title: The Intercultural Communication Experiences of Arab Muslims Studying in New Zealand: Academic and Social Perspectives

authors: Alkharusi, Mohammed Juma

subjects: Intercultural communication

abstract: The number of Arab Muslim students in New Zealand has increased significantly in recent years, yet there is a lack of New Zealand studies that investigate this phenomenon. Studies that have examined the experiences of these students in Western academic contexts suggest, however, that there is a need for further investigation to understand the extent to which these students (re)construct and (re)ne¬go¬tiate their identities as a result of their intercultural communication experiences. The purpose of this study is to examine how universities’ communication practices influence the negotiation process of these students’ cultural and religious identities. In addition, the study investigates which communication practices adopted by students facilitate, or inhibit, good communication with New Zealanders. Cultural identity theory and structuration theory were used as the theoretical framework to understand the reconstruction and renegotiation of students’ cultural and religious identities. 
In-depth phenomenological interviews were conducted with 45 male and female participants to elicit their personal stories. Eight university administrators were also interviewed, and university documents were analysed to explore the organisational perspectives in dealing with the presence of these students. Thematic, content, and structuration analyses were conducted with the assistance of NVivo software. Given that the researcher is also an Arab Muslim student, methodological and ethical challenges (e.g., recruiting and engaging with participants, and conducting semistructured face-to-face interviews) were explored reflexively.
Analysis of the data for this study suggested three main findings. First, both Islamic and cultural values guided the direction of Arab Muslim students’ daily lives. Participants noted a number of issues that reflected their emphatic, forthright identification with their own cultural and religious heritage. These issues involved insisting on the role of social networks to protect feminine identity and the integrity of people’s social reputation; the importance of consuming halal food and securing a space to perform daily prayers; the avoidance of working with the opposite sex, and avoid any university and community activities that include practices contrary to their own values. 
Second, the negotiation of power between universities and participants was observed. As New Zealand universities used human and nonhuman resources, they were able to wield power over participants and influence them to negotiate and reflect on their own values and norms. Participants appealed to the concept of the purification of Islam to rationalise their motivation for reflecting on and questioning their own values and norms. This reflection resulted in the adoption by students of guidelines and strategies for interaction, avoidance, and normalisation. 
Third, the students’ length of residence appeared to be an indicator of         disiden¬ti¬fi¬cation with their own values and identification with the dominant values in matters relating to the segregation of the sexes and modesty. A redefining of concepts of gender roles, being alone, freedom, and others was observed over time. The experience of negotiating cultural and religious identities affirmed that cultural identity is constructed in the intercultural communication context as participants worked out a sort of two identities which combines elements from the old and the new. 
The study contributes significantly to existing research on intercultural communication by hearing Arab Muslim students’ voices on issues that arise as they encounter new cultural values, seek to maintain their cultural and religious identities, and navigate between home and host values. Among significant contributions to theoretical knowledge, we can include conceptualising the gender roles, being alone in a Western country, gender relations, segregation of the sexes, modesty, freedom, hijab, and personal freedom. In particular, the study enriches the extant literature examining the negotiation process of individual identity from the structuration and cultural identity point of view. In addition to these contributions, implications were drawn for educational institutions, government policies, and future Arab Muslim students to help them obtain constructive intercultural communication experiences in a dominant culture. The suggestion for future studies was made to further explore the role of female gender and length of residency in the reconstruction and renegotiation of cultural identity.

text: The Intercultural Communication Experiences of Arab Muslims Studying in New Zealand: Academic and Social Perspectives The number of Arab Muslim students in New Zealand has increased significantly in recent years, yet there is a lack of New Zealand studies that investigate this phenomenon. Studies that have examined the experiences of these students in Western academic contexts suggest, however, that there is a need for further investigation to understand the extent to which these students (re)construct and (re)ne¬go¬tiate their identities as a result of their intercultural communication experiences. The purpose of this study is to examine how universities’ communication practices influence the negotiation process of these students’ cultural and religious identities. In addition, the study investigates which communication practices adopted by students facilitate, or inhibit, good communication with New Zealanders. Cultural identity theory and structuration theory were used as the theoretical framework to understand the reconstruction and renegotiation of students’ cultural and religious identities. 
In-depth phenomenological interviews were conducted with 45 male and female participants to elicit their personal stories. Eight university administrators were also interviewed, and university documents were analysed to explore the organisational perspectives in dealing with the presence of these students. Thematic, content, and structuration analyses were conducted with the assistance of NVivo software. Given that the researcher is also an Arab Muslim student, methodological and ethical challenges (e.g., recruiting and engaging with participants, and conducting semistructured face-to-face interviews) were explored reflexively.
Analysis of the data for this study suggested three main findings. First, both Islamic and cultural values guided the direction of Arab Muslim students’ daily lives. Participants noted a number of issues that reflected their emphatic, forthright identification with their own cultural and religious heritage. These issues involved insisting on the role of social networks to protect feminine identity and the integrity of people’s social reputation; the importance of consuming halal food and securing a space to perform daily prayers; the avoidance of working with the opposite sex, and avoid any university and community activities that include practices contrary to their own values. 
Second, the negotiation of power between universities and participants was observed. As New Zealand universities used human and nonhuman resources, they were able to wield power over participants and influence them to negotiate and reflect on their own values and norms. Participants appealed to the concept of the purification of Islam to rationalise their motivation for reflecting on and questioning their own values and norms. This reflection resulted in the adoption by students of guidelines and strategies for interaction, avoidance, and normalisation. 
Third, the students’ length of residence appeared to be an indicator of         disiden¬ti¬fi¬cation with their own values and identification with the dominant values in matters relating to the segregation of the sexes and modesty. A redefining of concepts of gender roles, being alone, freedom, and others was observed over time. The experience of negotiating cultural and religious identities affirmed that cultural identity is constructed in the intercultural communication context as participants worked out a sort of two identities which combines elements from the old and the new. 
The study contributes significantly to existing research on intercultural communication by hearing Arab Muslim students’ voices on issues that arise as they encounter new cultural values, seek to maintain their cultural and religious identities, and navigate between home and host values. Among significant contributions to theoretical knowledge, we can include conceptualising the gender roles, being alone in a Western country, gender relations, segregation of the sexes, modesty, freedom, hijab, and personal freedom. In particular, the study enriches the extant literature examining the negotiation process of individual identity from the structuration and cultural identity point of view. In addition to these contributions, implications were drawn for educational institutions, government policies, and future Arab Muslim students to help them obtain constructive intercultural communication experiences in a dominant culture. The suggestion for future studies was made to further explore the role of female gender and length of residency in the reconstruction and renegotiation of cultural identity.

year: 2013

title: Factors controlling common smelt abundance and rainbow trout growth in the Rotorua Lakes,  New Zealand

authors: Blair, Jennifer Marie

subjects: Fish

abstract: Recreational fisheries are of considerable ecological, economic and cultural importance worldwide, and understanding the factors that influence them is an important goal of fishery managers. The two most important factors influencing the growth of fish are habitat quality and food supply. This study was undertaken to gain a better understanding of how these two factors influence rainbow trout growth in the Rotorua Lakes, central North Island, New Zealand, by surveying prey dynamics, quantifying rainbow trout diet, and assessing the effects of environmental factors and population density on trout growth.

Rainbow trout populations in lakes of New Zealand’s central North Island mainly prey upon common smelt (Retropinna retropinna), a small, widespread, pelagic species. Routine monitoring of smelt populations would assist in trout fishery management decisions, especially for optimisation of stocking rates and timing. To recommend an effective capture technique for smelt, we tested purse seining, beach seining, drop netting, and boat electrofishing in Lake Rotoiti. Boat electrofishing in the littoral zone at night allowed us to collect more adult smelt than all other methods, and long boat electrofishing transects across the lake were the most effective method for capturing a wide size range of smelt specimens, including larvae. Most methods also caught other species as bycatch. In terms of the number of smelt caught, the most effective method was (1) boat electrofishing at night, followed by (2) scoop nets at night (i.e. boat electrofishing with the current turned off), then (3) beach seining during the day. The first two sampling methods are suggested as the best methods for collecting data on seasonal dynamics, growth, and reproduction of smelt. For enumeration of the total smelt population, these methods should be carried out in the littoral and pelagic zones and combined with a method such as hydroacoustics that can enumerate smelt in the deeper waters of the pelagic zone. 
Population dynamics of common smelt in lakes are not well understood. To determine the factors influencing smelt populations in Lake Rotoiti, we examined seasonal changes in habitat and resource use by measuring spatial and seasonal changes in smelt abundance, body condition, and diet. We also characterised seasonal and spatial changes in smelt reproductive state and benthic egg abundance. Smelt abundance in the littoral zone and surface waters of the pelagic zone was highest in autumn, coinciding with peaks in smelt body condition, gonadosomatic index, and benthic egg abundance. Smelt larvae were only found in the pelagic zone, and were more abundant in spring than in summer and autumn. Body condition of smelt varied throughout the year, and was lowest in winter, a period of low abundance of littoral invertebrates and zooplankton. Smelt caught in the littoral zone during the day consumed a range of benthic and pelagic invertebrates and smelt eggs, while at night, smelt caught in the littoral and pelagic zones consumed zooplankton, smelt eggs and larval common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus). The amount of food in the stomach relative to smelt mass was higher in the littoral zone than in the pelagic zone, suggesting that food resources in the littoral zone exceed those in the pelagic zone. Predation on zooplankton was highest in winter and spring, and smelt eggs formed a large proportion of smelt diet in autumn and winter. Stomach contents and stable isotope analyses showed that smelt undergo an ontogenetic change in diet, from mainly zooplankton as juveniles to mainly benthic invertebrates as adults. The information obtained in this study is necessary for managing smelt and their predator—rainbow trout—in lakes.
To better understand the prey requirements of trout in central North Island lakes, we characterised seasonal and ontogenetic changes in diet and prey energy density of rainbow trout in Lake Rotoiti. Common smelt was the dominant prey item of rainbow trout larger than 200 mm (77.8% of diet by mass), followed by koura (freshwater crayfish Paranephrops planifrons; 6.3%), common bully (5.5%), and koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis; 3.4%). Juvenile rainbow trout (<200 mm) consumed amphipods, aquatic and terrestrial insects, oligochaetes, tanaid shrimps, and smelt. Trout consumed koaro only in autumn and winter; consumption of other species did not vary seasonally. The maximum size of smelt consumed increased with increasing trout size, but trout continued to consume small smelt even as large adults. Consumption of larger prey items (koaro and koura) also increased with increasing trout size. This study indicates the importance of smelt for sustaining rainbow trout populations, as predation on other species was relatively low. These findings provide a basis for bioenergetics modelling of rainbow trout populations in lakes of the central North Island of New Zealand.
Though the factors influencing the growth of salmonids in cool-temperate and boreal climates are well understood, we lack an understanding of the influences on salmonid growth in warm-temperate areas, especially in lakes. To determine the combined effects of environmental factors, including habitat, on rainbow trout growth, we investigated the growth patterns of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in nine warm-temperate New Zealand lakes of contrasting morphometry, mixing regime, and trophic state. Mark-recapture data (some collected by anglers) from hatchery trout releases during eight consecutive years were used to calculate growth parameters and body condition factor. Fish growth rates and condition factors were highest in deep (≥20 m mean depth) lakes of moderate trophic state. Overall, growth rate increased with increasing lake size and volume of favourable habitat (i.e. dissolved oxygen >6.0 mg L-1 and temperature <21°C), but decreased with increasing turbidity, chlorophyll a, and nitrogen concentrations. A classification and regression tree (CART) analysis found that variables describing habitat volume were the most important determinants of trout growth rate, and correlates of trophic state (chl a, conductivity) were important secondary determinants of trout growth rate. These results suggest that lake morphometry and trophic state are important attributes structuring overall habitat quality and thus influencing growth of rainbow trout in lakes in warm-temperate climates. The effects of future ecosystem degradation and climate warming on trout growth are likely to be most severe in shallow, eutrophic lakes. 
To investigate the carrying capacity and factors affecting growth of rainbow trout in Lake Rotoiti, we employed a bioenergetics model to assess the influence of past stocking rates, timing of releases, and prey abundance on growth and prey consumption. We hypothesised that stocking rates and prey abundance would affect growth and prey consumption by influencing per-capita prey availability, and that the environmental conditions encountered by fish at the time of stocking would affect growth and consumption. Prey consumption of stocked rainbow trout was calculated with the Wisconsin bioenergetics model. We calculated growth trajectories based on data from trout that were stocked into the lake in spring and autumn from 1995 to 2009 and then re-captured by anglers. Diet, prey energy density, body mass lost due to spawning, and lake temperature were measured locally. There was no difference in tag return rate between fish released in spring and autumn. Though trout released in autumn were smaller initially, they grew at a faster rate than trout released in spring. The ratio of observed to predicted change in biomass at the maximum consumption rate by individual trout in the first year of lake residence was negatively correlated with the number of yearlings released in a cohort, suggesting that stocking rates (347–809 fish ha-1 year-1) caused density-dependent effects on growth. Common smelt accounted for 85% of total prey consumption. However, no significant relationship was found between prey consumption by individual trout and adult smelt abundance, suggesting that more detailed investigations of smelt abundance are required to predict trout growth rates. Because there is little risk of non-human predation of stocked fish in Lake Rotoiti, and winter temperatures are mild (11–14°C), stocking smaller trout (~160 mm fork length) in autumn is likely to produce larger fish than stocking larger fish (~200 mm fork length) in spring. Possible reasons for this difference include higher prey abundance in the littoral zone in autumn and more suitable temperature and dissolved oxygen habitat in autumn-winter. These results suggest that optimal stocking strategies in warm-temperate systems may differ to those in cooler temperate regions.

text: Factors controlling common smelt abundance and rainbow trout growth in the Rotorua Lakes,  New Zealand Recreational fisheries are of considerable ecological, economic and cultural importance worldwide, and understanding the factors that influence them is an important goal of fishery managers. The two most important factors influencing the growth of fish are habitat quality and food supply. This study was undertaken to gain a better understanding of how these two factors influence rainbow trout growth in the Rotorua Lakes, central North Island, New Zealand, by surveying prey dynamics, quantifying rainbow trout diet, and assessing the effects of environmental factors and population density on trout growth.

Rainbow trout populations in lakes of New Zealand’s central North Island mainly prey upon common smelt (Retropinna retropinna), a small, widespread, pelagic species. Routine monitoring of smelt populations would assist in trout fishery management decisions, especially for optimisation of stocking rates and timing. To recommend an effective capture technique for smelt, we tested purse seining, beach seining, drop netting, and boat electrofishing in Lake Rotoiti. Boat electrofishing in the littoral zone at night allowed us to collect more adult smelt than all other methods, and long boat electrofishing transects across the lake were the most effective method for capturing a wide size range of smelt specimens, including larvae. Most methods also caught other species as bycatch. In terms of the number of smelt caught, the most effective method was (1) boat electrofishing at night, followed by (2) scoop nets at night (i.e. boat electrofishing with the current turned off), then (3) beach seining during the day. The first two sampling methods are suggested as the best methods for collecting data on seasonal dynamics, growth, and reproduction of smelt. For enumeration of the total smelt population, these methods should be carried out in the littoral and pelagic zones and combined with a method such as hydroacoustics that can enumerate smelt in the deeper waters of the pelagic zone. 
Population dynamics of common smelt in lakes are not well understood. To determine the factors influencing smelt populations in Lake Rotoiti, we examined seasonal changes in habitat and resource use by measuring spatial and seasonal changes in smelt abundance, body condition, and diet. We also characterised seasonal and spatial changes in smelt reproductive state and benthic egg abundance. Smelt abundance in the littoral zone and surface waters of the pelagic zone was highest in autumn, coinciding with peaks in smelt body condition, gonadosomatic index, and benthic egg abundance. Smelt larvae were only found in the pelagic zone, and were more abundant in spring than in summer and autumn. Body condition of smelt varied throughout the year, and was lowest in winter, a period of low abundance of littoral invertebrates and zooplankton. Smelt caught in the littoral zone during the day consumed a range of benthic and pelagic invertebrates and smelt eggs, while at night, smelt caught in the littoral and pelagic zones consumed zooplankton, smelt eggs and larval common bully (Gobiomorphus cotidianus). The amount of food in the stomach relative to smelt mass was higher in the littoral zone than in the pelagic zone, suggesting that food resources in the littoral zone exceed those in the pelagic zone. Predation on zooplankton was highest in winter and spring, and smelt eggs formed a large proportion of smelt diet in autumn and winter. Stomach contents and stable isotope analyses showed that smelt undergo an ontogenetic change in diet, from mainly zooplankton as juveniles to mainly benthic invertebrates as adults. The information obtained in this study is necessary for managing smelt and their predator—rainbow trout—in lakes.
To better understand the prey requirements of trout in central North Island lakes, we characterised seasonal and ontogenetic changes in diet and prey energy density of rainbow trout in Lake Rotoiti. Common smelt was the dominant prey item of rainbow trout larger than 200 mm (77.8% of diet by mass), followed by koura (freshwater crayfish Paranephrops planifrons; 6.3%), common bully (5.5%), and koaro (Galaxias brevipinnis; 3.4%). Juvenile rainbow trout (<200 mm) consumed amphipods, aquatic and terrestrial insects, oligochaetes, tanaid shrimps, and smelt. Trout consumed koaro only in autumn and winter; consumption of other species did not vary seasonally. The maximum size of smelt consumed increased with increasing trout size, but trout continued to consume small smelt even as large adults. Consumption of larger prey items (koaro and koura) also increased with increasing trout size. This study indicates the importance of smelt for sustaining rainbow trout populations, as predation on other species was relatively low. These findings provide a basis for bioenergetics modelling of rainbow trout populations in lakes of the central North Island of New Zealand.
Though the factors influencing the growth of salmonids in cool-temperate and boreal climates are well understood, we lack an understanding of the influences on salmonid growth in warm-temperate areas, especially in lakes. To determine the combined effects of environmental factors, including habitat, on rainbow trout growth, we investigated the growth patterns of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in nine warm-temperate New Zealand lakes of contrasting morphometry, mixing regime, and trophic state. Mark-recapture data (some collected by anglers) from hatchery trout releases during eight consecutive years were used to calculate growth parameters and body condition factor. Fish growth rates and condition factors were highest in deep (≥20 m mean depth) lakes of moderate trophic state. Overall, growth rate increased with increasing lake size and volume of favourable habitat (i.e. dissolved oxygen >6.0 mg L-1 and temperature <21°C), but decreased with increasing turbidity, chlorophyll a, and nitrogen concentrations. A classification and regression tree (CART) analysis found that variables describing habitat volume were the most important determinants of trout growth rate, and correlates of trophic state (chl a, conductivity) were important secondary determinants of trout growth rate. These results suggest that lake morphometry and trophic state are important attributes structuring overall habitat quality and thus influencing growth of rainbow trout in lakes in warm-temperate climates. The effects of future ecosystem degradation and climate warming on trout growth are likely to be most severe in shallow, eutrophic lakes. 
To investigate the carrying capacity and factors affecting growth of rainbow trout in Lake Rotoiti, we employed a bioenergetics model to assess the influence of past stocking rates, timing of releases, and prey abundance on growth and prey consumption. We hypothesised that stocking rates and prey abundance would affect growth and prey consumption by influencing per-capita prey availability, and that the environmental conditions encountered by fish at the time of stocking would affect growth and consumption. Prey consumption of stocked rainbow trout was calculated with the Wisconsin bioenergetics model. We calculated growth trajectories based on data from trout that were stocked into the lake in spring and autumn from 1995 to 2009 and then re-captured by anglers. Diet, prey energy density, body mass lost due to spawning, and lake temperature were measured locally. There was no difference in tag return rate between fish released in spring and autumn. Though trout released in autumn were smaller initially, they grew at a faster rate than trout released in spring. The ratio of observed to predicted change in biomass at the maximum consumption rate by individual trout in the first year of lake residence was negatively correlated with the number of yearlings released in a cohort, suggesting that stocking rates (347–809 fish ha-1 year-1) caused density-dependent effects on growth. Common smelt accounted for 85% of total prey consumption. However, no significant relationship was found between prey consumption by individual trout and adult smelt abundance, suggesting that more detailed investigations of smelt abundance are required to predict trout growth rates. Because there is little risk of non-human predation of stocked fish in Lake Rotoiti, and winter temperatures are mild (11–14°C), stocking smaller trout (~160 mm fork length) in autumn is likely to produce larger fish than stocking larger fish (~200 mm fork length) in spring. Possible reasons for this difference include higher prey abundance in the littoral zone in autumn and more suitable temperature and dissolved oxygen habitat in autumn-winter. These results suggest that optimal stocking strategies in warm-temperate systems may differ to those in cooler temperate regions.

year: 2012

title: Media coverage of 'decades of disparity' in ethnic mortality in Aotearoa.

authors: Hodgetts, Darrin

subjects: psychology

abstract: For some time we have known that factors such as economic prosperity, community cohesion, and social justice bear on health. These societal influences are particularly pertinent to the health of indigenous groups, such as Maori, who are still responding to processes of colonization. In July 2003 the New Zealand Ministry of Health published a report entitled  Decades of Disparity , which proposed (among other things) that neoliberal policies of the last two decades impacted negatively on mortality rates for Maori and Pacific peoples, when compared with Pakeha. In this article we explore media coverage of this report through analyses of media releases, radio, television and newspaper items. It is argued that as the story evolved media increasingly challenged the importance of societal determinants of health, preferring individual level explanations. As a result coverage failed to give due emphasis to structural health concerns for Maori, which necessitate social change.

text: Media coverage of 'decades of disparity' in ethnic mortality in Aotearoa. For some time we have known that factors such as economic prosperity, community cohesion, and social justice bear on health. These societal influences are particularly pertinent to the health of indigenous groups, such as Maori, who are still responding to processes of colonization. In July 2003 the New Zealand Ministry of Health published a report entitled  Decades of Disparity , which proposed (among other things) that neoliberal policies of the last two decades impacted negatively on mortality rates for Maori and Pacific peoples, when compared with Pakeha. In this article we explore media coverage of this report through analyses of media releases, radio, television and newspaper items. It is argued that as the story evolved media increasingly challenged the importance of societal determinants of health, preferring individual level explanations. As a result coverage failed to give due emphasis to structural health concerns for Maori, which necessitate social change.

year: 2004