title: Effect of three different running shoes on running economy and 3-km time-trial performance in male recreational runners

authors: Finlayson, Steven J.

subjects: footwear

abstract: Recreational running has gained immense popularity in recent years. Improving a race performance or time is a motivating factor for a number of recreational runners. It has been proposed that running economy (RE), V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, fractional utilisation of V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, lactate threshold, and footwear all contribute to running performance. Footwear manufacturing company Nike, Inc. has developed the Nike Vaporfly (VP4) running shoe, shown to improve running economy in elite athletes by ~3 to 4%. No research has explored the effect of VP4 on recreational runners. The aims of this Thesis were to: (1) review articles focusing on running economy, race and time-trial performance, footwear, footstrike, and perception (Chapter One); (2) investigate the energetic cost and time-trial performance in male recreational runners wearing VP4, lightweight racing flats (FLATS), and their own habitual running shoes (OWN) (Chapter Two); (3) summarises the findings of this Thesis, discuss its strengths and limitations, and addresses future research directions (Chapter Three). 

In Chapter One, research on the relationship between RE, race and time-trial (TT) performance, footwear, footstrike, and perception in relation to running shoes was reviewed. Runners with a superior RE consume less oxygen and run faster than runners with an inferior RE. There is a positive correlation between V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, fractional utilisation, lactate threshold, and average race or TT performance. Footwear midsole compliance, resilience, longitudinal bending stiffness, and mass are all key characteristics linked with RE and running performance. Research appears to indicate that rearfoot runners potentially benefit more from wearing VP4 than non-rearfoot runners. Running shoe comfort, brand name, advertising, price, and previous experience all play a role in runners’ perception of running shoes.

In Chapter Two, 18 male recreational runners (age: 33.5 ± 11.9 y, V ̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ: 55.8 ± 4.4 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed three sessions to assess their RE and 3-km TT performance in VP4, FLAT, and OWN in a randomised manner. Participants completed 3 x 3-minute bouts at 60%, 70%, and 80% of their V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ speed, followed by a 3-km TT after a 5-minute rest. Footwear significantly affected RE variables across intensities (P < 0.002). Oxygen consumption was lower in VP4 (3.6 to 4.5%, P ≤ 0.002) and FLAT (2.4 to 4.0%, P ≤ 0.042) versus OWN across intensities, with a non-significant difference between VP4 and FLAT (1.0 to 1.6%, P ≥ 0.325). TT performance was superior in VP4 by 2.4% versus OWN (P = 0.005) and 1.8% versus FLAT (P = 0.032). Times between OWN and FLAT (0.5%, P = 0.747) were similar. Overall, VP4 improved lab-based RE measures in male recreational runners at relative speeds compared to OWN, but improvements in VP4 were not significant versus FLAT. More runners exhibited better treadmill TT performances in VP4 (61%) versus FLAT (22%) and OWN (17%). The variability in individual oxygen consumption (-3.1 to 12.1%) and TT (-3.8 to 8.2%) suggests individualised shoe responses.

Chapter Three summaries the findings from Chapter Two. Overall, this Thesis provides evidence that the commercially available VP4 can improve RE and 3- km TT in most male recreational runners using laboratory-based data particularly when compared to OWN. FLAT were also effective in improving RE and enhancing TT performance in some runners, albeit fewer. There was considerable variability between runners and intensities, which support individual rather than generalised benefit of VP4 in recreational runners seeking to improve running performance. Investigating the biomechanical adaptation to VP4, as well as responses to footwear based on footstrike patterns, could shed light on mechanisms that contribute to improved running performance in recreational runners.

text: Effect of three different running shoes on running economy and 3-km time-trial performance in male recreational runners Recreational running has gained immense popularity in recent years. Improving a race performance or time is a motivating factor for a number of recreational runners. It has been proposed that running economy (RE), V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, fractional utilisation of V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, lactate threshold, and footwear all contribute to running performance. Footwear manufacturing company Nike, Inc. has developed the Nike Vaporfly (VP4) running shoe, shown to improve running economy in elite athletes by ~3 to 4%. No research has explored the effect of VP4 on recreational runners. The aims of this Thesis were to: (1) review articles focusing on running economy, race and time-trial performance, footwear, footstrike, and perception (Chapter One); (2) investigate the energetic cost and time-trial performance in male recreational runners wearing VP4, lightweight racing flats (FLATS), and their own habitual running shoes (OWN) (Chapter Two); (3) summarises the findings of this Thesis, discuss its strengths and limitations, and addresses future research directions (Chapter Three). 

In Chapter One, research on the relationship between RE, race and time-trial (TT) performance, footwear, footstrike, and perception in relation to running shoes was reviewed. Runners with a superior RE consume less oxygen and run faster than runners with an inferior RE. There is a positive correlation between V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ, fractional utilisation, lactate threshold, and average race or TT performance. Footwear midsole compliance, resilience, longitudinal bending stiffness, and mass are all key characteristics linked with RE and running performance. Research appears to indicate that rearfoot runners potentially benefit more from wearing VP4 than non-rearfoot runners. Running shoe comfort, brand name, advertising, price, and previous experience all play a role in runners’ perception of running shoes.

In Chapter Two, 18 male recreational runners (age: 33.5 ± 11.9 y, V ̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ: 55.8 ± 4.4 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed three sessions to assess their RE and 3-km TT performance in VP4, FLAT, and OWN in a randomised manner. Participants completed 3 x 3-minute bouts at 60%, 70%, and 80% of their V̇O₂ₚₑₐₖ speed, followed by a 3-km TT after a 5-minute rest. Footwear significantly affected RE variables across intensities (P < 0.002). Oxygen consumption was lower in VP4 (3.6 to 4.5%, P ≤ 0.002) and FLAT (2.4 to 4.0%, P ≤ 0.042) versus OWN across intensities, with a non-significant difference between VP4 and FLAT (1.0 to 1.6%, P ≥ 0.325). TT performance was superior in VP4 by 2.4% versus OWN (P = 0.005) and 1.8% versus FLAT (P = 0.032). Times between OWN and FLAT (0.5%, P = 0.747) were similar. Overall, VP4 improved lab-based RE measures in male recreational runners at relative speeds compared to OWN, but improvements in VP4 were not significant versus FLAT. More runners exhibited better treadmill TT performances in VP4 (61%) versus FLAT (22%) and OWN (17%). The variability in individual oxygen consumption (-3.1 to 12.1%) and TT (-3.8 to 8.2%) suggests individualised shoe responses.

Chapter Three summaries the findings from Chapter Two. Overall, this Thesis provides evidence that the commercially available VP4 can improve RE and 3- km TT in most male recreational runners using laboratory-based data particularly when compared to OWN. FLAT were also effective in improving RE and enhancing TT performance in some runners, albeit fewer. There was considerable variability between runners and intensities, which support individual rather than generalised benefit of VP4 in recreational runners seeking to improve running performance. Investigating the biomechanical adaptation to VP4, as well as responses to footwear based on footstrike patterns, could shed light on mechanisms that contribute to improved running performance in recreational runners.

year: 2020

title: Boat electrofishing survey of Lake Ngaroto

authors: Hicks, Brendan J.

subjects: Lake Ngaroto

abstract: Lake Ngaroto, a 130-ha hypertrophic lake located near Te Awamutu, has previously been found to contain a diverse fish fauna of both native and introduced fish. Native fish in the lake are common bullies (Gobiomorphus cotidianus), shortfin eels (Anguilla australis), longfin eels (Anguilla dieffenbachii) and common smelt (Retropinna retropinna). Introduced species include goldfish (Carassius auratus), brown bullhead catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), gambusia (Gambusia affinis) and koi carp (Cyprinus carpio), with some koi carp/goldfish hybrids.
As part of the ongoing research of the invasive fish research programme, run by the Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology Research (CBER), current baseline values for species abundance and indigenous biodiversity need to be established for at least 5 Waikato lakes over 5 ha in size, with Lake Ngaroto selected as a candidate.

text: Boat electrofishing survey of Lake Ngaroto Lake Ngaroto, a 130-ha hypertrophic lake located near Te Awamutu, has previously been found to contain a diverse fish fauna of both native and introduced fish. Native fish in the lake are common bullies (Gobiomorphus cotidianus), shortfin eels (Anguilla australis), longfin eels (Anguilla dieffenbachii) and common smelt (Retropinna retropinna). Introduced species include goldfish (Carassius auratus), brown bullhead catfish (Ameiurus nebulosus), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), gambusia (Gambusia affinis) and koi carp (Cyprinus carpio), with some koi carp/goldfish hybrids.
As part of the ongoing research of the invasive fish research programme, run by the Centre for Biodiversity and Ecology Research (CBER), current baseline values for species abundance and indigenous biodiversity need to be established for at least 5 Waikato lakes over 5 ha in size, with Lake Ngaroto selected as a candidate.

year: 2009-10

title: Adaptation of the safewards model to the New Zealand context: A mixed-methods evaluative study

authors: Knauf, Sarah

subjects: inpatient

abstract: Background: Mental health inpatient units can provide a sanctuary for people to recover from mental illness. However, research has shown these units to be sites of conflict, in an environment that service users do not experience as therapeutic. To support a therapeutic environment, the safety and wellbeing of service users and staff need protection through reduced conflict and containment rates. Conflict can be physical or verbal aggression, self-harm, suicide attempt, absconding, substance misuse and medication refusal. Containment involves methods used to control conflict, including administration of sedative medication, coerced intramuscular medication, increased level of observation, restraint and seclusion. The Safewards model, originating in the United Kingdom in 2015, proposes 10 interventions to address conflict and containment. These interventions are centred on: therapeutic relationships; person-centeredness; teamwork; and least restrictive care. This research pursued active transformation through codesign of an adapted Safewards model to fit the socio-cultural context of New Zealand.

Objective: This thesis with publication describes the adaptation of the Safewards model to the New Zealand context. Cultural adaptation was critical due to significant health outcome disparities between Māori and non-Māori populations and the disproportionate representation of Māori within mental health services. The research sought to discover what a New Zealand model required, what the perspectives of inpatient tangata whai ora and staff were of the developed model and what changes it made to rates of conflict, containment and the ward atmosphere. Participants: Tangata whai ora and staff from the study setting were recruited to participate in focus groups before and after the implementation of the New Zealand Safewards model. Phase one focus groups included 15 staff and three tangata whai ora. Phase three focus groups included 13 staff and four tangata whai ora.

Methods: This is a mixed-methods evaluative study structured into three distinct phases, using methods of participatory action research. The adapted Safewards model was implemented for 12 months, with a staggered introduction of 11 interventions. Qualitative data were derived from the thematic analysis of focus groups. Quantitative data were from the Patient-Staff Conflict Checklist, Essen Climate Evaluation Schema, Fidelity Checklist and Te Whatu Ora Waikato service data.

Findings: A New Zealand Safewards model must: reflect a Te Ao Māori worldview; align with current practices; adapt Safewards interventions; and gain acceptance. Change management is one process that can reduce barriers to change. The adapted Safewards model reduced conflict, increased patient cohesion and improved the sense of safety perceived from staff and tangata whai ora in the study setting. The outcomes of this study hold the potential to contribute to the formulation and implementation of a New Zealand Safewards model, while also bearing relevance for the international adaptation of Safewards to culturally diverse countries and healthcare systems.

text: Adaptation of the safewards model to the New Zealand context: A mixed-methods evaluative study Background: Mental health inpatient units can provide a sanctuary for people to recover from mental illness. However, research has shown these units to be sites of conflict, in an environment that service users do not experience as therapeutic. To support a therapeutic environment, the safety and wellbeing of service users and staff need protection through reduced conflict and containment rates. Conflict can be physical or verbal aggression, self-harm, suicide attempt, absconding, substance misuse and medication refusal. Containment involves methods used to control conflict, including administration of sedative medication, coerced intramuscular medication, increased level of observation, restraint and seclusion. The Safewards model, originating in the United Kingdom in 2015, proposes 10 interventions to address conflict and containment. These interventions are centred on: therapeutic relationships; person-centeredness; teamwork; and least restrictive care. This research pursued active transformation through codesign of an adapted Safewards model to fit the socio-cultural context of New Zealand.

Objective: This thesis with publication describes the adaptation of the Safewards model to the New Zealand context. Cultural adaptation was critical due to significant health outcome disparities between Māori and non-Māori populations and the disproportionate representation of Māori within mental health services. The research sought to discover what a New Zealand model required, what the perspectives of inpatient tangata whai ora and staff were of the developed model and what changes it made to rates of conflict, containment and the ward atmosphere. Participants: Tangata whai ora and staff from the study setting were recruited to participate in focus groups before and after the implementation of the New Zealand Safewards model. Phase one focus groups included 15 staff and three tangata whai ora. Phase three focus groups included 13 staff and four tangata whai ora.

Methods: This is a mixed-methods evaluative study structured into three distinct phases, using methods of participatory action research. The adapted Safewards model was implemented for 12 months, with a staggered introduction of 11 interventions. Qualitative data were derived from the thematic analysis of focus groups. Quantitative data were from the Patient-Staff Conflict Checklist, Essen Climate Evaluation Schema, Fidelity Checklist and Te Whatu Ora Waikato service data.

Findings: A New Zealand Safewards model must: reflect a Te Ao Māori worldview; align with current practices; adapt Safewards interventions; and gain acceptance. Change management is one process that can reduce barriers to change. The adapted Safewards model reduced conflict, increased patient cohesion and improved the sense of safety perceived from staff and tangata whai ora in the study setting. The outcomes of this study hold the potential to contribute to the formulation and implementation of a New Zealand Safewards model, while also bearing relevance for the international adaptation of Safewards to culturally diverse countries and healthcare systems.

year: 2024