title: Work-family conflict and well-being among employed women in Malaysia: The roles of coping and work-family facilitation

authors: Hussin, Ruhaya

subjects: work-family conflict

abstract: As the numbers of employed women, single-parent households, and dual-earner families are increasing, women are no longer confined to their traditional gender roles. Women’s participation in work and family domains indicates their struggles in juggling multiple roles and incompatible demands from both domains. Under these circumstances, they may experience conflict between work and family domains. However, women’s involvement in multiple roles may also result in benefits that can outweigh the costs associated with work-family conflict, and this is known as work-family facilitation. Work-family facilitation has received less attention in the literature than work-family conflict. Most research in the work-family literature has examined work-family conflict and work-family facilitation separately. Furthermore, most studies that examine work-family facilitation investigated the antecedents, effects, and its mediating role. Little emphasis has been placed on the moderating role of work-family facilitation. 
     The present study was conducted among single and married employed women in Malaysia. Although they are the breadwinners of the family alongside the men, Malaysian women place their roles as wives and mothers above other roles (Hossain, Roopnarine, Ismail, Hashmi, & Sombuling, 2007). Due to different cultural traditions, societal values, work ethos, and family structures between Malaysia and Western countries, the findings from Western literature cannot be simply generalised to Malaysians. The present research involved a non-experimental two-wave design with a six- to eight-month time interval. Self-report surveys were obtained from 740 employed women at Time 1 and 210 at Time 2 from six industry types in Malaysia. Multivariate analysis was used to assess the direct effects of work-family conflict, coping, and work-family facilitation on well-being (social dysfunction, anxiety/depression, intention to leave, intention to stay, job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction). Hierarchical regression was also used to examine the moderating effects of coping and work-family facilitation on the relationships between work-family conflict and well-being. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the mediating effect of work-family facilitation on the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being.
     The cross-sectional and longitudinal findings of this study confirmed the findings in Western literature on the direct effects of work-family conflict and work-family facilitation on well-being, except for the positive association of FWC behaviour and family satisfaction at Time 1. While the other types of coping were related to increased well-being, high escape-avoidance at Times 1 and 2 in this study was associated with high anxiety/depression in the cross-sectional data. No longitudinal direct effect of coping on well-being was found. The cross-sectional findings of this study indicated very weak support for the moderating effects of coping and work-family facilitation on the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being. There were minimal interactions between coping and work-family conflict on intention to stay over time, and the interactions were not as hypothesised.
     This study also found some cross-sectional mediating roles of work-family facilitation on the relationship of work-family conflict and well-being among employed women in Malaysia. The cross-sectional findings indicated that work-family facilitation variables serve better as mediators than moderators. Both work-to-family facilitation (WFF) and family-to-work facilitation (FWF) mediated the relationship of family-to-work conflict (FWC) time and social dysfunction, intention to leave, intention to stay, job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction at Time 1. At time 2, WFF mediated the relationships of work-to-family conflict (WFC) strain and behaviour and FWC (strain and behaviour) and social dysfunction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction, whereas FWF only mediated the relationship between FWC behaviour and family satisfaction. Although WFF mediated the relationship of FWC behaviour and intention to leave, and FWF mediated the relationship between WFC time and intention to leave over time, the relationships were not as hypothesised.
     This research makes some theoretical contributions and expands the landscape of work-family literature by examining the roles of work-family facilitation as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between different directions and types of work-family conflict and well-being, in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models. Additionally, this study provides useful information on the different types of coping strategies as moderators in the work-family model tested, and its application to the Malaysian culture. The findings may help the human resource practitioners understand how work-family conflict and facilitation, together with coping strategies, influenced employees’ well-being. Implications of the research are discussed and recommendations for future research are included.

text: Work-family conflict and well-being among employed women in Malaysia: The roles of coping and work-family facilitation As the numbers of employed women, single-parent households, and dual-earner families are increasing, women are no longer confined to their traditional gender roles. Women’s participation in work and family domains indicates their struggles in juggling multiple roles and incompatible demands from both domains. Under these circumstances, they may experience conflict between work and family domains. However, women’s involvement in multiple roles may also result in benefits that can outweigh the costs associated with work-family conflict, and this is known as work-family facilitation. Work-family facilitation has received less attention in the literature than work-family conflict. Most research in the work-family literature has examined work-family conflict and work-family facilitation separately. Furthermore, most studies that examine work-family facilitation investigated the antecedents, effects, and its mediating role. Little emphasis has been placed on the moderating role of work-family facilitation. 
     The present study was conducted among single and married employed women in Malaysia. Although they are the breadwinners of the family alongside the men, Malaysian women place their roles as wives and mothers above other roles (Hossain, Roopnarine, Ismail, Hashmi, & Sombuling, 2007). Due to different cultural traditions, societal values, work ethos, and family structures between Malaysia and Western countries, the findings from Western literature cannot be simply generalised to Malaysians. The present research involved a non-experimental two-wave design with a six- to eight-month time interval. Self-report surveys were obtained from 740 employed women at Time 1 and 210 at Time 2 from six industry types in Malaysia. Multivariate analysis was used to assess the direct effects of work-family conflict, coping, and work-family facilitation on well-being (social dysfunction, anxiety/depression, intention to leave, intention to stay, job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction). Hierarchical regression was also used to examine the moderating effects of coping and work-family facilitation on the relationships between work-family conflict and well-being. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the mediating effect of work-family facilitation on the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being.
     The cross-sectional and longitudinal findings of this study confirmed the findings in Western literature on the direct effects of work-family conflict and work-family facilitation on well-being, except for the positive association of FWC behaviour and family satisfaction at Time 1. While the other types of coping were related to increased well-being, high escape-avoidance at Times 1 and 2 in this study was associated with high anxiety/depression in the cross-sectional data. No longitudinal direct effect of coping on well-being was found. The cross-sectional findings of this study indicated very weak support for the moderating effects of coping and work-family facilitation on the relationship between work-family conflict and well-being. There were minimal interactions between coping and work-family conflict on intention to stay over time, and the interactions were not as hypothesised.
     This study also found some cross-sectional mediating roles of work-family facilitation on the relationship of work-family conflict and well-being among employed women in Malaysia. The cross-sectional findings indicated that work-family facilitation variables serve better as mediators than moderators. Both work-to-family facilitation (WFF) and family-to-work facilitation (FWF) mediated the relationship of family-to-work conflict (FWC) time and social dysfunction, intention to leave, intention to stay, job satisfaction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction at Time 1. At time 2, WFF mediated the relationships of work-to-family conflict (WFC) strain and behaviour and FWC (strain and behaviour) and social dysfunction, family satisfaction, and life satisfaction, whereas FWF only mediated the relationship between FWC behaviour and family satisfaction. Although WFF mediated the relationship of FWC behaviour and intention to leave, and FWF mediated the relationship between WFC time and intention to leave over time, the relationships were not as hypothesised.
     This research makes some theoretical contributions and expands the landscape of work-family literature by examining the roles of work-family facilitation as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between different directions and types of work-family conflict and well-being, in both cross-sectional and longitudinal models. Additionally, this study provides useful information on the different types of coping strategies as moderators in the work-family model tested, and its application to the Malaysian culture. The findings may help the human resource practitioners understand how work-family conflict and facilitation, together with coping strategies, influenced employees’ well-being. Implications of the research are discussed and recommendations for future research are included.

year: 2014

title: A shift from traditional pedagogy in Nepali Rural Primary Schools ? Rural teachers’ capacity to reflect ICT policy in their practice

authors: Rana, Karna

subjects: ICT

abstract: Policy by the government of Nepal emphasises the need to develop ICT competencies and suggests the use of ICT will transform traditional models of teaching to ones that are studentcentred. This article reports a study of primary teachers’ experiences of using digital technologies in rural primary schools in Nepal, and investigates their preceptions of how the availability and use of ICT in their schools has transformed traditional teaching models. It further examines the resources they can access and the training they received. Teachers’ accounts of their experiences indicated that the integration of available digital technologies in instructional activities changed their role in the classroom to some extent, created a learner-friendly learning environment and improved aspects of their teaching. The study also found that there was often insufficient access to ICT in and outside the school premises, and that pre-service teacher education, as well as government-provided in-service training, does not cover the use of ICT in instructional activities. Rather provision of infrastructures and training in the use of digital devices is carried out by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The article argues that for policy to be realised in practice, more sustainable and comprehensive systems need to be developed to train teachers in ICT use and to provide them with necessary facilities.

text: A shift from traditional pedagogy in Nepali Rural Primary Schools ? Rural teachers’ capacity to reflect ICT policy in their practice Policy by the government of Nepal emphasises the need to develop ICT competencies and suggests the use of ICT will transform traditional models of teaching to ones that are studentcentred. This article reports a study of primary teachers’ experiences of using digital technologies in rural primary schools in Nepal, and investigates their preceptions of how the availability and use of ICT in their schools has transformed traditional teaching models. It further examines the resources they can access and the training they received. Teachers’ accounts of their experiences indicated that the integration of available digital technologies in instructional activities changed their role in the classroom to some extent, created a learner-friendly learning environment and improved aspects of their teaching. The study also found that there was often insufficient access to ICT in and outside the school premises, and that pre-service teacher education, as well as government-provided in-service training, does not cover the use of ICT in instructional activities. Rather provision of infrastructures and training in the use of digital devices is carried out by non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The article argues that for policy to be realised in practice, more sustainable and comprehensive systems need to be developed to train teachers in ICT use and to provide them with necessary facilities.

year: 2018

title: Birds vs. Clams: Assessing the impacts of South Island pied oystercatcher predation on Toheroa at Ripiro Beach, New Zealand

authors: Vallyon, Lolita-Maria Dolores

abstract: Managing the recovery of interacting species, such as predator and prey, is one of the most challenging factors of an ecosystem-based conservation approach. The actions taken to protect one species may be in conflict with the actions necessary to protect another. For example, the recovery of a predator in an ecosystem can lead to a significant conservation conflict between the protected predator and its protected prey. In these instances, research is required to determine whether a perceived conflict is in fact happening in order to inform proper management decisions. In New Zealand, a conservation conflict exists between an endemic, recovering shorebird, the South Island pied oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus finschi), and an endemic surf clam, the toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) at Ripiro Beach, Northland. The toheroa was overharvested until the populations collapsed, with commercial and recreational harvesting bans put in place by the 1970s. The toheroa has continued to decline, and the cause is currently unknown. Oystercatcher predation has been implicated as the reason toheroa populations have not recovered. There have even been calls to cull the birds to protect the clams. Currently, there is no information that would facilitate conservation management in determining the appropriate action to take. My thesis aimed to investigate the claims surrounding this perceived interspecific conflict. It sought to examine the predator-prey interactions between the two species by answering the following three questions: 1) what are the spatio-temporal associations between oystercatchers and toheroa, 2) what is the composition of the oystercatcher’s diet, and 3) what size toheroa are the birds taking? 
Bird surveys were conducted to examine the distribution of oystercatchers monthly from March 2019 to February 2020. Oystercatcher foraging behaviour was observed to collect information on prey type and prey location. Feeding holes left by oystercatcher bills at predation sites were examined to determine oystercatcher predation success. A population survey was conducted on toheroa beds exposed to oystercatcher predation versus control beds to assess if there were differences in the density and size structure between toheroa populations. 

Results did not support the hypothesis that the oystercatchers are the cause behind the limited recovery of the toheroa, but they did indicate that the birds may be having localised impacts. There was limited overlap with toheroa, as the birds were found predominantly at the southern half of Ripiro Beach and were only associated with two major toheroa beds. Observations found that bivalves are a significant food resource for oystercatchers and the birds have a high predation success rate. There was a significant difference in the density and size structure between toheroa populations in beds that were oystercatcher predation sites and those at no-predation sites. However, even in the areas with the most intense oystercatcher predation, toheroa have persisted over time. While there potentially is a small local impact, overall, the South Island pied oystercatcher is not responsible for the continuing decline of the toheroa across the whole of Ripiro Beach and are not causing devastation as claimed. 
The perceived conservation conflict between the two endemic species is likely incorrect. This research demonstrates the importance of acquiring information on interacting species prior to management action to protect one of those species. Information presented in this thesis can be used to support conservation managers in making informed decisions to protect both the toheroa and the South Island pied oystercatcher.

text: Birds vs. Clams: Assessing the impacts of South Island pied oystercatcher predation on Toheroa at Ripiro Beach, New Zealand Managing the recovery of interacting species, such as predator and prey, is one of the most challenging factors of an ecosystem-based conservation approach. The actions taken to protect one species may be in conflict with the actions necessary to protect another. For example, the recovery of a predator in an ecosystem can lead to a significant conservation conflict between the protected predator and its protected prey. In these instances, research is required to determine whether a perceived conflict is in fact happening in order to inform proper management decisions. In New Zealand, a conservation conflict exists between an endemic, recovering shorebird, the South Island pied oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus finschi), and an endemic surf clam, the toheroa (Paphies ventricosa) at Ripiro Beach, Northland. The toheroa was overharvested until the populations collapsed, with commercial and recreational harvesting bans put in place by the 1970s. The toheroa has continued to decline, and the cause is currently unknown. Oystercatcher predation has been implicated as the reason toheroa populations have not recovered. There have even been calls to cull the birds to protect the clams. Currently, there is no information that would facilitate conservation management in determining the appropriate action to take. My thesis aimed to investigate the claims surrounding this perceived interspecific conflict. It sought to examine the predator-prey interactions between the two species by answering the following three questions: 1) what are the spatio-temporal associations between oystercatchers and toheroa, 2) what is the composition of the oystercatcher’s diet, and 3) what size toheroa are the birds taking? 
Bird surveys were conducted to examine the distribution of oystercatchers monthly from March 2019 to February 2020. Oystercatcher foraging behaviour was observed to collect information on prey type and prey location. Feeding holes left by oystercatcher bills at predation sites were examined to determine oystercatcher predation success. A population survey was conducted on toheroa beds exposed to oystercatcher predation versus control beds to assess if there were differences in the density and size structure between toheroa populations. 

Results did not support the hypothesis that the oystercatchers are the cause behind the limited recovery of the toheroa, but they did indicate that the birds may be having localised impacts. There was limited overlap with toheroa, as the birds were found predominantly at the southern half of Ripiro Beach and were only associated with two major toheroa beds. Observations found that bivalves are a significant food resource for oystercatchers and the birds have a high predation success rate. There was a significant difference in the density and size structure between toheroa populations in beds that were oystercatcher predation sites and those at no-predation sites. However, even in the areas with the most intense oystercatcher predation, toheroa have persisted over time. While there potentially is a small local impact, overall, the South Island pied oystercatcher is not responsible for the continuing decline of the toheroa across the whole of Ripiro Beach and are not causing devastation as claimed. 
The perceived conservation conflict between the two endemic species is likely incorrect. This research demonstrates the importance of acquiring information on interacting species prior to management action to protect one of those species. Information presented in this thesis can be used to support conservation managers in making informed decisions to protect both the toheroa and the South Island pied oystercatcher.

year: 2020