title: Influence of erosion and deposition on carbon and nitrogen accumulation in resampled steepland soils under pasture in New Zealand

authors: Parfitt, R.L.

subjects: carbon accumulation

abstract: Although erosion occurs under pastures in New Zealand North Island hill country, previous work shows that the soils on mid-slopes (>19 degrees) have large and significant average gains of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) over a period of about 30 years. Both sheetwash erosion (from patches of bare soil) and soil deposition (from upslope) could have occurred in the intervening 30 years, and this could have led to a loss or gain of soil C. The fission-derived radionuclide ¹³⁷Cs is a unique tracer for studying erosion and sedimentation because it is strongly adsorbed onto soil particles, and its movement in the environment is predominantly due to physical processes. We hypothesized that accumulation and loss of ¹³⁷Cs and C would be correlated if erosion and deposition processes were responsible for the observed changes in soil C. We therefore measured ¹³⁷Cs in archived samples, previously used to assess changes in C and N, together with ¹³⁷Cs in the re-sampled soil horizons, to an average depth of 37 cm. The data show that, on average, there has been a small gain in total profile ¹³⁷Cs over this time, and complex patterns within individual soil profiles over 30 years. There was only a weak correlation between ¹³⁷Cs and C accumulation above 15 cm soil depth, but, in contrast, a much stronger relationship was found below 15 cm. A possible explanation for the observed pattern is soil thickening due to deposition, but the deposition may occur with variable ¹³⁷Cs contents. Generally deposition does not account for all of the increase in C, and regression analysis between Cs and C for all layers suggested that erosion/deposition accounted for 20-30% of the total change in C. In a detailed case study, the sampling of erosion scars caused by landslides showed that soil C stocks (0-20 cm) can increase from 10 to 80 tonne (Mg) C ha⁻¹ within 70 years. Use of the CENTURY model indicated that input of N from legumes in the pasture enabled N and C to accumulate in the surface soil. This suggests that gains in soil C and N under hill country pasture that occur in these facets of the landscape are probably largely due to the ongoing input from C and N in the grass-legume pastures rather than erosion or deposition of soil.

text: Influence of erosion and deposition on carbon and nitrogen accumulation in resampled steepland soils under pasture in New Zealand Although erosion occurs under pastures in New Zealand North Island hill country, previous work shows that the soils on mid-slopes (>19 degrees) have large and significant average gains of soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) over a period of about 30 years. Both sheetwash erosion (from patches of bare soil) and soil deposition (from upslope) could have occurred in the intervening 30 years, and this could have led to a loss or gain of soil C. The fission-derived radionuclide ¹³⁷Cs is a unique tracer for studying erosion and sedimentation because it is strongly adsorbed onto soil particles, and its movement in the environment is predominantly due to physical processes. We hypothesized that accumulation and loss of ¹³⁷Cs and C would be correlated if erosion and deposition processes were responsible for the observed changes in soil C. We therefore measured ¹³⁷Cs in archived samples, previously used to assess changes in C and N, together with ¹³⁷Cs in the re-sampled soil horizons, to an average depth of 37 cm. The data show that, on average, there has been a small gain in total profile ¹³⁷Cs over this time, and complex patterns within individual soil profiles over 30 years. There was only a weak correlation between ¹³⁷Cs and C accumulation above 15 cm soil depth, but, in contrast, a much stronger relationship was found below 15 cm. A possible explanation for the observed pattern is soil thickening due to deposition, but the deposition may occur with variable ¹³⁷Cs contents. Generally deposition does not account for all of the increase in C, and regression analysis between Cs and C for all layers suggested that erosion/deposition accounted for 20-30% of the total change in C. In a detailed case study, the sampling of erosion scars caused by landslides showed that soil C stocks (0-20 cm) can increase from 10 to 80 tonne (Mg) C ha⁻¹ within 70 years. Use of the CENTURY model indicated that input of N from legumes in the pasture enabled N and C to accumulate in the surface soil. This suggests that gains in soil C and N under hill country pasture that occur in these facets of the landscape are probably largely due to the ongoing input from C and N in the grass-legume pastures rather than erosion or deposition of soil.

year: 2013

title: Serial verb constructions and echo-reference constructions in the languages of Northwest Malekula: V'ënen Taut, Tape, and Tirax

authors: Dodd, Royce Richard

subjects: Serial verb constructions

abstract: The Northwest Malekula language subgroup consists of three closely related languages V’ënen Taut, Tape, and Tirax (Lynch, 2016). Each language has been documented previously; however, two of the languages, V’ënen Taut and Tape, lacked comprehensive analyses of complex predicates and multi-verb constructions; more specifically serial verb constructions (Part One) and echo-reference constructions (Part Two). This work seeks to address this descriptive gap in the literature.
Part One describes serial verb constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages. It begins in Chapter Two with a typological overview of serial verb constructions leading to the identification of three main grammatical properties of serial verb constructions. These properties are: monoclausality, independent verbhood, and shared arguments. Chapter Three employs the identified properties to present a survey of serial verb constructions in six Central Vanuatu languages and finds that most languages display two kinds of serial verb constructions, nuclear and core, which are identified by grammatical marking. The survey also identifies coverbial constructions and object incorporation as two further types of complex nuclei distinct from nuclear serial verb constructions, and auxiliary verb constructions as a distinct type of construction separate from core serial verb constructions. Chapter Four presents a comprehensive analysis of serial verb constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages, analyzing them in terms of argument sharing type and semantic function. Nuclear serial verbs constructions, coverbial constructions, switch-function and ambient core serial verb constructions are identified in all Northwest Malekula languages. Same-subject core serial verb constructions are present in Tape and Tirax but noticeably absent form V’ënen Taut; such functions are expressed using echo-reference constructions in that language.  
Part Two presents an analysis of echo-reference constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages, focusing on V’ënen Taut. Chapter Five identifies echo-reference constructions as a type of non-canonical switch-reference system that uses the reduction of morphological subject marking on non-initial verbs to signal same-subject person identity between it and an initial fully inflected verb on the same clausal level. Chapter Five also presents a survey of echo-reference constructions Southern Vanuatu, where they are well established in literature. The survey finds echo-reference constructions are relatively uniform in their form and function in the languages of Southern Vanuatu. Chapter Five also surveys several Central Vanuatu languages, and finds that echo-reference have been, or could be, identified in several languages from this region. The function of echo-reference in the Central Vanuatu languages is consistent with that found in Southern Vanuatu; however, the form of the echo-reference morpheme varies much more than those used in Southern Vanuatu. A new analysis of echo-reference constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages is presented in Chapter Six. It finds that echo-reference constructions form predictably under subject-person identity but that there are six constraints which can prevent echo-reference constructions from forming, even where subject-person identity between sequential verbs occurs. These constraints concern changes in the number of participants in an action sequence, polarity and illocutionary force continuity, clause embedding, and the temporal and narrative flow of text. Chapter Seven analyses the use of echo-reference constructions in nine extended excerpts of speech in V’ënen Taut. 
The thesis concludes in Chapter Eight which presents a grammatical and functional comparison between serial verb and echo-reference constructions. It finds that the two types of construction share many grammatical properties in the Northwest Malekula languages but that they differ in two key areas. Firstly, verbs in echo-reference constructions can only display same-subject argument sharing while serial verb constructions can also display switch-function and ambient argument sharing. Secondly, serial verb constructions are monoclausal while echo-reference constructions are multi-clausal. Serial verb and echo-reference constructions appear analogous in their semantic function, with echo-reference constructions being used to express the same types of semantic functions as same-subject core serial verb constructions. A brief discussion of the diachronic development of echo-reference constructions is offered, noting that there is a clear pathway from coordination to echo-reference constructions attested in the Southern Vanuatu languages but that such a pathway is less evident in the Central Vanuatu languages.

text: Serial verb constructions and echo-reference constructions in the languages of Northwest Malekula: V'ënen Taut, Tape, and Tirax The Northwest Malekula language subgroup consists of three closely related languages V’ënen Taut, Tape, and Tirax (Lynch, 2016). Each language has been documented previously; however, two of the languages, V’ënen Taut and Tape, lacked comprehensive analyses of complex predicates and multi-verb constructions; more specifically serial verb constructions (Part One) and echo-reference constructions (Part Two). This work seeks to address this descriptive gap in the literature.
Part One describes serial verb constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages. It begins in Chapter Two with a typological overview of serial verb constructions leading to the identification of three main grammatical properties of serial verb constructions. These properties are: monoclausality, independent verbhood, and shared arguments. Chapter Three employs the identified properties to present a survey of serial verb constructions in six Central Vanuatu languages and finds that most languages display two kinds of serial verb constructions, nuclear and core, which are identified by grammatical marking. The survey also identifies coverbial constructions and object incorporation as two further types of complex nuclei distinct from nuclear serial verb constructions, and auxiliary verb constructions as a distinct type of construction separate from core serial verb constructions. Chapter Four presents a comprehensive analysis of serial verb constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages, analyzing them in terms of argument sharing type and semantic function. Nuclear serial verbs constructions, coverbial constructions, switch-function and ambient core serial verb constructions are identified in all Northwest Malekula languages. Same-subject core serial verb constructions are present in Tape and Tirax but noticeably absent form V’ënen Taut; such functions are expressed using echo-reference constructions in that language.  
Part Two presents an analysis of echo-reference constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages, focusing on V’ënen Taut. Chapter Five identifies echo-reference constructions as a type of non-canonical switch-reference system that uses the reduction of morphological subject marking on non-initial verbs to signal same-subject person identity between it and an initial fully inflected verb on the same clausal level. Chapter Five also presents a survey of echo-reference constructions Southern Vanuatu, where they are well established in literature. The survey finds echo-reference constructions are relatively uniform in their form and function in the languages of Southern Vanuatu. Chapter Five also surveys several Central Vanuatu languages, and finds that echo-reference have been, or could be, identified in several languages from this region. The function of echo-reference in the Central Vanuatu languages is consistent with that found in Southern Vanuatu; however, the form of the echo-reference morpheme varies much more than those used in Southern Vanuatu. A new analysis of echo-reference constructions in the Northwest Malekula languages is presented in Chapter Six. It finds that echo-reference constructions form predictably under subject-person identity but that there are six constraints which can prevent echo-reference constructions from forming, even where subject-person identity between sequential verbs occurs. These constraints concern changes in the number of participants in an action sequence, polarity and illocutionary force continuity, clause embedding, and the temporal and narrative flow of text. Chapter Seven analyses the use of echo-reference constructions in nine extended excerpts of speech in V’ënen Taut. 
The thesis concludes in Chapter Eight which presents a grammatical and functional comparison between serial verb and echo-reference constructions. It finds that the two types of construction share many grammatical properties in the Northwest Malekula languages but that they differ in two key areas. Firstly, verbs in echo-reference constructions can only display same-subject argument sharing while serial verb constructions can also display switch-function and ambient argument sharing. Secondly, serial verb constructions are monoclausal while echo-reference constructions are multi-clausal. Serial verb and echo-reference constructions appear analogous in their semantic function, with echo-reference constructions being used to express the same types of semantic functions as same-subject core serial verb constructions. A brief discussion of the diachronic development of echo-reference constructions is offered, noting that there is a clear pathway from coordination to echo-reference constructions attested in the Southern Vanuatu languages but that such a pathway is less evident in the Central Vanuatu languages.

year: 2020

title: Eta Mokena, daughter of Mokena Hou, and her husband, Hare Renata

authors: Hart, Philip

abstract: The family backgrounds of both Eta Mokena and Hare Renata can be traced, but little is known about her life compared with that of her husband. From an early age he lived in various places in Hauraki, cultivating, running pigs, catching birds, fish, and eels, and selling some of these to Pakeha. Both owned interests in several blocks of land, and Eta, being childless, gifted some interests to her nephew and nieces. Hare Renata had to fight off other claimants for several blocks of land, not always successfully, and not always by giving truthful evidence. Despite selling some of their interests in land, they were never financially secure.
Renata held interests in three goldfields whereas Eta held only one, in a claim named after her family. They settled in several places, and only rarely lived at Te Aroha until their last years.

text: Eta Mokena, daughter of Mokena Hou, and her husband, Hare Renata The family backgrounds of both Eta Mokena and Hare Renata can be traced, but little is known about her life compared with that of her husband. From an early age he lived in various places in Hauraki, cultivating, running pigs, catching birds, fish, and eels, and selling some of these to Pakeha. Both owned interests in several blocks of land, and Eta, being childless, gifted some interests to her nephew and nieces. Hare Renata had to fight off other claimants for several blocks of land, not always successfully, and not always by giving truthful evidence. Despite selling some of their interests in land, they were never financially secure.
Renata held interests in three goldfields whereas Eta held only one, in a claim named after her family. They settled in several places, and only rarely lived at Te Aroha until their last years.

year: 2016