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biology - evolution: something my girlfriend doesn't quite agree with. any help explaining? | hello all, i just have some quick questions regarding natural selection and random mutation. i know the theories behind it, how it is said to work, but apparently my explanations aren't good enough to convince my girlfriend that the combination of natural selection and random mutations over the course of millions of years is enough to change a species. her claim is that it is too random, that no organism would, say, develop a trait to mimic another (viceroy butterfly). she has concluded that there has to be a guiding hand behind evolution. any ideas for how to better explain it? or, am i misinformed about anything that might be causing some confusion? | talk origins, boy, doozy ====== oh boy, that's a doozy. i refer people to the website [talk origins](_url_0_) that goes into pretty good detail about the discussion over creation science and evolution. that should be a good place to start. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.talkorigins.org/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mhX2Kas558",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limenitis"
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why is rapid altitude change noticeable by sensations in the lower abdomen (pit of your stomach) but not really the rest of your body? | room to move, move due thoracic, move ====== most organs are held down by various tissues but some are allowed to still "move" around. the stomach notices is the most because it is one of the only organs that actually expands=less rigorious structures to hold it down(its still anchored, but if it has room to expand it has room to move; lungs don't count because those pretty have no room to move due thoracic pressure). its usually quick changes in altitude which results in a decrease in g-forces that elicits that feeling. the stomach has pressure sensors to determine fullness so any change in gravity would pull on the stomach differently=different pressures than its used to=you notice it(just like you notice if you're full...other mechanisms are involved in this as well though, ie hormones). | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there something like the "double dabble" algorithm, for trinary/base 3? | i want to use an algorithm to convert trinary (base 3) to trinary coded decimal. is there such a thing? what's it called? (maybe tripple trabble, idk). | modified pretty easily, pretty easily, modified pretty ====== it looks like it could be modified pretty easily. first off, instead of adding three to numbers that are at least five before the left shift, you add six to numbers that are at least ten (taking them to at least sixteen) after the left shift. the end result is the same, but it makes it a bit clearer and makes it generalize better. binary coded decimal uses four bits for each digit, so there's 16 possibilities. ternary coded decimal would use three trits, so there's 27 possibilities. instead of bringing it from 10 to 16 , you have to bring 10 to 27, so on the step where you add 6, you instead add 17. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do the side effects for iv contrast happen? | why do i get that horrible taste in my mouth, feel like i'm going to piss myself and get terribly warm when i am given iv contrast for ct scans? | imaging scans, taste, feeling ====== there are several different types of contrast used for imaging scans. the most common type used during ct scans is a non-ionic, water soluble iodine mixture. the iodine is what causes the warm feeling and funny mouth taste. the warm feeling is caused by two main mechanisms. first, iodine causes very fast, widespread dilation of tiny blood vessels. the amount of blood flowing through the capillaries then briefly increases, causing a feeling of flushing and warmth. the total amount of blood flow change is pretty small, so not much else besides the flushed feeling happens. second, iodine can directly activate certain types of temperature sensors, causing a "fake" sensation of warmth. the funny taste is also caused by direct receptor activation, this time in the mouth and tongue. fun facts: 1. some people are really sensitive to this receptor-foolery and can taste just about anything you put in an iv, including saline. 2. though the weird mouth taste associated with contrast is normal and expected, sometimes we use this side effect as an indicator of other things. for example, when lidocaine is injected into the tissue as a local anesthetic, we'll ask patients to let us know if they suddenly get a metallic taste in their mouth, as this would mean the drug is getting into the blood stream and the local numbing effect won't work. (it also means you don't want to then inject different, more toxic local anesthetics at the same spot, and if it shows up awhile after injecting, could be an early sign of overdose) 3. other things can directly activate taste receptors, and you can do it yourself at home. if you're bored and alone, try rubbing some hot sauce on the bottom of your foot, near the arch, or on your wrists (this may cause some local sensations of warmth, too). if you wait awhile, you will be able to "taste" the hotsauce a little, and might even get the warm-mouth feeling you get when you eat it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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writing a persuasive speech in the favor of nuclear energy plants, what's the coolest, not well known, fact you know about nuclear plants that i can throw into my speech to spice it up? | coal fueled power, power plants release, fueled power plants ====== nuclear power plants release less radiation and radioactive particles into the environment than coal fueled power plants. radioactive materials exist all through various minerals, so standing next to a marble wall at the courthouse will expose you to more radiation than just outside the fence of a nuclear power plant. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf06.html",
"http://www.world-nuclear.org/uploadedImages/org/info/DeathsperTWh.png"
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|
why does the human body not reject certain foreign substances/bodies? | i got a root canal today, so the dental pulp in my tooth was damaged and dying. i was told that my body was rejecting the damaged tissue after the trauma. they filled the canal with filling, and that is supposed to save my tooth. it is confusing to me, because i don't get why the body would reject injured tissue but accept a foreign substance (filling) in its place. thoughts anyone? | root canal, longer technically, longer blood flow ====== after you get a root canal, your tooth is no longer technically "alive". the pulp is removed and, iirc, there is no longer blood flow into the tooth. the reason that our body rejects a lot of things (like foreign blood cells or bacteria from infected pulp tissue) is because antibodies can access the substance and tag it for destruction. when you remove the pulp, you remove the connection that the inside of the tooth has with the blood and you don't get the same immune response. there could be more to this, but this is my basic understanding. check out the picture at the bottom of this summary article: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.colgate.com/app/CP/US/EN/OC/Information/Articles/Oral-and-Dental-Health-Basics/Checkups-and-Dental-Procedures/Root-Canal-Treatment/article/What-is-Root-Canal-Treatment.cvsp"
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] |
in space, how does an accelerometer know up from down? | just queried in my head, as they are effected by gravity.. so if i was to turn a phone sideways in space, how would it know this? | nice clean, angular rates, report angular rates ====== it does not, at least not via the accelerometers giving it a nice clean down is that way. if the phone is in free-fall, the readings from linear accelerometers will be whatever they normally read for "no pull in the direction i'm looking" -- plus or minus noise. now, the phone *might* be able to maintain some sense of direction: it may have sensors that report angular rates, and you can integrate your angular rate to get an estimate of your orientation. of course the error builds up over time, unless you have some other mechanism for sensing orientation. it probably would not be too hard to set up some code mating angular rates to the display drivers that could allow a user to rotate the phone normally and have the image snap back to upright, while giving them a way to recover if the error becomes irritatingly large (like stubbornly laying on its side). [ source: have worked with imus and their behavior in free-fall. ] | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_principle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativity"
] | [
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can you multiply units of measurement at will to create new ones? | how much can you mix and match units? what are the rules? for example, my desk is 2.5 meters long. if i multiply 2.5 metres by 1000 candela, i get 2500 meter-candela's. if i divide this by the current light level in my room, 5000 candela, i get .5 meters. but what does that mean? is this against any rules, particularly? i know that if i divide 100kg by 5 seconds i get 20 kilograms/second. then i can multiple that by 1 minute to get 1200 kilograms. this makes sense, because the unit represents weight over time... but what if i multiplied it instead, to get 500 kilogram-seconds. that's weight-time. what the hell is weight-time? might be a silly question... | conveyor belt carry, industrial conveyor belt, belt carry ====== kilograms per second has plenty of uses - how much rocket fuel am i using, how much product can an industrial conveyor belt carry, how fast can i eat sushi etc. it took me a minute to even picture candela-meters. that would be a power output of light of one candela applied over the course of one meter. those sneakers with the flashing lights could be measured in candela-meters; how many average candelas do the shoes apply over the course of a meter? it could be used to estimate how annoying and stupid a product they are and might give you a vague idea of how far the kid has to walk before the batteries burn out. almost everything will have a physical meaning, even if that meaning is really obscure or fanciful. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-hour"
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what are some good books to read for an introduction to neurochemistry? | exploring the brain, brain by bears, connors and paradiso ====== any basic neuroscience textbook, such as neuroscience: exploring the brain by bears, connors and paradiso have a basic overview. this was my textbook for my first year of my neuroscience degree and i still find it useful. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
distance from a fixed-point outside of a half-circle to every point along that half circle? | i am building a mousetrap car for a university engineering class and really have the opportunity to outdo some unsuspecting freshman. one problem, the furthest i gotten in math is business and economics calculus (which mostly focused on derivatives), so i've hit a road block. easily enough i can figure out how variations in gears and their positions will change the number of rotations in my rear axle for a given amount of 'string pulled' at the mouse-trap end of my *^(currently ^conceptual)* drive train. i'm planning to build a excel spreadsheet of relationships to greatly reduce the amount of time it takes to determine the efficiency of particular set up, or a variation of a set up. i will extend the mousetrap arm to increase the length of the arc my string can be pulled along, but i have no way of knowing how to evaluate the changing distance between a point on the arc and a point on my first gear. knowing that distance and how it changes as the point moves across the arc would let me evaluate an optimum location, relative to the arc of mousetrap, to put the first gear. my current thinking is that at points when the tangent to the half circle is more perpendicular to the string connected to the first gear, the less efficient my system, because the distance there isn't changing much and little string is being pulled through the drive-train and i'm missing out on energy being expended by the swinging arm. **the math question:** ***how might one evaluate the distance from points along a half circle to a fixed point outside of that circle?*** **bonus math question:** (some quick sketching and envelope math has made me think having a free rotating wheel fixed to the swinging trap arm, so that string fixed at one point travels around that orbiting wheel then to the first gear, increases the amount of string pulled) ***how might one evaluate the distance from a point outside of a half circle, to points along a half circle, to a different fixed point outside of that circle?*** | arm, distance, distance in terms ====== let's say that the position of the point on the gear is (x1, y1). for what you're doing, it seems best to describe the distance in terms of what angle the trap arm is at. so let's say the arm swings from θ=0° to θ=180°. in this case, the end of the arm where the string is connected is at x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ, where r is the length of the arm. the distance between the two points is d = √[(x1 - x)² + (y1 - y)²] or **d = √[(x1 - r cosθ)² + (y1 - r sinθ)²]**. the unknowns you have here are the length of the arm (including your extension) and the position of the point on that first gear (x1, y1). put in values for those and you have the distance in terms of how many degrees the trap has swung. is that what you're looking for? i'm not quite sure i understand what you describe in the bonus question. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what does it mean for something to be a semi-stochastic process as opposed to a stochastic process? | stochastic steps, involves both deterministic, deterministic and stochastic ====== a semi-stochastic process is simply a process that involves both deterministic and stochastic steps. a simple example would be estimating the average slope of a line by randomly picking points and taking the derivative at those points and averaging. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does alcohol type has any affect on cloud chamber work? | hello everybody. i'm trying to make myself working cloud chamber (simple scheme: [_url_0_](_url_0_)). there are 3 wooden walls, front wall is glass. top is also wooden, with 2 large sponges attached. bottom is from thick sheet metal which is sealed with silicone to wooden and glass walls. i tried to experiment with this chamber, i raised the temperature inside with heat gun, then heated sponges and soaked them with ethanol. and closed the lid letting alcohol to evaporate inside the chamber. then i just placed upper part (box), on dry ice in bottom container lined with styrofoam. i waited a few minutes, but nothing happened. i just saw cloud of, what i presume was just alcohol vapor. but i did't see any traces of particles. and i can't figure out what am i doing wrong. i saw somewhere, that with cloud chamber i should use isoprophylic alcohol, not ethanol. could this be true? or maybe it could rather be matter of tightness of chamber, or too high/low concentration of alcohol vapors? | water content begins, ethanol, cloud formation ====== what concentration is your ethanol? anything below 95% and the water content begins to interfere with the cloud formation. also, try using either one big sponge filling the entire "ceiling", or even better a fabric like felt. felt has a much higher surface area and releases the alcohol vapor better and more uniformly. | 3 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/a/5mLtIyI"
] | [] | [
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if i have three different blankets, does it matter what order they are in? | i have a sheet, a blanket and a comforter, does it matter what order they are in or with and combination of the three have the same effect at keeping me warm? | ultralight weight camping, weight camping manual, ultralight weight ====== i have an answer for you straight out of an ultralight weight camping manual. it agrees with many other camping and survival situation manuals and training programs i'm familiar with. this information is coming from a place of practical experimentation and not necessarily sound theoretical background, but my first year university physics professor certainly agreed with it. (we talked about camping occasionally) for maximum warmth you should have an inner layer which wicks moisture away from your skin, like cotton or muslin cloth or a light wool blanket. your remaining layers should be arranged to minimize compacting, so in your case i assume the comforter is the thickest and most compactible layer and it should go on top. your inner layer should be whichever of your blanket and your sheet are the best moisture wicker. bed sheets are typically made to be very moisture wicking, unless they are special sheets made for people with incontinence issues. so your ideal order for maximum warmth is (skin, sheet, blanket, comforter), assuming that you mean the same thing i do by those terms where described above. to recap, 1. moist cloth is the most temperature conductive material in this situation, so your bedding should be designed to wick moisture away from your skin as much as possible. 2. blankets insulate primarily by trapping pockets of still air, so keeping the layers around you as loose as possible maximizes warmth. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when camera crews visit ancient tribes, have any of them expressed interest or longing for the crews' lives or technology? | when i picture one of those solitary ancient african tribes being visited by planet earth producers or what have you, i always imagine that they find the technology scary, like some kind of cartoon i guess. have any of these tribesmen expressed interest or longing for 1st world technology? | pirahã were contacted, brazilian villages, started to learn ====== sure. after the pirahã were contacted, many of them started to learn portuguese and get jobs and homes in brazilian villages, for instance. i doubt any of them had any special *longing* for technology, because you have to sort of understand something to want it, but. | 74 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/White_mans_burden_the_journal_detroit.JPG",
"http://anthropologynet.files.wordpress.com/2007/09/gary-larson-1984-far-side-anthropologists.jpg?w=376",
"http://ethnoground.blogspot.com/2014/08/forget-colonial-myths-xatanawa-contact.html"
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why is optical interconnection faster? | main performance increase, fiber-optic interconnects compared, main performance ====== the main performance increase in fiber-optic interconnects compared to say copper, is the bandwidth that is permitted by the medium, ie; the amount of data that can be travelling the cable at any given moment. (comparable to the width of a pipe carrying water) this is due to fiber-optics using beams of light to transmit the data, which operate at much higher frequencies than copper does. another benefit of using light is the minimal interference over long cable runs, copper is very susceptible to all sorts of electromagnetic interference meaning it is somewhat more likely that the data does not reach the destination as it was intended and may need to be re-sent. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is a shock absorber of the type chell wears in portal possible? | basically, could some kind of footwear that makes landing from heights less painful be created? | joints and bones, limited by human, human joints ====== yes, however there are limits to the design, mostly limited by human joints and bones. i am of the opinion valve came across [poweriser stilts](_url_0_) and just integrated a similar shape onto chell. ps: for a more through explanation of the physics involved see [phoenixfenix's post](_url_1_) | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_PJHIv1bZE",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/jwnky/is_a_shock_absorber_of_the_type_chell_wears_in/c2fs8hk"
] | [
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] |
is it possible for the pituitary gland to stop producing vasopressin? | i watched [this scishow video](_url_0_). i wanted to know if it is possible for the pituitary gland to stop secreting vasopressin. | disease called central, diabetes insipidus, called central ====== there is a disease called central [diabetes insipidus](_url_0_) which occurs due to the pituitary gland not secreting enough vasopressin (also known as antidiuretic hormone - which makes more sense in this context). similar to people in an intoxicated state due to alcohol, patients experience excessive urination (since vasopressin causes free water to be reabsorbed by the kidney). additionally, they will have excessive thirst and problems with their electrolytes. it is treated by giving them a synthetic form of vasopressin. also worth pointing out that the hypothalamus produces vasopressin and the pituitary stores it. | 5 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nN5j0j0Cibc&t=0m55s"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_insipidus"
] | [
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what causes the rejection of xenotransplanted organs? | so i know that the antibodies are responding to antigens, but is there anything else that's involved? are there any specific surface marker proteins on the cells of the xeno-organ that the body doesn't recognize? and if so could gene therapy be a possible solution to the issue? | organ, rejection, host immune system ====== there are actually several mechanisms of rejection. one is the one you're referencing -- the host's immune system recognizes the transplant as 'foreign', develops antibodies, and wipes it out after some time. it's tricky to hide antigens on a transplanted organ, which is why people undergo a rigorous matching process to attempt to reduce the mismatch between donor and host. this is of course much more difficult when the host is not human. that's why i'm also personally really optimistic for organ cloning -- if we take a patient's donor cells and grow them into an organ, we could bypass this whole mess (and also bypass the additional mess of arranging a donor!). for the sake of a complete answer, here are the different ways you can reject an organ: - hyperacute rejection (within minutes) - you already possess antibodies against antigens in the organ transplant (i.e. b cells), and your immune system goes bananas and destroys the organ immediately - acute rejection (within months) - your t cells presumably recognize immune cell signals like mhc on the graft and get activated, activating the immune response - chronic rejection (longer down the road) - your t cells instead process antigens chewed up by your own macrophages it's a lot more complicated than that, though, and there's a lot of research still being done to classify what exactly happens when a patient eats up their transplant. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does indeterminacy exist in the physical world? | i know that this is the case for quantum mechanics, but is there any micro to macro relationship in terms of quantum indeterminacy? and is there anything else that acts indeterminately? | depends how strict, quantum indeterminacy, indeterminacy ====== it depends how strict your definition of "indeterminacy" is, which at some point is likely to become more metaphysical than truly scientific. quantum indeterminacy appears by our observations to be fundamental. the following examples may not be - however, whether we will ever have the capacity to account for all the variables to model them remains to be seen. here's a couple of systems to consider below: beyond the quantum world, there are points of study in other sciences that demonstrate stochastic or intrinsically random behavior. i come from a neuroscience/molecular biology background so my examples will be biased that way but here goes - one example of this us found in development, where cell differentiation, morphology and location at the finer levels is highly variable and seemingly random in the retina, possibly reflecting an intrinsically stochastic mechanism (sample citation [here](_url_0_) for those who are interested). another fascinating example of this is in the field of decision neuroscience - numerous neurophysiological studies have demonstrated the time delay between detection and decision (as evidenced by a behavior, such as an eye movement towards the object of choice) is inherently random to some degree. what produces this randomness is unclear - it may be due to the electrical/physiological factors in individual neurons or the inherent chaos of neural networks. what emerges is something not totally predictable, at least within our current modeling capacity. i can provide references if you like. i completely recognize of these examples may not be truly "indeterminate" by stricter definitions. hope this has been helpful regardless. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21148186"
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could you tell that camels have humps just by looking at their skeletons? | like, say you had some archaeology students who were raised in a bunker and were taught everything about how to discern external anatomy from skeletal structure, but never taught that camels existed. if they were given a camel skeleton, could they geuss that it had a hump? | device called inference, investigative device called, called inference ====== the short answer is "probably not." the long answer is more complicated, and involves a necessary investigative device called inference. we can look to animals with fatty humps and look at their bones to determine if there's a correlated hard, bony feature with the soft, fatty feature. for the most part, the bony parts of camel skeletons look little different than deer or cattle skeletons do in these areas, and their humps are above the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, whereas the humps of other names, such as zebu cattle, are above their shoulders, where there are tall bony spines (which attach ligaments supporting the head, the nuchal system). so, using this information, we infer merely based on similar skeletons, that fatty humps aren't likely to leave skeletal traces. but we can go a step further. we can *know* what relatives look like, and have bumped or unhumped versions, and infer the probability of the new skeleton having such a thing. if the probability is reasonable, we then can say there is a likelihood there was a hump. however, the essential long answer is, "it depends." | 214 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Camel_Skeleton_-_Richard_Owen_-_On_the_Anatomy_of_Vertebrates_%281866%29.jpg"
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] |
how long is the jwst reasonably expected to last? | in the faq (_url_0_, #8), it states that: > > webb is designed to have a mission lifetime of not less than 5-1/2 years after launch, with the goal of having a lifetime greater than 10 years. the lifetime is ultimately limited by the amount of fuel used for maintaining the orbit, and by proper functioning in orbit of the spacecraft and instruments. in the wikipedia article for the hubble, it states that: > > hubble was designed to accommodate regular servicing and equipment upgrades while in orbit. instruments and limited life items were designed as orbital replacement units.[76] i am assuming, given its orbit, that the jwst cannot be serviced. will 5 years be enough operational time to accomplish all the missions that are planned for the telescope? also, it feels as though the jwst is the successor to the hubble, yet it has a much smaller operational lifetime than the hubble. is there anything planned in the event the jwst only lasts the minimal 5.5 years? | politucal question, jwst, vibration ====== this is more of a politucal question than anything else. politics unfortunately decides budgets for big projects like jwst. in general, the lifetime numbers come from failure analysis. in this field of study engineers predict the environment of the spacecraft (gravity, any impacts from objects, radiation from sun, as well as speed) in order to determine what part will fail first under expected conditions. the expected life comes from that number. these predictions are usually made to be conservative for a project like jwst (hubble has long outlived its predicted life). they are made through simulation usually; but the ships structural (vibration) response is actually measured and conmpared to computer models to verify that the deformation/vibration of the structure is exactly as the computers predicted. jwst [finished](_url_0_) final vibration testing in march of this year, during which its vibration response was measured and closely compared to pc models. | 2 | [] | [
"https://jwst.nasa.gov/faq.html"
] | [
"https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12546"
] | [
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when particles behave differently because they are being observed, is it because our observation techniques change the behavior, or something beyond that? | from what i understand, the mere act of observation alters a particle's behavior, regardless of the method. if this is true, wouldn't it be that understand what a particle is doing changes what a particle is doing? | necessarily change behavior, observed, particle ====== a particle doesn't necessarily change behavior when it's observed. in fact, a particle isn't even a particle until it's observed. it's a wave. the best layman analogy that i've heard is from minute-physics: all particles are like specks of dust inside a raindrop. the speck of dust can be anywhere inside that raindrop until the raindrop collapses due to human observation. to be more technical- all particles are probability densities propagating through space and time. adding or subtracting potential energy from the system changes how those probability densities look like. now when an observation is made, the current consensus is that the probability density, or "raindrop", magically collapses, according to what's known as the copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. on the other hand, the many worlds interpretation states that our brains and bodies get entangled in the system- i.e. we spread out into our own "raindrops", and we end up splitting into many different "worlds", each with its own probability density. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfactual_definiteness"
] | [
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chemists, does this make sense: | hey, i am writing a paper on the formation of stars. it is for a history course on the formation of the universe and i have very little knowledge of chemistry, or any science discipline. hydrogen atoms are converted into helium atoms by stripping electrons from the atom and forcing it to combine with a proton, forming a neutron. the end result is a small amount of mass lost from the original hydrogen atom, which is converted into energy. ultimately the collapsing cloud is balanced with the energy from the helium reactions and a star is formed. my brother, who has an elementary knowledge of chemistry, argues that it isnt right. but i cant understand his explanation. thanks. | protons, nucleus, neutron ====== i think this is best left to a physicist. it seems right, but i think there is more to it. have you looked in any physics text books? the topic you are interested in is nuclear fusion: _url_0_ there is a bit more here: _url_1_ just re-read to see your not of a scientific background, so the wikipedia links might be a bit jargony! so from what i read it seems you have two protons (hydrogen nuclei) collide, loosing a positron (thereby converting one of the protons to a neutron). now, we have deuterium (a proton + neutron), which can further collide with a free proton to form an isotope of the helium nucleus, helium-3 (two protons, one neutron). two of these collide (making a bigger but unstable nucleus) which degrades to the helium-4 nucleus and two protons. the release of a positron is a source of energy, as it collides with an electron and they annihilate. also, the formation of the helium-3 nucleus also gives off energy. i hope this helps, and someone with a better understanding will hopefully do better but this might get you started! | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-proton_chain"
] | [
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why is quadriplegia/paraplegia irreversible? | i know that some spinal cord injuries are reversible and some are not. for those who have spinal cord injuries that result in irreversible quadriplegia/paraplegia, what has gone wrong that medicine cannot fix yet/ever? | spinal cord, acute spinal cord, spinal cord injury ====== i was going to write a nice summary but then i found [this](_url_0_) website and it honestly gives a fantastic description of the processes that occur following acute spinal cord injury. in a nutshell though, your spinal cord is made up of the axons (think of them as your brain wires) connecting your muscles to your brain. when there's an injury, and the spinal cord is ruptured, these axons can be damaged or severed completely. this is a problem as they are not very good at growing back. the damage further causes the loss of myelin (think wire insulation that shields the electrical impulses travelling up the axons) so that nerve impulses don't travel well, or at all, along the spinal cord. there is then an inflammatory response that causes more damage, and the axons often just fire off impulses endlessly effectively killing nerve cells (excitotoxicity). cells that usually support and wrap around the axons (glia and oligodendricytes) then start to form a scar at the injury site and may actively prevent axon regrowth. blood vessels are also damaged, so parts of the spinal cord can die off due to lack of blood flow/blood pressure changes. this all causes paralysis and loss of sensation because the axons that are cut, damaged or otherwise killed are responsible for carrying motor commands to your muscles and sensory information back. the reason it's often irreversible is this: imagine you get a fibre optic cable and cut a bit of it. you can imagine how hard it would be to reconnect that. nerve fibres are much finer, numerous, and more delicate than that. it's impossible to manually reattach it. this is also because they aren't really individual wires so much as tubes filled with special fluid and proteins and cellular machinery. so once you break them open it all spills out and can kill the cell if it doesn't heal over. once it's healed over, how do you stick it back together? we can't. in really severe cases there's nothing to be done although the idea behind newer therapies (like stem cells) is to grow new nerves from the beginning to replace the severed or damaged ones. but it's the most insanely complicated wiring system imaginable - innumerable contacts from the brain through the spinal cord out to the exact right muscle or sensory cell and back again. we can't just put them in, we have to convince the body to act like it did when it first made them so it can connect everything properly. and that's really tricky to do in adults for a whole host of reasons. i'll stop here because this is getting a bit long, but i hope it gave you some of the info you were after. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/sci/detail_sci.htm#186383233"
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why are particulates bad for you? | i currently live in china, where there are constant worries about the pollution in the air and its heath affects. in particular, there has been a lot of talk about pm 2.5 readings - which i believe registers particles in the air smaller than 2.5 microns. so this is my question: why are particulates bad, and why are smaller particulates particularly (bad pun intended) damaging? i sort of assumed that the damage is mostly mechanical in nature, that is, that particulates tend to clog your bronchioles and such, and that especially small particles can clog your lungs more efficiently, but i started thinking that its possible that these especially tiny little pieces of god-knows-what have a more pronounced toxifying effect because they can more efficiently deliver damaging compounds into your body. so how does all this work? xie xie. | partially correct, assumptions are partially, correct ====== your assumptions are partially correct. inhalation of particulate matter can cause a whole host of cardiovascular and respiratory problems. the pm 2.5 readings they are talking about refer to particles with a diameter around 2.5 microns. they also monitor larger pm10 particles (which of course have a diameter of 10microns) particulates around 10 micrometers/microns and smaller are deposited in your bronchioles and alveoli. the pm2.5 particles can actually enter our circulatory system. god may know whats in pm but so does science ;). the composition of the particulates depends on where and how they formed. their general ingredient list includes carbonaceous species, volatile organic compounds (voc), sulphates and nitrates. these aren't compounds you want in your circulatory system. through chemical interactions you could eventually end up with various forms of cancer, asthma, cardiovascular issues, prenatal problems and god-knows-what-else ;) _url_0_ check out the video he talks about it a bit. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/user/ChannelMonster",
"http://www.epa.gov/pmdesignations/basicinfo.htm",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18946409",
"http://www.mindfully.org/Health/2004/Nonoparticles-On-Brain2004.htm"
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how quickly does our body identify nutritious intake of substances? | think of when you're a bit hungry, and you eat a pb-jelly sandwich. the (slight) hunger goes away quite quickly, but i imagine the digestion process takes quite some time. what if i ate indigestible food with the same texture that my body couldn't break down? could i fool my belly/brain? how does our body regulate hunger and how quickly and accurately can it do it actually? | feel part, feel, question ====== i feel part of this question can be answered with another question. does the feeling of hunger make us feel tired/weak etc. or does the lack of nutrition only make us feel that way. if hunger makes us tired/weak then that would partially explain why we immediately feel better upon eating that pbj. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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high-output heart failure: why rvf before lvf? | why do the clinical signs of rvf appear before lvf in cases of hohf? let's take hyperthyroidism as an example. the bmr of the body is markedly increased so the nutrient demand is also markedly increased. shouldn't this make the lv more susceptible to failure? the entire peripheral circulation is supplied by the lv, whilst the rv only has to supply the pulmonary circulation. | low resistance circuit, work, resistance ====== it’s about the capacity of that muscle to do the work. the rv is thin walled and designed to pump against a low resistance circuit. usually these conditions (carcinoid, av fistula, hyperthyroid) are associated with tachycardia and some increase in pulmonary vascular resistance. the lv is thick and built to work against resistance. the rv cannot maintain sustained work against that load so it fails first. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can a eusocial animal survive on its own if it is separated from its colony? | for example, what would happen of you separate a single worker or soldier ant from its colony? will it continue on living up to its life expectancy given enough food and shelter? can it hunt for food and find shelter on its own? or will it die because literally has no idea what it supposed to do outside of working for the colony? what about other eusocial animals like termites or bees? | live long, completely isolated, species ====== that depends on the species, but if it is completely isolated from its family, they usually don't live long. unless you mean, say, a new queen looking to start her own colony. they always start out alone. that said, an ant colony could function for a while without its queen just fine, they just wouldn't be able to replace dead individuals | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could ligo use more than two beams? | why does the ligo only use two beams and not several or an array? could the beam splitter be made to rotate? what if they built the ligo in space? | gravitational wave observatories, wave observatories spread, gravitational wave ====== it could be built with more than two beams, but if your beams are in the plane of the earth's surface, you're not going to find out much more by using more than two beams in the same location. that's why there are gravitational wave observatories spread out around the world now. as for space, it's a really interesting idea. a detector in space could potentially be much more sensitive than earth based detectors at certain frequencies. the esa is planning one: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna"
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gal4 in drosophila? | i've come upon some neuroscience research involving gal4 lines of drosophila. it says they work primarily with split lines. what is the gal4 gene? what do they mean by split lines? why is it so important? | promoter of interest, interest, gene of interest ====== you make a drosophila line that expresses the yeast gene gal4 under control of a promoter of interest (say actin for example). you make a separate cell line that expresses a gene of interest (say green fluorescent protein) under control of uas. when you cross the two lines, any drosophila cell that acrivates your promoter of interest (actin) will express gal4, which will in turn bind to uas and express your gene of interest (gfp). now all actin expressing cells glow green! it's a split system because it requires the crossing of two genetic elements to see a phenotype. either individual line is usually phenotype free. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is it possible to use ridiculously strong bases in the lab if they react in the atmosphere? | so i'm curious and i want to know how you can be able to use obnoxiously strong bases in the lab. for example, butyl lithium would turn into a drop of fire if was used in one of those droppers. how would you add these to some reactions? | open container, react, container ====== for many of the super bases that react with the air you never do them in an open container. you have to seal the container and put the reaction under an atmosphere that doesn't react. this can be nitrogen for some compounds, but others require argon instead because nitrogen can still react with some of the stronger bases. compounds are added and removed through something such as rubber septum which maintains the atmosphere. often the reagents are made when you need them as storing them can be troublesome. so what you do is keep the reagents on hand that can make the superbase and when you go to run the reaction you put the reactants in, seal the container, and make the super base. then once it is made you add whatever you plan on reacting with it. there are also special chambers one can use if you are working with something particularly sensitive like a pyrophoric compound for instance. _url_0_ there's probably a few other techniques i'm forgetting, but that should give you a rough idea of how it works. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://web.ornl.gov/sci/ees/bsd/bst/resources/anaerobic%20chamber1.jpg"
] | [
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what is the theory behind "microsatellite enrichment"? how does it work? | dna, desired molecules, increase the concentration ====== in molecular biology, the term enrichment means to increase the concentration of your desired molecules in a sample. in the case of microsatellite enrichment, we want to increase the number of dna fragments that contain a microsatellite (a repeating sequence). generally a researcher would want to enrich microsatellite dna in a sample because microsatellites are useful tools to study various evolutionary events or to act as a molecular clock. i haven't used this technique myself, as i work in yeast and microsatellites generally aren't used for a genome this small. but i understand the theory behind this procedure. you can read a [pdf](_url_1_) of [gonzalez and zardoya's chapter on this technique from the book *microsatellies*](_url_0_) for really detailed information and how to design this procedure. basically, to enrich for repeating sequences, dna is isolated and broken into fragments. some of these fragments will contain the sequences that we are interested in. since dna will base pair to its complimentary sequence, we can design short dna pieces, called probes, that contain the repeat we want to study (in the above chapter, this is just repeats of the two bases c and g). these probes are attached to something, generally tiny beads, so they can be physically removed from the solution containing the dna fragments that don't bind. if the probes are on beads, they can be spun down in a centrifuge, and the solution removed from them. then the beads are washed, to remove any remaining dna solution that isn't strongly bound to the probes on the beads. finally, the dna fragments can be stripped off the probes. then they can be amplified by pcr and sequenced to determine what the repeating sequences are, and what other dna is around them. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/protocol/10.1007/978-1-62703-389-3_5",
"http://www.researchgate.net/publication/236097961_Microsatellite_DNA_capture_from_enriched_libraries/file/5046351b9e5c99c054.pdf"
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|
how can you remove an entire hamate bone from the wrist and still be able to play baseball? | wilson ramos is the latest to have "wilson's wrist" surgery, where his hamate bone is removed. how does the hand compensate for the lack of what seems to be a fairly major bone? | reports commonly, hamate is removed, hamate ====== while the reports commonly say the whole hamate is removed, in reality it is only the hook of the hamate that is excised. people are still able to function quite well without the hook, though there is a slight decrease in grip strength. unfortunately the hamate is prone to nonunion(as in, it doesn't heal properly), particularly if it isn't reduced(put back into place) quickly and properly, so some patients with this type of injury go on to require the excision. possibly disturbing surgical images below: _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.eatonhand.com/img/img00056.htm"
] | [
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can one improve their reaction speed with effort and training or is it something that is more or less set in stone and can only degrade? | i'd really like to improve my reaction time but in several tests i have taken its averaging about ~320-350 milliseconds, is their any practice or exercise i can do to get better? | pretty easily, improve it pretty, developing reaction times ====== you can improve it pretty easily. table tennis is great for developing reaction times, and, if i'm not mistaken, stick fighting has the same effect, and you'd probably learn faster by way of the welts. basically, you need to find something you need to be fast at, and just practice that; the speed will come from there. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential#Propagation"
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can we, given today's technological llmitations, passively refridgerate/cool something indefinitely? if not, how long can we make it last? | i think i'm phrasing it correctly, but if not, what i mean is: could we currently create a powerless cooler or thermos that would keep something cold indefinitely? | relative term, passively cool buildings, passively cool ====== cold is a relative term. for instance, we can passively cool buildings. westinghouse claims their new ap1000 nuclear reactor can passively cool the core for 72 hours; after which is just need a top up. if you can put something in a sufficient cold environment, this would help (maybe space?). all-in-all, the second law of thermodynamics is going to answer your question with a no. due to thermalization, it is impossible to keep something indefinitely "cooler" than it's environment. edit: in regards to your second question, you want to look into [r-values](_url_0_). r-50 seems to be the highest value i could find. you can find commercially available stuff in the 40s. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-value_%28insulation%29"
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why is it common to give depo-provera to a male psych patient without an axis-i para/pedophila diagnosis or conviction? | i'm a medical student doing a rotation in a large state hospital and one thing i've noticed is that there are several men on depo-provera. when one of the other students asked why this was the staff psychiatrist stated that it was to reduce sexually acting out/inappropriate behavior in some patients. while this is probably effective, at least one of these patients is also on testosterone depot injections. i'm curious about the ethics of this as well, but i understand that's likely outside the purview of this r/. my question is, how common is this and is there any literature to support its use? is it even ethical from a consent perspective to do so without a court order? i've used some google-fu to try and find some information but outside of pedophiles and for women who are mr or something similar there doesn't seem to be a whole lot out there. if there is a separate sub-reddit that anyone thinks might be more appropriate to ask this in please let me know. | link, save the day, url ====== i know there are a few psychiatrists who are panelists who can swoop in to save the day in a while. i had a look at my psychiatry book and hypersexuality and behaviors arn't covered in it. i looked around in pubmed and the consensus seems that there isnt any gold standard of treatment, but lhrh agonists and ssri's appear to be popular choices. all of the studies below are in patients who are classified as having a paraphilia or hypersexual disorder. [link 1](_url_1_) [link 2](_url_2_) [link 3](_url_0_) [link 4](_url_3_) [link 5](_url_4_) link 5 is based on hypersexuality in the cognitively impaired - parkinsons is a classic example i would be familiar with. ive seen this once ( although its not apparently uncommon) and it was treated with ssri. didnt really work. i dont know enough about psychiatry to tell you the latest and most up to date info beyond that. in terms of the ethics, i wouldnt see the treatment of **pathological** and disruptive sexually inappropriate behavior as any different from treating any other symptom. i am imagining somebody who is just grabbing nurses/masturbating on the ward/upsetting his family/wife persistently and its having a negative impact on his health/social situation/ability to have others care for him etc. there are many drugs you give to patients without consent, even outside of emergencies ( sedating agitated patients for example ) and if a patient is unable to give consent (psychiatric patient/geriatric patients with dementia ) then you act in their best interest in conjunction with the family. each country is different regarding who gets the final say in thing ( doc vs family ) but its not for the courts ( in the eu at least ). | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12927003",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19243704",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12971182",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17555003",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19161930",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21551452"
] | [
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what's the fundamental problem with lewis structures? | envelope calculation, electronic energy levels, energy levels ====== think of them like a back of the envelope calculation. they will give you a good approximation of the final answer and even a handwavy explanation why it works, but doesn't include everything (such as the electronic energy levels). if you want more details, you will need to a detailed calculation on a computer. they are fine for undergraduates in gen chem trying to grasp why molecules have the shapes they do, but if you are doing any advanced undergraduate or higher work, you won't be using lewis structures. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
could graphyne potentially serve as a carrier of electrical current over extreme distances? | considering that it transmits electrons in one direction, [as if they were massless](_url_0_), could this material be used to take advantage of consistent solar radiation. for example to transfer virtually lossless current from solar panels located along the equator to northern/southern regions, or from space to earth's surface? | effective mass, url, effective ====== 'as if they were massless' here is a very misleading if you don't know what it's referring to, which is [effective mass](_url_0_). which is something quite different from 'mass' in a proper sense. it's the 'mass' that they'd have defined by how they respond to an electrical field, if you pretend they act classically (which electrons don't). effective mass is different in different directions, and it can even be negative. anyway, neither graphene or graphyne are superconductors. | 6 | [] | [
"http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2012/03/graphyne-could-be-better-than-gr.html"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_mass_%28solid-state_physics%29"
] | [
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is it possible to affect earth's natural movement? | is it possible for humans to affect earth's rotation in any way (significant or non-significant) or maybe do some large scale changes in earth's natural motion? | planet rotational inertia, conserve angular momentum, equator effectively increased ====== when the three gorges dam was built in china, raising all that water to a higher altitude relatively close to the equator effectively increased the planet's rotational inertia, lengthening the day to conserve angular momentum. the change is about 60 nanoseconds, less than natural variation. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does your phone (or a pedometer) tell the difference between a step and random movement? | random movements, random, data ====== random movements are random and steps are very repetitive and almost identical. up and down in a specific rhythm that allows you to look for periodic movement. so you just check the accelerator data for sequences of accelerations that you would expect during walking or running. [this paper](_url_0_) uses a simple approach and has some sensor data in it (figure 1) where you can see how easy it is to spot the periodic steps in the data. there's multiple way to do this, you could use classical signal processing that would use filters and peak detection to look for certain frequencies and amplitudes in the data. but this is also something that you could solve with "modern" machine learning algorithms like a neural network. usually getting training data is the most difficult thing here but it's not too complicated to get the accelerometer data of people walking around (just imagine how many steps you do during a 1 hour walk). that being said it doesn't always work and i have heard multiple people that noticed that their smartwatch picked up certain repetitious movements (like writing or other more private ventures) as a long walk. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1801.02336.pdf"
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|
when the us presidential candidates talk about basic research (as they did in debate 3) what does that mean? what's considered basic, what's advanced? | comments such as this by the president: > if we’re not making investments in education and basic research, which is not something that the private sector is doing at a sufficient pace right now and has never done, then we will lose the [lead] in things like clean energy technology. | economic gain, generally considered, research ====== basic research is generally considered to be research that offer no immediate economic gain. the lhc is a prime example of this. it's mostly a big money pit from a business point of view. however, einstein's nobel prize in 1921 was awarded for his discovery of the photoelectric effect. just basic research, but with obvious financial possibilities. and of course all the early research into quantum physics was basic research, done with little regard to the bottom line, the goal mainly being the advancement of knowledge. technology using quantum physics is ubiquitous today - our current level of economy would be impossible without it. applied research is what businesses usually do, though non-profit organizations like universities or government agencies often also participate in that. an example of this is investment in firms like tesla, which is expanding on well-established technology to create an infrastructure and vehicles to use it. much that is just business investment, but quite a bit of research went into it as well. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do we have a brain parasite doctor in the house? | this is the organism i'm interested in: [_url_0_](_url_0_) now, this organism migrates to the brain of ungulates... i'm unable to discern a reason for this. they spend the majority of their life cycle in gastropods though, and in them i could understand migrating to the brain in an effort to have the host eaten. ok, so, my thought is that this parasite targets the brain of gastropods to make them more inclined to be eaten by an ungulate and that any "madness" that occurs in non-white-tailed-deer ungulates is a result of something they share with gastropods that white-tailed deer don't. any feedback will be welcome. i have a personal interest in parasites and mind-control parasites in particular, and there is a gap in reasoning with this particular parasite that's bothering me. | specific nematode, brain tissue, brain ====== this is my area of expertise, but unfortunately i am not familiar with this specific nematode. unfortunately, i doubt that this has anything to do with brain control. for one, many worms use gastropods as intermediate hosts, and they often infect their reproductive tissues, not their brains so they may parasitize the gastropods without killing them immediately, which would interrupt their asexual proliferation phase. as for the ungulates having their brain tissue infected, this is most likely by mistake, it seems to properly complete their life cycle they must reach the digestive tract. larvae that reach the brain tissue and hatch there seem to be the ones causing this pathology, but they cant exit the body to reproduce, so there doesnt seem to be a selective advantage for it. i would guess that the neural pathology must work slow, or the parasite life cycle must be fast for this species interaction, as the pathology associated with it seems quite severe, much different than the behavioral modification seen with toxoplasma infection. what intrigues me is the the gastropods are ingested for infection to occur--which is almost never the norm. many larval stage worms that use a snail intermediate are perfectly good at penetrating mammalian skin, and would not rely on their intermediate host being ingested. however, if there *was* behavioral modification in the ungulates, it might preference for damper, humid areas, as that is where the larvae will most likely come into contact with gastropods. i can't say definitively that they don't use "mind control" but there might be a less complicated explanation, though it is plausible. i am going to run this by my colleagues tomorrow to see if they are familiar with this organism, and will update you with what i hear. edit: no one was really familiar with this parasite, but it seems like what i said is accurate. the larvae in the brain of mammals just seems to be a quirk, as they seem to have accidentally wandered there. | 3 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parelaphostrongylus_tenuis"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii"
] | [
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is it possible to guide and manipulate evolution to attain a desired result? for example, could we breed a chocobo out of an ostrich over time? | considerable number, easy answer, plants ====== considering the fact that we have done this with a considerable number of animals and plants, the easy answer is yes. [selective breeding](_url_0_) is what i'm assuming you're asking about here. not all animals are equally amenable to being forced into mating with particular partners that humans pick, so there are sure to be difficulties with certain species. an interesting topic that is related to but not directly addressed by your question is whether we can genetically manipulate large animals in a more direct fashion. | 55 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_breeding",
"http://scienceblogs.com/thoughtfulanimal/2010/06/14/monday-pets-the-russian-fox-st/",
"http://gcep.stanford.edu/pdfs/ib0KJnIw5S-8G1RS8EqnPg/2.3.3.sherlock.pdf"
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|
why do narwhals have horns (tusks)? what do they use them for? | from my searching it seems the consensus is that no one knows. are there any theories? | males grow tusks, generally speaking, sexual display ====== it has been suggested that narwhals use their tusks for sexual display, much like a deer's antlers or a lion's mane (generally speaking, only males grow tusks). the tusk is also a sensory organ that narwhals may use to detect changes in the seawater. narwhals may also rub their tusks together to communicate information about their environment and surrounding water. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
statistics: data in the natural sciences is often really noisy. how do you determine which samples to keep and which to throw out? | endocrinology and behavior, standard deviations, sample size ====== in my field (endocrinology and behavior) you are "allowed" to throw out outliers that are beyond 2 standard deviations from the mean. in actual practice though we almost never throw them out, because as my graduate advisor taught me, "sometimes the outliers teach you the most". instead we seek a bigger sample size so that we can include the outliers but still discern the major pattern in the data. with a good sample design, suffiecient sample size and appropriate statistics, there is never any need to throw out data. if the data are "noisy" you simply need a bigger sample size. we usually do power analyses before starting a study to figure out what sample size we need. the only reason to throw out a data point, imo, is if you have good reason to suspect it isn't "real", eg your instruments failed, a sample was mishandled, etc. (real life example: in sea turtle biology we have just learned we should maybe be throwing out any heart rate data that is approximately double the normal rate, because these data points may be due to the doppler heart rate detectors - designed for mammals - miscounting the reptilian atrial & amp; ventricular contractions as separate heartbeats.) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_squares",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RANSAC",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cook's_distance"
] | [
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|
is there evidence of precognition? | the claim is that a subject's emotional response, either negative or neutral, will precede the test stimulus of a random picture shown. there's a fancy graph in this video which explains the claim better than i have: _url_0_ my question is whether anyone else has repeated the results? it seems like a standard clinical test for checking out a patient's emotional response. i would be surprised if no one else checked for the 3-4 second precognition effect. however, quantum weirdness has found its way into the function of different biological systems as the public has been learning, of late. is there any evidence of even a few seconds precognition? | published numerous papers, dean radin, believer in parapsychology ====== dean radin is well known as a believer in parapsychology and has published numerous papers in the field. the one dealing with this experiment can be found here: (pdf file) [electrodermal presentiments of future emotions](_url_0_) in it he details a set of four experiments which he claims give evidence of the phenomenon in the video. its a long paper, but there are things worth pointing out. the first, is the method by which he is performing his statistical analysis on pages 256 -257. its very complicated, and involves normalising the samples to remove random fluctuations and then looking at the changes rather than the absolute values. there is then a random permutations analysis which is repeated 50 times. i am not an expert in biostatistics, but do have experience in reading scientific journals, and i cannot follow the rationale for this analysis. of the four trials, actually only 2 give positive results - which he defines as a p value calculated by the above method of below 0.05. when you actually look at the graphs they simply don't look convincing.its very difficult to see any meaningful difference at all, even in the "positive trials" i do not see any evidence of control trials - testing the system with neutral pictures to see what normal fluctuations occur. this does not strike me as strong evidence. a claim such as this requires reliable, repeatable observations with a meaningful difference to be observed. overtly complicated analyses, with tiny effect sizes are not very convincing. | 6 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=cVqVJ0IXi_M#t=2537s"
] | [
"http://scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_18_2_radin.pdf"
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why would you need to distill a spirit multiple times? | russian standard vodka claims it is distilled over 200 times, why would this be necessary? surely even two or three distillation stages should make the alcohol about as pure as it would get? interested to hear your thoughts. | makes russian standard, makes russian, adding spirit ====== whoever makes russian standard probably has a reflux still, where they will just keep adding spirit to the run and never actually empty the still. therefore you could say spirit has been distilled 200 times because it just keeps going over and over the neck and condensing and some will make the cut but rest will fall back and start its journey again. vodka is so boring to make, ugh... you distill multiple times to get rid of conjeners. conjeners are the impurities in spirits, but at the same time, they are the flavours. when making whiskey (lots of fun!) you want to keep a certain amount of them in, that's why you just do a single pass. but with vodka you want to lose all flavor and trace of basically what the base grain that was used to make it. you can do this by distilling to a plus 95 proof. by american law, a vodka must be,'a flavorless, tasteless & colorless spirit'. this was my first post ever, hope this helps. | 88 | [] | [] | [] | [
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i can make my eyes shake very quickly from side to side (it looks like my eyes are vibrating). i showed my optician and he had no idea what caused it. do you know? | explain shortly, nystagmus, voluntary nystagmus ====== you are demonstrating what is called "voluntary nystagmus" (though it is actually a misnomer, as i will explain shortly. basically, you have a degree of control over moving your eyes that most people do not. you are making fast eye movements, known as "saccades", which we use to quickly redirect our gaze from one location to another without attending to what is in between. we all make many thousands of these refixations each day as part of our normal interaction with the world around us. we also make them even when there is no visual reason to do so; there is an irregularly patterned "noise" in the ocular motor system that is constantly generating very small (often cannot be detected without instruments) "microsaccades". it is hypothesized that one purpose they serve is to keep our vision from "bleaching" (fading) which would happen if a visual receptor (rod or cone in the retina) were to receive a constant, unchanging stimulus. in real, practical life, however, this is rather difficult, as we are just about always in motion, even if we think we are being as still as possible. (our heartbeat can be enough to cause retinal motion.) another important thing about saccades is that they take time to program and execute, and there is generally a refractory period following, when a new one should not be capable of being fired. however, in your case, you are making back-to-back saccades with almost no delay between them, so they are not visual. so, finally, as i promised, here is why "voluntary nystagmus" is misnamed. "nystagmus" is a condition where the eyes oscillate back and forth for any variety of reasons, from completely benign (infantile nystagmus syndrome), to rather bad news (brain injury due to illness, poisoning, or injury). but in all these cases, if you were to plot the position and velocity of the eye versus time, you would see that those saccadic movements are interspersed with slower phases. depending on the type of nystagmus they can serve to take the eye off of the target, or to bring it back. so, properly speaking, "voluntary nsytagmus" is actually "saccadic flutter". as i mentioned above, it is not a common talent (i have it too), and is sometimes used to try to fake illness. however, it is very difficult to perform for more than, say, a minute at a time, as it is quite fatiguing. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
what would happen if you frayed the ends of hundreds of small wires connected to two ends of a battery, and brushed them together? | battery, consequences possibly including, wire ====== you'd be creating a short circuit, with consequences possibly including a damaged battery, melting insulation / vaporized or molten wire / fire, and a chemical hazard, depending on the battery chemistry and the exact nature of your setup. to start with, let's say that there's only one wire attached to each end of the battery. the wire happens to be two 6" lengths of [22 awg](_url_0_), and is attached to the terminals of a 9 v (alkaline) battery. looking at that table, we can see that the resistance of the wire (both pieces in series) will be 16.14 mohms - that is, 0.01614 ohms. [ohm's law](_url_3_) tells us that v = i x r -- that the difference in electric potential (voltage) is equal to the amount of electrical current flowing multiplied by the resistance. in this situation, v and r are known, and i can be calculated. in addition to the wire resistance, the 9 v battery has some internal resistance - about 1 ohm, which saves us from complete disaster. so i = v / r, and the current is about 9 amps. going back to the awg table, the wire shouldn't melt or vaporize (although it will probably become noticeably hot), and might melt through the cheaper types of insulation. the battery, since it's probably [not expected to handle 9 a of current](_url_2_), will become very hot and unhappy, possibly igniting. if the battery didn't have any internal resistance, then we'd be looking at a current of well over 500 a - ten times what it would take to melt the wire! pulling that much current out of a battery / through a wire causes them to heat up, as the electrons try to move and collide with inconveniently placed atoms. more current ~ more collisions ~ more heat. all things considered, alkaline batteries are fairly safe in this scenario - they'll (more or less safely) self-destruct instead of providing a ridiculous amount of current, and you probably won't be exposed to any nasty chemicals. a car battery, on the other hand, has a smaller internal resistance (~0.01-0.001 ohms), and can handle lots of current. with a car battery, you'd easily melt the wires - although, if you short the car battery with large enough wires that can handle the current, you'll damage the battery and probably wind up with vented hydrogen gas and a good chance of a fire / worse. back to your original question! lots of tiny wires, random battery, and shorting the wires together. [fire](_url_1_). the wires will *probably* burn out quickly enough to avoid damaging the battery. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_wire_gauge#Tables_of_AWG_wire_sizes",
"https://youtu.be/HjWSV1LY_so?t=1m8s",
"http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/522.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm's_law"
] | [
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|
how/what are the processes behind semi-conductors? | i have been looking into thermoelectric generators and i understand that the use of thermopiles uses difference in temperature to produce electricity. however my concern is on n and p type semi-conductors, what materials are they generally made of(different combination of materials better)? what gives them the properties to produce the electricity? *i apologize in advanced if this post is in the wrong subreddit or not clear enough, still getting used to posting on reddit. | dopant atoms, minute amounts, amounts of dopant ====== the most common semiconductor devices are made of si (plus very minute amounts of dopant atoms, and things like ge to strain the lattice in particular areas for performance reasons). for high performance devices, gaas are used a lot. for some high temperature applications, ge is sometimes used. for things like leds, there are a multitude of different materials sandwiches used....gainas, algainp, gan, algan, sic, znse, etc. (getting leds to work at different colors requires a high degree of "band gap" engineering, so the materials sandwiches get pretty wild.) for solar applications, si is probably used the most. but there are others, like ingan, cdte, cuingase, gaas, ge, gainp, gainp2. again, band-gap engineering is important for increasing efficiency, but now you are trying to collect and convert all the different wavelengths of incoming light at high efficiency. most thermopiles i've ever seen didn't use semiconductors at all, but there are probably types i'm not familiar with. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can anyone please explain these formulas by mittag-leffler? x-post from r/mathematics | _url_0_ _url_2_ _url_1_ _url_3_ | give a bit, bit more detail, give ====== you're going to have to give a bit more detail about what you want. for example, why do you want them explained? what's your level of mathematical ability? also, i'm not sure that this is really an askscience kind of question. try here: /r/cheatatmathhomework . | 4 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/mathematics/comments/ua7cj/can_anyone_please_explain_these_formulas_by/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittag-Leffler_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittag-Leffler_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittag-Leffler_star"
] | [] | [
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can capillary action be used to generate electricity? | could you use it to transport water to a height where it could fall and power a turbine? | perpetual motion machine, motion machine, perpetual motion ====== nope, because then you'd have a perpetual motion machine. water naturally wants to climb into capillaries due to attractive forces, and to then remove that water you need to work to counter it. remember, you can't get something from nothing, and all energy is in balance. it's like asking: could i make a system that automatically lifts metal and deposits iron weights using a permanent magnet? the answer is no, because while the magnet would lift the iron weights, you'd need to go to the effort of removing them from the magnet and in the end you'd have no net gain. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=capillary&restrict_sr=on"
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is this a true statement? "consciousness collapses waves of potential" | conscious observation, quantum mechanics, double slit experiment ====== no. conscious observation is not what quantum mechanics means by "observation". in the double slit experiment (the classic example), it doesn't matter if a human looks at the experiment. what matters is that a detector interacts with the electrons. "observation" just means "interaction" and it can be between anything. you cannot observe something without interacting with it, and on quantum levels this changes the results of experiments. the whole idea that consciousness is somehow special in physics is a myth used to promote new agey bullshit that has no basis in science. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how does my contact solution work? | i pour hydrogen peroxide up to a given line, and put my contacts in the jar overnight, and the jar has a big metal thing in it, and when i get back, the hydrogen peroxide has become water and my contacts are sterile. why? edit: this also raises the question "how do catlaysts work?" anybody willing to help us out? | hydrogen peroxide accelerating, hydrogen peroxide, platinum embedded ====== the gray ring in the bottom has platinum embedded in it, platinum is a catalyst for hydrogen peroxide accelerating it's transformation to h2o and o2. bacteria and things don't like hydrogen peroxide, so it kills them, but by the time you put the contacts back in, the hydrogen peroxide has all reacted to form water and oxygen. hopefully someone can chip in with some more info on catalysts. i don't know a lot about them, i just know that they tend to accelerate reactions that are energetically favorable anyway (ie hydrogen peroxide "wants" to degrade into water and oxygen) it basically gives them a convenient site on which to transform. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
hypothetically, assume we were to fly to alpha centauri, or another possibly life sustaining planet... | this is slightly complicated to explain. if we were to fly to a life sustaining planet, at the same speed we currently are able to get to the moon, or the space station if that is faster, how long would it take to travel 1 light year? assuming it is this [planet](_url_0_): which is 20 light years away, how long would it take to travel there? would it even be reasonable to think we would get there before the sun of that planet fizzled out, assuming it is a red dwarf, at the same age as our sun in average years(it is as far along in it's life time that it would be habitable as our own sun)? | sun fizzle, sun, fizzle ====== would the new sun fizzle out? no. for a very ballpark sort of number, consider this. voyager 1 is travelling at about 17 km/s and has exited what some might call the border of the solar system (this is really ambiguous). at that speed it would take 350,000 years to travel 20 lightyears, while stars live for billions of years. that number, even with near future technology, could certainly be improved upon by more than an order of magnitude (perhaps several). | 10 | [] | [
"http://www.thetechherald.com/articles/Astronomers-discover-potentially-life-sustaining-planet"
] | [] | [
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what is it about methamphetamine that makes people look like shit? | following [this](_url_0_) front page post and sources like faces of meth campaign; excluding "meth mouth", what is it about methamphetamine in comparison to other psychoactive drugs that causes such drastic changes to physical appearance? is it mostly lifestyle or is there any drug mechanism of action that affects appearance? | lack of hygiene, lack of sleep, vast majority ====== the vast majority of damage done to the body by methamphetamine users is malnutrition followed by lack of sleep and then lack of hygiene. for people who smoke it the acid eats away at tooth enamel, which exacerbates the problems caused by the other problems. a very large number of methamphetamine addicts can fully recover from the physical damage after quitting, and there's even very little brain damage. so it's all their lifestyle: not eating, not sleeping, and not brushing their teeth or bathing regularly. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/WTF/comments/zqpbb/meth_not_even_once_people/"
] | [] | [
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can anyone elaborate on the iron-sulfur world theory? | i am a curriculum writer currently revising a lesson on biomolecules for high school biology. part of this lesson requires students to analyze and evaluate various theories of how complex biomolecules could have formed on our planet. students are to examine 3 theories: the oparin-haldane hypothesis, the rna world theory, and the iron-sulfur world theory. i have plenty of information about the first two, but not quite enough on the last. can anyone help a writer out? general questions i have: 1. what were the more significant studies done to support/refute this theory? (links to sources that i could read would be awesome) 2. besides gunter wächtershäuser, what other scientists have contributed to the research and from which institutions? 3. what are the most fundamental concepts you think a 9th grader in texas should understand about this theory? | high school kids, school kids, year into phd ====== this is a great question and it truly blows my mind that you're teaching this to high school kids, because i just heard about it my 2nd year into phd study. essentially, you won't find a biologist who will say that iron-sulfur chemistry doesn't partially define life on this world. it's an awesome study because it touches on fundamental chemistry and biology at the same time, which can be hard to find. basically, it must be iron because of the distribution in electron orbitals, and it must be sulfur because of the overlap of sulfur orbitals and iron orbitals. as far as basic concepts go discuss fad and how it's regeneration requires o2 and how iron can clearly speed up this process. discuss how many of the molecules in the e- transport chain are heme containing or cytochrome enzymes. in essence; everyone talks about how important oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen are, but life as we know it would not exist without fe-s chemistry. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016703705007635",
"http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/358/1429/59",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_world_theory#References"
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during the oscars, how did they make ted appear on stage? | was it anything like the tupac hologram used at coachella? or was it just added in post production. if it was edited in, what did everyone who was at the oscars see? | fairly simple image, simple image overlay, fairly simple ====== it looks like a fairly simple image overlay. the cameras were steady, so they likely used an empty podium as the mark point for the overlays. the other presenter (whose name escapes me at the moment) never really directly looks at the image, so there was likely no "head-substitute" or whatever you want to call it, the way tennis balls on sticks were used for character stand-ins in some feature films. so everyone who was actually there probably saw nothing, and looked at any secondary screens that may've been put up to show them the stream. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the 3d orientation of pennate muscle? | [wiki](_url_0_) i can only seem to find 2d representations and i'm trying to understand the 3d orientation of the muscle fibres and subsequently calculate fibre length and physiological cross sectional area. if they are arranged radially it would seem that density would be higher or diameter smaller at the centre of the arrangement, which doesn't seem correct. i'm hoping for a good graphic or reference, or failing that a good explanation. thank you! | imagine them contracting, arranged radially, radially ====== they would never be arranged radially - imagine them contracting. pennate muscles are essentially 2d for all intents and purposes. the fibres all run in the same direction in a given chunk of muscle, ie. unipennate, bipennate and multipennate. measuring fibre length is as simple as going from origin to insertion for that chunk. as for pcsa, there are equations for that. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennate_muscle"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_muscle_structure.jpg"
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if an event has a 4% chance of occurring everyday. what is the chance of said event occurring after 30 days? | hi askscience, long time lurker. anyways, i've been in a little math discussion with a friend about this tonight. if something has a 4% chance of occurring everyday, what is the chance the event happens after 30 days? our gut instinct was 120% but that doesn't really make sense to me. i have an m.s. in a non-technical degree but i've had a few graduate level statistics courses (mostly anova/ancova/manova/regression stuff) so i'm embarrassed i can't figure this out on my own.... thanks! | chance, calculate the chance, times ====== presumably you mean what's the chance of it occurring one or more times in 30 days? you really need to calculate the chance of it *not* happening. that's 0.96 every day. the chance of it not happening on all 30 days consecutively is 0.96^30 = 0.294..., so the chance of it happening is 1 - 0.294 = 0.706. of course, this includes all possible outcomes where it happens one or more times. your method to get 120% is wrong because it simply doesn't make sense, you don't add probabilities like that. consider a simple example, flipping a coin twice. perhaps this makes it clearer how your logic is wrong; the chance of getting tails twice is not 1, but 0.25. the chance of getting tails one or more times is 0.75. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how exactly do lagrange-4 and lagrange-5 work? | i feel like i understand l-1 through l-3 pretty well. l-1 is just where gravitational "forces" subtract perfectly to slow down orbits to geosynchronous, l-2 is where they add perfectly to speed up orbits to geosynchronous, and l-3 is on the opposite side of the sun as l-2 but has the same effect. however, no matter how many explanations i hear or how many diagrams i see, i still can't figure out what is so special about +/-60 degrees in the orbit, or why these are actually stable instead of metastable. | moon system, earth, moon ====== using l4 and the earth/ moon system to be specific. at l4, the distances to earth and moon are equal. so the gravitation force from them adds up to point toward the barycenter of the system, and also has the correct magnitude for stability. the barycenter is the center of mass and the center of rotation for the 3-body system, so any object at l4 is in 3-body equilibrium as it orbits. if the object moves away from l4, there is a coriolis effect that brings it back. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point#/media/File:Lagrangian_points_equipotential.jpg"
] | [
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they say when grass is cut by lawn mowers, they release a distress chemical (signal) but the question is to whom? (i have a guess but it would be nice to confirm) | i think that the scenario relates to large packs of grassing animals. the distress chemical (signal) is picked up by carnivores that would come to the area primarily to get food. the process scares of the grazing animals which helps/protects the grass. no? | green leaf volatiles, called green leaf, insects ====== the chemicals that are being released and that you smell are also called green leaf volatiles. they are released upon mechanical damage to the plant and indeed are attractive to predators. however, not the predators you are thinking of; for a plant the most common attacker is not a large grazing animal, but a continous horde of herbivorous insects. green leaf volatiles and their associates [are attractive to predatory insects](_url_2_) (such as parasitic wasps, social wasps, predatory bugs, carabid beetles etc. etc) that go after these herbivorous insects. these type of responses are found [commonly among different plant groups](_url_0_) and have been studied in a lot of systems. for us, the quantities that are released are simply too low to smell, but insects are able to detect them with their sensitive antennae. it is only when really large areas of plants are damaged, such as in grass that is artificially cut, that we will smell them too. however, these volatiles can have more functions than that. they can trigger defensive responses [in other plants](_url_3_) or other parts of the plant. they also repel herbivorous insects (as it can be a signal of elevated defense levels in plants which makes them less suitable to eat). and plant volatiles may even elicit responses in larger animals than insects [such as birds](_url_1_), which will also predate on insects attacking the plant. however, an interaction between plants and large predators of large grazing animals has not been found so far and would probably also not be the main interaction mediated by green leaf volatiles. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3794753/",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ele.12177/abstract",
"https://student.societyforscience.org/article/plant-enemy%E2%80%99s-enemy",
"http://faperta.ugm.ac.id/newbie/download/pak_tar/biochemistry/plantherbivoreinteraction3.pdf"
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why do amputees feel a part of the body even though it is physically not present? | phantom limb syndrom, somatosensory system, neuronal system ====== it's called 'phantom limb syndrom' and is thought to be related to the the somatosensory system (the neuronal system that senses pain, amongst other things). it's currently thought that this system does not readjust appropriately when a limb is amputated. this results in the continued sensation of movement and pain in the neurones which would originally have connected to the missing limb. another speculation is that the somatosensory system does readjust, but inappropriately, and so sensation is still felt in the missing limb when other parts of the body are stimulated (eg face a definitive cause is yet to be confirmed, but the above are current speculations! :) (bsc hons neuroscience) | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
uhhh am i a magician? | so my fridge is extremely cold, i don't know what temperature it's set at because i have no clue how to set it. but if i leave things in there too long, they sometimes freeze. not always, but i have had a couple frozen water bottles. anyway, i have one of those brita filter pitchers. i filled it up with water this morning and just now decided to get a drink. i took it out and set it down to go get a cup. it was liquid when i took it out, but i set it down kind of hard and as soon as it was down, i could hear cracking as i watched most of it freeze. now my pitcher is about half water half ice. what the hell just happened? since when does hitting water freeze it? on the bright side, the water i did get is extremely cold and refreshing. | water, supercooled, ice ====== your water was probably supercooled. it's possible to lower the temperature somewhat below the melting temperature without water freezing. ice is a crystal that first forms around some foreign substance in the water (dust or dirt perhaps). if there's nowhere for ice crystals to start forming, the water can remain liquid for a bit. it's unstable, though, so when you put it down on the table you introduced some element that allowed ice to form. on another note, you should probably figure out how to set your fridge temperature. it's not supposed to be below zero. that's what freezers are for. | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do meteorologists calculate an objective value for windchill, when windchill is a subjective feeling? | what feels like -20° might not feel like -20° to me. temperature is an empirical measurement, but i feel like windchill is just some made up number. how do scientists and meteorologists come up with a windchill value? | plastic playground slide, metal transfers heat, scalding rivets ====== you don't directly feel temperature but instead feel heat transfer, which is why a plastic playground slide may not feel as hot as the scalding rivets—they are likely the same temperature (or very nearly so), but the metal transfers heat much better so it *feels* hotter. wind chill can thus look at heat transfer in an objective way and declare that a certain temperature+wind combination will produce the same heat transfer from a reference object as some temperature with no wind. with that said, though, there isn't universal agreement on what reference object should be used and the formula winds up being simplified from there, so there are various formulas that are used to arrive at roughly similar values. it isn't a *perfectly* accurate measurement, then, of how a certain temperature and wind combination will feel, but it is at least objective (i.e. no opinions go into the calculation; it's just a formula) and useful. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do video game controllers compare to each other in terms of hand health? | since hand and wrist problems are becoming a problem in gaming, i've become interested in the controllers we use. in articles covering the topic i normally only see exercises being mentioned as a treatment, while my intuition tells me switching from gamepad to keyboard would help significantly when possible. the only example i know of this being brought up is with hax$ and smash brothers melee. here's a 6 minute video on the story if interested: [_url_0_](_url_0_) & #x200b; question: how do game controllers compare to each other in terms of hand health in high apm games? keyboard vs. keyboard + mouse vs. gamepad? | occupational therapist, biomechanics vs. design, matter of individual ====== as an occupational therapist, i’d suggest that it’s a matter of individual biomechanics vs. design. the size, shape, and existing physiological differences of individuals affect which controller i’d recommend for different gamers as far as reducing over-use conditions. i’d also take into consideration seating/positioning and how that affects upper extremity positioning during gaming activities. | 9 | [] | [
"https://youtu.be/tCOISFOWswc"
] | [] | [
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can anyone explain capacity in the brain? | i am aware that the neuronal membrane acts like a capacitor in the sense that positive and negative ions move to the walls of the lipid bilayer to oppose ions of the opposite charge inside and outside of the cell. i just don't understand exactly what a capacitor is for. neurons have capacity, i just don't understand it. sorry for any confusion. i'm not good with physics, but when i took a neuroscience course, the first semester talked about the physics of the brain. i'm not all that interested in this aspect of neuroscience, but i'm curious because i can't wrap my head around it. | lipid bilayer walls, reaching oppositely charged, oppositely charged ions ====== if the lipid bilayer walls couldn't prevent ions on one side from reaching oppositely charged ions on the other, then it would be impossible for neurons to 'spike'. spiking is the result of the imbalance in charge (highly positive on one side, negative on the other, like a capacitor) growing to the point where the membrane begins to allow ions to cross. i'm not super sure about the biochemical processes here, but suffice it to say that the capacitance of the synapse is what makes it possible to store a number of opposite charges on either side of a membrane and when this capacitor is chemically 'shorted', like if you connected the two ends of a capacitor with a wire, you get a spike in current until all the positive charges meet all the negative charges. spikes are how neurons convey information to each other. without this capacitance, you'd just have a slow trickle of charge with limited ability to convey information. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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ir spectroscopy, what is the relation between the normal coordinate q of a vibration and the translation components ty, tx and tz? | i was basically wondering if the normal coordinate q is not simply the vectorial sum of tx, ty, tz (components of translation). (at least in very simple molecules) | center of mass, translations, molecule ====== if by tx, ty, and tz you are referring to the translations of the molecule, then the answer is no \- vibrations do not change the center of mass. however, if you are referring to the translations of the individual atoms in the molecule, the answer is yes. q can be expressed as a sum of translations of the individual atoms. however, note that the "length" of q is normalized and the relative motion of each atom during a normal mode vibration may be unequal. if you know about eigenvalues of matrices, the problem may be broken down as follows: 1. write down the equilibrium structure of the molecule. 2. write down any deviations from that equilibrium structure as q \(which could be an r^(3n) vector, but by removing translations and rotations you can reduce it to an r^(3n\-6) or r^(3n\-5) vector\). 3. our goal is to calculate f\(q\). we can do this using matrix math \(that is f\(q\) = g\*q\) if we can assume that the bond energies are quadratically dependent on q \(so the forces are linearly dependent on q\). 4. the matrix g can be found by decomposing vibrations into a set of "normal" modes. these normal modes are the vibrational eigenvalues. this means that throughout a single normal\-mode vibration, the forces will always be parallel with the displacements q. this is not always the case with mixed vibrations, as the different components can vibrate at independent frequencies. thus the coordinates q can be expressed as a sum of translations, but it is probably more correct to call this a change of basis. in that case q can be thought of as a vector sum of normal\-mode vibrations. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how is a voronoi diagram drawn around irregular shapes? | like countries, for example. | question, regions, voronoi diagrams form ====== i'm not sure i get the question. voronoi diagrams form regions around points. there are no regions to start with. do you have an example? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is their a way to measure how slippery something is? in units? | coefficient of friction, called coefficient, surface exerts ====== yes, it's called coefficient of friction. definition: a measure of the amount of resistance that a surface exerts on or substances moving over it, equal to the ratio between the maximal frictional force that the surface exerts and the force pushing the object toward the surface. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
|
history of science: why was 'c' was chosen as the name for the value of light speed in vacuum? | my suspicion is 'c for constant' ? | meaning swiftness, celeritas, url ====== it wasn't always. "c" is generally said to be the speed of a wave in any wave equation, for the latin "celeritas," meaning swiftness. [more information can be found on wikipedia at this article.](_url_0_) | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light#Numerical_value.2C_notation.2C_and_units",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeritas"
] | [
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how did okazaki discover the lagging strand? what was the experiment? | so i understand during replication there is a leading and lagging strand. but how did he discover the lagging strand, what was his experiment and discovery? | dna, labeled dna, replicated ====== before okazaki did these experiments in the 1960s, everyone assumed that both strands were replicated in a continuous fashion (one strand is replicated 3' to 5', the other is replicated 5' to 3'). however, the only dna polymerases anyone was able to find worked in the 5' to 3' direction. based on this, okazaki hypothesized that the 5' to 3' polymerase was responsible for the growth of both strands, possibly via the polymerase making short stretches of dna on the lagging strand that would then be joined together afterwards. to test this hypothesis, they dosed *e. coli* with radioactively-labeled thymidine (the t of a, t, g, and c) for a very short time (a few seconds) - this would only label the dna actively replicating during this short period. they then extracted all the dna from the cells (denaturing the dna during the process) and checked to see how big all of the radioactively labeled dna strands were. some of the radioactive label turned out to be in shorter, single-stranded dna. they hypothesized that these short strands would then be joined together into a single strand by a recently discovered enzyme (ligase) that joins dna strands together. (this is the first paper linked below) they then tried the experiment again with special strains of *e. coli* that had a version of ligase that would not work at high temperatures. they did this experiment several different ways (this is the second paper linked below): * labeling at high temperatures (ligase off): they found lots of radioactively labeled short strands * labeling at low temperatures (ligase on): most of the labeled dna is in longer strands. * labeling at high temperature followed by incubation at lower temperatures (ligase off, then on again): the amount of short labeled dna goes down as the *e. coli* spends more time at the lower temperature, while the amount of long labeled dna goes up. * labeling at low temperature followed by incubation at high temperature (ligase on, then off): this experiment was designed to show that the high temperatures and the dna extraction procedure were not causing the formation of short, radioactively-labeled fragments. the labeling pattern was largely the same as simply labeling at low temperature. sources: here are some papers by okazaki (these should be freely available, but let me know if that isn't the case) first: _url_0_ second: _url_2_ also, here's a review article by one of the authors summarizing the whole thing (unfortunately, it's behind a paywall): _url_1_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC224714/pdf/pnas00116-0296.pdf",
"http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.bi.49.070180.002225",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC224926/pdf/pnas00122-0304.pdf"
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confusion about umbilical veins and arteries (anatomy & physiology) | (_url_0_) i was watching khan academy on blood flow through the placenta. i'm confused though. i know that bloodflow through arteries are led away from the heart and have passed through the lungs so they are rich in oxygen while veins are typically leading away from distal processes from the heart where their oxygen and nutrients have been absorbed. why is this man describing the umbilical veins being rich in oxygen and nutrients and the veins being empty... is this because the umblical vein is called so because it is from the perspective of the fetus? as in the vein is carrying blood back towards the fetus' heart and the arteries are carrying blood away from the fetus' heart? | unoxygenated blood supply, adult pulmonary arteries, umbilical vein ====== you got it! the umbilical vein is filled with the nutrients and o2 from the placenta (and mother's circulation)-it then travels to the fetal heart where it mixes with the rest of the unoxygenated blood supply. it's a vein because its going to the heart-much like the the adult pulmonary arteries are unoxygenated and the pulmonary veins are saturated with oxygen. fetal circulation is very different from adult circulation-oxygen is shunted to where it's most important, the brain. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=XDF2QyQtd_Q"
] | [] | [
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does the holographic principle literally imply that if i give you all the information about the walls in my room, you would be able to deduce what's inside my room? | area proportional, area, room ====== no, it means that the information in your room *could* be encoded in a 2d area proportional to the area of your walls. if your room is a cube, you could double all its dimensions which would make its volume 8x bigger, but you would only need 4x the area to encode its possible contents. alternatively, you could increase *one* dimension by 8x, which would also make its volume 8x bigger, but you would then need 5.666x the area to encode the contents. this doesn't actually happen in our universe - your walls do not contain the full information of the contents of the room. it just means there is an alternate description of volumes in our universe which don't require as much information, proportionally, as you'd think. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a quantitative way of measuring tiredness? | i was about to go to sleep last night and was thinking "i don't have to get up as early as usual tomorrow morning, so i can put my alarm clock back a bit. i wonder; would i feel better-rested if i kept my clock at its normal alarm time, and just snoozed it, or would i feel more rested if i pushed the alarm back a bit? how would i measure tiredness? is there such a measure?" then i went to sleep. so yeah, is there a way that doctors (neuroscientists?) measure tiredness? is that even feasible? when diagnosing, for example, insomniacs etc. do they measure this kind of thing? if there is some quantitative measure of tiredness, what is it based on? reaction times? some brainwave thing? or something else entirely? | objective clinical scales, clinical scales, specific conditions. ====== there are many different objective clinical scales that can be used to measure sleepiness, fatigue, tiredness, and drowsiness (based on many possible definitions of these words), but most are very specific tests that are only useful for very specific conditions. with that said, there are a few general objective scales that can be used for a wide range of conditions as well as normal subjects. the most common are the multiple sleep latency test (mslt) and the maintenance of wakefulness test (mwt). another popular one is the oxford sleep resistance test. all of these measure tiredness quantitatively by combining subjective questionnaires with objective physical measurements of things like brain waves and heart rate. some examples: **eeg waves.** you're entirely correct about neuroscientists using "some brainwave thing" to measure daytime drowsiness. we can tell when a person is very alert, mildly alert, drowsy, very drowsy, and so forth all the way through the various stages of sleep by looking at their brain waves. the first thing we notice when a person starts feeling drowsy is that some of these waves begin to slow down (we see more theta waves and delta waves beginning to appear). in general, the more tired a person feels during the day, the sooner we see these changes when they're allowed to fall asleep in a lab. so objective tests for daytime tiredness are often based on how long it takes for these waves to show up when a person tries to fall asleep during the day. **eye measurements.** our eye movements change depending on how alert we are (just like brain waves), and some devices can quantitatively measure these movements. for example, the more tired we feel, the less frequent our blinks become (in general), and we can measure this quantitatively with an eog (spontaneous blink rate). there are some other subtle eye movement parameters that are correlated with our levels of tiredness, but the point is that most of these movements can be measured quantitatively. there are actually some drowsiness detection glasses currently in development that people can wear so that they don't fall asleep while doing something important. **tldr:** we can quantitatively measure tiredness by looking at brain waves and tracking people's eye movements. another method is to time how long it takes for someone to fall asleep in a lab during the day. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does water do this? | _url_0_ | part of attraction, consists in part, part of gravity ====== droplets of water will follow a path determined by the net force on them, which consists in part of gravity and in part of attraction/repulsion between the molecules of water and the surface the water is on. if there is any variation in the surface (texture, coating, , etc), then the force on the droplets will be uneven and the path will not be straight. in particular, in your example, there are probably local variations in what the glass material is covered by (from variations in manufacturing coating to variations in the amount of dust and other debris collected on the class) that cause what you saw. furthermore, once water is flowing in a channel, it has a [tendency to exaggerate its meander](_url_0_) because in any curve, the water on the outside flows faster than the water on the inside of the curve, and therefore it erodes the edges of its channel more strongly on the outside of its curves. so: local variation in surface tension + exaggeration of meander → that picture. | 43 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/NvTmMRH,YTdZpQV,rmLxW9C"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meander#Formation"
] | [
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can someone explain what recombinant technology is in reference to oxytocin in a nasal spray. text from product included | though oxytocin accelerator contains oxytocin from recombinant technology (expressed oxytocin) virtually identical to human oxytocin from plant culture of pharmaceutical quality. that's what the product says. can you explain it in simple terms? :) | amino acids, amino, oxytocin ====== oxytocin is produced in humans, in the hypothalamus to be precise. oxytocin is made up of nine amino acids. there will be a gene in the human genome that codes for these amino acids. genes are made of dna and dna is made of 4 "bases" which are labelled a, t, c and g and a genome is the complete list of al the bases in an organism. nature has a figure of 3.4million bases (3.4million a, t, c and g in any order). a codon is a run of three bases, for instance aaa, which code for an amino acid, ttt codes for lysine. these codons are read and then the cell puts together the amino acids to form a protein. oxytocin is a protein of nine amino acids, which are coded for by nine codons (or 27 bases). the location of the oxytocin gene can be found in the human genome (for arguments say it starts at base no. 3 million) and then these 27 codons can be cut out. this gene can then be inserted into to a plants genome and since, largely, the codon to amino acid code is conserved between species the plants can then read this and start producing oxytocin. summary; oxytocin is produced in humans, this is encoded by a gene, this gene is taken from humans and inserted into plants, plants can read this gene and produce the oxytocin protein. the following deviates from the "simple terms" request but gives a bit more information. an extra level of complexity is that the gene is not directly read and it is first transcribed (information taken from dna and "copied) as messenger rna, and this mrna is then translated (read) and by another type of rna called transfer rna. trnas bind to the copied codons of the mrna and bring in amino acids to the codon they bind. if you want any more info, let me know, or consult this wikipedia page as a starting point. _url_0_ hope this helps | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology"
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what are some good science-based (and not old wive's tale-based) tricks for purchasing fresh food? | for example, i've heard that if mussels are open and don't close when you tap them, they're bad and can potentially make you sick. is this true? i've also heard that you can tell if a fish is fresh by how cloudy its eyes are. is this true? what other fresh food tricks do you know? | thing is untrue, universally believed, muscles thing ====== i know that the muscles thing is untrue, it turned up in a cookbook in the 1970s and from there just started to appear in every cookbook until it became universally believed. if anything it's the ones that are completely closed that should be thrown away, because they're dead. source: a qi episode. couldn't find a link sorry! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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conceptually, why is the quantum lagrangian of the form e^i*theta? | i'm trying to figure out where the wave-like properties of quantum systems arise, and the lagrangian / action appears to be the source for the path integral interpretation (??) i looked at the math on _url_0_ but didn't really follow it and wonder if there is a more conceptual explanation. | complements existing answers., paths, quantum mechanics ====== (this is a more conceptual take rather than a mathematical one, hopefully it complements existing answers.) feynman was the first(ish) to reformulate quantum mechanics as a 'sum over paths.' this was a logical extension of the usual explanation of the double-slit experiment: the particle takes *both* paths in a double-slit, which is all of the possible paths, so what if quantum mechanics just means the particle takes all possible paths from start to finish? not all paths are equally likely, though. so each path gets a 'weight'; feynman determined that this weight should be e^(is/hbar) where s is the value of the 'classical action' along that path. combined with summing over all paths, this gives the path integral: integral [over all paths] of e^(is/hbar). *why* is it e^(is/hbar)? well, for one thing, that is the quantity that reproduces quantum mechanics correctly, and you can derive it from other formulations. but it has a lot of nice physical features: * all of the paths have absolute value of their weight = 1, so qm seems to treat all paths 'equally' in some sense. but in regions where s changes rapidly, the phase of e^(is/hbar) changes quickly, and the sum over paths tends to zero. so the most likely paths are those where s changes slowly, i.e. is at a minimum (or maximum). hence qm approximately reproduces the principle of least action, which describes classical mechanics. this is why the quantity in the exponent is the *classical* action---so that classical mechanics is reproduced. * it's deeply analogous to the (classical) propagation of light. light similarly 'follows all paths' since it propagates as a wave, and it doesn't prefer any particular path. (this is huygens' principle.) to calculate the amplitude of light at any point, then, we can sum over all paths with weight e^(i omega t) where omega is the angular frequency of the light and t is the time along that path. but there are special paths where t is near a minimum where light is 'very likely' to propagate; these are the paths predicted by geometric optics (reflection, refraction, etc) which partially ignores the wave nature of light. so, quantum mechanics:wave optics :: classical mechanics:geometric optics. | 9 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_integral_formulation#Quantum_action_principle"
] | [] | [
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is a distributed magnet torrent system possible? | hi all, so this is a question inspired by recent events. so i'm a little fuzzy on the fundamentals of the bittorrent protocol but it has come to my attention that essentially the entire site of the tpb fits in about 17 mb if you're counting just the magnet links. obviously with metadata it's a little larger, but still not an unreasonable download. my question is: would it be possible to construct a distributed torrent access protocol, wherein essentially a repository of magnet links is distributed across every user of the system. no one server room houses all the links so it's impossible to raid any one room; everybody has everybody's links, and everybody tracks everybody else and updates the tracker information for the torrent. embedded in this protocol would be essentially a distributed tracker system and perhaps also some sort of flagging system to eliminate malicious torrents (since there won't be a site to comment on the torrents; maybe a reddit-style upvote/downvote that gets updated just like leeches and seeds?). sort of a bitcoin-esque system but the reward for farming is like maybe some kind of tracker priority? i don't know. does this sound realistic or is my mental model for how such distributed systems operate totally flawed? (i have to confess i don't know much about the torrent tracker system). people could distribute links throughout the network which would update the distributed database. these updates would pour in to your personal database and users could then manage their content downloads accordingly. you'd only need to download a few mb of torrent metadata every day and the system would work until the last two people stopped using it. i dunno… would it work? | dht, distributed hash tables, distributed hash ====== yes. what you're asking for is _[distributed hash tables](_url_0_)_ (dht). a dht provides at least a lookup service, which you can use to ask nodes in the dht for a specific _key_ (like a magnet link). depending on the algorithm employed by the dht, you will then get back the value you sought from the node responsible. of course, the specifics are a bit more complicated than that. :) dhts are usually built as an overlay on already existing networks (e.g. ip). many dht implementations have focused on availability, replication, and non-repudiation, employing different strategies and algorithms to achieve those goals. there's also a large amount of research on those subjects. some implementations of dhts which are well-known and may be interesting to you are kademlia, can, chord, kelips, pastry & tapestry. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_hash_table"
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we flow electrons through power lines to give us electricity. where did all those electrons come from, and what happened to the cations they were once bonded with? | i understand the mechanism of charge flow in power lines (conduction electrons), but where do the electrons flowing through originate from? i know a lot of our electricity comes originally from turbines...what exactly are these turbines ionizing to allow electron flow to occur, and what happens to the cations left behind? | power station, power, significantly positively charged ====== electrons are being returned to the power station at the same rate they are being sent out of the power station to the consumers. as a result, no wires become significantly positively charged. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does carbonation go down quicker when i put my finger in? | beverage introduces oil, carbonated beverage introduces, putting your finger ====== putting your finger in a carbonated beverage introduces oil, which breaks up the protein layer that surrounds each bubble. you are not actually affecting the carbonation, just breaking up the head. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what determines the anthropogenic radiative forcing of a chemical? | i am supposed to use this to answer: _url_0_ i am very confused :/ | earth energy balance, question is worded, radiative forcing ====== the question is worded in a confusing way but i will try to answer. radiative forcing is the capacity for external factors, such a greenhouse gases, to alter the earth's energy balance. think of greenhouse gases (ghgs) such as co*_2_*, ch*_4_*, and n*_2_*o, which alter the energy balance of the earth's atmosphere/surface by absorbing radiation in the atmosphere and retaining it as heat. ghgs have different capacities for warming. one molecule of n*_2_*o is something like 300x more potent at warming than co*_2_*. anthropogenic radiative forcing describes the effect of man-made factors on the earth's energy balance. the ipcc considers post-1750 as anthropogenic, which is when man-made emissions increased dramatically, although human activity likely played a small role in climate forcing before this date. a higher concentration of ghgs in the atmosphere, compared to pre-industrial atmosphere, absorb more radiation and retain more heat, thus contribute to warming. radiative forcing is an estimation and typically calculated using atmospheric models. other major factors (besides ghgs) which contribute to the energy budget and are taken into account include: deforestation (+) or reforestation (-), natural short-term events such as volcanism(-), and changing solar input (+). anthropogenic radiative forcing is estimated ~2.83 w m^-2 (2011). | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter08_FINAL.pdf"
] | [] | [
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] |
is the schwarzschild solution slightly inaccurate because of the static assumption? | i was reading the [wikipedia article on deriving the schwarzschild solution](_url_0_), and i noticed that in the diagonalising the metric step they use the static assumption to show that there is no time component in any of the spacial metric components because the geometry of the space does not change with time. isn't this assumption untrue because the space evolves with time due to dark energy/the cosmological constant? it would probably be a minuscule effect, but still present right? i may be completely wrong because i struggle to follow all of the math after the christoffel symbols so it may be corrected for later. thanks | metric, schwarzschild metric, time ====== yes, the universe as a whole is not static. but remember that the goal is to describe spacetime in the vicinity of a black hole, i.e., *not* on the large scales at which expansion is relevant. so we can safely ignore that in the derivation of the schwarzschild metric. this is something we do in all areas of physics. we have to decide on the relevant scales. sure, faraway from the black hole, our metric won't be accurate. our metric also will not likely be accurate over long time scales (roughly time scales on the order of 1/h, where h is the hubble parameter). but if we are interested in spacetime near the black hole and not too close to other sources of gravitation or on short time scales, then the schwarzschild metric is perfectly fine. there will always be inaccuracies and error, but if they are relatively small, they won't really affect the final answer of whatever problem you are solving. --- interestingly, the schwarzschild metric does not require the assumption of staticity. birkhoff's theorem tells us that *any* spherically symmetric metric for a vacuum must be both static and asymptotically flat. the "vacuum" part means that stress-energy tensor is identically zero. the "static" part means nothing evolves in time, i.e., the metric can be put in a form where the components do not depend on the time coordinate *and* the metric is invariant to time reversal (which means that there are no *dtdx*-components and the like). the "asymptotically flat" part means that far away from the black hole, spacetime is approximately flat and the metric reduces to the flat minkowski metric. so the extent to which you want to assume staticity is very closely related to the extent to which you want to assume perfect spherical symmetry. the latter assumption can often be a bit easier to accept. the theorem has some interesting consequences. the field equations are local, so you don't need to have a vacuum everywhere in spacetime. if there is some spherically symmetric region which is a vacuum (i.e., spacetime *exterior* to a star or planet), then the metric that describes that region must be schwarzschild. so, for instance, the metric exterior to the sun or the earth is approximately schwarzschild. in many models of stellar collapse, the collapse is assumed to occur spherically symmetrically. that means at each instant in time, the star is spherically symmetric, which means that at each instant in time, the exterior metric must be schwarzschild. this simplifies quite a lot since: (1) you really just have to solve for the interior metric if you are interested in the stellar evolution and (2) you know your interior and exterior metric must match up at the boundary of the star to be schwarzschild. it's rather nice that spherically symmetric interior models can actually satisfy (2). (contrast that with the difficulty or impossibility of matching the kerr metric for an axially symmetric spacetime with the interior metric of a rotating star.) this also has the immediate implication that collapsing stars that do so spherically symmetrically do not emit gravitational waves. | 7 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deriving_the_Schwarzschild_solution"
] | [] | [
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] |
does anyone know what happened to the "eureka machine" that discovered newton's laws of motion in a few hours? | _url_0_ the way i see it, it should have made a scientific revolution, however i can't find anything recent about it, just the articles from 3 years ago. did it fail? what happened ? | phd thesis, months ago, eureqa program ====== i used the eureqa program in my phd thesis, submitted a few months ago. i used it to fit an equation to some simulated data. and that's all that program does; it applies a huge variety of equations to data and identifies the best fit. although the resulting equation can possibly provide insight into physical processes, it's still necessary for a human to make the final jump to a physical model. for example, the program may produce equations identical to those derived from newtonian mechanics, but it says nothing about the concept of inertia. in my opinion, that guardian article overhyped the (albeit useful) eureqa program. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/apr/02/eureka-laws-nature-artificial-intelligence-ai"
] | [
"http://creativemachines.cornell.edu/eureqa"
] | [
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how does the arecibo observatory account for all the water and debris that might accumulate on it? | _url_0_ as you can see this radio telescope is located on the ground where (i think) water and debris may easily enter. do the observatory personnel somehow clean all the water and dirt up even after a heavy rainfall? | excess water, debris are drained, drained ====== they have a hole in the center through which excess water and debris are drained. more importantly, the radio waves which they observe are largely unaffected by any debris or water on the dish that may still be there after the rain has stopped. | 3 | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Arecibo_Observatory_Aerial_View.jpg"
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one time i was boiling water in a pot and after a little while it bubbled out a foot from the pot like a geyser really fast, why did that happen? | before it began "boiling" the water looked like it was moving/swirling slowly like almost colorless oil, but there was no oil because it had just been washed and rinsed | water, chemists call, result of superheating ====== this may be what chemists call "bumping," which is a rapid and sudden boiling that is the result of superheating the water (or another liquid). if you have a perfectly smooth container that is devoid of places for water vapor bubbles to nucleate you can heat water over its normal boiling point. if you then introduce some disturbance or get it even hotter it can form a large amount of water vapor all at once, and if the bubble forms on the bottom and is big enough it can push a significant amount of liquid out of the top of the pot. you can somewhat compare it to the diet coke + mentos gyser. that gyser forms when you provide a lot of nucleation sites for supersaturated co2 all at once, causing lots of the co2 to come out of solution and push a bunch of soda out of the bottle along with it. the same thing that caused the gyser in your pot is why you should be very careful when heating water in the microwave. always put something in the container like a chopstick or toothpick that will give the gaseous water something to start forming on, otherwise when you remove the vessel from the microwave you can disturb it enough to start the boil and then you have boiling hot water all over your hands. there is one other possibility here, and that is if you were boiling the water in a pressure vessel like a teapot with a stuck top. in that case the water could be heated to a higher temperature before boiling, and once it was at that elevated temperature and the seal was broken all of a sudden the boiling point is several degrees lower so a whole lot of water flashes off all at once. based on the way to posited the question i'm assuming the container was open so this wouldn't be the case here. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would your body clock still know generally what time it is in space? | would your internal clock still be able to know that it's close to 3am where you're from if you were in outer space far away from our sun with absolutely 0 environmental clues to guide it? | brought forward depending, circadian rhythm lasting, brought forward ====== the short answer is no. the body runs on a circadian rhythm lasting a little longer than 24hours which can be delayed/brought forward depending on environmental cues. if there are no environmental cues the rhythm will slowly fall out of synch with time on earth (called free-running). this has been shown by studies in humans in which they have been kept in the dark completely and their rhythm slowly shifted so that they slept during daylight hours and were awake at night. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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on running a gel electrophoresis... | so my group and i performed one last week and it came out terrible. we could see the bands in the actual gel, but when we took a photo of it there was almost nothing. when loading the gel, my partners added the buffer first (into the contraption thing where the voltage goes through) and then loaded the gel. should we do it the other way around? | type of question, add, gel ====== this type of question would go better in r/askscitech but i'll see if i can help... you want to pour the gel, allow it to polymerize, add the buffer and then add the sample with the loading dye. you are running an agarose gel with dna? or no? how did you obtain this dna and what was done to it? how much loading dye did you add? what percent gel? presumably what you saw is the dye front, unless you are talking about the ladder...which did you see? | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what are the two red spots that are missing from the planck cmwb map? what could cause the difference? | _url_0_ you can see that the two red spots near the centre are not present on the planck image. what is the reason for this? | properly subtracted, lot of foreground, foreground emission ====== that region is right in the midplane of the galaxy, where there is a lot of foreground emission which must be properly subtracted. it is possible that the subtraction was less good in wmap than for planck. also, the higher angular resolution of planck means that some blobs in wmap get resolved and broken up. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.pictureshack.us/images/21323_wmap-planck.gif"
] | [] | [
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can someone explain sacred geometry and why it's said to be sacred? | i've heard of this recently at my community college and googled it. golden ratio and all that is cool, but what is the deep understanding behind it? just looking for some clarification i suppose. thanks | scientific answer., geometric forms, ratios and geometric ====== unless i'm missing something - the answer is really "there is no scientific answer." some group finds certain ratios and geometric forms to be important, and so uses them in various ways. while there are certain ratios and geometries we find in nature and that come up all over the place, that makes them no more sacred than, say, a cow, or a piece of french toast with the image of a saint on it. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what exactly does "fine tuning" in physics mean? | the way i'm thinking of it is that fine tuning refers to how the newer constants we discover seem more arbitrary relative to the *earlier* constants we discovered. based on classical scientific models, we have some fine tuning issues because those classical models predicted different results. the problem that people have with the issue is that they think "fine tuning" makes no sense, any set of constants is as likely as any other. but what we're talking about when we say "likely" or "unlikely" is relative to what we expected based on the first constants we measured/observed. is this a correct or incorrect way of understanding the term "fine tuning"? that the constants aren't meshing together as neatly as they otherwise were expected to? | cosmological constant, constant, vacuum energy ====== fine tuning means that some constant needs to be tuned to just the right, usually very small, value in order for a theory to agree with observation. i said nothing about "older" constants because we don't usually compare to those. why should those matter? ideally we find constants which are *dimensionless*, or have no units. that way we don't have to compare. we expect them to be not too much larger or smaller than one. if experiments require that some dimensionless constant have a value of 10^(-10), something seems fishy. it doesn't necessarily mean something *is* fishy! that could just be the way the universe works. but 99 times out of a 100, it's a sign that there's something we don't understand, and tells us we should work harder. (if we do need some constants to compare to, by the way, we usually use [planck units](_url_0_).) the best example is the **cosmological constant problem**. all of the particles in the universe have a non-zero vacuum energy, and when you add those up, you should get a contribution to the energy of the universe which causes its expansion to speed up. sure enough, we look out there and the universe is accelerating! the problem is that it's not accelerating nearly as much as the vacuum energy would predict. but this doesn't have to be a problem. the equations of gravity are allowed to have a constant called the cosmological constant. the cosmological constant behaves in exactly the same way as these vacuum energies do. so why don't we just choose the cosmological constant to have whatever value needed to cancel out the huge vacuum energy contribution, but leave enough to give the acceleration we observe? we can, but it's sketchy. here's why. the observed acceleration - vacuum energy + cosmological constant - is *10^120 times smaller* than the vacuum energy alone. so if we work in units where the vacuum energy is 1, then we need to pick the cosmological constant to be -0.99999... where the ... contain about 115 more 9's! that's fine tuning. it would be a huge coincidence if two seemingly unrelated physical quantities were the exact same to 120 decimal places, so this is a very clear sign that we have more work to do to figure out why the cosmological constant has the value that it does, or if there's some other explanation. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_units"
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qualitative question about observers at relativistic velocities | let's say you have two planets, earth and zebulon, which are many lightyears apart, but are at rest respective to each other. there is also a space ship that starts near earth and is flying towards zebulon. the space ship emits a constant force backwards to propel itself forward as a simple application of newton's 2nd law. the observers on earth (and on zebulon) would see the ship increase in velocity, but as its velocity approached c, the mass of the ship would approach infinity, and so with a constant force, they would accelerate more and more slowly, approach an acceleration of 0 as the mass approaches infinity. the observers on the ship would experience a "g-force" due to the acceleration, but it would be some constant finite value, given that they are emitting a constant force to accelerate themselves. the part that seems strange to me is what will the observers on the ship see in terms of the movement of the planets earth and zebulon? i'd imagine that they'd see earth moving away from them, slowly at first, but then faster and faster, and similarly, they'd see zebulon approaching them, slowly at first, but then faster and faster. why would they not eventually observe zebulon to approach them at a speed exceeding c, or earth retreating away at a speed exceeding c? do the observers on the ship observe the two planets to gain in mass? and even if they do observe the planets to gain in mass, why would that have any affect on their acceleration, seeing as the propulsion force is acting on ship and not the planets? it doesn't seem like the observers on the ship should observe themselves to be gaining mass, since they would observe their own velocity (relative to themselves) to be 0, thus there doesn't seem to be any reason why their acceleration should be slowing down. | modern physics concept, relativistic momentum, physics concept ====== first, relativistic mass is not a modern physics concept, but rather relativistic momentum. but regardless moving on: whenever relativistic effects take place, you have to look at all three of them at the same time, length contraction, time dilation and relativistic momentum. so let's look at the scenario from the view point of the person on the ship. as they speed up, length contraction will kick in, thus the closer they are to 'c' the shorter distance they will measure between themselves and the planet they approach. so to them, they don't have near the same distance to travel as an observer on earth would measure. the closer they get to 'c' the smaller that distance shrinks, so they never measure their own speed to be greater than 'c.' | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i captured a cicada and kept it burrowed in a terrarium for 17 years, would it survive and emerge? | well? | longest living insects, worlds longest living, time counted ====== although cicada's are amongst the worlds longest living insects, by the time they emerge their life cycle is almost over and their time counted. so freshly emerged adults you'll pick wont do for that purpose. what you need are larvae, which are a challenge to come by, unless you capture an adult breeding pair and mate them in your terrarium (but then you'll get hundreds - yikes!). it's been tried, notably by french naturalist jh fabre. i suggest you go read what he wrote about cicadas in his souvenirs entomologiques (beautifull purple prose and all). there, he combines field and lab observations and explains his techniques. turns out the needs of cicadas are affected by way more than food availability. notably, a deep packed soil environment in which they can maintain a very long (several meters) vertical burrow where they can fine tune ambient temperature and humidity by constantly migrating up and down appears essential to their survival. | 19 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
helping endangered sea turtles question. | so we have all seen the documentaries that show a long stretch of beach somewhere in the tropics with thousands of baby sea turtles climbing up out of the sand and dashing for the ocean. the vast majority of them are eaten by predators before they get to the water. if the population of sea turtles were to drop to dangerously low levels, could we bring a team of conservationists onto a beach to oversee and protect hatchlings and chase away birds and other predators, etc? the number of hatchlings that make it to the water would be huge then. i know that there are many predators in the water as well, but is this a viable option? | hydropower plants, destroyed a lot, fish ====== humans have destroyed a lot of rivers with hydropower plants. to compensate for the loss of fish production, we have a lot of fish hatcheries where the eggs are protected from predation and juvenile fish are released into the river at 0+, 1+, or 2+ years (they hatch in the winter and are released in the summer, hence the +). these conservation tactics lead to a lot of problems for the fish. first of all, a lot of genetic information is lost. then, these fish compete with the wild fish for food and may completely destroy the last few remnants of wild fish. also, migratory fish who are produced from hatcheries are less successful spawners, but they still go to spawning grounds and compete with wild fish so yet again there is a risk of destroying the small remnants that remain of the wild population. in short; protecting a species by reducing predation and increasing human protection for the first few years is a bad idea. you should only do this if it is the last remaining option. kind of like taking a pain-killer if you have broken your leg; it's not going to get better even if you stop the first alarming symptom. (i'm working on a phd thesis in this area, could provide you with a looong list of references, but this is the internet and i'm lazy) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.conserveturtles.org/sea-turtle-information.php?page=lighting",
"http://www.conserveturtles.org/"
] | [
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] |
what would happen if you tried to manipulate a rod of material that was a lightyear in length? | say you had a lightyear long pole, and you wanted to poke something a lightyear away, if you tried to pome it with the pole, what would happen? would any other interactions/ manipulations produce interesting effects? | light years long, achieving ftl communication, opposing end pull ====== just _some_ of the times the same question has been asked before: [if i pushed a button 10 light years away with a stick that was 10 light years long, how long would it take for the button to be pushed?](_url_3_) [if i have a theoretical rod that is 1 light-year long and i have the ability to pull it one meter towards me, will the opposing end pull away from an observer at the same time or would there be a delay?](_url_2_) [if i have a string that is one light year long](_url_4_) [if you had a pole 2 light years long on supports would the friction stop you from pushing/pulling it?](_url_0_) [if i were floating in space next to a 1-light-year-long metal rod, and i pushed the end of the rod forward one meter, would the far end of the rod move one meter instantly?](_url_5_) [if i had a pencil that was 2 light years long, and i managed to use it to write a message on another planet, would i be achieving ftl communication?](_url_1_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/iffn3/if_you_had_a_pole_2_light_years_long_on_supports/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/s7xat/if_i_had_a_pencil_that_was_2_light_years_long_and/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/11o07k/if_i_have_a_theoretical_rod_that_is_1_lightyear/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/gwtyt/if_i_pushed_a_button_10_light_years_away_with_a/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ke1qx/if_i_have_a_string_that_is_one_light_year_long/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/19vec6/if_i_were_floating_in_space_next_to_a/"
] | [
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a question regarding aqua regia | _url_0_ in this video people try to destroy an iphone 5 by putting it it in aqua regia, however it reacts very slowly. however they then dipped it in hydrofluric (to which it did not appear to react any better with) and returned it to the aqua regia and it then reacted very vigorously. why is this? | handle dangerous chemicals, wrong respirator, wrong gloves ====== if there is ever an example of how _not_ to handle dangerous chemicals, this would be it. short sleeves and shorts, wrong respirator, wrong gloves, they're just asking for trouble. i notice that they didn't dip it in hydrofluoric acid; they dipped it in hydrofluoric acid with a whole bunch of organic materials. when that is transferred back to the aqua regia, there is also a large transfer of organic compounds. the initial bubbling is likely the organic compounds, and if anything, the increased agitation just speeds up the reaction between aqua regia and the metal. | 7 | [] | [
"http://youtu.be/5uZwYg4W7JE?t=9m24s"
] | [] | [
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synergy of aqua regia? | as i understand chemistry both nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are used to a 1:3 volume ratio to make aqua regia. both nitric acid and hydrochloric acid don't dissolve noble metals like gold. it seems to me that aqua regia is better at dissolving substrate than the sum of the individual acids and thus has a synergistic effect. why is aqua regia more effective? is a similar effect achieved when substrate is first bathed in nitric acid and afterwards in hydrochloric acid (or vice versa)? is this synergy a common thing? | ions, equilibrium, gold ====== it's all based on chemical equilibrium. what happens is nitric acid does oxidize a tiniest bit of the gold to produce au+3 ions and they're in a state of equilibrium; although this amount of dissolution would be negligible just by nitric acid itself, the hydrochloric acid serves as a source of chloride ions and allows the au+3 ions to form au(cl4)- ions. the au(cl4)- ions are the dissolved "gold" ions you observe in a solution of aqua regia. the gold keeps dissolving because the second equilibrium favors the formation of au(cl4)- ions, and this allows the au+3 ions to be continually produced and the solid gold to be dissolved by the nitric to maintain the equilibrium. this "synergy" is indeed used in many different chemical processes. tl;dr equilibrium of au+hno3- au+3+hcl- > au(cl4)- | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could cryopreservation replace pasteurization? | could cryopreservation do the job of extending shelf life better than pasteurization? i know that some of the benefits of pasteurization is that it kills off harmful things, but it also kills off positive enzymes. if you were to cryogenically freeze a fruit or vegetable juice, would that preserve more nutrients than if you pasteurized it? i'm including hpp in pasteurization. disclaimer: i don't have a background in this. i'm a newb. | liquid helium temperatures, url, bacteria can recover ====== many bacteria can recover after being [flash-frozen](_url_0_) to liquid helium temperatures. killing them with cold alone will not work. [freezing plus another method](_url_1_) is better. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=pFe6AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=liquid+helium+e.+coli&source=bl&ots=M7g1luRLfh&sig=-JVzcWXC5s0ZHTewWS6R7ZaaoZg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OPNUVfmxKcG_sAXSzoGYBA&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=liquid%20helium%20e.%20coli&f=false",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/17571840/"
] | [
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how are overtones produced in a closed circuit? | we are making a synthesizer and seemed stumped at what seems like a fairly fundamental question. in a basic oscillator, we produce a square wave, being on and off at a particular frequency. we're putting in a low pass filter in order to filter out the higher frequencies, but the question is, without any acoustics for overtones to be produced, how are overtones being produced for the filter to cut them out in the first place? obviously high pass/low pass filters exist and work just fine, moog has had them for thirty years, and i understand that a square wave sounding out of a speaker will produce overtones, and to some extent i understand how those overtones coming out of the speaker are produced, the question is how are the overtones produced *before* getting to the speaker, because from my understanding there would need to be some acoustical space for the soundwaves to interact and create overtones. edit: to clarify (i know this is sort of an odd question), an electronic oscillator is turning itself on and off as a certain frequency, for example 440hz. so, to my understanding, 440 times a second this oscillator turns on and off, but how would that single frequency create other frequencies (for example, it's first harmonic overtone at 880hz) for a filter to then cut off before getting to the speaker? | sinusoidal waves overlaid, square wave, wave ====== broadly speaking, all waves are sinusoidal. from an acoustic perspective, the square wave that you're producing with your oscillator is a complicated arrangement of lots of different sinusoidal waves overlaid with each other. you can see the basic idea in [this image](_url_0_). the square wave (black) is represented by increasingly good approximations which use higher and higher frequencies. * first comes the red curve, which is a single sine wave at the same frequency as the square wave (in your case, 440hz). * next comes the yellow curve, which is produced by adding to the red curve a smaller wave at double the frequency (in your case, 880hz). adding this second component "flattens off" the peaks of the red wave and makes the transition between them more rapid. * after that comes the green curve, which is produced by adding to the yellow curve a *third* wave at four times the original frequency. * … * in the limit, this process produces the square wave as an infinite sum of sine waves with ever-lower amplitudes at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (440hz). this infinite sum is the "fourier series" of your square wave. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/images/eps-gif/FourierSeriesSquareWave_800.gif"
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