have their research focus primarily on how to make use of religions to develop tourism and stimulate economic growth, this thesis aims to present the perceptions of Buddhist monks and nuns towards receiving visitors and tourism. The perceptions of religious hosts towards tourism development, and how they cope with the subsequent challenges created by tourism in China, are subjects that have not been studied. Additionally the thesis analyses data derived from a survey of 777 visitors to the island; the quantitative analysis sheds light on the profile of visitors. As elsewhere in the world, the religious sites of China attract not only believers, but also leisure and cultural tourists. The popularity of Pu-Tuo as a tourist destination inevitably disturbs the serenity of the monastic life of the approximately thousand monks and nuns who live there in their monasteries and nunneries. The first objective of this research is to generate a typology of visitors, and this was done through a quantitative approach grounded in post-positivism. The visitor survey was used to construct a visitor typology. The second objective of this thesis, to address how Buddhist monks and nuns perceive receiving visitors and tourism, and their ways to manage visitors’ behaviours, is achieved by adopting a qualitative approach grounded in an interpretive-constructivist paradigm. In-depth interviews with 25 monks and nuns were conducted to capture rich contextual data of their understandings. The two objectives of the thesis are related in the sense that the impact of the visitors on the monastic community and how the monks and nuns perceive their presence in Pu-Tuo depend on the visitors’ reasons for their visits, their behaviour and the strength of their belief in Buddhism. The findings provide insight into how the concepts of ‘pilgrimage’ and ‘pilgrim’ are understood from a Buddhist perspective. The attitudes of the Pu-Tuo Buddhist monks and nuns towards receiving visitors and tourism are found to be mostly welcoming and supportive. This contrasts with the literature on sites belonging to religions other than Buddhism which indicates that tourism is perceived by religious hosts as a burden and as a threat to the sanctity of their religious/sacred sites. Yet, there are challenges created by the visitors in Pu-Tuo and these are noted by the monks and nuns. Their ‘Buddhist way’ of undertaking visitor management is found to be different from what is described in the existing literature about non-Buddhist sites. It is suggested that the empathetic nature of Buddhism is at the root of the visitor management strategies adopted at Pu-Tuo. The findings thereby contribute to the existing scholarly knowledge of how Buddhist sites are managed in the Buddhist way.

year: 2011

title: The autecology of lonicera japonica in a restoration context

authors: Pudney, Kemble Jonathan

subjects: Lonicera japonica

abstract: This thesis concerns the autecology of Lonicera japonica in relation to ecological restoration in Hamilton. It addresses three groups of questions, relating to L. japonica's place in the plant community, its reproduction and spread, and its impacts on other plants. L. japonica's role in the plant communities of natural areas and restoration sites and its variation with environmental factors were studied quantitatively through vegetation measurement and soil analyses at plots established at a naturally regenerating site in Hamilton. Its role under varying disturbance regimes and physical conditions was studied qualitatively and semi-quantitatively at eight other locations. A simple model relating stem diameter to age was developed to assess the age and demography of L. japonica populations. L. japonica's potential to spread was assessed through trials to establish seed and fragment viability, examination of climatic records, and the identification from the literature of potential vectors. Impacts of L. japonica on other species were assessed first through a consideration of the frequency at which plants of differing characteristics are invaded, and second by characterising its impacts upon those plants. The thesis concludes with recommendations for further research and for the management of the plant in restoration areas.
Through the field work it was found that L. japonica is more widely dispersed both within and across natural areas and restoration sites in Hamilton than had been detected from initial site visits, to the extent that it was difficult to detect patterns and relationships at the chosen scale of investigation. It exhibits a tolerance for low pH and wet conditions greater than found in studies overseas, and neither those factors nor soil fertility are likely to limit its spread in restoration and natural areas in New Zealand. However at light levels found
ii
beneath typical native canopy cover the plant's vigour is greatly reduced, and this offers the most promising avenues for control. L. japonica disperses readily via stem fragments incorporating nodes and sets plentiful fertile seed. Though the viability of that seed is short, propagation by this means is possible in Hamilton and may become significant in relation to future restoration work. In good light conditions L. japonica forms dense mats that smother vegetation of low stature and prevent natural succession in canopy gaps, as well as compromising the health of restored areas. In locations with mature canopy L. japonica may survive over lengthy periods on the ground, with restricted vigour, or in canopy-entering clumps that have grown with the host; either form will expand rapidly if light conditions improve. However because of their growth form and trunk texture even mature tree ferns may be killed by L. japonica. Novel elements that have emerged from this study are the plant's tolerance of a wider range of environmental conditions in New Zealand than reported overseas, its potential to spread by seed in local conditions, and an emerging synergistic relationship with another invasive liane, Ipomoea indica. The latter two issues are worthy of further study.

text: The autecology of lonicera japonica in a restoration context This thesis concerns the autecology of Lonicera japonica in relation to ecological restoration in Hamilton. It addresses three groups of questions, relating to L. japonica's place in the plant community, its reproduction and spread, and its impacts on other plants. L. japonica's role in the plant communities of natural areas and restoration sites and its variation with environmental factors were studied quantitatively through vegetation measurement and soil analyses at plots established at a naturally regenerating site in Hamilton. Its role under varying disturbance regimes and physical conditions was studied qualitatively and semi-quantitatively at eight other locations. A simple model relating stem diameter to age was developed to assess the age and demography of L. japonica populations. L. japonica's potential to spread was assessed through trials to establish seed and fragment viability, examination of climatic records, and the identification from the literature of potential vectors. Impacts of L. japonica on other species were assessed first through a consideration of the frequency at which plants of differing characteristics are invaded, and second by characterising its impacts upon those plants. The thesis concludes with recommendations for further research and for the management of the plant in restoration areas.
Through the field work it was found that L. japonica is more widely dispersed both within and across natural areas and restoration sites in Hamilton than had been detected from initial site visits, to the extent that it was difficult to detect patterns and relationships at the chosen scale of investigation. It exhibits a tolerance for low pH and wet conditions greater than found in studies overseas, and neither those factors nor soil fertility are likely to limit its spread in restoration and natural areas in New Zealand. However at light levels found
ii
beneath typical native canopy cover the plant's vigour is greatly reduced, and this offers the most promising avenues for control. L. japonica disperses readily via stem fragments incorporating nodes and sets plentiful fertile seed. Though the viability of that seed is short, propagation by this means is possible in Hamilton and may become significant in relation to future restoration work. In good light conditions L. japonica forms dense mats that smother vegetation of low stature and prevent natural succession in canopy gaps, as well as compromising the health of restored areas. In locations with mature canopy L. japonica may survive over lengthy periods on the ground, with restricted vigour, or in canopy-entering clumps that have grown with the host; either form will expand rapidly if light conditions improve. However because of their growth form and trunk texture even mature tree ferns may be killed by L. japonica. Novel elements that have emerged from this study are the plant's tolerance of a wider range of environmental conditions in New Zealand than reported overseas, its potential to spread by seed in local conditions, and an emerging synergistic relationship with another invasive liane, Ipomoea indica. The latter two issues are worthy of further study.

year: 2009

title: A 'class of no political weight'? Interracial marriage, mixed race children and land rights in southern New Zealand, 1840s-1880s

authors: Wanhalla, Angela

subjects: Social Sciences

abstract: Interracial marriage was a defining feature of interaction between local Ngāi Tahu and newcomers in southern New Zealand from the early nineteenth century. Scholarship has explored the importance of such relationships to development of New Zealand’s early resource-based economies and to colonial assimilation policies. However, the experiences of cross-cultural households and families in colonial New Zealand are less well documented.

Using a body of writing produced by fathers and their mixed-race children in response to land claims investigations in the mid-nineteenth century, this article explores the political, economic and social world of interracial families in southern New Zealand. The correspondence over land rights reveals the ongoing importance of kinship ties through generations as colonial expansion impinged on these communities. Through petitioning and letter writing, fathers and children contested what marriage and family meant and strategically asserted their individual and collective identity in the face of increasing land dispossession and economic hardship.

text: A 'class of no political weight'? Interracial marriage, mixed race children and land rights in southern New Zealand, 1840s-1880s Interracial marriage was a defining feature of interaction between local Ngāi Tahu and newcomers in southern New Zealand from the early nineteenth century. Scholarship has explored the importance of such relationships to development of New Zealand’s early resource-based economies and to colonial assimilation policies. However, the experiences of cross-cultural households and families in colonial New Zealand are less well documented.

Using a body of writing produced by fathers and their mixed-race children in response to land claims investigations in the mid-nineteenth century, this article explores the political, economic and social world of interracial families in southern New Zealand. The correspondence over land rights reveals the ongoing importance of kinship ties through generations as colonial expansion impinged on these communities. Through petitioning and letter writing, fathers and children contested what marriage and family meant and strategically asserted their individual and collective identity in the face of increasing land dispossession and economic hardship.

year: 2019