title: Permafrost thermal regime from two 30-m deep boreholes in southern victoria land, Antarctica

authors: Guglielmin, Mauro

subjects: active layer

abstract: Two 30-m deep permafrost temperature-monitoring boreholes were installed in bedrock, one at Marble Point and one in the Wright Valley, in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica. A soil climate-monitoring station in till is located near each borehole. The ground surface temperature (GST) was highly correlated with the air temperature at both sites in 2008. Thermal offsets were small (< 1 °C) in the till and negligible in the boreholes. The active layer was thicker in the boreholes than in the till, presumably because of the higher thermal diffusivity of the rock. The measured depth of zero annual temperature amplitude was around 27 m at Wright Valley and 25 m at Marble Point. Permafrost thickness was estimated at about 680 m at Wright Valley and 490 m at Marble Point. The GST history, reconstructed using an inversion procedure, suggests a slight cooling from 1998 to 2003 followed by a slight warming to 2008. Longer temperature records or deeper boreholes would be required to establish if long-term climate change has occurred.

text: Permafrost thermal regime from two 30-m deep boreholes in southern victoria land, Antarctica Two 30-m deep permafrost temperature-monitoring boreholes were installed in bedrock, one at Marble Point and one in the Wright Valley, in the Ross Sea region of Antarctica. A soil climate-monitoring station in till is located near each borehole. The ground surface temperature (GST) was highly correlated with the air temperature at both sites in 2008. Thermal offsets were small (< 1 °C) in the till and negligible in the boreholes. The active layer was thicker in the boreholes than in the till, presumably because of the higher thermal diffusivity of the rock. The measured depth of zero annual temperature amplitude was around 27 m at Wright Valley and 25 m at Marble Point. Permafrost thickness was estimated at about 680 m at Wright Valley and 490 m at Marble Point. The GST history, reconstructed using an inversion procedure, suggests a slight cooling from 1998 to 2003 followed by a slight warming to 2008. Longer temperature records or deeper boreholes would be required to establish if long-term climate change has occurred.

year: 2011

title: Extractable organics and colour in a bleached kraft mill effluent land application system and recipient ground waters

authors: Mills, Geoffrey Newton

abstract: This thesis describes a study of the behaviour of extractable organics and colour in a land application system used to treat highly coloured, organic-rich, alkali extraction stage and foul condensate effluents from a traditional bleached kraft mill. The land application system comprised 44 unlined seepage basins, totalling 86 ha in area, into which approximately 10,000 m³ d⁻¹ effluent was loaded for approximately eight months of each year. The study aimed to determine (1) the effectiveness of the system for treating major effluent organics, including monoterpenes, fatty acids, resin acids, chlorophenolics, and colour, and (2) the effects of the system on organic contamination of sediments, aquifer materials, and ground waters. 

The study was carried out in four parts, investigating: (i) the behaviour of extractable organics and colour in the effluent drains and seepage basins; (ii) the penetration of extractable organics into the sediments beneath the seepage basins; (iii) the organic chemistry of shallow ground waters beneath the seepage system, and of deeper off-site ground waters; and (iv) behaviour of extractable organics and colour in laboratory soil-column simulating the land application process. In addition, a review of land application of pulp mill effluents was carried out, and analytical methods for determining extractable organics in effluents, sediments, and ground waters were developed.

Concentrations of extractable organics and chlorophenolics were reduced by >95% over a 40 day period in the seepage basins. Removal rates decreased in the order fatty acids > chlorophenolics ≈ monoterpenes > resin acids. Resin acids underwent reductive and oxidative transformations, producing transient intermediates including 13-abietenoic acid and 13β-hydroxyabietanoic acid. A suite of relatively stable transformed species, dominated by the saturated compound abietanoic acid, remained in the seepage pond after 40 days. Colour removal over the same period was approximately 25%.

High concentrations of effluent-derived extractable organics were found in surficial sediments beneath the seepage basins. Major compounds were resin acids, largely saturated species, and diterpene hydrocarbon transformation products. Diterpene hydrocarbons were dominated by retene, fichtelite, and dehydroabietin. Surficial sediments contained concentrations of total resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons of up to 10,000 mg kg⁻¹. Concentrations dropped with depth, but high levels were found in discrete zones at depths of up to 5 m beneath the surface. This indicated that effluent movement was occurring through permeable conduits rather than via uniform infiltration through the soil, and was consistent with the fractured geology of the site. 

Ground waters taken from seven well clusters, sampling depths between 2 and 15 m beneath the seepage basins, contained elevated sodium and chloride concentrations (200-400 mg L⁻¹) and spatially variable colour levels (100-2000 CPU). Effluent-derived extractable organics were also found in variable concentrations. Major compounds were methyl-substituted 2-cyclopentenones, resin acids, and diterpene hydrocarbons. Resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons were the generally dominant compound classes, concentrations totalling 20-2600 μg L⁻¹. Preliminary assessment of chlorophenolics found low levels, totalling 2-4 μg L⁻¹ in the most contaminated ground waters. The results indicated that contamination of shallow ground water was occurring, but the nature and level of this contamination was highly spatially variable. As found for the sediment studies, these findings were consistent with effluent infiltration through heterogeneous, fractured, sub-surface geology.

The hydrogeology of the area was determined to be dominated by ground water movement through fractured zones in four major ignimbrite aquifers. Wells were placed at depths between 9 and 110 m, and at distances from immediately adjacent to 2.7 km from the seepage area to sample ground water from these zones. Contamination was found largely within the highly fractured, high flow zones of two of these units, the Marshall A and, to a lesser extent, the Marshall B ignimbrite aquifers. Concentrations of effluent-sourced extractable organics (largely resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons) and colour were highest immediately beneath the seepage area, maximum concentrations of 110 μg L⁻¹ total resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons, and 900 CPU colour being found. Concentrations dropped rapidly with distance
from the ponds, decreasing by approximately 90% within about 100 m from the seepage area. There was evidence for retardation of organics relative to sodium and chloride in the off-site aquifers.

Laboratory simulations of effluent infiltration through seepage site soils were carried out under two application regimes (permanently flooded, and flood-dry cycle) to determine the range of treatment possibilities occurring in the seepage system. Leachate chemistry was monitored over an approximately two year period, and soil extractives measured at the end of the study. Mass balance was used to estimate effluent treatment efficiency. The flood-dry (aerobic) application regime resulted in essentially compete degradative removal of extractable organics. 

Under the flooded (anaerobic) regime, extractable organic removal was limited for all constituents other than fatty acids, which were >90% removed. Resin acids were strongly retained by the soil, approximately 72% remaining in the soil at the end of the study. Approximately 25% was recovered in the leachate. Monoterpenes were highly mobile, moving rapidly through the soil. A relatively stable suite of transformed compounds was found in the leachates. Monoterpene removal was estimated to be approximately 55%. Under flooded conditions, transformation rather than degradative removal of extractable organics occurred. 

Colour intensification, rather than reduction, occurred at times in both application regimes. At the end of the study, colour removal in the flood-dry cycle regime was 2%, and in the flooded regime an increase of 51% was measured.

In summary, the study found that the land application system resulted in large decreases (>95%) in the concentrations of extractable organics, but little overall treatment of effluent colour. Ground waters affected by effluent infiltration were highly variable in composition, but in general contained elevated colour levels, and moderate-to-low concentrations of extractable organics. Resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons were the dominant class of extractable organics found in sediments and ground waters beneath the seepage system.

text: Extractable organics and colour in a bleached kraft mill effluent land application system and recipient ground waters This thesis describes a study of the behaviour of extractable organics and colour in a land application system used to treat highly coloured, organic-rich, alkali extraction stage and foul condensate effluents from a traditional bleached kraft mill. The land application system comprised 44 unlined seepage basins, totalling 86 ha in area, into which approximately 10,000 m³ d⁻¹ effluent was loaded for approximately eight months of each year. The study aimed to determine (1) the effectiveness of the system for treating major effluent organics, including monoterpenes, fatty acids, resin acids, chlorophenolics, and colour, and (2) the effects of the system on organic contamination of sediments, aquifer materials, and ground waters. 

The study was carried out in four parts, investigating: (i) the behaviour of extractable organics and colour in the effluent drains and seepage basins; (ii) the penetration of extractable organics into the sediments beneath the seepage basins; (iii) the organic chemistry of shallow ground waters beneath the seepage system, and of deeper off-site ground waters; and (iv) behaviour of extractable organics and colour in laboratory soil-column simulating the land application process. In addition, a review of land application of pulp mill effluents was carried out, and analytical methods for determining extractable organics in effluents, sediments, and ground waters were developed.

Concentrations of extractable organics and chlorophenolics were reduced by >95% over a 40 day period in the seepage basins. Removal rates decreased in the order fatty acids > chlorophenolics ≈ monoterpenes > resin acids. Resin acids underwent reductive and oxidative transformations, producing transient intermediates including 13-abietenoic acid and 13β-hydroxyabietanoic acid. A suite of relatively stable transformed species, dominated by the saturated compound abietanoic acid, remained in the seepage pond after 40 days. Colour removal over the same period was approximately 25%.

High concentrations of effluent-derived extractable organics were found in surficial sediments beneath the seepage basins. Major compounds were resin acids, largely saturated species, and diterpene hydrocarbon transformation products. Diterpene hydrocarbons were dominated by retene, fichtelite, and dehydroabietin. Surficial sediments contained concentrations of total resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons of up to 10,000 mg kg⁻¹. Concentrations dropped with depth, but high levels were found in discrete zones at depths of up to 5 m beneath the surface. This indicated that effluent movement was occurring through permeable conduits rather than via uniform infiltration through the soil, and was consistent with the fractured geology of the site. 

Ground waters taken from seven well clusters, sampling depths between 2 and 15 m beneath the seepage basins, contained elevated sodium and chloride concentrations (200-400 mg L⁻¹) and spatially variable colour levels (100-2000 CPU). Effluent-derived extractable organics were also found in variable concentrations. Major compounds were methyl-substituted 2-cyclopentenones, resin acids, and diterpene hydrocarbons. Resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons were the generally dominant compound classes, concentrations totalling 20-2600 μg L⁻¹. Preliminary assessment of chlorophenolics found low levels, totalling 2-4 μg L⁻¹ in the most contaminated ground waters. The results indicated that contamination of shallow ground water was occurring, but the nature and level of this contamination was highly spatially variable. As found for the sediment studies, these findings were consistent with effluent infiltration through heterogeneous, fractured, sub-surface geology.

The hydrogeology of the area was determined to be dominated by ground water movement through fractured zones in four major ignimbrite aquifers. Wells were placed at depths between 9 and 110 m, and at distances from immediately adjacent to 2.7 km from the seepage area to sample ground water from these zones. Contamination was found largely within the highly fractured, high flow zones of two of these units, the Marshall A and, to a lesser extent, the Marshall B ignimbrite aquifers. Concentrations of effluent-sourced extractable organics (largely resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons) and colour were highest immediately beneath the seepage area, maximum concentrations of 110 μg L⁻¹ total resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons, and 900 CPU colour being found. Concentrations dropped rapidly with distance
from the ponds, decreasing by approximately 90% within about 100 m from the seepage area. There was evidence for retardation of organics relative to sodium and chloride in the off-site aquifers.

Laboratory simulations of effluent infiltration through seepage site soils were carried out under two application regimes (permanently flooded, and flood-dry cycle) to determine the range of treatment possibilities occurring in the seepage system. Leachate chemistry was monitored over an approximately two year period, and soil extractives measured at the end of the study. Mass balance was used to estimate effluent treatment efficiency. The flood-dry (aerobic) application regime resulted in essentially compete degradative removal of extractable organics. 

Under the flooded (anaerobic) regime, extractable organic removal was limited for all constituents other than fatty acids, which were >90% removed. Resin acids were strongly retained by the soil, approximately 72% remaining in the soil at the end of the study. Approximately 25% was recovered in the leachate. Monoterpenes were highly mobile, moving rapidly through the soil. A relatively stable suite of transformed compounds was found in the leachates. Monoterpene removal was estimated to be approximately 55%. Under flooded conditions, transformation rather than degradative removal of extractable organics occurred. 

Colour intensification, rather than reduction, occurred at times in both application regimes. At the end of the study, colour removal in the flood-dry cycle regime was 2%, and in the flooded regime an increase of 51% was measured.

In summary, the study found that the land application system resulted in large decreases (>95%) in the concentrations of extractable organics, but little overall treatment of effluent colour. Ground waters affected by effluent infiltration were highly variable in composition, but in general contained elevated colour levels, and moderate-to-low concentrations of extractable organics. Resin acids and diterpene hydrocarbons were the dominant class of extractable organics found in sediments and ground waters beneath the seepage system.

year: 1997

title: Kaumatua Mana Motuhake Poi: a study protocol for enhancing wellbeing, socia connectedness and cultural identity for Maori elders

authors: Hokowhitu, Brendan

subjects: Science & Technology

abstract: Background: The Aotearoa New Zealand population is ageing, accompanied by health and social challenges, including significant inequities that exist between Māori and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Although historically, kaumātua (elder Māori) faced a dominant society that failed to realize their full potential as they age, Māori culture has remained steadfast in upholding elders as cultural/community anchors. Yet, many of today’s kaumātua have experienced ‘cultural dissonance’ as the result of a hegemonic dominant culture subjugating an Indigenous culture, leading to generations of Indigenous peoples compelled or forced to dissociate with their culture. The present research project, Kaumātua Mana Motuhake Pōī (KMMP), comprises two interrelated projects that foreground dimensions of wellbeing within a holistic Te Ao Māori (Māori epistemology) view of wellbeing. Project 1 involves a tuakana-teina/peer educator model approach focused on increasing service access and utilization to support kaumātua with the greatest health and social needs. Project 2 focuses on physical activity and cultural knowledge exchange (including te reo Māori—Māori language) through intergenerational models of learning.

Methods: Both projects have a consistent research design and common set of methods that coalesce around the emphasis on kaupapa kaumātua; research projects led by kaumātua and kaumātua providers that advance better life outcomes for kaumātua and their communities. The research design for each project is a mixed-methods, pretest and two post-test, staggered design with 2–3 providers receiving the approach first and then 2–3 receiving it on a delayed basis. A pre-test (baseline) of all participants will be completed. The approach will then be implemented with the first providers. There will then be a follow-up data collection for all participants (post-test 1). The second providers will then implement the approach, which will be followed by a final data collection for all participants (post-test 2).

Discussion: Two specific outcomes are anticipated from this research; firstly, it is hoped that the research methodology provides a framework for how government agencies, researchers, and relevant sector stakeholders can work with Māori communities. Secondly, the two individual projects will each produce a tangible approach that, it is anticipated, will be cost-effective in enhancing kaumātua hauora and mana motuhake.

text: Kaumatua Mana Motuhake Poi: a study protocol for enhancing wellbeing, socia connectedness and cultural identity for Maori elders Background: The Aotearoa New Zealand population is ageing, accompanied by health and social challenges, including significant inequities that exist between Māori and non-Māori around poor ageing and health. Although historically, kaumātua (elder Māori) faced a dominant society that failed to realize their full potential as they age, Māori culture has remained steadfast in upholding elders as cultural/community anchors. Yet, many of today’s kaumātua have experienced ‘cultural dissonance’ as the result of a hegemonic dominant culture subjugating an Indigenous culture, leading to generations of Indigenous peoples compelled or forced to dissociate with their culture. The present research project, Kaumātua Mana Motuhake Pōī (KMMP), comprises two interrelated projects that foreground dimensions of wellbeing within a holistic Te Ao Māori (Māori epistemology) view of wellbeing. Project 1 involves a tuakana-teina/peer educator model approach focused on increasing service access and utilization to support kaumātua with the greatest health and social needs. Project 2 focuses on physical activity and cultural knowledge exchange (including te reo Māori—Māori language) through intergenerational models of learning.

Methods: Both projects have a consistent research design and common set of methods that coalesce around the emphasis on kaupapa kaumātua; research projects led by kaumātua and kaumātua providers that advance better life outcomes for kaumātua and their communities. The research design for each project is a mixed-methods, pretest and two post-test, staggered design with 2–3 providers receiving the approach first and then 2–3 receiving it on a delayed basis. A pre-test (baseline) of all participants will be completed. The approach will then be implemented with the first providers. There will then be a follow-up data collection for all participants (post-test 1). The second providers will then implement the approach, which will be followed by a final data collection for all participants (post-test 2).

Discussion: Two specific outcomes are anticipated from this research; firstly, it is hoped that the research methodology provides a framework for how government agencies, researchers, and relevant sector stakeholders can work with Māori communities. Secondly, the two individual projects will each produce a tangible approach that, it is anticipated, will be cost-effective in enhancing kaumātua hauora and mana motuhake.

year: 2020-10-02