title: A study on molecular systematics of the Antarctic Bryum species and the development of microsatellite DNA markers in Bryum argenteum Hedw.

authors: Hunger, Sarah A.

abstract: The "silver" species Bryum subrotundifolium Jaeg. (Bryaceae) in Antarctica has undergone numerous taxonomic revisions. This research used the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) to estimate the phylogenetic relationships of silver Bryum specimens from Antarctica, the Subantarctic islands, New Zealand and Australia. Bryum subrotundifolium B. argenteum Hedw., B. capillare Hedw., and the non-silver species, B. pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Gaertn, Meyer et Scherb., which is also taxonomically difficult in Antarctica, were analysed with B. pseudotriquetrum used as an outgroup. Antarctic B. subrotundifolium formed a clade with the other B. subrotundfolium specimens and the B. argenteum specimens. This suggests that B. subrotundifolium is conspecific with B. argenteum. The Antarctic specimens formed a clade within the main B. argenteum!B. subrotundifolium clade. This combined with the variation in morphology observed in the Antarctic specimens suggest that the antarctic material is an ecotypical variant of B. argenteum. 
ITS sequence data indicated genetic homogeneity between geographically isolated populations of antarctic B. subrotundifolium contrary to evidence detected by random amplified polymorphic DNA analyses (RAPDs). Contamination was observed in the Antarctic moss specimens and multiple bands were detected in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products from these specimens. The contaminating bands were found to be from a fungal species from the genus Phoma using a combination of molecular data and morphological examination. This provides a possible explanation for the high levels of variation detected using RAPDs and indicates the usefulness of universal DNA sequences with length polymorphisms, such as ITS sequences, for detecting contaminants in DNA samples for RAPD analysis. 
The development of microsatellite DNA markers in B. argenteum has commenced. This PCR-based technique is much less sensitive to contamination than RAPDs which use arbitrary primers to randomly amplify DNA throughout the genome. The primers used to amplify microsatellite DNA are targeted to a specific species and close relatives of it. Microsatellite DNA markers are expensive and time-consuming to develop. However, once developed they are far more reliable than RAPDs, require minimal amounts of DNA, are simple to use and can be used to detect variation at different levels within a population depending on the amount of polymorphism present in a locus. These markers will be employed in future population-level research of these cosmopolitan moss species in Antarctica and temperate regions.

text: A study on molecular systematics of the Antarctic Bryum species and the development of microsatellite DNA markers in Bryum argenteum Hedw. The "silver" species Bryum subrotundifolium Jaeg. (Bryaceae) in Antarctica has undergone numerous taxonomic revisions. This research used the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) to estimate the phylogenetic relationships of silver Bryum specimens from Antarctica, the Subantarctic islands, New Zealand and Australia. Bryum subrotundifolium B. argenteum Hedw., B. capillare Hedw., and the non-silver species, B. pseudotriquetrum (Hedw.) Gaertn, Meyer et Scherb., which is also taxonomically difficult in Antarctica, were analysed with B. pseudotriquetrum used as an outgroup. Antarctic B. subrotundifolium formed a clade with the other B. subrotundfolium specimens and the B. argenteum specimens. This suggests that B. subrotundifolium is conspecific with B. argenteum. The Antarctic specimens formed a clade within the main B. argenteum!B. subrotundifolium clade. This combined with the variation in morphology observed in the Antarctic specimens suggest that the antarctic material is an ecotypical variant of B. argenteum. 
ITS sequence data indicated genetic homogeneity between geographically isolated populations of antarctic B. subrotundifolium contrary to evidence detected by random amplified polymorphic DNA analyses (RAPDs). Contamination was observed in the Antarctic moss specimens and multiple bands were detected in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) products from these specimens. The contaminating bands were found to be from a fungal species from the genus Phoma using a combination of molecular data and morphological examination. This provides a possible explanation for the high levels of variation detected using RAPDs and indicates the usefulness of universal DNA sequences with length polymorphisms, such as ITS sequences, for detecting contaminants in DNA samples for RAPD analysis. 
The development of microsatellite DNA markers in B. argenteum has commenced. This PCR-based technique is much less sensitive to contamination than RAPDs which use arbitrary primers to randomly amplify DNA throughout the genome. The primers used to amplify microsatellite DNA are targeted to a specific species and close relatives of it. Microsatellite DNA markers are expensive and time-consuming to develop. However, once developed they are far more reliable than RAPDs, require minimal amounts of DNA, are simple to use and can be used to detect variation at different levels within a population depending on the amount of polymorphism present in a locus. These markers will be employed in future population-level research of these cosmopolitan moss species in Antarctica and temperate regions.

year: 2000

title: New Zealand regions, 1986-2001: Dependency and development of social capital

authors: Pool, Ian

subjects: benefits

abstract: The development of social capital is significantly affected by benefit dependency of the population. This paper investigates measures of social cohesion and measures of dependency on society across the regions of New Zealand. Some of the measures looked at specifically are social security benefit use and convictions, custodial sentences and the prison muster across regions. The paper also focuses on housing and specifically considers overcrowding.

text: New Zealand regions, 1986-2001: Dependency and development of social capital The development of social capital is significantly affected by benefit dependency of the population. This paper investigates measures of social cohesion and measures of dependency on society across the regions of New Zealand. Some of the measures looked at specifically are social security benefit use and convictions, custodial sentences and the prison muster across regions. The paper also focuses on housing and specifically considers overcrowding.

year: 2006-03

title: The confiscation of Pare Hauraki: The impact of Te Ao Pākehā on the Iwi of Pare Hauraki Māori; on the whenua of Pare Hauraki 1835-1997 and The Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004

authors: Peters, Murray Hamaka

subjects: Maori

abstract: Kia mau ki te rangatiratanga 
o te Iwi o Hauraki  

Just as the whakataukī  explains  Hold fast to the power and authority of the Hauraki tribes  the focus of this study is to examine and evaluate the impact of Te Ao Pākehā on Pare Hauraki lands and Tīkapa Moana under the mana of Pare Hauraki Māori  and Pare Hauraki tikanga.  The iwi of Pare Hauraki have land claims through the, (Wai 100) and the Hauraki Māori Trust Board, before the Waitangi Tribunal highlighting whenua issues and their impact on Pare Hauraki iwi.  

Also relevant is the foreshore and seabed issue which is documented leading on to the infamous Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004, (for Māori anyway), sparking widespread opposition by Māori throughout the country, and other supportive non-Māori groups because of  the issue concerning Māori kaitiiakitanga and guardianship roles.

This investigation will commence by outlining the histories of discovery and settlement of Pare Hauraki, the concept of mana-whenua/mana-moana  as it applies to Pare Hauraki Māori and our tikanga, and then to subsequent issues leading to land alienation of the early 19th to late 20th cenutries and then to the foreshore issue of the early 21st Century.   
 
This research will include information showing that before 1840 to Te Tiriti o Waitangi and thereafter that Pākehā and various Crown agents, through legislation claimed the rights to the lands, waterways and oceanic areas under the kaitiakitanga of my tupuna of Pare Hauraki.  Tupuna and other iwi members have expressed their disgust seeing the mana of their traditional lands, waterways, oceanic areas and kaitiaki roles slipping away from them through these activities. 

Therefore, this thesis is a response to those issues and the impact on (a), Māori as a people, and our tikanga Māori and (b), Pare Hauraki Māori as the kaitiaki/guardians of the Pare Hauraki rohe/territory in accordance with tikanga Māori, and the significance of the responsibilities which arise out of the Māori concepts of kaitiakitanga, manaakitanga and rangatiratanga.

text: The confiscation of Pare Hauraki: The impact of Te Ao Pākehā on the Iwi of Pare Hauraki Māori; on the whenua of Pare Hauraki 1835-1997 and The Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 Kia mau ki te rangatiratanga 
o te Iwi o Hauraki  

Just as the whakataukī  explains  Hold fast to the power and authority of the Hauraki tribes  the focus of this study is to examine and evaluate the impact of Te Ao Pākehā on Pare Hauraki lands and Tīkapa Moana under the mana of Pare Hauraki Māori  and Pare Hauraki tikanga.  The iwi of Pare Hauraki have land claims through the, (Wai 100) and the Hauraki Māori Trust Board, before the Waitangi Tribunal highlighting whenua issues and their impact on Pare Hauraki iwi.  

Also relevant is the foreshore and seabed issue which is documented leading on to the infamous Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004, (for Māori anyway), sparking widespread opposition by Māori throughout the country, and other supportive non-Māori groups because of  the issue concerning Māori kaitiiakitanga and guardianship roles.

This investigation will commence by outlining the histories of discovery and settlement of Pare Hauraki, the concept of mana-whenua/mana-moana  as it applies to Pare Hauraki Māori and our tikanga, and then to subsequent issues leading to land alienation of the early 19th to late 20th cenutries and then to the foreshore issue of the early 21st Century.   
 
This research will include information showing that before 1840 to Te Tiriti o Waitangi and thereafter that Pākehā and various Crown agents, through legislation claimed the rights to the lands, waterways and oceanic areas under the kaitiakitanga of my tupuna of Pare Hauraki.  Tupuna and other iwi members have expressed their disgust seeing the mana of their traditional lands, waterways, oceanic areas and kaitiaki roles slipping away from them through these activities. 

Therefore, this thesis is a response to those issues and the impact on (a), Māori as a people, and our tikanga Māori and (b), Pare Hauraki Māori as the kaitiaki/guardians of the Pare Hauraki rohe/territory in accordance with tikanga Māori, and the significance of the responsibilities which arise out of the Māori concepts of kaitiakitanga, manaakitanga and rangatiratanga.

year: 2007