Título: Stephen Toulmin
Seção: Objection to absolutism and relativism
Background: Stephen Edelston Toulmin (; 25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues.

Conteúdo: Throughout many of his works, Toulmin pointed out that absolutism (represented by theoretical or analytic arguments) has limited practical value. Absolutism is derived from Plato's idealized formal logic, which advocates universal truth; accordingly, absolutists believe that moral issues can be resolved by adhering to a standard set of moral principles, regardless of context. By contrast, Toulmin contends that many of these so-called standard principles are irrelevant to real situations encountered by human beings in daily life.  To develop his contention, Toulmin introduced the concept of argument fields. In The Uses of Argument (1958), Toulmin claims that some aspects of arguments vary from field to field, and are hence called "field-dependent," while other aspects of argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called "field-invariant." The flaw of absolutism, Toulmin believes, lies in its unawareness of the field-dependent aspect of argument; absolutism assumes that all aspects of argument are field invariant.  In Human Understanding (1972), Toulmin suggests that anthropologists have been tempted to side with relativists because they have noticed the influence of cultural variations on rational arguments. In other words, the anthropologist or relativist overemphasizes the importance of the "field-dependent" aspect of arguments, and neglects or is unaware of the "field-invariant" elements. In order to provide solutions to the problems of absolutism and relati

user: What was Stephen's objection to absolutism?

assistant: Throughout many of his works, Toulmin pointed out that absolutism (represented by theoretical or analytic arguments) has limited practical value.

user: Why did he believe absolutism had limited practical value?

assistant: Toulmin contends that many of these so-called standard principles are irrelevant to real situations encountered by human beings in daily life.

user: Does he have any other beliefs regarding absolutism?

assistant: To develop his contention, Toulmin introduced the concept of argument fields.

user: What is the concept of argument fields?

assistant: some aspects of arguments vary from field to field, and are hence called "field-dependent," while other aspects of argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called "field-invariant.

user: Do others share or oppose his beliefs?

assistant: CANNOTANSWER

user: What was his objection to relativism?

assistant: the anthropologist or relativist overemphasizes the importance of the "field-dependent" aspect of arguments, and neglects or is unaware of the "field-invariant" elements.

user: What are the field-invariant elements?

assistant: other aspects of argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called "field-invariant.