title: Information and communication technology adoption and small and medium-sized enterprise growth in New Zealand

authors: Locke, Stuart

subjects: New Zealand

abstract: This paper reports on an investigation of the potential to use the financial ratios of New Zealand small businesses to discriminate their location as an aid in the accurate targeting of regional economic development programs. To the extent that there are clearly identifiable differences in performance and financial structure of urban and nonurban firms, this could be significant for small business policy development and the efficient implementation of strategies.

text: Information and communication technology adoption and small and medium-sized enterprise growth in New Zealand This paper reports on an investigation of the potential to use the financial ratios of New Zealand small businesses to discriminate their location as an aid in the accurate targeting of regional economic development programs. To the extent that there are clearly identifiable differences in performance and financial structure of urban and nonurban firms, this could be significant for small business policy development and the efficient implementation of strategies.

year: 2006

title: Value and risk mapping: creating effective conservation and resource management tools

authors: Rodríguez-Salinas, Paola

subjects: Perceived societal values

abstract: Coastal marine environments provide a wide range of goods and services that contribute to human wellbeing resulting in a natural connection with the environment where economic and spiritual values may be equally important. Because of these perceived values, many people have a natural inclination towards coastal marine areas, with a resultant potential for resources depletion, or degradation of areas that are highly valued. Often, research examining the value of an area considers natural capital or ecosystem services (both in economic terms), but fails to capture concepts of perceived intrinsic, social, or cultural values in a meaningful manner and rarely all values are considered together. Recently, these perceived societal values are acknowledged and incorporated into international environmental agreements as important elements that require pro-active consideration within management decision-making. 
However, due to its recent inclusion into the environmental management panorama, no standardised methodology (or framework) to assess values is established. By having a common framework, it is possible to enhance dialogue between researchers that creates mutual goals and comparable results. The central aim of this research was to create a framework to identify, map and assess perceived environmental, economic, social and cultural values, and to test their validity through hazard scenarios. The thesis draws on a case study from Gladstone, a port industrial city in central Queensland, Australia, situated within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA).
The proposed framework consisted in three general steps: 1) the identification of societal values via a bottom-up inductive approach; 2) the spatial identification and mapping of societal values; and 3) the development and testing of a novel post-hoc weighted risk analysis. The input data for this framework was qualitative and quantitative, applying a mixed-methods approach. To identify the societal values from an individual’s perspective about the Gladstone Region, a group of 30 participants from nine different stakeholder groups were interviewed. The in-depth interview questions were designed to explore elements in the Gladstone Region environment that were perceived of as important in all four-value contexts (i.e. cultural, economic, environmental and social). The results demonstrated that respondents held a wide variety of societal values and concerns for the Region, and that different stakeholder groups in the area shared common values and concerns (Chapter 2). Some socio-demographic characteristics of the participants (i.e. time and place of residence, place of birth, income, gender and generation) statistically influenced respondent’s values and concerns, but no values, commonality of concerns, norms and beliefs were statistically evident between stakeholder groups.
To elicit the perceived spatial distribution and importance of the values identified by the group of stakeholders, four surveys were designed and implemented aimed at eliciting the spatial location and perceived importance of a series of 22 cultural, economic, environmental and social values (Chapter 3). These surveys also included questions to explore the respondents’ preferences about different types of urban development, as well as questions about their perception of the environmental health of the port and its spatial location within the GBRWHA. The relationship between the perceived importance assigned to values and the respondents’ age, gender, level of education attained, time of residence, place of birth and place of residence was also explored. The results revealed that 23% (n = 5 out of 22) of the identified societal values had a statistically significant relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographics and their perceived importance. 
In general, the regression models demonstrate that respondents older than 46 years of age and living in the Gladstone Region over a mid to long-term period assigned higher importance to societal values (Chapter 3). The survey (combined with the interviews) also indicated that there is a certain acceptance of the ‘industrial character of the city’ and the Gladstone Region, with the associated environmental consequences this industrial character may entail. 
The general spatial distribution of the 22 values occurred along the coastline and the majority of the most important places for those values coincided with the populated and accessible areas in the Gladstone Region. Additionally, the areas marked for the different types of future development covered not only the coastline but most of the Gladstone Region.  Potential conflicts between these areas and the societal values were not evident. The elicitation method (i.e. face-to-face surveys), the spatial features used (i.e. unlimited number of points), the weighting method (i.e. importance in a scale of 1 to 10), and the GIS density analysis chosen, proved to be a good option for future societal values’ assessment (Chapter 4). However, it is important to further explore this and other methods in order to standardise the methodology (Chapter 4).  
The final societal values’ data was used to develop and test a spatially weighted risk analysis. For the risk analysis, an oil spill hazard scenario was constructed based on information of consequences of previous oil spill events and the predominant currents in the Gladstone harbour. The proposed risk analysis provided herein adds an extra step to the conventional risk analysis process by incorporating the perceived importance of societal values with their spatial distribution (Chapter 5). 
Identifying and attempting to understand the environmental, economic, social and cultural values in a given area, can help to improve how we manage our coastal marine environments. Our understanding of societal behaviour towards coastal marine environments is relatively limited, which influences how we can effectively make environmental management decisions in these ecosystems. The information and approach developed in this thesis aimed to provide a standardised framework that managers and decision-makers can use to pro-actively acknowledge and include community concerns, views, and values within local, regional, national, and international projects.

text: Value and risk mapping: creating effective conservation and resource management tools Coastal marine environments provide a wide range of goods and services that contribute to human wellbeing resulting in a natural connection with the environment where economic and spiritual values may be equally important. Because of these perceived values, many people have a natural inclination towards coastal marine areas, with a resultant potential for resources depletion, or degradation of areas that are highly valued. Often, research examining the value of an area considers natural capital or ecosystem services (both in economic terms), but fails to capture concepts of perceived intrinsic, social, or cultural values in a meaningful manner and rarely all values are considered together. Recently, these perceived societal values are acknowledged and incorporated into international environmental agreements as important elements that require pro-active consideration within management decision-making. 
However, due to its recent inclusion into the environmental management panorama, no standardised methodology (or framework) to assess values is established. By having a common framework, it is possible to enhance dialogue between researchers that creates mutual goals and comparable results. The central aim of this research was to create a framework to identify, map and assess perceived environmental, economic, social and cultural values, and to test their validity through hazard scenarios. The thesis draws on a case study from Gladstone, a port industrial city in central Queensland, Australia, situated within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA).
The proposed framework consisted in three general steps: 1) the identification of societal values via a bottom-up inductive approach; 2) the spatial identification and mapping of societal values; and 3) the development and testing of a novel post-hoc weighted risk analysis. The input data for this framework was qualitative and quantitative, applying a mixed-methods approach. To identify the societal values from an individual’s perspective about the Gladstone Region, a group of 30 participants from nine different stakeholder groups were interviewed. The in-depth interview questions were designed to explore elements in the Gladstone Region environment that were perceived of as important in all four-value contexts (i.e. cultural, economic, environmental and social). The results demonstrated that respondents held a wide variety of societal values and concerns for the Region, and that different stakeholder groups in the area shared common values and concerns (Chapter 2). Some socio-demographic characteristics of the participants (i.e. time and place of residence, place of birth, income, gender and generation) statistically influenced respondent’s values and concerns, but no values, commonality of concerns, norms and beliefs were statistically evident between stakeholder groups.
To elicit the perceived spatial distribution and importance of the values identified by the group of stakeholders, four surveys were designed and implemented aimed at eliciting the spatial location and perceived importance of a series of 22 cultural, economic, environmental and social values (Chapter 3). These surveys also included questions to explore the respondents’ preferences about different types of urban development, as well as questions about their perception of the environmental health of the port and its spatial location within the GBRWHA. The relationship between the perceived importance assigned to values and the respondents’ age, gender, level of education attained, time of residence, place of birth and place of residence was also explored. The results revealed that 23% (n = 5 out of 22) of the identified societal values had a statistically significant relationship between the respondents’ socio-demographics and their perceived importance. 
In general, the regression models demonstrate that respondents older than 46 years of age and living in the Gladstone Region over a mid to long-term period assigned higher importance to societal values (Chapter 3). The survey (combined with the interviews) also indicated that there is a certain acceptance of the ‘industrial character of the city’ and the Gladstone Region, with the associated environmental consequences this industrial character may entail. 
The general spatial distribution of the 22 values occurred along the coastline and the majority of the most important places for those values coincided with the populated and accessible areas in the Gladstone Region. Additionally, the areas marked for the different types of future development covered not only the coastline but most of the Gladstone Region.  Potential conflicts between these areas and the societal values were not evident. The elicitation method (i.e. face-to-face surveys), the spatial features used (i.e. unlimited number of points), the weighting method (i.e. importance in a scale of 1 to 10), and the GIS density analysis chosen, proved to be a good option for future societal values’ assessment (Chapter 4). However, it is important to further explore this and other methods in order to standardise the methodology (Chapter 4).  
The final societal values’ data was used to develop and test a spatially weighted risk analysis. For the risk analysis, an oil spill hazard scenario was constructed based on information of consequences of previous oil spill events and the predominant currents in the Gladstone harbour. The proposed risk analysis provided herein adds an extra step to the conventional risk analysis process by incorporating the perceived importance of societal values with their spatial distribution (Chapter 5). 
Identifying and attempting to understand the environmental, economic, social and cultural values in a given area, can help to improve how we manage our coastal marine environments. Our understanding of societal behaviour towards coastal marine environments is relatively limited, which influences how we can effectively make environmental management decisions in these ecosystems. The information and approach developed in this thesis aimed to provide a standardised framework that managers and decision-makers can use to pro-actively acknowledge and include community concerns, views, and values within local, regional, national, and international projects.

year: 2018

title: Carbon dioxide and methane emissions from the Te Arawa lakes of Rotorua, New Zealand

authors: Santoso, Arianto Budi

subjects: global carbon cycle

abstract: One of the biggest issues confronting humankind today is global warming due to the rapidly increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, namely CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O. The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has prepared an emission reduction strategy. So far, inland waters, including lakes and reservoirs, have not been included in the global carbon cycle. However, the contribution of inland waters to global CO₂ and CH₄ emissions has been identified to be important. Inland waters are also known to be a major sink for GHG emissions by attenuating carbon that would otherwise be transported from the terrestrial landscape to the ocean. Lakes are also very sensitive to climate change as well as to human impacts generally, and these effects will need to be considered in understanding the future role of lakes in the global carbon cycle.
This study aimed to improve understanding of CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from lakes, and to quantify these emissions under changing climate and nutrient loading regimes in a regionally discrete group of lakes of volcanic origin in North Island of New Zealand. It included a comprehensive field study of one lake, application of process-based numerical modelling to the lake, and collation and critical analysis of existing datasets for the group of lakes. The primary study site was Okaro, a monomictic eutrophic lake where a major restoration program has been in place for more than one decade. The study also extended to 10 other lakes in order to give insights into effects of different nutrient and mixing regimes on carbon sources and sinks
Based on observations over a one-period (September 2013 – October 2014), Lake Okaro accumulated CO₂ and CH₄ in the hypolimnion during summer stratification. These gases were entrained into surface waters as lake started to turnover just prior to complete mixing in winter. As recorded in many other eutrophic lakes, the net CO₂ flux was mostly from the atmosphere to the lake. However, CO₂, together with CH₄, escaped from the lake as a pulsed emission in winter.  Using a simple annual mass balance model it was calculated that, ~31% of CH₄ sourced from the sediment escaped to the atmosphere through diffusive flux. The remainder was likely to be oxidized in the water column. The model also showed that on an annual basis the net CO₂ emission is out of the lake. These findings suggest that eutrophic lakes may actually be net emitters of greenhouse gases and that pulsed emissions may be an important contributor to the direction of the flux. This study did not account for CH₄ ebullition, however, and therefore the magnitude of GHG emissions from this lake is likely to be lower than predicted. 
The effects on CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from Lake Okaro of a warming climate and changes in nutrient loads was simulated using a coupled hydrodynamic-ecological model (GLM-AED2). Future possible changes were simulated by altering model forcing data, increasing air temperature by 2.5 °C. Internal and external nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) loads were also either halved or increased by one half. Model simulations showed that annual CO₂ uptake by the lake was enhanced under a warmer climate, but emissions of CH₄ increased during lake overturn as a result of greater diffusive fluxes. Total GHG emissions, as CO₂ equivalent (kg CO₂-eq m⁻² y⁻¹), from the lake were predicted with model simulations to increase by 27% under a warming climate, relative to present conditions. This increase would be reduced to 19% if nutrient loading was halved.
A first-order diagenesis model was used to estimate the carbon deposition in the 11 Te Arawa lakes. The most productive lakes, using chlorophyll a as a proxy, had higher rates of carbon deposition in the bottom sediments than the less productive lakes. However, burial efficiency (buried carbon: deposited carbon) was lower in productive lakes meaning that most of the deposited carbon in these lakes is remineralized back into the water column. This remineralization process can be associated with CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from the lake.
The results of this study highlight that eutrophic lakes may contribute emit higher levels of GHGs to the atmosphere than has previously been estimated, primarily as a result of pulsed emissions associated with the onset of seasonal mixing, at least in monomictic lakes.  Eutrophication and climate warming are likely to enhance GHG emissions from lakes. The findings from this study have important implications for global GHG fluxes and indicate that fluxes into or from lakes need to be included in inventories. Reducing nutrient loads to lakes could offset some of the predicted increases in emissions of GHGs that are likely to occur with climate warming.

text: Carbon dioxide and methane emissions from the Te Arawa lakes of Rotorua, New Zealand One of the biggest issues confronting humankind today is global warming due to the rapidly increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, namely CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O. The Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) has prepared an emission reduction strategy. So far, inland waters, including lakes and reservoirs, have not been included in the global carbon cycle. However, the contribution of inland waters to global CO₂ and CH₄ emissions has been identified to be important. Inland waters are also known to be a major sink for GHG emissions by attenuating carbon that would otherwise be transported from the terrestrial landscape to the ocean. Lakes are also very sensitive to climate change as well as to human impacts generally, and these effects will need to be considered in understanding the future role of lakes in the global carbon cycle.
This study aimed to improve understanding of CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from lakes, and to quantify these emissions under changing climate and nutrient loading regimes in a regionally discrete group of lakes of volcanic origin in North Island of New Zealand. It included a comprehensive field study of one lake, application of process-based numerical modelling to the lake, and collation and critical analysis of existing datasets for the group of lakes. The primary study site was Okaro, a monomictic eutrophic lake where a major restoration program has been in place for more than one decade. The study also extended to 10 other lakes in order to give insights into effects of different nutrient and mixing regimes on carbon sources and sinks
Based on observations over a one-period (September 2013 – October 2014), Lake Okaro accumulated CO₂ and CH₄ in the hypolimnion during summer stratification. These gases were entrained into surface waters as lake started to turnover just prior to complete mixing in winter. As recorded in many other eutrophic lakes, the net CO₂ flux was mostly from the atmosphere to the lake. However, CO₂, together with CH₄, escaped from the lake as a pulsed emission in winter.  Using a simple annual mass balance model it was calculated that, ~31% of CH₄ sourced from the sediment escaped to the atmosphere through diffusive flux. The remainder was likely to be oxidized in the water column. The model also showed that on an annual basis the net CO₂ emission is out of the lake. These findings suggest that eutrophic lakes may actually be net emitters of greenhouse gases and that pulsed emissions may be an important contributor to the direction of the flux. This study did not account for CH₄ ebullition, however, and therefore the magnitude of GHG emissions from this lake is likely to be lower than predicted. 
The effects on CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from Lake Okaro of a warming climate and changes in nutrient loads was simulated using a coupled hydrodynamic-ecological model (GLM-AED2). Future possible changes were simulated by altering model forcing data, increasing air temperature by 2.5 °C. Internal and external nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) loads were also either halved or increased by one half. Model simulations showed that annual CO₂ uptake by the lake was enhanced under a warmer climate, but emissions of CH₄ increased during lake overturn as a result of greater diffusive fluxes. Total GHG emissions, as CO₂ equivalent (kg CO₂-eq m⁻² y⁻¹), from the lake were predicted with model simulations to increase by 27% under a warming climate, relative to present conditions. This increase would be reduced to 19% if nutrient loading was halved.
A first-order diagenesis model was used to estimate the carbon deposition in the 11 Te Arawa lakes. The most productive lakes, using chlorophyll a as a proxy, had higher rates of carbon deposition in the bottom sediments than the less productive lakes. However, burial efficiency (buried carbon: deposited carbon) was lower in productive lakes meaning that most of the deposited carbon in these lakes is remineralized back into the water column. This remineralization process can be associated with CO₂ and CH₄ emissions from the lake.
The results of this study highlight that eutrophic lakes may contribute emit higher levels of GHGs to the atmosphere than has previously been estimated, primarily as a result of pulsed emissions associated with the onset of seasonal mixing, at least in monomictic lakes.  Eutrophication and climate warming are likely to enhance GHG emissions from lakes. The findings from this study have important implications for global GHG fluxes and indicate that fluxes into or from lakes need to be included in inventories. Reducing nutrient loads to lakes could offset some of the predicted increases in emissions of GHGs that are likely to occur with climate warming.

year: 2016