Título: Stephen Toulmin
Seção: The revival of casuistry
Background: Stephen Edelston Toulmin (; 25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues.

Conteúdo: By reviving casuistry (also known as case ethics), Toulmin sought to find the middle ground between the extremes of absolutism and relativism. Casuistry was practiced widely during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance to resolve moral issues. Although casuistry largely fell silent during the modern period, in The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning (1988), Toulmin collaborated with Albert R. Jonsen to demonstrate the effectiveness of casuistry in practical argumentation during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, effectively reviving it as a permissible method of argument.  Casuistry employs absolutist principles, called "type cases" or "paradigm cases," without resorting to absolutism. It uses the standard principles (for example, sanctity of life) as referential markers in moral arguments. An individual case is then compared and contrasted with the type case. Given an individual case that is completely identical to the type case, moral judgments can be made immediately using the standard moral principles advocated in the type case. If the individual case differs from the type case, the differences will be critically assessed in order to arrive at a rational claim.  Through the procedure of casuistry, Toulmin and Jonsen identified three problematic situations in moral reasoning: first, the type case fits the individual case only ambiguously; second, two type cases apply to the same individual case in conflicting ways; third, an unprecedented individual case occur

user: what was the revival of casuistry?

assistant: By reviving casuistry (also known as case ethics), Toulmin sought to find the middle ground between the extremes of absolutism and relativism.

user: what were some of his beliefs about this?

assistant: Casuistry employs absolutist principles, called "type cases" or "paradigm cases," without resorting to absolutism.

user: can you tell me more about these "cases"?

assistant: It uses the standard principles (for example, sanctity of life) as referential markers in moral arguments. An individual case is then compared and contrasted with the type case.

user: what else is interesting about casuistry?

assistant: Casuistry was practiced widely during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance to resolve moral issues.

user: How did Toulmin relate this to moral issues?

assistant: Through the procedure of casuistry, Toulmin and Jonsen identified three problematic situations in moral reasoning:

user: what were the three problematic situations?

assistant: first, the type case fits the individual case only ambiguously; second, two type cases apply to the same individual case in conflicting ways;

user: what is the third?

assistant: third, an unprecedented individual case occurs, which cannot be compared or contrasted to any type case.