title: Analysis of the central Hawke's Bay sector of the Late Neogene forearc basin, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand

authors: Bland, Kyle J.

subjects: Hawke's Bay

abstract: Hawke's Bay province lies within an extensive forearc basin in eastern North Island, New Zealand, that developed during the Late Miocene to present.  An area of about 5 700 kmsup2; in central Hawke's Bay has been geologically mapped at 1:50 000 scale as part of an analysis of the Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene basin fill.

A substantially revised lithostratigraphic nomenclature is proposed for the Neogene succession, particularly for the latest Miocene-Early Pleistocene part (Mangaheia Group).  The Tolaga Group is extended into central Hawke's Bay from the north, and incorporates the Early Miocene-Early Pliocene succession.  It is proposed that the Hawke's Bay, Petane, Napier, and Poporangi Groups be abolished, and incorporated into a geographically expanded Mangaheia Group.  The Petane Group is demoted to Petane Formation.  Most formations within the group are now redefined as members, with the exceptions of the Esk Mudstone and Kaiwaka Formations, which are retained as separate formations.

An age model has been developed for the basin fill, chiefly using molluscan biostratigraphy.  The Tongaporutuan-Kapitean boundary occurs in the Waitere Formation, and the Kapitean-Opoitian boundary occurs within the Mokonui Sandstone.  The Opoitian-Waipipian boundary probably occurs in the Titiokura Formation, and the Waipipian-Mangapanian boundary in the Te Waka and Pohue Formations.  The Mangapanian-Nukumaruan boundary has been identified at many localities, and occurs in several stratigraphic units, including the Papakiri Member (Matahorua Formation) and Sentry Box Formation.  Geochemical analysis of glass shards in the Hikuroa Pumice Member (Petane Formation) suggests a correlation to tephra in the ODP 1124 record, and an inferred age of c. 2.15 Ma is suggested for this unit.  The Plio-Pleistocene boundary is located in the Waipatiki Limestone Member (Petane Formation), and the top of the Olduvai paleomagnetic subchron occurs in the overlying Devils Elbow Mudstone Member.

The geological structure of the basin is classified into four structural domains.  The axial range domain involves the eastern parts of the North Island axial ranges and there is marked oblique-slip displacement on major faults within it.  Some oblique-slip is accommodated in the adjacent range front contractional domain, although dip-slip displacement is more significant.  The more easterly central forearc basin domain is comparatively undeformed with only minor reverse faulting and associated folding.  The eastern contractional domain comprises the inboard margin of the accretionary wedge, and is characterised by imbricate reverse and thrust faults, and associated folding.  The uppermost parts of the accretionary wedge are currently undergoing gravitationally-induced collapse, expressed as deep-seated landslides and normal faulting.

While significant unconformities in the Neogene succession possibly reflect early phases in the development of the major faults in the North Island Shear Belt, most deformation of the basin fill is relatively young (post-lowermost Nukumaruan, c. 2.4 Ma), and much of this has occurred since the Early Pleistocene (c. 1.8 Ma), when deformation apparently intensified.  This intensification coincides with the initiation of volcanism and rifting in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.  The amount of Pliocene-Recent dextral-slip on the Ruahine Fault is likely to be less than 10 km, and there is probably less than 1 km of dextral-slip on the Mohaka Fault.  New dextral-slip faults are developing in the basin fill east of the main oblique-slip faults, possibly due to dextral rotation of eastern North Island and the Hikurangi margin.

Forty-one lithofacies within the Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene sedimentary succession have been identified and grouped into six lithofacies assemblages.  Each assemblage generally corresponds to a broad depositional environment.  Siltstone lithofacies (inner to outer shelf) dominate the succession, followed by sandstone (shoreface-inner shelf), bioclastic (inner to middle shelf), mixed siliciclastic-bioclastic (nearshore to middle shelf), conglomerate (non-marine to shoreface), and volcaniclastic (non-marine to outer shelf) facies in decreasing abundance.  In addition, thirty molluscan biofacies associations and sub-associations have been identified, representing both in situ and transported assemblages, and paleoenvironments ranging from estuarine to outer shelf settings.

Vail-type sequences, typically 20-80 m thick, are best developed in quote;middlequote; Pliocene to Early Pleistocene strata.  These sequences are dominated by coarsening-upward packages of siliciclastic-dominated sediments, although bioclastic facies increase in prominence in Upper Nukumaruan cycles.  Sequences are typically stacked in a strongly aggradational pattern, and although some periods of accelerated subsidence are recorded in the stratigraphic record, the aggradational nature of the succession shows that basin subsidence mostly kept pace with sediment flux during the Mangapanian to Upper Nukumaruan.  Transgressive systems tracts (TSTs) typically comprise a combination of bioclastic and siliciclastic lithofacies.  Highstand systems tracts (HSTs) are dominated by fine-grained siliciclastic-dominated facies.  Regressive systems tracts (RSTs) may be either siliciclastic or bioclastic-dominated, although siliciclastic-dominated RSTs are most common.  Lowstand systems tracts (LSTs) are mostly characterised by non-marine greywacke conglomerate beds.  They sharply overlie shallow-marine rocks, and were deposited when high-bedload river systems prograded across a low-gradient coastal plain and exposed continental shelf.  

Eight sequence motifs have been developed, each representing different positions across a paleoshelf.  While these motifs share some similarities, unique combinations of subsidence, sediment flux, and sediment provenance have combined to differentiate them.  An idealised quote;shoreline to slopequote; two-dimensional sequence model has been produced for the Nukumaruan part of the basin succession using the motifs.  The model sequence illustrates the idealised distribution across a paleoshelf of the various lithofacies, macrofaunal associations, and sequence stratigraphic surfaces.

The Neogene geological history of central Hawke's Bay can be usefully subdivided into three major phases, each represented by one of the three lithostratigraphic groups documented.  The Early Miocene-Early Pliocene (Otaian-Lower Opoitian) phase is represented by the Tolaga Group.  This group comprises four deepening-upward bathyal-dominated packages with shelfal beds at their base.  This succession is overlain by a thick sandstone (Mokonui Sandstone).  Mokonui Sandstone is unconformably overlain by the Mangaheia Group (Upper Kapitean-Upper Nukumaruan), characterised by shelfal deposits with some cyclothemic intervals.  Occasional upper bathyal beds occur, but appear to represent short-lived depositional phases.  The uppermost Neogene phase is represented by the Middle Pleistocene (Castlecliffian) Kidnappers Group, characterised by thick non- to marginal-marine greywacke conglomerates.

The basin has been substantially inverted along its western side, involving movement on faults of the North Island Shear Belt.  The stratigraphic record along the eastern margin of the forearc basin records the development of faulting and folding associated with the growth of the inboard part of the accretionary wedge, such that parts of the forearc basin succession have become involved in the accretionary wedge.  The outcrop pattern of westward-younging Pliocene limestones demonstrates that the inboard margin of the accretionary wedge has migrated toward the centre of the basin over time.  Younger limestone beds (e.g. Mason Ridge Formation) presently crop out close to the forearc basin axis and at lower elevations compared with older Pliocene limestone beds (e.g. Kairakau Limestone) located along the eastern margins of the basin.  

Uplift of the accretionary wedge resulted in the development of a Pliocene interior seaway, which was most extensive during the Mangapanian and characterised by the development of prominent limestone formations (Te Aute lithofacies) along both margins.  Although large volumes of siliciclastic sediment were entering the basin, strong tidal currents periodically swept the sea floor of siliciclastic sediment, allowing extensive  continent-attached  carbonate banks to develop along the western side of the basin.  Thick  continent-detached  limestone beds developed along the eastern side of the basin due to the elevated positions of accretionary ridges.  Breaches in the seaway were present at times in the areas of Kuripapango and the Manawatu Gorge.  By the Lower Nukumaruan, the interior seaway became permanently closed to the south with uplift of the Mount Bruce block in northern Wairarapa.

The most important influence on the stratigraphic architecture of the Neogene succession has been the tectonic factor.  In comparison with the well developed cyclothemic record in the adjacent Wanganui Basin, the cyclothemic record in the Hawke's Bay area is incomplete and poorly developed.  In most parts of the succession, tectonic influences have overprinted glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations.  Only a limited correlation can be achieved between rocks in the Mangaheia Group and the elta;sup18;O record contained in deep-sea records, as the sequences are not well enough developed in general to allow for cycle-by-cycle correlations.

text: Analysis of the central Hawke's Bay sector of the Late Neogene forearc basin, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand Hawke's Bay province lies within an extensive forearc basin in eastern North Island, New Zealand, that developed during the Late Miocene to present.  An area of about 5 700 kmsup2; in central Hawke's Bay has been geologically mapped at 1:50 000 scale as part of an analysis of the Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene basin fill.

A substantially revised lithostratigraphic nomenclature is proposed for the Neogene succession, particularly for the latest Miocene-Early Pleistocene part (Mangaheia Group).  The Tolaga Group is extended into central Hawke's Bay from the north, and incorporates the Early Miocene-Early Pliocene succession.  It is proposed that the Hawke's Bay, Petane, Napier, and Poporangi Groups be abolished, and incorporated into a geographically expanded Mangaheia Group.  The Petane Group is demoted to Petane Formation.  Most formations within the group are now redefined as members, with the exceptions of the Esk Mudstone and Kaiwaka Formations, which are retained as separate formations.

An age model has been developed for the basin fill, chiefly using molluscan biostratigraphy.  The Tongaporutuan-Kapitean boundary occurs in the Waitere Formation, and the Kapitean-Opoitian boundary occurs within the Mokonui Sandstone.  The Opoitian-Waipipian boundary probably occurs in the Titiokura Formation, and the Waipipian-Mangapanian boundary in the Te Waka and Pohue Formations.  The Mangapanian-Nukumaruan boundary has been identified at many localities, and occurs in several stratigraphic units, including the Papakiri Member (Matahorua Formation) and Sentry Box Formation.  Geochemical analysis of glass shards in the Hikuroa Pumice Member (Petane Formation) suggests a correlation to tephra in the ODP 1124 record, and an inferred age of c. 2.15 Ma is suggested for this unit.  The Plio-Pleistocene boundary is located in the Waipatiki Limestone Member (Petane Formation), and the top of the Olduvai paleomagnetic subchron occurs in the overlying Devils Elbow Mudstone Member.

The geological structure of the basin is classified into four structural domains.  The axial range domain involves the eastern parts of the North Island axial ranges and there is marked oblique-slip displacement on major faults within it.  Some oblique-slip is accommodated in the adjacent range front contractional domain, although dip-slip displacement is more significant.  The more easterly central forearc basin domain is comparatively undeformed with only minor reverse faulting and associated folding.  The eastern contractional domain comprises the inboard margin of the accretionary wedge, and is characterised by imbricate reverse and thrust faults, and associated folding.  The uppermost parts of the accretionary wedge are currently undergoing gravitationally-induced collapse, expressed as deep-seated landslides and normal faulting.

While significant unconformities in the Neogene succession possibly reflect early phases in the development of the major faults in the North Island Shear Belt, most deformation of the basin fill is relatively young (post-lowermost Nukumaruan, c. 2.4 Ma), and much of this has occurred since the Early Pleistocene (c. 1.8 Ma), when deformation apparently intensified.  This intensification coincides with the initiation of volcanism and rifting in the Taupo Volcanic Zone.  The amount of Pliocene-Recent dextral-slip on the Ruahine Fault is likely to be less than 10 km, and there is probably less than 1 km of dextral-slip on the Mohaka Fault.  New dextral-slip faults are developing in the basin fill east of the main oblique-slip faults, possibly due to dextral rotation of eastern North Island and the Hikurangi margin.

Forty-one lithofacies within the Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene sedimentary succession have been identified and grouped into six lithofacies assemblages.  Each assemblage generally corresponds to a broad depositional environment.  Siltstone lithofacies (inner to outer shelf) dominate the succession, followed by sandstone (shoreface-inner shelf), bioclastic (inner to middle shelf), mixed siliciclastic-bioclastic (nearshore to middle shelf), conglomerate (non-marine to shoreface), and volcaniclastic (non-marine to outer shelf) facies in decreasing abundance.  In addition, thirty molluscan biofacies associations and sub-associations have been identified, representing both in situ and transported assemblages, and paleoenvironments ranging from estuarine to outer shelf settings.

Vail-type sequences, typically 20-80 m thick, are best developed in quote;middlequote; Pliocene to Early Pleistocene strata.  These sequences are dominated by coarsening-upward packages of siliciclastic-dominated sediments, although bioclastic facies increase in prominence in Upper Nukumaruan cycles.  Sequences are typically stacked in a strongly aggradational pattern, and although some periods of accelerated subsidence are recorded in the stratigraphic record, the aggradational nature of the succession shows that basin subsidence mostly kept pace with sediment flux during the Mangapanian to Upper Nukumaruan.  Transgressive systems tracts (TSTs) typically comprise a combination of bioclastic and siliciclastic lithofacies.  Highstand systems tracts (HSTs) are dominated by fine-grained siliciclastic-dominated facies.  Regressive systems tracts (RSTs) may be either siliciclastic or bioclastic-dominated, although siliciclastic-dominated RSTs are most common.  Lowstand systems tracts (LSTs) are mostly characterised by non-marine greywacke conglomerate beds.  They sharply overlie shallow-marine rocks, and were deposited when high-bedload river systems prograded across a low-gradient coastal plain and exposed continental shelf.  

Eight sequence motifs have been developed, each representing different positions across a paleoshelf.  While these motifs share some similarities, unique combinations of subsidence, sediment flux, and sediment provenance have combined to differentiate them.  An idealised quote;shoreline to slopequote; two-dimensional sequence model has been produced for the Nukumaruan part of the basin succession using the motifs.  The model sequence illustrates the idealised distribution across a paleoshelf of the various lithofacies, macrofaunal associations, and sequence stratigraphic surfaces.

The Neogene geological history of central Hawke's Bay can be usefully subdivided into three major phases, each represented by one of the three lithostratigraphic groups documented.  The Early Miocene-Early Pliocene (Otaian-Lower Opoitian) phase is represented by the Tolaga Group.  This group comprises four deepening-upward bathyal-dominated packages with shelfal beds at their base.  This succession is overlain by a thick sandstone (Mokonui Sandstone).  Mokonui Sandstone is unconformably overlain by the Mangaheia Group (Upper Kapitean-Upper Nukumaruan), characterised by shelfal deposits with some cyclothemic intervals.  Occasional upper bathyal beds occur, but appear to represent short-lived depositional phases.  The uppermost Neogene phase is represented by the Middle Pleistocene (Castlecliffian) Kidnappers Group, characterised by thick non- to marginal-marine greywacke conglomerates.

The basin has been substantially inverted along its western side, involving movement on faults of the North Island Shear Belt.  The stratigraphic record along the eastern margin of the forearc basin records the development of faulting and folding associated with the growth of the inboard part of the accretionary wedge, such that parts of the forearc basin succession have become involved in the accretionary wedge.  The outcrop pattern of westward-younging Pliocene limestones demonstrates that the inboard margin of the accretionary wedge has migrated toward the centre of the basin over time.  Younger limestone beds (e.g. Mason Ridge Formation) presently crop out close to the forearc basin axis and at lower elevations compared with older Pliocene limestone beds (e.g. Kairakau Limestone) located along the eastern margins of the basin.  

Uplift of the accretionary wedge resulted in the development of a Pliocene interior seaway, which was most extensive during the Mangapanian and characterised by the development of prominent limestone formations (Te Aute lithofacies) along both margins.  Although large volumes of siliciclastic sediment were entering the basin, strong tidal currents periodically swept the sea floor of siliciclastic sediment, allowing extensive  continent-attached  carbonate banks to develop along the western side of the basin.  Thick  continent-detached  limestone beds developed along the eastern side of the basin due to the elevated positions of accretionary ridges.  Breaches in the seaway were present at times in the areas of Kuripapango and the Manawatu Gorge.  By the Lower Nukumaruan, the interior seaway became permanently closed to the south with uplift of the Mount Bruce block in northern Wairarapa.

The most important influence on the stratigraphic architecture of the Neogene succession has been the tectonic factor.  In comparison with the well developed cyclothemic record in the adjacent Wanganui Basin, the cyclothemic record in the Hawke's Bay area is incomplete and poorly developed.  In most parts of the succession, tectonic influences have overprinted glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations.  Only a limited correlation can be achieved between rocks in the Mangaheia Group and the elta;sup18;O record contained in deep-sea records, as the sequences are not well enough developed in general to allow for cycle-by-cycle correlations.

year: 2006

title: Caldolase: an alkaline serine protease from Thermus strain TOK₃

authors: Saravani, G.A.

abstract: The object of this investigation was the isolation of extreme thermophiles producing extracellular proteases, and the biochemical characterisation of a stable, chelator-insensitive protease. 
Two plate assay systems were developed for the initial screening of proteases. The first involved the incorporation of various protease inhibitors (particularly chelating agents) in casein agar plates, the second the inclusion of a variety of native and chromogenic proteins in the agar plates. In conjunction, these methods provided a basis for screening extreme thermophiles for particular proteases, and enabled the identification of fourteen new proteases. Included amongst them was an extracellular serine protease from a Thermus strain designated Tok₃, which was selected for further study.
The protease was purified to homogeneity by ammonium-sulphate precipitation followed by ion exchange on DEAE-cellulose and QAE-Sephadex, affinity chromatography on CBZ-phe-TETA-Sepharose-4B, gel filtration chromatography on either Sephadex G-75 or TSK G3000 SW using HPLC system and finally Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
For convenience the protease was assigned a trivial name, and the term Caldolase was chosen. The prefix Caldo- is derived from Latin Caldo (hot) and the suffix ‘ase’ is a general term for enzymes. 
The specific activity of the pure enzyme was estimated to be 38,000 proteolytic units per mg (PU mg ml⁻¹) at 75°C using casein as the substrate. The purified enzyme had a pH optimum of 9.5 with an isoelectric point of 8.9. Caldolase demonstrated greatest stability between pH 7 and 10. The molecular weight of the protease was estimated by exclusion chromatography on Sephadex G-75 and TSK G3000 SW to be 25,000 daltons.
The enzyme was inhibited by serine inhibitors (DFP, PMSF and di-phenyl carbamyl chloride), partially inhibited by heavy metal (CUCl₂), but not inhibited by metal chelators (EDTA, EGTA, 0-phenanthroline, and NEPIS), Cysteine inhibitors (PCMB, iodo-acetamide, and N-ethylmaleimide) or trypsin inhibitors. These results indicate that Caldolase is an alkaline serine protease. 
Neither Ca²⁺ nor Zn²⁺ ions were detected in the highly purified protease. The presence of four disulphide bonds per molecule of the enzyme was indicated with dithionitro-benzoate. No free sulphydryl groups were found. The purified protease contained approximately 10% carbohydrate. The amino acid composition of Caldolase was determined. 
The enzyme exhibited strong substrate inhibition when using casein, azo-casein, and azo-albumin as substrates. No substrate inhibition was observed when low-molecular weight synthetic substrates were used, indicating that substrate inhibition using casein and azo-albumin substrates may be due to steric hindrance rather than binding to the active site of the enzyme.
The Arrhenius plots for both casein and peptide substrates were curved, but without any clearly marked discontinuity. It is concluded that the effect of temperature on the enzyme conformation is continuous rather than occurring at a particular temperature. No significant differences were observed in Kₘ values at various temperatures between 45° and 85°C.
Caldolase hydrolysed several protein substrates, including casein, albumin, ovalbumin, haemoglobin, collagen, fibrin and elastin, and a number of synthetic chromogenic peptides. It also possessed esterase activity. The enzyme was not able to hydrolyse peptides possessing fewer than four groups (amino acid residues and terminal blocking group). Caldolase did not hydrolyse Bradykinin (Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-phe-Arg). In contrast enzyme hydrolysis of insulin B chain resulted in a very complex pattern, suggesting a low degree of specificity. 
The enzyme was very thermostable. Half-life values were: 100°C, 5 min; 90°C, 45 min; and 80°C, 840 min. Caldolase was stable in denaturing agents (GuHCl, urea) at 22°C, but not at 85°C. Exposure of the enzyme to various organic solvents caused no significant loss of catalytic activity.
Ionic strength had a marked effect on enzyme stability. The combination of low salt concentration (below 0.3M NaCl) and low temperatures (under 75°C) results in reversible enzyme denaturation. However, at high temperatures (above 80°C) this phenomenon is rapidly followed by autolysis by the remaining active enzyme.

text: Caldolase: an alkaline serine protease from Thermus strain TOK₃ The object of this investigation was the isolation of extreme thermophiles producing extracellular proteases, and the biochemical characterisation of a stable, chelator-insensitive protease. 
Two plate assay systems were developed for the initial screening of proteases. The first involved the incorporation of various protease inhibitors (particularly chelating agents) in casein agar plates, the second the inclusion of a variety of native and chromogenic proteins in the agar plates. In conjunction, these methods provided a basis for screening extreme thermophiles for particular proteases, and enabled the identification of fourteen new proteases. Included amongst them was an extracellular serine protease from a Thermus strain designated Tok₃, which was selected for further study.
The protease was purified to homogeneity by ammonium-sulphate precipitation followed by ion exchange on DEAE-cellulose and QAE-Sephadex, affinity chromatography on CBZ-phe-TETA-Sepharose-4B, gel filtration chromatography on either Sephadex G-75 or TSK G3000 SW using HPLC system and finally Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
For convenience the protease was assigned a trivial name, and the term Caldolase was chosen. The prefix Caldo- is derived from Latin Caldo (hot) and the suffix ‘ase’ is a general term for enzymes. 
The specific activity of the pure enzyme was estimated to be 38,000 proteolytic units per mg (PU mg ml⁻¹) at 75°C using casein as the substrate. The purified enzyme had a pH optimum of 9.5 with an isoelectric point of 8.9. Caldolase demonstrated greatest stability between pH 7 and 10. The molecular weight of the protease was estimated by exclusion chromatography on Sephadex G-75 and TSK G3000 SW to be 25,000 daltons.
The enzyme was inhibited by serine inhibitors (DFP, PMSF and di-phenyl carbamyl chloride), partially inhibited by heavy metal (CUCl₂), but not inhibited by metal chelators (EDTA, EGTA, 0-phenanthroline, and NEPIS), Cysteine inhibitors (PCMB, iodo-acetamide, and N-ethylmaleimide) or trypsin inhibitors. These results indicate that Caldolase is an alkaline serine protease. 
Neither Ca²⁺ nor Zn²⁺ ions were detected in the highly purified protease. The presence of four disulphide bonds per molecule of the enzyme was indicated with dithionitro-benzoate. No free sulphydryl groups were found. The purified protease contained approximately 10% carbohydrate. The amino acid composition of Caldolase was determined. 
The enzyme exhibited strong substrate inhibition when using casein, azo-casein, and azo-albumin as substrates. No substrate inhibition was observed when low-molecular weight synthetic substrates were used, indicating that substrate inhibition using casein and azo-albumin substrates may be due to steric hindrance rather than binding to the active site of the enzyme.
The Arrhenius plots for both casein and peptide substrates were curved, but without any clearly marked discontinuity. It is concluded that the effect of temperature on the enzyme conformation is continuous rather than occurring at a particular temperature. No significant differences were observed in Kₘ values at various temperatures between 45° and 85°C.
Caldolase hydrolysed several protein substrates, including casein, albumin, ovalbumin, haemoglobin, collagen, fibrin and elastin, and a number of synthetic chromogenic peptides. It also possessed esterase activity. The enzyme was not able to hydrolyse peptides possessing fewer than four groups (amino acid residues and terminal blocking group). Caldolase did not hydrolyse Bradykinin (Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Ser-Pro-phe-Arg). In contrast enzyme hydrolysis of insulin B chain resulted in a very complex pattern, suggesting a low degree of specificity. 
The enzyme was very thermostable. Half-life values were: 100°C, 5 min; 90°C, 45 min; and 80°C, 840 min. Caldolase was stable in denaturing agents (GuHCl, urea) at 22°C, but not at 85°C. Exposure of the enzyme to various organic solvents caused no significant loss of catalytic activity.
Ionic strength had a marked effect on enzyme stability. The combination of low salt concentration (below 0.3M NaCl) and low temperatures (under 75°C) results in reversible enzyme denaturation. However, at high temperatures (above 80°C) this phenomenon is rapidly followed by autolysis by the remaining active enzyme.

year: 1985

title: The Buried Village, New Zealand - an example of dark tourism?

authors: Ryan, Chris

subjects: dark tourism

abstract: In 1886, the explosion of Mount Tarawera resulted in the loss of 150 lives and the burial of the village of Te Wairoa, the base from which tourists had visited the Pink and White Terraces, a silicone-stained natural formation then advertised as one of the natural wonders of the world. Since 1931, the buried site has itself been a tourist attraction and Smith and Croy have argued that it serves as an example of “dark tourism”. This paper uses a different methodology to argue that Lennon and Foley's original definition of dark tourism is precise, that the buried village of Te Wairoa does not meet that specification, but does support the model suggested by Sharpley, that the site's characteristics are those of grey tourism supply. However, the findings derived from a sample of over 600 respondents indicate that sites are complex packages of potential experiences, and are potentially multi-faceted in terms of the experiences they offer. It is also suggested that cultural components might play a role in the experience of what is “dark” about a site.

text: The Buried Village, New Zealand - an example of dark tourism? In 1886, the explosion of Mount Tarawera resulted in the loss of 150 lives and the burial of the village of Te Wairoa, the base from which tourists had visited the Pink and White Terraces, a silicone-stained natural formation then advertised as one of the natural wonders of the world. Since 1931, the buried site has itself been a tourist attraction and Smith and Croy have argued that it serves as an example of “dark tourism”. This paper uses a different methodology to argue that Lennon and Foley's original definition of dark tourism is precise, that the buried village of Te Wairoa does not meet that specification, but does support the model suggested by Sharpley, that the site's characteristics are those of grey tourism supply. However, the findings derived from a sample of over 600 respondents indicate that sites are complex packages of potential experiences, and are potentially multi-faceted in terms of the experiences they offer. It is also suggested that cultural components might play a role in the experience of what is “dark” about a site.

year: 2006