title: The effect of warming temperatures on the physiology and behaviour of pollinating insects

authors: Devenish, René

subjects: Climate change

abstract: Pollination is an important ecosystem service for both agricultural and natural systems. However, climate change is driving changes in the delivery of pollination services. One of the main influencing factors of climate change is rising temperatures. Most research on this issue has focused on phenological shifts (resulting in temporal mismatches between pollinators and plants), while the influence of warming on insect pollinator metabolism and pollination behaviour has not received equal attention. My research aims to fill both gaps by first testing if pollinator metabolism scales with temperature in pollinator body size according to the Metabolic Theory of Ecology (MTE). The MTE aims to explain a range of biological patterns and processes based on the underlying energetic constraints of organisms arising from metabolism. These constraints are primarily dependent on organismal body size and temperature, making the MTE highly relevant for predicting the impacts of warming on pollinating insects. Secondly, I tested if differences in air temperature can change pollinator foraging behaviour and if it can influence how pollinators alter their foraging behaviour in response to predation risk. I experimentally studied the patterns of foraging behaviour and metabolic scaling in four different pollinator species, Apis mellifera (honeybee), Bombus terrestris (bumblebee), Eristalis tenax (drone fly), and Lucilia sericata (blow fly) across a range of temperatures that represent a rise in average and maximum temperatures across New Zealand. My findings suggested that the MTE predictions only hold for certain species and only for the temperature-metabolism relationship for all species combined. Thus, the MTE may not be adequate for predicting the full impacts of warming on insect pollinators without further development, but the underlying theory itself still has uses in providing us with information on species-specific temperature sensitivities. Furthermore, I discovered that temperature and predation risk both affect insect pollinator behaviour, though not interactively, suggesting that warming will alter insect pollinator foraging behaviour, but not in concert with predation risk. In summary, this thesis provides meaningful insights into individual and species-level responses of pollinator behaviour and physiology to climate warming and the potential consequences for future pollination services.

text: The effect of warming temperatures on the physiology and behaviour of pollinating insects Pollination is an important ecosystem service for both agricultural and natural systems. However, climate change is driving changes in the delivery of pollination services. One of the main influencing factors of climate change is rising temperatures. Most research on this issue has focused on phenological shifts (resulting in temporal mismatches between pollinators and plants), while the influence of warming on insect pollinator metabolism and pollination behaviour has not received equal attention. My research aims to fill both gaps by first testing if pollinator metabolism scales with temperature in pollinator body size according to the Metabolic Theory of Ecology (MTE). The MTE aims to explain a range of biological patterns and processes based on the underlying energetic constraints of organisms arising from metabolism. These constraints are primarily dependent on organismal body size and temperature, making the MTE highly relevant for predicting the impacts of warming on pollinating insects. Secondly, I tested if differences in air temperature can change pollinator foraging behaviour and if it can influence how pollinators alter their foraging behaviour in response to predation risk. I experimentally studied the patterns of foraging behaviour and metabolic scaling in four different pollinator species, Apis mellifera (honeybee), Bombus terrestris (bumblebee), Eristalis tenax (drone fly), and Lucilia sericata (blow fly) across a range of temperatures that represent a rise in average and maximum temperatures across New Zealand. My findings suggested that the MTE predictions only hold for certain species and only for the temperature-metabolism relationship for all species combined. Thus, the MTE may not be adequate for predicting the full impacts of warming on insect pollinators without further development, but the underlying theory itself still has uses in providing us with information on species-specific temperature sensitivities. Furthermore, I discovered that temperature and predation risk both affect insect pollinator behaviour, though not interactively, suggesting that warming will alter insect pollinator foraging behaviour, but not in concert with predation risk. In summary, this thesis provides meaningful insights into individual and species-level responses of pollinator behaviour and physiology to climate warming and the potential consequences for future pollination services.

year: 2022

title: Towards cleaner fertilisers; Solution ion-exchange methods for reducing cadmium levels in reactive phosphate rock

authors: Dyche, Timothy Adam

subjects: Fertiliser

abstract: The aim of this study was to characterise reactive phosphate rock (RPR); a form of rock phosphate which can be used directly as fertiliser, and investigate the potential to reduce cadmium levels in RPR by application of calcium ion solutions derived from waste mussel shells. 

Analytical techniques including ICP-MS, XRD, XRF, SEM-EDX, and FTIR were used in the characterisation of reactive phosphate rock, as provided by Terracare. These techniques allowed for changes to both the macro and trace element composition of reactive phosphate rock to be measured and monitored as it was subjected to a calcium ion solutions and variety of chemical and physical reaction conditions, with the aim of selectively extracting cadmium ions, by ion exchange with calcium, while leaving the general structure of RPR unchanged.

The solubility of phosphate ions in RPR was tested at varying pH, the intention being to determine the pH range of solutions that could be used for cadmium extraction while minimising phosphate losses.

Calcium ion solutions were applied to reactive phosphate rock under a range of different reaction conditions. Changes to calcium ion concentration, contact time, pH, temperature, microwave irradiation, use of different counter ions and addition of potential cadmium stabilising ligands were tested for their effects on reactive phosphate rock. Promising results were observed, with elevated levels of cadmium found in many extraction solutions. Calcium chloride solution of 1 mol L⁻¹ concentration was found to be the most effective at extracting cadmium from RPR.

Mussel shells were characterised by analytical methods including ICP-MS, XRD, XRF, UV-Vis, and FTIR. The effects of heating to temperatures between 300°C and 900°C to the physical and chemical properties of mussel shells were studied. Mussel shells were used as a basis for calcium ion solutions by dissolving crushed mussel shell in mineral acids. These shell solutions were compared with solutions of pure calcium salts for their effectiveness in extracting cadmium ions. 

Overall the results of this study indicate that it is possible for significant amounts of cadmium to exchange from RPR into calcium ion solutions with comparatively small phosphate losses. It appears that mussel shells could provide a suitable source of calcium ions for this purpose. Overall indications are that cadmium extraction from RPR by ion exchange with calcium ion solutions is a concept worthy of further research. If the preliminary results prove to be accurate then further developments have the potential to contribute to improved environmental outcomes for both the fertiliser and shellfish industries in New Zealand.

text: Towards cleaner fertilisers; Solution ion-exchange methods for reducing cadmium levels in reactive phosphate rock The aim of this study was to characterise reactive phosphate rock (RPR); a form of rock phosphate which can be used directly as fertiliser, and investigate the potential to reduce cadmium levels in RPR by application of calcium ion solutions derived from waste mussel shells. 

Analytical techniques including ICP-MS, XRD, XRF, SEM-EDX, and FTIR were used in the characterisation of reactive phosphate rock, as provided by Terracare. These techniques allowed for changes to both the macro and trace element composition of reactive phosphate rock to be measured and monitored as it was subjected to a calcium ion solutions and variety of chemical and physical reaction conditions, with the aim of selectively extracting cadmium ions, by ion exchange with calcium, while leaving the general structure of RPR unchanged.

The solubility of phosphate ions in RPR was tested at varying pH, the intention being to determine the pH range of solutions that could be used for cadmium extraction while minimising phosphate losses.

Calcium ion solutions were applied to reactive phosphate rock under a range of different reaction conditions. Changes to calcium ion concentration, contact time, pH, temperature, microwave irradiation, use of different counter ions and addition of potential cadmium stabilising ligands were tested for their effects on reactive phosphate rock. Promising results were observed, with elevated levels of cadmium found in many extraction solutions. Calcium chloride solution of 1 mol L⁻¹ concentration was found to be the most effective at extracting cadmium from RPR.

Mussel shells were characterised by analytical methods including ICP-MS, XRD, XRF, UV-Vis, and FTIR. The effects of heating to temperatures between 300°C and 900°C to the physical and chemical properties of mussel shells were studied. Mussel shells were used as a basis for calcium ion solutions by dissolving crushed mussel shell in mineral acids. These shell solutions were compared with solutions of pure calcium salts for their effectiveness in extracting cadmium ions. 

Overall the results of this study indicate that it is possible for significant amounts of cadmium to exchange from RPR into calcium ion solutions with comparatively small phosphate losses. It appears that mussel shells could provide a suitable source of calcium ions for this purpose. Overall indications are that cadmium extraction from RPR by ion exchange with calcium ion solutions is a concept worthy of further research. If the preliminary results prove to be accurate then further developments have the potential to contribute to improved environmental outcomes for both the fertiliser and shellfish industries in New Zealand.

year: 2022

title: Tatari, tautoko, tauawhi - Hei awhina tamariki ki te panui pukapuka: Some preliminary findings

authors: Glynn, Ted

subjects: Maori

abstract: The Tatari, Tautoko, Tauawhi reading tutoring procedures have been adapted from the procedures known as Pause, Prompt, Praise, first developed in Mangere in 1977. The first author offered the procedures as a koha at a Special Education Service hui at Poho o Rawiri in 1991. The second author took up the koha and obtained the support of kaumatua and kuia at Hairini marae Tauranga Moana, and the support of senior Maori staff of the Special Education Service National Office to produce a Maori language video and training booklet. This began an important bicultural journey through the processes of producing instructional materials and trailing and evaluating them in ways that are biculturally appropriate. This paper reports on that journey and presents some preliminary data on the implementation of Tatari, Tautoko, Tauawhi by seven tuakana - teina pairs in a bi-lingual classroom.

text: Tatari, tautoko, tauawhi - Hei awhina tamariki ki te panui pukapuka: Some preliminary findings The Tatari, Tautoko, Tauawhi reading tutoring procedures have been adapted from the procedures known as Pause, Prompt, Praise, first developed in Mangere in 1977. The first author offered the procedures as a koha at a Special Education Service hui at Poho o Rawiri in 1991. The second author took up the koha and obtained the support of kaumatua and kuia at Hairini marae Tauranga Moana, and the support of senior Maori staff of the Special Education Service National Office to produce a Maori language video and training booklet. This began an important bicultural journey through the processes of producing instructional materials and trailing and evaluating them in ways that are biculturally appropriate. This paper reports on that journey and presents some preliminary data on the implementation of Tatari, Tautoko, Tauawhi by seven tuakana - teina pairs in a bi-lingual classroom.

year: 1993