title: Symbol grounding and its implications for artificial intelligence

authors: Mayo, Michael

subjects: computer science

abstract: In response to Searle's well-known Chinese room argument against Strong AI (and more generally, computationalism), Harnad proposed that if the symbols manipulated by a robot were sufficiently grounded in the real world, then the robot could be said to literally understand. In this article, I expand on the notion of symbol groundedness in three ways. Firstly, I show how a robot might select the best set of categories describing the world, given that fundamentally continuous sensory data can be categorised in an almost infinite number of ways. Secondly, I discuss the notion of grounded abstract (as opposed to concrete) concepts. Thirdly, I give an objective criterion for deciding when a robot's symbols become sufficiently grounded for "understanding" to be attributed to it. This deeper analysis of what symbol groundedness actually is weakens Searle's position in significant ways; in particular, whilst Searle may be able to refute Strong AI in the specific context of present-day digital computers, he cannot refute computationalism in general.

text: Symbol grounding and its implications for artificial intelligence In response to Searle's well-known Chinese room argument against Strong AI (and more generally, computationalism), Harnad proposed that if the symbols manipulated by a robot were sufficiently grounded in the real world, then the robot could be said to literally understand. In this article, I expand on the notion of symbol groundedness in three ways. Firstly, I show how a robot might select the best set of categories describing the world, given that fundamentally continuous sensory data can be categorised in an almost infinite number of ways. Secondly, I discuss the notion of grounded abstract (as opposed to concrete) concepts. Thirdly, I give an objective criterion for deciding when a robot's symbols become sufficiently grounded for "understanding" to be attributed to it. This deeper analysis of what symbol groundedness actually is weakens Searle's position in significant ways; in particular, whilst Searle may be able to refute Strong AI in the specific context of present-day digital computers, he cannot refute computationalism in general.

year: 2003

title: Utilizing IoT in hazardous work environments

authors: Exton, Dylan Tylor

subjects: IoT

abstract: In New Zealand, the forestry industry is one of the most dangerous industries to work in. Workers in the forestry industry are three times more likely to be killed while at work than any other industry in New Zealand (WorkSafe, 2021). Internet of Things (IoT) devices are being leveraged to increase the safety of workers in other industries. However the forestry industry has not adopted this technology. 

This thesis proposes a new IoT solution for safety in the forestry industry, with a primary focus on the forestry task of `breaking-out'. This solution utilizes geofencing and GPS technology to ensure that workers are out of a `danger zone’ when a cable hauler is operating. To implement this solution, two IoT devices were developed: a carried unit which the breaker-outs carry with them, and an in-cab unit which is mounted within the hauler cab. The two units communicate via radio frequency, and a button located on the carried unit allows the workers to set a geofence that outlines the `danger zone'. This allows the cable hauler operator to see the location of all breaker-outs at all times, and be notified when any of them are at risk, i.e. inside the danger zone. 

Two tests were performed to evaluate the viability of this solution for use within the forestry industry. The first test evaluated the technical requirements of the devices, while the second test evaluated the device performance when deployed in an active forestry harvesting operation. While some limitations were found, these tests prove proof-of-concept and illustrate how this solution could be used to mitigate the risk of incidents in the forestry industry.

Finally, the proposed IoT solution can be used for additional applications within other areas of the forestry industry. One such application is that of proximity detection on the skid site. This thesis illustrates how the devices can be used to allow machine operators and workers on the ground to be alerted when they are too close to a machine. This can mitigate the risk of an incident occurring, not just for breaker-outs, but for additional workers across the forestry industry.

text: Utilizing IoT in hazardous work environments In New Zealand, the forestry industry is one of the most dangerous industries to work in. Workers in the forestry industry are three times more likely to be killed while at work than any other industry in New Zealand (WorkSafe, 2021). Internet of Things (IoT) devices are being leveraged to increase the safety of workers in other industries. However the forestry industry has not adopted this technology. 

This thesis proposes a new IoT solution for safety in the forestry industry, with a primary focus on the forestry task of `breaking-out'. This solution utilizes geofencing and GPS technology to ensure that workers are out of a `danger zone’ when a cable hauler is operating. To implement this solution, two IoT devices were developed: a carried unit which the breaker-outs carry with them, and an in-cab unit which is mounted within the hauler cab. The two units communicate via radio frequency, and a button located on the carried unit allows the workers to set a geofence that outlines the `danger zone'. This allows the cable hauler operator to see the location of all breaker-outs at all times, and be notified when any of them are at risk, i.e. inside the danger zone. 

Two tests were performed to evaluate the viability of this solution for use within the forestry industry. The first test evaluated the technical requirements of the devices, while the second test evaluated the device performance when deployed in an active forestry harvesting operation. While some limitations were found, these tests prove proof-of-concept and illustrate how this solution could be used to mitigate the risk of incidents in the forestry industry.

Finally, the proposed IoT solution can be used for additional applications within other areas of the forestry industry. One such application is that of proximity detection on the skid site. This thesis illustrates how the devices can be used to allow machine operators and workers on the ground to be alerted when they are too close to a machine. This can mitigate the risk of an incident occurring, not just for breaker-outs, but for additional workers across the forestry industry.

year: 2021

title: The Politics of Knowledge and the Reciprocity Gap in the Governance of Intellectual Property Rights

authors: Emett, Raewyn Anne

subjects: Knowledge

abstract: ABSTRACT
This study examines the politics of knowledge benefit-sharing within the re-regulatory framework of the Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement which entered into force in 1995 under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The thesis argues that TRIPS both represents a mainstream legal mechanism for states and organisations to govern ideas through trade, and is characterised by a commercial direction away from multilateralism to bilateralism. In its post-implementation phase, this situation has seen the strongest states and corporations consolidate extensive markets in knowledge goods and services. Through analyses of the various levels of international and national governance within the competitive knowledge structure of international political economy (IPE), this study argues that the politicisation of intellectual property has resulted in the dislocation of reciprocity from its normative roots in fairness and trade equity. In conducting this enquiry the research focuses on the political manifestations of intellectual property consistent with long-standing epistemic considerations of reciprocity to test the extent to which the intrinsic public good value of knowledge and its importance to human societies can be reconciled with the privatisation of public forms of knowledge related to discoveries and innovations. 

This thesis draws on Becker's virtue-theoretic model of reciprocity premised on normative obligations to social life to ground its claim that an absence of substantive reciprocal requirements capable of sustaining equivalent returns and rewards is detrimental, both theoretically and practically, to the intrinsic socio-cultural foundation and public good value of knowledge. The conceptual framework of reciprocity defined and developed in this study challenges the materialist controlling authority and proprietary ownership vested in intellectual property law. A new conceptual approach proposed through reciprocity, and provoked by on-going debates about IP recognition, knowledge protection, access and distribution is advanced to counter strengthened and expanded IPRs. Theories of knowledge and property drawn from political philosophies are employed to test whether reciprocity is sufficiently robust enough, or even capable of, encompassing the gap between capital and applied science. This thesis argues that hyper-capitalism at global, national and local levels, accompanied by the boundless accumulation of technology, closes down competition both compromising IP as private rights and the viability of their governance. The political implications of the protection and enforcement of private rights through IP is examined in two key chapters utilising empirical data in relation to traditional knowledge (TK) and reciprocity; the first sets the parameters of TK and the second explores aspects of Māori knowledge systems and reciprocity directed at identifying national and local issues of significance to the debates on IP governance. As a viable direction for knowledge governance this thesis concludes that the gap between the re-regulatory trade framework of intellectual property on the one hand, and reciprocity on the other, requires closing to ameliorate the detrimental disruptions to democratic integrity, fairness and trade equity for significant numbers of communities and peoples around the world.

text: The Politics of Knowledge and the Reciprocity Gap in the Governance of Intellectual Property Rights ABSTRACT
This study examines the politics of knowledge benefit-sharing within the re-regulatory framework of the Trade-related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement which entered into force in 1995 under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). The thesis argues that TRIPS both represents a mainstream legal mechanism for states and organisations to govern ideas through trade, and is characterised by a commercial direction away from multilateralism to bilateralism. In its post-implementation phase, this situation has seen the strongest states and corporations consolidate extensive markets in knowledge goods and services. Through analyses of the various levels of international and national governance within the competitive knowledge structure of international political economy (IPE), this study argues that the politicisation of intellectual property has resulted in the dislocation of reciprocity from its normative roots in fairness and trade equity. In conducting this enquiry the research focuses on the political manifestations of intellectual property consistent with long-standing epistemic considerations of reciprocity to test the extent to which the intrinsic public good value of knowledge and its importance to human societies can be reconciled with the privatisation of public forms of knowledge related to discoveries and innovations. 

This thesis draws on Becker's virtue-theoretic model of reciprocity premised on normative obligations to social life to ground its claim that an absence of substantive reciprocal requirements capable of sustaining equivalent returns and rewards is detrimental, both theoretically and practically, to the intrinsic socio-cultural foundation and public good value of knowledge. The conceptual framework of reciprocity defined and developed in this study challenges the materialist controlling authority and proprietary ownership vested in intellectual property law. A new conceptual approach proposed through reciprocity, and provoked by on-going debates about IP recognition, knowledge protection, access and distribution is advanced to counter strengthened and expanded IPRs. Theories of knowledge and property drawn from political philosophies are employed to test whether reciprocity is sufficiently robust enough, or even capable of, encompassing the gap between capital and applied science. This thesis argues that hyper-capitalism at global, national and local levels, accompanied by the boundless accumulation of technology, closes down competition both compromising IP as private rights and the viability of their governance. The political implications of the protection and enforcement of private rights through IP is examined in two key chapters utilising empirical data in relation to traditional knowledge (TK) and reciprocity; the first sets the parameters of TK and the second explores aspects of Māori knowledge systems and reciprocity directed at identifying national and local issues of significance to the debates on IP governance. As a viable direction for knowledge governance this thesis concludes that the gap between the re-regulatory trade framework of intellectual property on the one hand, and reciprocity on the other, requires closing to ameliorate the detrimental disruptions to democratic integrity, fairness and trade equity for significant numbers of communities and peoples around the world.

year: 2007