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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Bowl%20XXXVIII

Super Bowl XXXVIII

Super Bowl XXXVIII was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion Carolina Panthers and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion New England Patriots to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 2003 season. The Patriots defeated the Panthers by a score of 32–29. The game was played at Reliant Stadium in Houston, Texas, on February 1, 2004. At the time, this was the most watched Super Bowl ever with 89.8 million viewers. The Panthers were making their first ever Super Bowl appearance after posting an 11–5 regular season record. They also made it the second straight year that a team from the NFC South division made the Super Bowl, with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers winning Super Bowl XXXVII. The Patriots, led by head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady, were seeking their second Super Bowl title in three years after posting a 14–2 record. NFL fans and sports writers widely consider this game one of the most well-played and thrilling Super Bowls; Sports Illustrated writer Peter King hailed it as the "Greatest Super Bowl of all time." Although neither team could score in the first and third quarters, they ended up with a combined total of 868 yards and 61 points. The game was scoreless for a Super Bowl record 26:55 before the two teams combined for 24 points prior to halftime. The clubs then combined for a Super Bowl record 37 points in the fourth quarter. The contest was finally decided when the Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri's 41-yard field goal was made with four seconds left. Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was named Super Bowl MVP for the second time in his career. The game is also known for its controversial halftime show in which Janet Jackson's breast, adorned with a nipple shield, was exposed by Justin Timberlake for about half a second, in what was later referred to as a "wardrobe malfunction". Along with the rest of the halftime show, it led to an immediate crackdown by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and widespread debate on perceived indecency in broadcasting. Background Host selection process NFL owners voted to award Super Bowl XXXVIII to Houston during their November 1, 2000 meeting held in Atlanta. This was the first Super Bowl to be played in a stadium with a retractable roof, but it was eventually closed during the game. It also marked the first time in 4 tries that the Patriots played a Super Bowl that was not in New Orleans. This game marked a six-month stretch for Texas hosting the Super Bowl, NCAA men's Division I basketball Final Four and Major League Baseball (MLB) All-Star Game. The Final Four was played at the Alamodome in San Antonio and the MLB All-Star Game was also played in Houston at nearby Minute Maid Park. Super Bowl XXXVIII was the first Super Bowl to be scheduled on the first Sunday of February; Every subsequent Super Bowl through Super Bowl LV would follow this format. Super Bowl XXXVI had previously been held on the first Sunday of February as well, but that came as a result of the NFL pushing back the 2001 playoffs by a week as a result of the September 11 attacks. This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII (78) after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII (87) after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII (88) after the 2053 season. Panthers go from 1–15 to the Super Bowl The Panthers made their first trip to the Super Bowl after posting a one-win regular season just two years earlier. The franchise was only in their ninth year of existence, joining the league as an expansion team in 1995. In just their second season, they posted a 12–4 regular season record and advanced to the NFC Championship Game, but lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion Green Bay Packers 30–13 (the Packers coincidentally went on to defeat the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI 35–21). But from 1997 onward, they had just one non-losing season (an 8–8 finish in 1999) until they finally suffered through a franchise worst 1–15 record in 2001, winning only the first game of the regular season against the Minnesota Vikings. After that year, head coach George Seifert was relieved of his duties and replaced by John Fox, former defensive coordinator for the New York Giants who helped lead the Giants to Super Bowl XXXV in 2000. With John Fox at the helm and the team taking advantage of the free agent market and the salary cap rules, the Panthers improved in 2002, finishing with a 7–9 record. Then in 2003, they recorded an 11–5 record and won the NFC South. One of the free agents that Carolina signed before the 2003 season was quarterback Jake Delhomme. Delhomme was not picked by any team in the NFL Draft, but later joined the New Orleans Saints as an undrafted free agent in 1998. Delhomme also then played for the NFL Europe's Frankfurt Galaxy in 1999, and along with Pat Barnes, he was part of the "double-headed quarterback monster" that led the Galaxy to a World Bowl victory over the Barcelona Dragons. Although he only played 6 games in his 5 seasons with New Orleans, the Panthers signed Delhomme in 2003 to be the backup to starting quarterback Rodney Peete. However, after the Panthers fell to a 17–0 third quarter deficit in their first game of the season against the Jacksonville Jaguars, gaining only one first down and 36 offensive yards, Fox immediately replaced Peete with Delhomme. Delhomme ended up leading Carolina to a 24–23 comeback victory over the Jaguars. Delhomme became the team's starting quarterback for the rest of the season, throwing for 3,219 yards and 19 touchdowns, with 16 interceptions. The team's main receiving threat was multi-talented third-year wide receiver Steve Smith, who also specialized as a kickoff and punt returner. Smith caught 88 passes for 1,110 yards and 7 touchdowns, rushed for 42 yards, gained 439 yards and another touchdown returning punts, and recorded 309 kickoff return yards. Wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad was also a constant breakaway threat, recording 54 receptions for 837 yards and 3 touchdowns. However, the Panthers' strength on offense was their running game, led by running backs Stephen Davis and DeShaun Foster. Davis was the team's leading rusher with a franchise record 1,444 yards and 8 touchdowns, while Foster rushed for 429 yards and caught 26 passes for 207 yards. Carolina also had running back Rod Smart on their roster, who became widely known for his XFL debut jersey name "He Hate Me" during that league's only season in 2001. During 2003, Smart was primarily used as the Panthers' other kickoff returner, recording 947 yards and one touchdown. On defense, Carolina's main strength was their defensive line, anchored by defensive ends Julius Peppers (7 sacks and 3 forced fumbles) and Mike Rucker (12 sacks and 1 interception), and Pro Bowl defensive tackle Kris Jenkins (5 sacks and 1 fumble recovery). The secondary was led by defensive backs Reggie Howard (2 interceptions), Mike Minter (3 interceptions for 100 return yards and 2 touchdowns), Deon Grant (3 interceptions), and Ricky Manning Jr. (3 interceptions for 33 return yards and 1 touchdown). Patriots go for two out of three Despite their victory in Super Bowl XXXVI after the 2001 season, the Patriots stumbled early in the 2002 season, recorded a 9–7 regular season record, and failed to make the playoffs. Then, New England seemed to implode before the 2003 season ever started. Five days before their opening game against the Buffalo Bills, Pro Bowl safety Lawyer Milloy, one of the Patriots' defensive leaders, was unexpectedly cut by the team after refusing to restructure his contract. The move devastated many of the New England players, while Milloy immediately signed with the Bills two days later. With the Patriots seemingly in emotional disarray, Buffalo defeated New England, 31–0, with Milloy forcing an interception and recording one sack and five tackles. However, after a 2–2 start, the Patriots ended up winning their last 12 games (including a mirror 31–0 shutout of the Bills in the final week) to earn a league-best 14–2 record. Tom Brady, the Super Bowl XXXVI MVP, had become the team's permanent starter in 2002 after quarterback Drew Bledsoe left the team to lead the Bills. Brady had a solid season in 2003, completing 317 out of 527 (60.2 percent) of his passes for 3,620 yards and 23 touchdowns, with only 12 interceptions. His primary weapon was second year wide receiver Deion Branch, who caught 57 passes for 803 yards. Another key contributor was wide receiver David Givens, who filled in for the injured starter David Patten. Givens recorded 34 receptions for 510 yards and 6 touchdowns. Other weapons in the passing game included veteran wide receiver Troy Brown, who had 40 receptions, 472 yards, 4 touchdowns, and 293 yards returning punts, and tight end Daniel Graham who recorded 28 catches, 409 yards, and 4 touchdowns. Rookie receiver Bethel Johnson returned 30 kickoffs for 847 yards and a touchdown, ranking second in the NFL with a 28.2 yards per return average, while also catching 16 passes for 209 yards and 2 scores. In the backfield, the team's rushing game was led by running backs Antowain Smith and Kevin Faulk, who carried the ball equally. Smith was the team's leading rusher with 642 yards and 3 touchdowns, while Faulk rushed for 638 yards and caught 48 passes for 440 yards. New England's defense was retooled before the 2003 season when the team signed veteran safety Rodney Harrison as a free agent and traded for defensive lineman Ted Washington. With these additions, the Patriots led the league in fewest passing yards allowed per attempt (5.64), fewest passing touchdowns allowed (11), and most interceptions (29). They also ranked 4th in fewest rushing yards allowed (1,434) and 7th in fewest total yards (4,919). Washington helped anchor New England's defensive line, recording 32 tackles and 2 sacks. Pro Bowl defensive tackle Richard Seymour also contributed with 8 sacks. Behind them, the Patriots had 3 outstanding linebackers: Pro Bowl linebacker Willie McGinest (5.5 sacks, 2 fumble recoveries and 1 interception), Mike Vrabel (9.5 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, four forced fumbles, and 2 interceptions), and Tedy Bruschi (131 tackles, 2 sacks, 1 fumble recovery, 3 interceptions, and 2 touchdowns). Harrison became the veteran leader in the secondary, recording 92 tackles, 3 interceptions, and 3 sacks. Meanwhile, Pro Bowl cornerback Ty Law recorded 6 interceptions, cornerback (and ex-Panthers player) Tyrone Poole had 6 interceptions for 112 return yards and 1 touchdown, while also forcing 3 fumbles. Rookie safety Eugene Wilson recorded 4 interceptions. Overall, the secondary combined for 19 interceptions. Common opponents of both teams The Patriots and Panthers both played against the AFC South and NFC East in the regular season. The Patriots lost to the Washington Redskins 20–17 in Week Four but swept the rest of the NFC East and the entire AFC South; the Patriots shut out Dallas in bitter cold and edged the Giants in the rain while hammering Philly following the infamously erroneous "They hate their coach" quote from Tom Jackson; the Patriots also edged the Titans, Houston in overtime, and former division rival Indianapolis in shootouts while routing Jacksonville (which, like Carolina, had entered the NFL in 1995) in the regular season, and then edged the Titans and hammered the Colts in the playoffs. The Panthers had less success, going 6–4 against the two divisions, losing to the Titans and Houston while defeating Jacksonville and the Colts, and defeating Washington and the Giants while losing to Philadelphia and Dallas in the regular season, then routing the Cowboys and edging the Eagles in the playoffs. Scores of games against common opponents - VS. Jacksonville Jaguars Panthers 24 vs. Jaguars 23 – Jake Delhomme's first game with the Panthers Patriots 27 vs. Jaguars 13 VS. Philadelphia Eagles Patriots 31 @ Eagles 10 Panthers 16 vs. Eagles 25 / (playoffs) Panthers 14 @ Eagles 3 VS. Washington Redskins Patriots 17 @ Redskins 20 – last loss until Halloween 2004 Panthers 20 vs. Redskins 17 VS. Tennessee Titans Patriots 38 vs. Titans 30 / (playoffs) Patriots 17 vs. Titans 14 Panthers 17 vs. Titans 37 – loss ended six-game win streak VS. New York Giants Patriots 17 vs. NY Giants 6 Panthers 37 @ NY Giants 24 VS. Indianapolis Colts Panthers 23 @ Colts 20 (OT) – win ended Colts five-game win streak Patriots 38 @ Colts 34 / (playoffs) Patriots 24 vs. Colts 14 VS. Houston Texans Panthers 10 @ Texans 14 Patriots 23 @ Texans 20 (OT) VS. Dallas Cowboys Patriots 12 vs. Cowboys 0 Panthers 20 @ Cowboys 24 / (playoffs) Panthers 29 vs. Cowboys 10 Playoffs Since the Panthers finished with the third best regular season record in the NFC, they had to win three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl. The St. Louis Rams and the Philadelphia Eagles had better regular season records at 12–4, and thus under the playoff format, each would have to win two playoff games to reach the league championship game. Against Carolina's first opponent, the Dallas Cowboys, Delhomme threw for 273 yards and a touchdown, Davis recorded 104 rushing yards and a touchdown, and kicker John Kasay made 5 field goals, en route to a thorough 29–10 victory. The Panthers then eliminated the Rams on the road, 29–23 in double overtime. St. Louis built a 6–0 lead early in the second quarter, but Carolina took the lead after Muhammad's fumble recovery in the end zone. Both teams spent the rest of the second and the third quarter exchanging field goals before Brad Hoover's 7-yard rushing touchdown gave the Panthers a 23–12 fourth quarter lead. However, the Rams rallied back with a touchdown, a successful two-point conversion, and a field goal to send the game into overtime. Both teams missed field goals in the first overtime period, but Delhomme threw a 69-yard touchdown pass to Smith on the first play of the second overtime period to win the game. The Panthers then went on the road again to eliminate the Eagles in the NFC Championship Game, 14–3. Philadelphia was coming off of a 20–17 overtime win over the Green Bay Packers, that included quarterback Donovan McNabb's 28-yard pass to Freddie Mitchell on a famous play known as "4th and 26". This was the third consecutive NFC Championship Game appearance for Philadelphia, and thus they were heavily favored to win. But Carolina's defense only allowed a field goal and held McNabb to just 10 of 22 completions for 100 yards. Ricky Manning also intercepted McNabb 3 times. Although Carolina's offense only scored 14 points, it was more than enough for the team to earn their first trip to the Super Bowl with a 14–3 win. The Panthers became the first No. 3 seed to advance to the Super Bowl since the league expanded to a 12-team playoff format in 1990. In doing so, they were also the first division winner to advance to the league championship after playing three playoff games. All other instances up to this point where teams advanced to the Super Bowl after playing all three rounds of the playoffs were wild card teams in Super Bowls XV, XX, XXVII, XXXII, XXXIV, and XXXV. Prior to Super Bowl XVII, the Miami Dolphins and Washington Redskins both won three playoff games to reach the Super Bowl, but that came during the strike-shortened 1982 season when the regular season was reduced to nine games and the playoffs were expanded to 16 teams, with no teams receiving first-round byes. Since then, there have been seven instances of teams advancing to the Super Bowl after playing three playoff games: the Pittsburgh Steelers in Super Bowl XL as the No. 6 seeded team, the Indianapolis Colts in Super Bowl XLI as the No. 3 seed, the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII as the No. 5 seed, the Arizona Cardinals in Super Bowl XLIII as the No. 4 seed, the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV as the No. 6 seed, again the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLVI as the No. 4 seed, and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Super Bowl LV as the No. 5 seed. The Colts, Cardinals, and the Giants in 2011, like the Panthers, were division winners in those years (Although in the Colts case, they played the No. 4 seeded New England Patriots in the AFC Championship that year, ensuring at least the second division winner to play three rounds to make it to the Super Bowl.), and all but the Cardinals went on to win it all. The Super Bowl would mark the third game (out of four) of the playoffs in which Carolina scored 29 points. Meanwhile, the Patriots first defeated the Tennessee Titans, 17–14, in one of the coldest games in NFL history, with temperatures reaching 4 °F (−15 °C). New England jumped to 14–7 lead in the first half with a touchdown pass by Brady and a touchdown run from Smith. However, Tennessee quarterback (and Co-NFL MVP; shared with Indianapolis quarterback Peyton Manning) Steve McNair's 11-yard touchdown pass to receiver Derrick Mason tied the game in the third period. With 4:06 remaining in the game, Patriots kicker Adam Vinatieri made a 46-yard field goal to take the lead. New England's defense later clinched a victory as they stopped the Titans from scoring on fourth down on their last drive of the game. New England then eliminated the Indianapolis Colts, 24–14, in the AFC Championship Game. The Colts entered the game leading the NFL in passing yards and ranked third in total offensive yards. With quarterback Peyton Manning, wide receiver Marvin Harrison, and running back Edgerrin James, the Colts had scored 79 points in their 2 playoff victories against the Denver Broncos and the Kansas City Chiefs, including a 38–31 victory over the Chiefs in the first punt-less game in NFL playoff history. However, New England's defense dominated the Colts, only allowing 14 points, intercepting 4 passes from Co-league MVP Manning (3 of them by Ty Law), and forcing a safety. Although New England's offense only scored one touchdown, Vinatieri scored 5 field goals to make up the difference. Broadcasting United States The game was broadcast on television in the United States by CBS, with Greg Gumbel handling the play-by-play duties and color commentator Phil Simms in the broadcast booth. Armen Keteyian and Bonnie Bernstein roamed the sidelines. Jim Nantz hosted all the events with help from his fellow cast members from The NFL Today: Dan Marino, Deion Sanders, and Boomer Esiason. This would be the final Super Bowl game Greg Gumbel would call; as before the 2004 season began, he and Nantz would switch roles; though by the time CBS next aired a Super Bowl; James Brown was brought in as host of The NFL Today while Gumbel had moved to a secondary play-by-play role. For its Super Bowl lead-out program, CBS aired the season premiere for Survivor: All-Stars. Westwood One carried the game nationwide over terrestrial radio with Marv Albert on play-by-play and Boomer Esiason on color commentary, with Jim Gray hosting the pregame and halftime shows. Locally, Gil Santos and Gino Cappelletti called the game for the Patriots and Bill Rosinski and Eugene Robinson served that position for the Panthers. International The game also aired in United Kingdom and Ireland on Channel 5 (British TV channel) and Sky Sports, Australia on public channel SBS, Japan on NHK BS1, China on CCTV-5, Austria on ORF 1 and Sweden on TV3. In Mexico, the game was not carried as usual by neither of the major free-to-air national television networks. Making it a cable-exclusive event for the first and to date only time ever. Entertainment Pregame ceremonies Both teams passed on the opportunity for their starters to be introduced individually before the game, a move perpetuated by the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI. The game was held exactly one year, to the day, after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, in Houston, the same city as the Johnson Space Center. Thus, the lost crew of the Columbia was honored in a pregame tribute by singer Josh Groban, performing "You Raise Me Up". Also appearing on the field was the crew of STS-114, the "Return to Flight" Space Shuttle mission that eventually launched Space Shuttle Discovery on July 26, 2005. Houston-native Beyoncé then sang the national anthem. Aerosmith performed Baby, Please Don't Go and Dream On as part of the pre-show ceremony. The coin toss ceremony featured former NFL players and Texas natives Earl Campbell, Ollie Matson, Don Maynard, Y. A. Tittle, Mike Singletary, Gene Upshaw. Tittle tossed the coin. The NFL logo was painted at midfield for the first time since Super Bowl XXX, and the Super Bowl XXXVIII logo was placed on the 25-yard lines. From Super Bowls XXXI through XXXVII, the Super Bowl logo was painted at midfield, and the helmets of the teams painted at the 30-yard lines. From Super Bowl VI through Super Bowl XXX, the NFL logo was painted on the 50-yard line, except for Super Bowls XXV and XXIX. The Super Bowl XXV logo was painted at midfield and the NFL logo was painted at each 35-yard line. In Super Bowl XXIX, the NFL 75th Anniversary logo was painted at midfield with the Super Bowl logo at each 30-yard line. As the designated home team in the annual rotation between AFC and NFC teams, the Patriots elected to wear their home navy uniforms with silver pants, while the Panthers wore their road white uniforms with white pants. Halftime show The most controversial and widely discussed moment of Super Bowl XXXVIII came during halftime. The show was produced by Viacom's MTV and CBS Sports, and was sponsored by America Online's TopSpeed software for dial-up Internet service. The show was themed supposedly around MTV's Choose or Lose vote campaign; however, beyond some flag imagery, Jessica Simpson's declaration that Houston should "Choose to Party!" and a vague call to action for younger persons to vote (in a celebrity montage the first minute of the program and an audio outro about choices), the theme was not called out for the remainder of the show. After a brief appearance by Simpson, the show began with a joint performance by marching bands the Spirit of Houston, from the University of Houston, and the "Ocean of Soul" of Texas Southern University. Next, Janet Jackson made her first appearance, singing "All for You". Then, P. Diddy, Nelly, and Kid Rock appeared respectively, and performed a mixture of their hits. After Jackson's performance of her song "Rhythm Nation", Justin Timberlake appeared, and he and Jackson sang a duet of Timberlake's song "Rock Your Body". The performance featured many suggestive dance moves by both Timberlake and Jackson. As the song reached the final line, "I'm gonna have you naked by the end of this song," Timberlake pulled off a part of Jackson's costume, revealing her outer right breast (adorned with a large, sun-shaped nipple shield, a piece of jewelry worn to accentuate the appearance of a nipple piercing). CBS quickly cut to an aerial view of the stadium; however, the action was too late to be effective. Many people considered this indecent exposure, and numerous viewers contacted the network to complain, saying it was inappropriate in the context of a football game. This was the most rewatched moment in TiVo history. Just before the start of the second half, a British streaker, Mark Roberts, ran onto the field disguised as a referee, undressed, and performed a dance wearing only a thong. He was tackled to the ground by Patriots linebacker Matt Chatham and arrested. It is customary for American television to avoid broadcasting such events, but it was later shown on Late Show with David Letterman. Roberts received a $1,000 fine for trespassing. Game summary This game is noted for its unusual scoring pattern between the teams. Nearly 90 percent of the first half and all of the third quarter were scoreless. Twenty-four points were scored in the last three minutes of the first half, and a record 37 points were scored in the fourth quarter. First quarter Most of the first half was a defensive struggle, with neither team able to score until late in the second quarter, despite several early scoring opportunities for New England. After Carolina was forced to punt on their opening drive, Patriots receiver Troy Brown gave his team great field position with a 28-yard return to the Panthers 47-yard line. The Patriots subsequently marched to the 9-yard line, but Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Adam Vinatieri missed a 31-yard field goal attempt. The Patriots forced Carolina to punt after 3 plays and again got the ball with great field position, receiving Todd Sauerbrun's 40-yard punt at the Panthers 49-yard line. New England then drove to the 31-yard line, but on third down, linebacker Will Witherspoon tackled Brown for a 10-yard loss on an end-around play, pushing the Patriots out of field goal range. Second quarter Later on, New England drove 57 yards to the Panthers 18-yard line with 6 minutes left in the second quarter, but once again they failed to score as Carolina kept them out of the end zone and Vinatieri's 36-yard field goal attempt was blocked by Panthers defender Shane Burton. Meanwhile, the Carolina offense was stymied by the New England defense, with quarterback Jake Delhomme completing just one out of his first nine passes, being sacked three times and fumbling after one of the sacks. That fumble occurred 3 plays after Vinatieri's second missed field goal; Delhomme lost the ball while being hit by linebacker Mike Vrabel, and Patriots defensive tackle Richard Seymour recovered the ball at the Panthers 20-yard line; by this point of the game the Panthers had suffered a net loss of nine yards on twenty offensive snaps. Two plays later, New England faced a third down and 7, but quarterback Tom Brady scrambled 12 yards to the 5-yard line for a first down. Then wide receiver Deion Branch caught a 5-yard touchdown pass from Brady on the next play. The play was a play-action fake to Antowain Smith. Carolina's Dan Morgan bit on the route, causing the touchdown. Branch's touchdown came after 26:55 had elapsed in the game, setting the record for the longest amount of time a Super Bowl remained scoreless. The play also suddenly set off a scoring explosion from both teams for the remainder of the first half. The Panthers stormed down the field on their ensuing possession, driving 95 yards in 8 plays, and tying the game on a 39-yard touchdown pass from Delhomme to wide receiver Steve Smith with just 1:07 left in the half. The Patriots immediately countered with a 6-play, 78-yard scoring drive of their own. Starting from their own 22-yard line, Brady completed a 12-yard pass to wide receiver David Givens. Then after throwing an incompletion, Brady completed a long pass to Branch, who caught it at the Panthers 24-yard line in stride before being tackled at the 14-yard line for a 52-yard gain. Three plays later, Givens caught a 5-yard touchdown from Brady to give New England a 14–7 lead with only 18 seconds left in the half. The Patriots decided to squib kick the ensuing kickoff to prevent a long return, but their plan backfired as Carolina tight end Kris Mangum picked up the ball at his own 35-yard line and returned it 12 yards to the 47. The Patriots expected a pass play from the Panthers, but instead running back Stephen Davis ran for 21 yards on the next play to set up kicker John Kasay's 50-yard field goal as time expired in the half, cutting Carolina's deficit to 14–10. Third quarter The third quarter was scoreless as each team exchanged punts twice. However, with 3:57 left in the period, the Patriots put together a 71-yard, 8-play scoring drive, featuring tight end Daniel Graham's 33-yard reception to advance to the Carolina 9-yard line. Fourth quarter Running back Antowain Smith then capped off the drive with a 2-yard touchdown run on the second play on the fourth quarter to increase their lead, 21–10. This was the start of another scoring explosion, one that became one of the biggest explosions in Super Bowl history, with both teams scoring a combined 37 points in the last 15 minutes, the most ever in a single quarter of a Super Bowl. Delhomme started out Carolina's ensuing drive with a 13-yard completion to wide receiver Muhsin Muhammad. After committing a false start penalty on the next play, Delhomme completed a pair of passes to Smith for gains of 18 and 22 yards. Running back DeShaun Foster then scored on a 33-yard touchdown run, cutting the Panthers' deficit to 21–16 after Delhomme's 2-point conversion pass fell incomplete. The Patriots responded on their ensuing possession by driving all the way to Carolina's 9-yard line, but the drive ended when Panthers defensive back Reggie Howard intercepted a third down pass from Brady in the end zone. Then on 3rd down from his own 15-yard line, Delhomme threw for the longest play from scrimmage in Super Bowl history, an 85-yard touchdown completion to Muhammad. Carolina's 2-point conversion attempt failed again, but they took their first lead of the game, 22–21, with 6:53 remaining. It was the first time in Super Bowl history a team down 10+ points during the 4th quarter had come back to take the lead. Three other times teams have come back to tie the game; the Tennessee Titans against the Rams in Super Bowl XXXIV, the Rams against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI, and the Patriots against the Falcons in Super Bowl LI. However, New England retook the lead on their next drive, advancing 68 yards with the aid of a pair of completions from Brady to Givens for gains of 18 and 25 yards. Once again the Patriots were faced with third down and goal, but this time they scored with Brady's 1-yard pass to Vrabel, who had lined up in an eligible tight end position. This marked the second time in Super Bowl history where a defensive player was brought on to score on offense; the first time being when Chicago Bears defensive tackle William "The Refrigerator" Perry scored an offensive touchdown during Super Bowl XX. On a two-point conversion attempt, running back Kevin Faulk took a direct snap and ran into the end zone to make the score 29–22. Despite amassing over 1,000 combined yards, Faulk's two-point conversion constituted the only points he scored all season. The Panthers countered on their next possession. Foster started the drive with a 9-yard run and a 7-yard reception. After that, Delhomme completed a 19-yard pass to Muhammad, followed by a 31-yard completion to receiver Ricky Proehl. Then Proehl, who caught the fourth quarter game-tying touchdown pass against the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI two years earlier for the St. Louis Rams, finished the drive with a 12-yard touchdown reception. Kasay's ensuing extra point tied the game, 29–29, with 1:08 to play in regulation and it appeared that the game would be the first Super Bowl ever to go into overtime. However, Kasay kicked the ensuing kickoff out of bounds, giving New England the ball on their own 40-yard line. Brady led the Patriots offense down the field with a 13-yard pass to Brown on second down. An offensive pass interference penalty on Brown pushed New England back to their own 43-yard line, but another 13-yard reception to Brown and a 4-yard pass to Graham brought up a critical 3rd down and 3 from the Carolina 40-yard line. The Panthers defense could not prevent the Patriots from gaining the first down, as Brady completed a 17-yard pass to Branch. On the next play, Vinatieri kicked a 41-yard field goal to give New England the lead, 32–29, with four seconds left in the game. Carolina failed on their last chance, as Rod Smart was tackled at the Panthers' 20-yard line by linebacker Matt Chatham, and the Patriots had won their second Super Bowl in three years. This was the fourth Super Bowl to be decided on a field goal in the final seconds (Super Bowl V was won on a last second kick by the Baltimore Colts' Jim O'Brien to defeat the Dallas Cowboys, Super Bowl XXV had the Buffalo Bills' Scott Norwood miss his field goal chance against the New York Giants, and in Super Bowl XXXVI Vinatieri made his to defeat the St. Louis Rams, and later in Super Bowl LVII had Chiefs kicker, Harrison Butker to defeat the Philadelphia Eagles). Box score Statistical overview The game set a number of marks for offensive production. The two teams combined for 868 yards of total offense, the second-highest total in Super Bowl history. Both starting quarterbacks threw for at least 300 yards for only the second time in Super Bowl history, with Dan Marino and Joe Montana each passing for at least 300 yards in Super Bowl XIX. This was also only the second Super Bowl to feature one 100-yard receiving performance on each team, with Deion Branch and Muhsin Muhammad each reaching 100 yards. Andre Reed and Michael Irvin first accomplished the feat in Super Bowl XXVII. The 37 total points scored in the 4th quarter were the most combined points in a 4th quarter in a Super Bowl and the most in any quarter by two teams. Washington's 35 points in Super Bowl XXII was the previous high for most combined points in a single quarter in a Super Bowl. The fourth quarter was the second in Super Bowl history to have five touchdowns scored in a single quarter, the first being when the Redskins had five in Super Bowl XXII in the second quarter. It was also the first time in Super Bowl history that both teams would score at least two touchdowns in the same quarter. Delhomme finished the game with 16 completions out of 33 attempts for 323 yards, three touchdowns, and no interceptions for a passer rating of 113.6. He was seen standing on the field during the Patriots' post-game celebration; he later commented: "I wanted to catch up to the moment of what it feels like to be on the other side, to be on this side, the losing side. To let it sink in, to hurt, so when we start practice in the fall, the two-a-days and there are days during the season when I'm tired and I want to go home, but I need to watch that extra film. I want to get back there, but I want to get on the other side of that field. They rope you off, the losing team basically. I just want to get on the other side of that rope. I just wanted to watch and let it sink in and hurt a little bit. When I have a tough day, I'll just think about that feeling and it will make me dig down just a little deeper." Muhsin Muhammad caught four passes for 140 yards, an average of 35 yards per catch, and a touchdown. Steve Smith caught four passes for 80 yards and a touchdown. He also returned a punt for two yards, and returned a kickoff for 30 yards, giving him 112 total yards. Proehl caught four passes for 71 yards and a touchdown. Proehl joined Jerry Rice as one of only two players to score touchdowns with two teams in Super Bowls. Tom Brady's 32 completions were the most in Super Bowl history. His 48 attempts were the most for a winning quarterback. His 354 yards passing is now the fifth best total in Super Bowl history. Brady's passer rating for this game was 100.5. Branch was the top receiver of the game with 10 receptions for 143 yards and a touchdown. Brown caught 8 passes for 76 yards, and returned four punts for 40 yards. Antowain Smith was the top rusher of the game with 83 yards and a touchdown. Final statistics Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXVIII, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder NE, Super Bowl XXXVIII Play Finder Car, USA Today Super Bowl XXXVIII Play by Play Statistical comparison Individual statistics 1Completions/attempts 2Carries 3Long gain 4Receptions 5Times targeted Starting lineups Source: Gambling Most sportsbooks had the Patriots as seven-point favorites entering the game. As the Patriots only won by three points, the Patriots failed to cover this spread. The over-under bet was set at 37.5 by most sportsbooks. As the total combined score of the two teams was 61 points, the over bet won. Officials Referee: Ed Hochuli #85 second Super Bowl (XXXII) Umpire: Jeff Rice #44 second Super Bowl (XXXVI) Head Linesman: Mark Hittner #28 second Super Bowl (XXXVI) Line Judge: Ben Montgomery #117 second Super Bowl (XXXII) Field Judge: Tom Sifferman #118 second Super Bowl (XXXVII) Side Judge: Laird Hayes #125 second Super Bowl (XXXV) Back Judge: Scott Green #19 second Super Bowl (XXXVI) Alternate Referee: Bill Carollo #63 (side judge for XXXI, referee for XXXVII) Alternate Umpire: Jim Quirk #5 (umpire for XXXII) Alternate Field Judge: Bill Lovett #98 (field judge for XXXIII) Tom Sifferman became the second official to work consecutive Super Bowls on the field. The first was Jim Tunney, the referee for Super Bowls XI and XII. References External links Super Bowl official website Game box score and play-by-play list from Pro Football Reference Super Bowl XXXVIII play-by-play from USA Today All-Time Super Bowl Odds from The Sports Network (Last accessed October 16, 2005) BBC News on Jackson's exposure Boxscore from Sports Illustrated Large online database of NFL data and statistics Super Bowl coverage from the Boston Globe Super Bowl coverage from Sports Illustrated The Sporting News: History of the Super Bowl (Last accessed August 31, 2006) 2003 National Football League season 2004 in sports in Texas 2004 in American football 2004 in Houston American football in Houston Carolina Panthers postseason New England Patriots postseason Sports competitions in Houston Super Bowl 038 February 2004 sports events in the United States National Football League controversies Tom Brady

427709

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshopper%20sparrow

Grasshopper sparrow

The grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum) is a small New World sparrow. It belongs to the genus Ammodramus, which contains three species that inhabit grasslands and prairies. Grasshopper sparrows are sometimes found in crop fields and they will readily colonize reclaimed grassland. In the core of their range, grasshopper sparrows are dependent upon large areas of grassland where they avoid trees and shrubs. They seek out heterogenous patches of prairie that contain clumps of dead grass or other vegetation where they conceal their nest, and also contain barer ground where they forage for insects (especially grasshoppers), spiders, and seeds. Grasshopper sparrows are unusual among New World sparrows in that they sing two distinct song types, the prevalence of which varies with the nesting cycle. The primary male song, a high trill preceded by a stereotyped series of short chips, is reminiscent of the sounds of grasshoppers and is the origin of this species' name. Like some other birds of the central North American grasslands, this species also moves around a lot, not only via annual migrations, but individuals frequently disperse between breeding attempts or breeding seasons. Grasshopper sparrows are in steep decline across their range, even in the core of the breeding distribution in the tallgrass prairies of the central Great Plains. The Florida grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus) is highly endangered. Description These small sparrows measure in length, span about across the wings and weigh from , with an average of . Adults have upper parts streaked with brown, grey, black and white; they have a light brown breast, a white belly and a short brown tail. Their face is light brown with a white eye ring and a dark brown crown with a central narrow light stripe. Adults sport bright yellow feathers at the crook of their underwing, and have a yellow-to-amber patch above their lores. Males and females cannot be distinguished by their plumage, and young birds molt into adult plumage within a few months of fledging. Distribution and habitat Their breeding habitat is open fields and prairie grasslands across southern Canada, the United States, Mexico and Central America, the Caribbean. There is a small endangered population in the Andes of Colombia and (perhaps only formerly) Ecuador. In the central USA, birds are quick to locate newly available habitat, and can be attracted to sites by playing conspecific song. The spatial distribution of territories on the landscape can be clumped with several individuals defending territories near to one another interspersed by large areas of unused and apparently suitable habitat. The reasons for this clumping are elusive; aggregation is not related to group defense against predators or brood parasite, cooperative care, extra-pair matings, or kin selection. Appropriate habitat is strongly influenced by plant structure and precipitation amounts during previous seasons. Grasshopper sparrows avoid woody vegetation, and in the wetter parts of their range, prefer fields that are burned every 2–3 years (which reduces encroachment of trees and shrubs) and seek out areas that are moderately grazed by cattle or bison. Behavior Movement Migration Subspecies of grasshopper sparrows differ in their migratory behavior. The birds breeding in most of the eastern US and southern Canada (A. s. pratensis) migrate latitudinally up to several thousand kms each year, spending winters along the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. The birds breeding through most of the Western part of their North American range (A. s. perpallidus) winter from Texas west to California, and south into the highland desert grasslands of northern and central Mexico. A. s. ammolegus, which breeds in the desert grasslands of SE Arizona, SW New Mexico, and adjoining states in northern Mexico, appears to be a short-distance, partial migrant, with some birds remaining resident year-round, and others likely moving further south in winter. Birds of multiple breeding populations and subspecies winter together in SE Arizona. Grasshopper sparrows breeding outside of North America, including those living in the Caribbean, Central America, as well as the Florida grasshopper sparrow are not known to migrate.   Males typically migrate north in the spring a week or two earlier than do females. Data from light level geolocators indicate that males are present on the breeding grounds from April to October, consistent with birds completing their annual molt prior to migration. Individuals migrated an average of ~2,500 km over ~30 days. Birds migrate mostly over land, make few stop-overs of short duration, and travel at about 82 km/day. Data from the Motus network largely confirm the migratory patterns gleaned from prior work. However, relatively few movement tracks for this species exist so far, potentially due to the sparrows' secretive behavior during most of the year other than the breeding season. Few recoveries of banded birds have ever been made, especially at sites other than a birds’ initial banding location. In Oklahoma, grasshopper sparrows are one of the species most frequently found dead after colliding with windows, despite rarely being detected in migration. Dispersal In Maryland, a study of natal dispersal (the movement from a natal site to the site of first reproduction) revealed that most fledglings remained within their natal habitat during the summer months after fledging, and most recaptured fledglings were encountered within a couple hundred meters of their natal nests. Although distances recaptured from the nest increased with time, the average fledgling was recaptured only 346 meters from its nest and recaptured 33 days after fledging. The longest distance detected was 1.6 kilometers, which was accomplished in less than 20 days. Data on first-year return rates (or "philopatry", the inverse of natal dispersal) is limited, but in NE Kansas, ~2% of young birds returned to the site to breed in the subsequent year. Grasshopper sparrows are unusual in their particularly high rates of breeding dispersal (i.e., one-way movements between successive breeding sites). Their high dispersal tendency may be due to the dynamic nature of the grassland environments on which they depend Like some other grassland-dependent species, their dispersal movements lead them to be called semi-nomadic, as they opportunistically take advantage of suitable habitats as they appear on the landscape. Return rates of adult grasshopper sparrows to their previous breeding sites (site fidelity) differs widely between populations. Site fidelity is far higher in eastern parts of the breeding range, with >50% of adult males returning to breed in subsequent seasons at a site in Connecticut and over 70% in Maryland. In contrast, 0% of adult males in Nebraska returned to breed in subsequent years, 8.9% returned in Montana, and 20% returned in California. In northeastern Kansas, individual birds also commonly disperse within seasons between nesting attempts. Between 30 and 75% of birds move over 100 m within season, and individuals were detected defending new territories or nesting up to 8.9 km from areas they occupied earlier in the season. Within-season breeding dispersal decisions relate to nest success; more birds moved following nest failure, and birds that dispersed experienced lower brood parasitism and higher nesting success following movements. Little is known about the movements of birds during winter, but inter-annual variation in abundance in northern Mexican grasslands is positively related to related to broad-scale variation in vegetation, rainfall the previous summer, and plant productivity. Breeding Grasshopper sparrows are a socially monogamous species, but rates of extra-pair mating can be high (e.g., 48.5% of nests contained an extra-pair young in Kansas), and even instances of cooperative parenting have been documented. In the spring, males select and defend territories before being joined by a female. Over the course of the breeding season, birds can raise multiple broods, either with the same mate or a different mate. In the more southern regions of the species range, pairs may produce 2-4 broods while pairs further north are limited by shorter summers leading to 1-2 nesting attempts. Nest building Females construct nests over the course of a couple of days. Grasshopper sparrows build inconspicuous, dome-shaped nests on the ground, typically very well hidden amongst grasses and forbs. The nests have a small side opening and are usually made of a mix of dead and live grasses. Nests are built on the breeding pair's territory in areas away from shrubs and trees. Offspring Females typically lay between 4-5 eggs per clutch. Grasshopper sparrow eggs are smooth and oval-shaped. They are a cream-white color, with reddish-brown speckling that is concentrated towards the larger end of the egg. Females incubate the eggs from 10 to 12 days, and nestlings fledge after 6–9 days. For the first few days of the nestling period, females primarily feed young, but both parents feed during the latter half of the nestling period. In one study, nonparental helpers were documented attending to broods and feeding young, but this behavior is apparently not ubiquitous. Nestlings are fed an arthropod rich diet, particularly prey ~15–40 mm long, and preferentially select acridid grasshoppers, spiders, and small beetles. Upon leaving the nest, the offspring often remain in the area. Parents provide post-fledging care, but the duration and level of care is unknown. Brood parasitism Grasshopper sparrows are a common host of the brown-headed cowbird, a brood parasite which lays their eggs in the nests of other species. Cowbirds can be detrimental to host species because they often remove host eggs and nestlings or destroy nests to initiate another nesting attempt, allowing for future parasitism. However, they do not necessarily reduce the chances of nests successfully fledging young. The rate of brood parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds varies across the grasshopper sparrow's range and depends on habitat characteristics such as the amount of woody vegetation and whether the land is grazed. In surveyed populations, 2-65% of nests were parasitized by cowbirds. Causes of nest failure Only 30-50% of nests successfully raise at least one or more nestlings that fledge the nest. The majority of grasshopper sparrow nests fail as the result of predation. Snakes, small mammals such as rats, larger mammals such as skunks, armadillos, hogs, and opossums, and even ants have been observed eating eggs and nestlings. Other causes of nest failure include flooding of the nest cup due to rainfall, trampling by livestock or humans, and abandonment by the parents. Vocalizations Primary song The grasshopper sparrow's "primary" or "buzz" song has one to four introductory notes followed by a long high pitched trill,'tup zeeee' or 'tip tup zeee', and because of its similarity to a grasshopper sound, accounts for the name of the bird. There are small variations in the song between individuals, populations, and subspecies. This song is primarily used for defense, territory, or advertising to the other males and females. The males will mainly use the primary song from mid-April, when they get to the breeding ground, to mid-August, when they are about to leave the breeding grounds. It is the principal song heard early in the season, and during each breeding cycle, and the only song that unpaired birds sing. Birds sing from a grass or forb stalks, poles, fence posts or fence lines, or low shrubs. Alternate song Male grasshopper sparrows sing "alternate", warble", or "sustained", songs during the breeding season to establish and maintain pair bonds. The alternate song is more musical than the primary song and is usually delivered from fixed perches or in flight. The song consists of a 5–15 second series of short notes varying slightly in pitch, and the entire sequence may be repeated two to four times. Paired males will start singing alternate song ~5 days after arrival on territory, with frequency of alternate song increasing as birds pair. The alternate song diminishes towards late-July as the breeding season winds down. Considerable variation in alternate song exists within and between populations and subspecies; further study is needed. Male trill The trill of a male grasshopper sparrow (ti-tu-ti-tu-ti-i-i-i-i) is one of his least common vocalizations and is difficult to detect. Sometimes called the nesting song, it consists of short, rapid notes and a downward trill. The song is usually used after two grasshopper sparrows form a pair and is mostly made in response to the female. The male trills near the nest either from the ground or a perch. The male trill functions to strengthen pair bonds and to tell the female/young the male is approaching the nest. Female trill The female trill (ti-ti-i-i-i-i-i) is used to announce presence in male's territory. The primary functions of the female trill is to declare her presence to the male, maintain the pair bond, and signal to both the male and the young that she is approaching the nest. Given the high rate of extra-pair copulations in this species, the trill may also function to announce her presence to a territorial male other than the social male. Females usually call from the ground, concealed in grass, and may call independently or in response to primary or sustained song. Females call from pair formation until the end of nesting. Call/chip The call or chip is used by both sexes and is used as an alarm note. Depending on its intensity, the sound varies. High intensity alarms resemble a slow clicking, and low intensity alarms are a sharp 'tik'. The chip is used around the nest by both the female and male using single and double 'chip-chip' calls. This call can be used during feeding when they utter a single, high-pitched chip. Song learning Captive-rearing experiments revealed that grasshopper sparrows are predisposed to learn two distinct songs but must hear species-typical songs to develop a normal sounding song. Grasshopper sparrows can learn song from pre-recorded tutors but are more inclined to learn songs that are similar to live tutors, suggesting they use information from song models but do not directly imitate conspecific song. It is likely that in the case of alternate songs, exact notes are imitated but sequences are invented or improvised. This may be beneficial for pair bonding if females identify individual males by their distinct alternate song. Conservation Current status The global population of grasshopper sparrows in 2016 was estimated to be around 31,000,000 by the PIF North America Landbird Conservation Plan. It was also estimated that the population had undergone a 68% decrease between the years 1970 and 2014 with an annual decline of about 2.59%. The 2022 State of the Birds reported a long-term, range-wide decline of 2.13% per year, and a more recent decline of 3.48% per year. The leading cause of population decline across its range is linked to habitat loss and management, particularly conversion of grasslands to intensive agriculture and encroachment of shrubs and trees. Despite declining population sizes, grasshopper sparrows are classified as Least Concern by the IUCN and are also not included as a "Bird of Conservation Concern" by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services (USFWS) on a national level. The Florida grasshopper sparrow subspecies (Ammodramus savannarum floridanus) is classified as endangered by  the USFW. This subspecies hit an all time population low of 15 breeding pairs in 2017, and reported a population of 120 in 2022. Habitat management The majority of the former breeding range of grasshopper sparrows in North America has been converted to intensive agriculture or encroached by shrubs and trees. Likewise, these birds are experiencing a loss of wintering habitats, particularly within the Chihuahuan grasslands, due to similar impacts (conversion to agriculture and woody encroachment). Because grasshopper sparrows require areas of dense dead grass for nesting, sparse vegetation for foraging, and little to no woody plants, they are vulnerable to management practices such as high-intensity grazing accompanied by annual burning, fire suppression leading to woody encroachment, and haying that can destroy nests if it occurs during the breeding season. Ideal grazing intensities and fire frequencies vary across their range depending on climate, but areas with moderate grazing by cattle or bison, prescribed burning every 2–3 years, and removal of woody plants tend to support the highest densities of grasshopper sparrows in the Southern great plains. Gallery References External links Grasshopper sparrow Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology Grasshopper sparrow - Ammodramus savannarum - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter grasshopper sparrow Birds of North America Birds of the United States Birds of the Greater Antilles Birds of Jamaica Birds of the Dominican Republic Birds of Haiti Birds of Puerto Rico Birds of Mexico Birds of Belize Birds of Costa Rica Birds of Panama grasshopper sparrow grasshopper sparrow

427714

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20regions%20of%20the%20United%20States

List of regions of the United States

This is a list of some of the ways regions are defined in the United States. Many regions are defined in law or regulations by the federal government; others by shared culture and history, and others by economic factors. Interstate regions Census Bureau–designated regions and divisions Since 1950, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau region definition is "widely used ... for data collection and analysis", and is the most commonly used classification system. Region 1: Northeast Division 1: New England (Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont) Division 2: Middle Atlantic (New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania) Region 2: Midwest (Before June 1984, the Midwest Region was designated as the North Central Region.) Division 3: East North Central (Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin) Division 4: West North Central (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota) Region 3: South Division 5: South Atlantic (Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D.C., and West Virginia) Division 6: East South Central (Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Tennessee) Division 7: West South Central (Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas) Region 4: West Division 8: Mountain (Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming) Division 9: Pacific (Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington) Puerto Rico and other US territories are not part of any census region or census division. Federal Reserve Banks The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 divided the country into twelve districts with a central Federal Reserve Bank in each district. These twelve Federal Reserve Banks together form a major part of the Federal Reserve System, the central banking system of the United States. Missouri is the only U.S. state to have two Federal Reserve locations within its borders, but several other states are also divided between more than one district. Boston New York Philadelphia Cleveland Richmond Atlanta Chicago St. Louis Minneapolis Kansas City Dallas San Francisco Time zones UTC−12:00 (Baker Island, Howland Island) Samoa Time Zone (American Samoa, Jarvis Island, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll) Hawaii–Aleutian Time Zone (Hawaii, Aleutian Islands (Alaska), Johnston Atoll) Alaska Time Zone (Alaska, excluding Aleutian Islands) Pacific Time Zone Arizona Time Zone (excluding the Navajo Nation) Mountain Time Zone (excluding most parts of Arizona) Central Time Zone Eastern Time Zone Atlantic Time Zone (Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands) Chamorro Time Zone (Guam, Northern Mariana Islands) Wake Island Time Zone (Wake Island) Courts of Appeals circuits First Circuit Second Circuit Third Circuit Fourth Circuit Fifth Circuit Sixth Circuit Seventh Circuit Eighth Circuit Ninth Circuit Tenth Circuit Eleventh Circuit D.C. Circuit The Federal Circuit is not a regional circuit. Its jurisdiction is nationwide but based on the subject matter. Agency administrative regions In 1969, the Office of Management and Budget published a list of ten "Standard Federal Regions",<ref name="OMB Circular A-105"></ref> to which Federal agencies could be restructured as a means of standardizing government administration nationwide. Despite a finding in 1977 that this restructuring did not reduce administrative costs as initially expected,<ref name="GAO FPCD-77-39"></ref> and the complete rescinding of the standard region system in 1995, several agencies continue to follow the system, including the Environmental Protection Agency<ref name="EPA regions"></ref> and the Department of Housing and Urban Development.<ref name="HUD regions"></ref> Regions and office locations Region I Office location: Boston States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont Region II Office location: New York City States: New York, New Jersey, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands Region III Office location: Philadelphia States: Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia Region IV Office location: Atlanta States: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee Region V Office location: Chicago States: Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin Region VI Office location: Dallas States: Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas Region VII Office location: Kansas City States: Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska Region VIII Office location: Denver States: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming Region IX Office location: San Francisco States: Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Guam, and American Samoa Region X Office location: Seattle States: Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington Bureau of Economic Analysis regions The Bureau of Economic Analysis defines regions for comparison of economic data. New England: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont Mideast: Delaware, District of Columbia, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania Great Lakes: Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin Plains: Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota Southeast: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia Southwest: Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas Rocky Mountain: Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming Far West: Alaska, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington Unofficial regions Multi-state regions American Frontier Appalachia Ark-La-Tex Black Dirt Region Border states: Civil War border states International border states The Californias Calumet Region The Carolinas Cascadia Central United States Coastal states Colorado Plateau Columbia Basin Contiguous United States The Dakotas Deep South Delmarva Peninsula Dixie Dixie Alley Driftless Area East Coast Eastern United States Four Corners Great American Desert Great Appalachian Valley Great Basin Great Lakes Region Great Plains Gulf Coast High Plains Interior Plains Intermountain States Kentuckiana Llano Estacado Lower 48 Michiana Mid-Atlantic states Mid-South states Midwestern United States Mississippi Delta Mojave Desert Mormon Corridor New England Northern New England Southern New England North Woods Northeastern United States Northern United States Northwestern United States Ohio Valley Ozarks Pacific Northwest Inland Northwest Palouse Piedmont Piney Woods Rocky Mountains Southern Rocky Mountains Siouxland Southeastern United States Southern United States Old South Southwestern United States Old Southwest Tidewater Tornado Alley Trans-Mississippi Twin Tiers Upland South Upper Midwest Virginias Waxhaws West Coast Western United States Multi-territory regions Mariana Islands (Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands) Samoan Islands (American Samoa, except Swains Island) Virgin Islands (the Spanish Virgin Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands) The Belts Bible Belt Black Belt Coal Belt Corn Belt Cotton Belt Fruit Belt Pine Belt Rice Belt Rust Belt Snowbelt Sun Belt Interstate megalopolises Arizona Sun Corridor California Cascadia Great Lakes Gulf Coast Northeast Piedmont Atlantic Southern Rocky Mountain Front Interstate metropolitan areas Central Savannah River Area (part of Georgia and South Carolina) Baltimore–Washington metropolitan area (District of Columbia and parts of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania) Washington metropolitan area (District of Columbia and parts of Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia) Greater Boston (parts of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire) Charlotte metropolitan area (parts of North Carolina and South Carolina) Chattanooga Metropolitan Area Chicago metropolitan area (parts of Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin) Cincinnati metropolitan area (parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky) Columbus-Auburn-Opelika (GA-AL) Combined Statistical Area (parts of Georgia and Alabama) Delaware Valley (Philadelphia metropolitan area) (parts of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland) Evansville, IN–KY Metropolitan Statistical Area (parts of Indiana and Kentucky) Fargo–Moorhead (parts of North Dakota and Minnesota) Fort Smith metropolitan area (parts of Arkansas and Oklahoma) Front Range Urban Corridor (parts of Colorado and Wyoming) Greater Grand Forks (part of Minnesota and North Dakota) Hartford-Springfield (parts of Connecticut and Massachusetts) Kansas City metropolitan area (parts of Missouri and Kansas) Louisville metropolitan area (Kentuckiana) (parts of Kentucky and Indiana) Memphis metropolitan area (parts of Tennessee, Arkansas, and Mississippi) Michiana (parts of Michigan and Indiana) Minneapolis–Saint Paul (the Twin Cities) (parts of Minnesota and Wisconsin) New York metropolitan area (parts of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania) Omaha–Council Bluffs metropolitan area (parts of Nebraska and Iowa) Portland metropolitan area (parts of Oregon and Washington) Quad Cities (parts of Iowa and Illinois) Sacramento metropolitan area (parts of California and Nevada) Greater St. Louis (parts of Missouri and Illinois) Texarkana metropolitan area (parts of Texas and Arkansas) Tri-Cities (parts of Tennessee and Virginia) Twin Ports (Duluth, Minnesota and Superior, Wisconsin) Hampton Roads region (parts of Virginia and North Carolina) Youngstown–Warren–Boardman metropolitan statistical area (parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania) Intrastate and intraterritory regions Alabama Alabama Gulf Coast Greater Birmingham Black Belt Central Alabama Lower Alabama Mobile Bay North Alabama Northeast Alabama Northwest Alabama South Alabama Alaska Alaska Interior Alaska North Slope Alaska Panhandle Aleutian Islands Arctic Alaska The Bush Kenai Peninsula Matanuska-Susitna Valley Seward Peninsula Southcentral Alaska Southwest Alaska Tanana Valley Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta American Samoa Manu'a Islands Ofu-Olosega Ta'ū Rose Atoll Swains Island Tutuila and Aunu'u Arizona Arizona Strip Grand Canyon North Central Arizona Northeast Arizona Northern Arizona Phoenix metropolitan area Southern Arizona Arkansas Arkansas Delta Arkansas River Valley Arkansas Timberlands Central Arkansas Crowley's Ridge Northwest Arkansas South Arkansas California Colorado Central Colorado (part of Southern Rocky Mountains) Colorado Eastern Plains (part of High Plains) Colorado Mineral Belt (part of Southern Rocky Mountains) Colorado Piedmont (parts of the Front Range Urban Corridor and Colorado High Plains) Colorado Plateau (multi-state region) Colorado Western Slope (parts of Southern Rocky Mountains and Colorado Plateau) Denver Metropolitan Area (part of Front Range Urban Corridor) Four Corners Region (multi-state region of Colorado Plateau) Front Range Urban Corridor (multi-state region) High Plains (multi-state region of Great Plains) North Central Colorado Urban Area (part of Front Range Urban Corridor) Northwestern Colorado (part of Southern Rocky Mountains) San Luis Valley South-Central Colorado South Central Colorado Urban Area (part of Front Range Urban Corridor) Southern Rocky Mountains (multi-state region of Rocky Mountains) Southwestern Colorado (parts of Southern Rocky Mountains and Colorado Plateau) Connecticut Connecticut has 9 official planning regions. These regions operate as councils of governments, and are recognized as county equivalents by the U.S. Census Bureau. Capitol Region Connecticut Metropolitan Lower Connecticut River Valley Naugatuck Valley Northeastern Connecticut Northwest Hills South Central Connecticut Southeastern Connecticut Western Connecticut Some of Connecticut's informal regions include: Coastal Connecticut Connecticut panhandle/Gold Coast Farmington Valley Housatonic Valley Litchfield Hills Quiet Corner Delaware "Upstate" or "Up North" Delaware Valley also known as "Above the Canal" (referring to the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal) "Slower Lower" Cape Region Central Kent Delaware coast District of Columbia Florida Directional regions Central Florida North Florida Northwest Florida North Central Florida Northeast Florida South Florida Southwest Florida West Florida East Florida Local vernacular regions Big Bend Emerald Coast First Coast Florida Heartland Florida Keys Florida Panhandle Forgotten Coast Glades Gold Coast Halifax area (also Surf Coast and Fun Coast) Red Hills Nature Coast Space Coast Suncoast Tampa Bay Area Treasure Coast Georgia Atlanta metropolitan area Central Georgia Central Savannah River Area Colonial Coast Golden Isles of Georgia North Georgia North Georgia mountains (Northeast Georgia) Southern Rivers Southeast Georgia Wiregrass Region Physiographic regions Appalachian Plateau Blue Ridge Mountains Coastal Plain Piedmont Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians Guam Cocos Island Guam (main island) Ritidian Point Tumon Hawaii Hawaiʻi Island (Big Island) Hamakua Coast Kaʻū Desert Kohala Coast Kona Coast Mauna Kea Puna District Waiākea-Uka Kahoʻolawe Kauaʻi Nā Pali Coast Kaʻula Lānai Maui Haleakalā Molokini West Maui Mountains Iao Valley Molokaʻi Kalaupapa Peninsula Niʻihau Lehua Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Nihoa (Moku Manu) Necker Island (Mokumanamana) French Frigate Shoals (Kānemiloha) Gardner Pinnacles (Pūhāhonu) Maro Reef (Nalukākala) Laysan (Kauō) Lisianski (Papaāpoho) Pearl and Hermes (Holoikauaua) Kure Atoll (Mokupāpapa) Oʻahu Kaʻena Point Makapuʻu North Shore Waikīkī Idaho Central Idaho Eastern Idaho Idaho Panhandle Magic Valley North Central Idaho Palouse Hills Southern Idaho Southwestern Idaho Treasure Valley Illinois Central Illinois Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area Chicago metropolitan area Community areas in Chicago Fox Valley The Collar Counties North Shore Driftless Area Forgottonia Metro-East American Bottom River Bend Metro Lakeland Military Tract of 1812 Northern Illinois Northwestern Illinois Peoria, Illinois metropolitan area Quad Cities Rock River Valley Shawnee Hills Southern Illinois (sometimes, Little Egypt) Tri-State Area Wabash Valley Indiana East Central Indiana Indianapolis metropolitan area Michiana Northern Indiana Northwest Indiana Southern Indiana Southwestern Indiana Wabash Valley Iowa Coteau des Prairies Des Moines metropolitan area Dissected Till Plains Driftless Area Great River Road Honey Lands Iowa Great Lakes Loess Hills Omaha–Council Bluffs metropolitan area Quad Cities Siouxland Kansas East-Central Kansas Flint Hills High Plains Kansas City Metropolitan Area North Central Kansas Osage Plains Ozarks Red Hills Santa Fe Trail Smoky Hills Southeast Kansas Kentucky The Bluegrass Cumberland Plateau or Eastern Coal Field Jackson Purchase Pennyroyal Plateau Western Coal Field Louisiana Acadiana Cajun Heartland River Parishes Central Louisiana (Cen-La) Florida Parishes "French Louisiana" (Acadiana + Greater New Orleans) Greater New Orleans North Louisiana Southwest Louisiana Maine Acadia Down East High Peaks / Maine Highlands Hundred-Mile Wilderness Kennebec Valley Maine Highlands Maine Lake Country Maine North Woods Mid Coast Penobscot Bay Southern Maine Coast Western Maine Mountains Maryland Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area Capital region Chesapeake Bay Eastern Shore of Maryland Patapsco Valley Southern Maryland Western Maryland Regions shared with other states: Allegheny Mountains Atlantic coastal plain Blue Ridge Mountains Cumberland Valley Delaware Valley Delmarva Peninsula consists of Maryland's and Virginia's Eastern Shore and all of Delaware Piedmont (United States) Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians Massachusetts Western Massachusetts The Berkshires (shown in map) Housatonic Valley Pioneer Valley Quabbin-Swift River Valley Central Massachusetts MetroWest Montachusett-North County South County Blackstone River Valley Northeastern Massachusetts North Shore Merrimack Valley Cape Ann Greater Boston Southeastern Massachusetts Cape Cod and Islands Cape Cod Martha's Vineyard Nantucket South Coast South Shore Michigan Lower Peninsula Northern Michigan Traverse Bay Area Straits Area Central/Mid-Michigan The Thumb Bluewater Area Tri-Cities Capital Region West Michigan Southwest Michigan Michiana Grand Rapids area Southeast Michigan Metro Detroit Upper Peninsula Western Upper Peninsula Copper Country Copper Island Central Upper Peninsula US 41 Corridor Eastern Upper Peninsula Straits Area Soo Area Minnesota Arrowhead Region Boundary Waters Buffalo Ridge Central Minnesota Coulee Region Iron Range Minnesota River Valley North Shore Northwest Angle Pipestone Region Red River Valley Southeast Minnesota Twin Cities Metro Mississippi Mississippi Alluvial Plain Mississippi Delta Mississippi Gulf Coast Natchez Trace Missouri Boonslick Bootheel Dissected Till Plains Kansas City Metropolitan Area Lead Belt Little Dixie Ozarks Platte Purchase St. Louis Metropolitan Area Montana Big Horn Mountains Eastern Montana The Flathead Glacier Country Glacier National Park Regional designations of Montana Two Medicine Western Montana Yellowstone National Park Nebraska Nebraska Panhandle Pine Ridge Rainwater Basin Sand Hills Wildcat Hills Nevada Black Rock Desert Lake Tahoe Las Vegas Valley Mojave Desert Pahranagat Valley Sierra Nevada New Hampshire Connecticut River Valley Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee Region (overlaps with Connecticut River Valley) Great North Woods Region Lakes Region Merrimack Valley Golden Triangle Monadnock Region (overlaps with Connecticut River Valley) Seacoast Region White Mountains New Jersey North Jersey Skylands Amwell Valley Black Dirt Region (shared with New York) Great Valley Hunterdon Plateau Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians Highlands Somerset Hills The Sourlands Gateway Chemical Coast/Soundshore Hudson Waterfront North Hudson Meadowlands Pascack Valley Raritan Bayshore West Hudson Central Jersey Bayshore Jersey Shore Shore Region South Jersey Shore Region New Jersey Pine Barrens Delaware Valley Southern Shore Cape May New Mexico Central New Mexico Eastern New Mexico New Mexico Bootheel Northern New Mexico New York Downstate New York New York metropolitan area (New York City) Long Island East End The Hamptons North Shore (Gold Coast) South Shore Upstate New York Erie Canal Corridor Western New York Holland Purchase Burned-over district Finger Lakes former Leatherstocking Country (now the Central New York Region) Central New York Central New York Military Tract Phelps and Gorham Purchase Syracuse metropolitan area Mohawk Valley Southern Tier Capital District North Country Adirondack Mountains Adirondack Park Ski country Thousand Islands Tug Hill Catskill Mountains Borscht Belt Hudson Valley Shawangunk Ridge Black Dirt Region (shared with New Jersey) North Carolina Western North Carolina Foothills Region South Mountains The Unifour (Catawba Valley Area) High Country (Boone Area) Land of the Sky Asheville Metropolitan Area Great Craggy Mountains Blue Ridge Mountains Black Mountains Brushy Mountains Great Balsam Mountains Unaka Mountains Unicoi Mountains Great Smoky Mountains Tennessee Valley Central North Carolina Piedmont Crescent Metropolitan Charlotte (Metrolina) Lake Norman Area Metropolitan Piedmont Triad Sauratown Mountains Uwharrie Mountains Yadkin Valley The Research Triangle New Hope Valley Eastern North Carolina Fayetteville Metropolitan Area Inner Banks Albemarle Global TransPark Economic Development Area Tidewater Lower Cape Fear (Wilmington Area) Outer Banks Crystal Coast Bogue Banks Down East Sandhills North Dakota Badlands Drift Prairie Missouri Escarpment Missouri Plateau (Missouri Coteau in French) Red River Valley Northern Mariana Islands Northern Islands Alamagan Anatahan Agrihan Asuncion Island Farallon de Medinilla Farallon de Pajaros Guguan Maug Islands Pagan Sarigan Rota Saipan Tinian Ohio Allegheny Plateau Appalachian Ohio Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky metropolitan area Columbus, Ohio metropolitan area Connecticut Western Reserve (historic, now defunct) Great Black Swamp (shared with Indiana) The Lake Erie Islands Miami Valley Northeast Ohio (often used interchangeably with Greater Cleveland, but also includes the counties of Ashtabula, Portage, Summit, Trumbull, Mahoning and Columbiana.) Northwest Ohio Oklahoma Central Oklahoma Cherokee Outlet Green Country Choctaw Country Little Dixie Northwestern Oklahoma Panhandle South Central Oklahoma Southwestern Oklahoma Oregon Cascade Range Central Oregon Columbia Plateau Columbia River Columbia River Gorge Eastern Oregon Goose Lake Valley Harney Basin High Desert Hood River Valley Mount Hood Corridor Northwest Oregon Oregon Coast Palouse Portland metropolitan area Rogue Valley Southern Oregon Treasure Valley Tualatin Valley Warner Valley Western Oregon Willamette Valley Pennsylvania Allegheny National Forest Coal Region Cumberland Valley Delaware Valley Dutch Country Endless Mountains Highlands Region Laurel Highlands Lehigh Valley Northern Tier Northeastern Pennsylvania Philadelphia Main Line Pittsburgh metropolitan area South Central Pennsylvania Susquehanna Valley The Poconos Western Pennsylvania Wyoming Valley Puerto Rico Caja de Muertos Culebra Desecheo Island Isla de Mona Puerto Rico (main island) Cordillera Central El Yunque Vieques Rhode Island Blackstone Valley Block Island East Bay West Bay South County South Carolina The Lowcountry The Midlands The Upstate Travel/Tourism locations Grand Strand Lake Murray Country The Lowcountry & Resort Islands Old 96 District Olde English District Pee Dee Santee Cooper Country Other geographical distinctions Blue Ridge Mountains Charleston metropolitan area Columbia metropolitan area The Piedmont The Sandhills Sea Islands West Ashley South Dakota East River and West River, divided by the Missouri River Badlands Black Hills Coteau des Prairies Tennessee East Tennessee Middle Tennessee West Tennessee Other geographical distinctions: Highland Rim Nashville Basin Tennessee Valley Texas Brazos Valley Central Texas Texas blackland prairies The Hill Country Gulf Coast Galveston Bay Greater Houston East Texas Piney Woods and Northeast Texas North Texas Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex Texoma South Texas Rio Grande Valley Southeast Texas Golden Triangle Greater Houston Texas Midwest/West-Central Texas (includes Abilene, San Angelo, Brownwood, Texas) Texas Urban Triangle (Houston to San Antonio to Dallas-Fort Worth) West Texas Concho Valley Edwards Plateau Llano Estacado (a portion of northwest Texas) Permian Basin South Plains (includes 24 counties south of the Texas Panhandle and north of the Permian Basin) Texas Panhandle (pictured) Trans-Pecos Great Plains U.S. Minor Outlying Islands Baker Island Howland Island Jarvis Island Johnston Island Kingman Reef Midway Atoll Navassa Island Palmyra Atoll Wake Island U.S. Virgin Islands Saint Croix Saint John Saint Thomas Utah Cache Valley Colorado Plateau Dixie Great Salt Lake Desert Mojave Desert San Rafael Swell Uinta Mountains Wasatch Back Wasatch Front Wasatch Range Vermont Burlington metropolitan area Champlain Valley Green Mountains Mount Mansfield Northeast Kingdom Virginia Eastern Shore Hampton Roads Historic Triangle Piedmont region of Virginia Northern Neck Northern Virginia Greater Richmond Region Shenandoah Valley South Hampton Roads Southside Virginia Southwest Virginia Tidewater Tri-Cities Virginia Peninsula Washington Central Washington Columbia Plateau Eastern Washington Kitsap Peninsula Long Beach Peninsula Okanagan Country Olympic Mountains Olympic Peninsula Puget Sound Rocky Mountains San Juan Islands Skagit Valley Southwest Washington Tri-Cities Walla Walla Valley Western Washington Yakima Valley West Virginia Eastern Panhandle North Central West Virginia Northern Panhandle Potomac Highlands Southern West Virginia Wisconsin Wisconsin can be divided into five geographic regions. Central Plain Eastern Ridges and Lowlands Lake Superior Lowland Northern Highland Western Upland Wyoming Bighorn Basin Powder River Country See also Geography of the United States Historic regions of the United States List of metropolitan areas of the United States Media market, e.g., Nielsen Designated Market Area Political divisions of the United States Regional stock exchanges of the United States United States territory Vernacular geography Explanatory notes References External links U.S. Library of Congress Map of the US Regions List United States United States geography-related lists United States history-related lists United States science-related lists

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20political%20families%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom

List of political families in the United Kingdom

During its history, the United Kingdom (and previously the Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of Ireland) has seen many families who have repeatedly produced notable politicians, and consequently such families have had a significant impact on politics in the British Isles. Certain families, such as the Cecils, owe their long-standing political influence to the composition and role of the House of Lords, which was still mainly composed of hereditary legislators until the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. Other families, such as the Longs, have had a long tradition of standing for elected office, usually in the House of Commons. Many such families were part of the landed gentry, who often exerted political control in a certain locality over many generations. (Dyke-)Aclands Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 11th Baronet, MP 1837-86 Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 12th Baronet, MP 1882–92. Elder Son of 11th baronet. Sir Arthur Dyke Acland, 13th Baronet, MP 1885–99. Younger Son of 11th baronet. Sir Francis Dyke Acland, 14th Baronet, MP 1906–39 Richard Acland, MP 1935–55. Adamses Allen Adams MP Irene Adams MP and life peer. Spouse of the above. Adamsons William Adamson, MP 1910–31 William Murdoch Adamson, MP 1922–45. Aitkens William Maxwell Aitken (1879–1964), MP 1910–1916, later 1st Baron Beaverbrook Max Aitken, Conservative MP 1945–1950, later 2nd Baron Beaverbrook; son of Lord Beaverbrook William Traven Aitken (1903–1963), Conservative MP 1950–1963; nephew of Lord Beaverbrook Jonathan Aitken (born 1942), Conservative MP 1974–1997, Chief Secretary to the Treasury; son of William Traven Aitken Alderdices John Alderdice, Baron Alderdice (born 1955), leader of the Alliance Party David Alderdice, Lord Mayor of Belfast. Brother of the above. Alexanders Wendy Alexander (born 1963), MSP for Paisley North since 1999, Minister in the Scottish Executive 1999–2002, Shadow Finance Secretary 2007 Douglas Alexander (born 1967), Labour MP for Paisley and Renfrewshire South. Brother of the above. Atkins Robert Atkins, Conservative MP 1979–1997 and MEP 1999–2014 Victoria Atkins, Conservative MP 2015-. Daughter of Robert. Attlees Clement Attlee, Labour Prime Minister John Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee, accepted hereditary peer; grandson of Clement Amerys Leo Amery (1873–1955), Conservative MP for Birmingham Sparkbrook 1911–1945, Secretary of State Julian Amery (1919–1996), Conservative MP for Preston North 1950–1966, Brighton Pavilion 1969–1992, Secretary of State for Air; son of Leo; also son-in-law of Harold Macmillan (see below) Armstrongs Ernest Armstrong (1915–96) Labour politician Hilary Armstrong (born 1945) succeeded her father as MP for North West Durham in 1987, retaining the seat until 2010 when she retired. Asghars Mohammad (Oscar) Asghar (1945–2020), Conservative Member of the Senedd for South Wales East Natasha Asghar, Conservative Member of the Senedd for South Wales East; Mohammad's daughter Astors Waldorf Astor (1879–1952), Conservative MP for Plymouth, Sutton 1910–1919, later 2nd Viscount Astor; husband of Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor Nancy Astor (1879–1964), Conservative MP for Plymouth, Sutton 1919–1945, first female MP to take her seat; Waldorf's wife William Astor (1907–1966), Conservative MP for East Fulham 1935–1945, Wycombe 1951–1952; Waldorf and Nancy's son William Astor (born 1951), excepted hereditary peer; William's son David Cameron (born 1966), Conservative Prime Minister; stepson-in-law of William Waldorf Michael Astor (1916–1979), Conservative MP for Surrey East 1945–1951; Waldorf and Nancy's son Jakie Astor (1918–2000), Conservative MP for Plymouth Sutton 1951–1959; Waldorf and Nancy's son John Jacob Astor (1886–1971), Conservative MP for Dover 1922–1945, later 1st Baron Astor of Hever; Waldorf's brother Hon. John Astor (1923–1987), Conservative MP for Newbury 1964–1974; John Jacob's son John Jacob Astor (born 1946), excepted hereditary peer; John Jacob's grandson Asquiths H. H. Asquith (1852–1928), Liberal MP, Chancellor of the Exchequer 1905–1908, Prime Minister 1908–1916, later 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith Raymond Asquith, 3rd Earl of Oxford and Asquith (born 1952), excepted hereditary peer; great-grandson of H. H. Asquith. Violet Bonham Carter (1887–1969), daughter of H. H. Asquith. (see Bonham Carters) Bagshaws John Bagshaw, MP 1835-59 Robert John Bagshaw, MP 1857–59. Son of John. Bakers Richard Baker MSP Claire Baker MSP. Spouse of Richard Baldwins Alfred Baldwin (politician) (1841–1908), MP for Bewdley 1892–1908 (Conservative). Stanley Baldwin (1867–1947), MP for Bewdley 1908–1937 (Conservative), Prime Minister. Son of Alfred. Oliver Baldwin, 2nd Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, MP for Dudley 1929–1931, Paisley 1945–1947 (Labour). Son of Stanley. Bankeses Henry Bankes, MP 1801-31 William John Bankes, MP 1810–34. Son of Henry. George Bankes, MP 1816–56. Son of Henry. Barings Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, MP 1806-35 and peer. Bingham Baring, 2nd Baron Ashburton, MP 1826-48 and peer. Francis Baring, 3rd Baron Ashburton, MP 1830-57 and peer. Basses Michael Thomas Bass, MP 1848–83 Michael Bass, 1st Baron Burton, MP 1865–86. Son of Michael. Hamar Alfred Bass, MP 1878–98. Son of Michael. Bathursts Seymour Bathurst, 7th Earl Bathurst, peer. Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley MP Violet Bathurst MP. Spouse of Allen Henry Bathurst, 8th Earl Bathurst, peer. Son of Allen and Violet. Beaumonts Colonel Thomas Richard Beaumont (1758–1829), soldier, Tory MP for Northumberland, 1795–1818 Thomas Wentworth Beaumont (1792–1848), soldier, son of Thomas Richard Beaumont, Tory MP for Northumberland 1816–1826, Whig MP for Stafford, 1826–1830, Liberal MP for Northumberland, 1830–1832, and for South Northumberland, 1832–1837 Wentworth Beaumont, 1st Baron Allendale (1829–1907), eldest son of Thomas Wentworth Beaumont, industrialist, Liberal MP for South Northumberland, 1852–1885, and for Tyneside, 1886–1892 Wentworth Beaumont, 1st Viscount Allendale (1860–1923), eldest son of Wentworth Beaumont (1st Baron Allendale), politician, Liberal MP for Hexham, 1895–1907 Ralph Beaumont (1901–1977) second son of Wentworth Beaumont (1st Viscount Beaumont), soldier, Conservative MP for Portsmouth Central, 1931–1945 Hubert Beaumont (1864–1922), third son of Wentworth Beaumont (1st Baron Allendale), Liberal MP for Eastbourne, 1906–1910 Michael Beaumont (1903–1958), soldier, son of Hubert Beaumont and son-in-law of Joseph Albert Pease (below), Conservative MP for Aylesbury, 1929–1938 Timothy Beaumont, Baron Beaumont of Whitley (1928–2008), clergyman, publisher and politician, son of Michael Beaumont and grandson of Joseph Albert Pease (below), Liberal, Liberal Democrat and from 1999 Green Party member of the House of Lords 1967–2008 Somerset Beaumont (1835–1921), third son of Thomas Wentworth Beaumont, banker, Liberal MP for Newcastle upon Tyne, 1860–1865, and for Wakefield, 1868–1874 Beggses Roy Beggs, former MP for East Antrim Roy Beggs Jnr., Member of the Legislative Assembly for East Antrim; his son Beith Alan Beith, MP for Berwick-upon-Tweed 1973–2015 Diana Maddock, MP for Christchurch 1993–1997. Spouse of Alan. Benns Sir John Benn, 1st Baronet (1850–1922), Liberal MP. Sir Ernest John Pickstone Benn, 2nd Baronet, first son of John, High Sheriff of the County of London 1932–1933 William Wedgwood Benn, 1st Viscount Stansgate (1877–1960), Liberal and Labour MP, and later peer. Son of John. Daniel Holmes (1863–1955), Liberal MP 1911–1918. Father-in-law of William. Tony Benn, disclaimed 2nd Viscount Stansgate (1925–2014), Labour MP for Bristol South East 1950–1960; 1963–1983 and Chesterfield 1984–2001. Son of William. Stephen Benn, 3rd Viscount Stansgate, Member of the Inner London Education Authority 1986–1990. First son of Tony. Hon. Emily Benn (born 1989), Labour Westminster candidate for East Worthing and Shoreham in 2010 and for Croydon South in 2015; Croydon London Borough Councillor 2014–2016. Daughter of Stephen. Hilary Benn (born 1953), Labour MP for Leeds Central. Second son of Tony. Benyons Sir Henry Benyon, 1st Bt (1884–1959), High Sheriff of Berkshire 1925, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire 1945–1959, Berkshire County Councillor. Bill Benyon (1930–2014), MP 1970–1992. Henry's second cousin, who inherited Englefield House from him upon his death, was Bill's father. Richard Benyon (born 1960), MP 2005–2019. Son of Bill. Beresfords John Beresford, MP 1801–05 John Claudius Beresford, MP 1801–11. Son of John. Bernal(-Osborne) Ralph Bernal, MP 1818–52 Ralph Bernal Osborne, MP 1841–74. Son of Ralph. Bevan and Lee Aneurin Bevan, MP for Ebbw Vale 1929–1960 Jennie Lee, MP for North Lanarkshire 1929–1931 and Cannock 1945–1970. Spouse of Aneurin. Billinghams and Skinners Angela Billingham, Baroness Billingham, Labour life peer Dennis Skinner, Labour MP; father-in-law of Angela's daughter Bilsons Sir Thomas Bilson (1592 – ), MP for Winchester 1614. Leonard Bilson (1616–1695), MP for Petersfield 1667–1681. Son of Sir Thomas. Thomas Bilson (1655–1692), MP for Petersfield 1685–1690. Son of Leonard. Leonard Bilson (1681–1715), MP for Petersfield 1704–1715 Son of Thomas. Blackburnes John Blackburne (1754–1833), MP 1801–31 John Ireland Blackburne (1783–1874), MP 1807–47. Son of John. Blakes Judith Blake, Baroness Blake of Leeds, Labour Life Peer, 2021–present. Olivia Blake, Labour MP, 2019–present. Daughter of Judith. Blennerhassetts John de Blennerhassett (1350–1384), MP for Carlisle (1381 and 1384) John Blennerhassett (died 1573), MP for Norwich (1563 and 1671) and Horsham (1558) Thomas Blennerhassett (1584–1611), MP for Carlisle (1584, 1586 and 1604) Sir John Blennerhassett (died 1624), Chief Baron of the Irish Exchequer (1621) and MP for Belfast John Blennerhassett (died 1677), High Sheriff of Kerry (1658), MP for Tralee (1661) John Blennerhassett (died 1709), MP for Tralee (1692), Dingle (1695–1699) and Kerry (1703–1709), son of the above John Blennerhassett (1691–1775), MP for Kerry (1709–1713, 1715–1727 and 1760–1775) and Tralee (1713–1715 and 1727–1760), son of the above Arthur Blennerhassett (1719–1799), MP for Tralee (1743–1761) and Kerry (1775–1783), son of the above John Blennerhassett (1715–1763), High Sheriff of Kerry (1740) and MP for Kerry (1751–1761 and 1762–1763) Robert Blennerhassett (1652–1712), MP for Clonmel (1692 and 1695) and Limerick (1703) Arthur Blennerhassett (1687–1758), MP for Tralee (1727–1758), son of the above Robert Blennerhassett (died 1689), MP for Tralee (1674), High Sheriff of Kerry (1682) Conway Blennerhassett (1693–1724), MP for Tralee (1723–1725), grandson of the above Sir Rowland Blennerhassett, 4th Baronet (1839–1909), Liberal MP for Galway Borough (1865–1874) and Kerry (1880–1885), great-great-great-nephew of the above. John Blennerhassett (1769–1794), MP for Kerry (1790–1794) Arthur Blennerhassett (1799–1843), High Sheriff of Kerry (1821) and MP for Kerry (1837–1841) Rowland Ponsonby Blennerhassett (1850–1913), MP for Kerry (1872–1885), grandson of the above John Blennerhassett (1930–2013), Fine Gael member of the Irish Seanad Blomfield and McAvan Paul Blomfield MP Linda McAvan MEP Boles Sir Dennis Boles, 1st Baronet (1861–1935), MP 1911–1921. Dennis Boles (1885–1958), MP 1939–1951. Nephew of Dennis. Jack Boles (1925–2013), High Sheriff of Devon 1993–1994. Nick Boles (1965–), MP 2010–2019. Son of Jack and great-nephew of Dennis. Borwicks Robert Borwick, 1st Baron Borwick, peer Jamie Borwick, 5th Baron Borwick, excepted peer. Great-grandson of Robert. Victoria Borwick MP and Deputy Mayor of London. Spouse of Jamie. Boswells Tim Boswell (1942–), Conservative MP 1987–2010. Victoria Prentis (1971–), Conservative MP 2015–. Daughter of Tim. Bottomleys Richard Robinson, Chairman of London County Council. James Bottomley, British Ambassador to South Africa 1973–1976. Grandson of Richard. Peter Bottomley (1944–), MP for Woolwich West 1975–83, Eltham 1983–97, and Worthing West 1997–. Son of James. Virginia Bottomley, Baroness Bottomley of Nettlestone (1948–), South West Surrey 1984–2005 and life peer. Spouse of Peter. Daughter of Barbara Garnett (Conservative member of ILEA) and niece of Peggy Jay (Labour member of GLC) and Douglas Jay MP. Kitty Ussher (1971–), MP 1971–. Granddaughter of James, niece of Peter. Bowaters and related persons Frank Bowater, Lord Mayor of London David Howell, Baron Howell of Guildford, Conservative politician, grandson of Frank George Osborne, Conservative politician, son-in-law of David Euan Wallace, Conservative MP, grandfather-in-law of David. Bradshaws Robert Haldane Bradshaw, MP 1802–32 James Bradshaw, MP 1825–32 Brights and Cashs John Bright (1811–1889), MP 1843–1847 1857–1889. John Albert Bright (1848–1924), MP 1889–1895 1906–1910. William Leatham Bright (1851–1910), MP 1885–1890. Son of the above. Bill Cash (1940-), MP 1984-. Cousin of John Bright. Jacob Bright (1821–1899), MP 1867–1874 1876–1885 1886–1895. Brother of John. Bromleys George Bromley (politician) (–1589), MP 1558, 1559, 1563–1567, 1571, 1572. Francis Bromley (–1591), MP 1584–1585. Son of George. Edward Bromley (1563–1626), MP 1586–1610. Son of George. Thomas Bromley (1530–1587), MP 1558, 1559, 1563–1567, Solicitor General, Lord Chancellor. Brother of George. Henry Bromley (died 1615) (1560–1615), MP 1584–1588, 1593, 1597, 1604–1611. Son of Thomas. Thomas Bromley (died 1641) (1585–1641), MP 1614, 1628–1629. Son of Henry (died 1615) Henry Bromley (died 1670) (1632–1720), MP 1660. Grandson of Thomas (died 1641) William Bromley (of Holt Castle) (1656–1707), MP 1685–1700, 1701–1702, 1705–1707. Son of Henry (died 1670). Bromleys (Barons Montfort) John Bromley (the elder) (–1707), MP 1705–1707 John Bromley (the younger) (–1718), MP 1707–1718. Son of John (the elder), son-in-law of William Bromley (of Holt Castle). Henry Bromley, 1st Baron Montfort (1705–1755), MP 1727–1741, Baron Montfort 1741. Son of John (the younger). Thomas Bromley, 2nd Baron Montfort (1733–1799), MP 1754–1755. Son of 1st Baron. Bromleys (Speaker) William Bromley (Speaker) (1663–1732), MP 1690–1698, 1701–1732, Speaker of the House of Commons. Clobery Bromley (1685–1711), MP for Coventry 1710–1711. Son of William (Speaker), son-in-law of William Bromley (of Holt Castle). William Bromley (died 1737) (–1737), MP 1725–1735, 1737. Son of William (Speaker). William Throckmorton Bromley (–1769), MP for Warwickshire 1765–1769. Son of William (died 1737). Brookes Henry Brooke, Member of Parliament and Home Secretary, later life peer Peter Brooke, MP and Secretary of State, life peer, son of Henry Brooke Brunners Sir John Brunner, 1st Baronet, MP 1885–1910 Sir John Brunner, 2nd Baronet, MP 1906–24. Son of John. Bull Sir William Bull, 1st Baronet, MP Anthony Bull (1908–2004), Vice-chairman of London Transport (1965–1971). Son of William Robin Chichester-Clark, son-in-law (see Chichester-Clark) Burgon Colin Burgon, MP 1997–2010. Richard Burgon, MP 2015-. Nephew of Colin. Byers and Nandy Charles Cecil Byers (1888–1957), 1935 Liberal candidate for Westbury. Frank Byers, Baron Byers (1915–1984), MP 1945–1950 and life peer. Son of Charles. Dipak Nandy (1936-), Deputy Director of the Equal Opportunities Commission 1976–1986. Lisa Nandy, MP . Son of Dipak and granddaughter of Frank. Calcrafts John Calcraft, MP 1801-31 John Hales Calcraft, MP 1820–59. Son of John. Callaghans James Callaghan (later Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, Prime Minister 1976–1979) Margaret Jay, Baroness Jay of Paddington, life peer. Daughter of James. Julian Hunt, Baron Hunt of Chesterton, nephew of Peggy, Labour life peer Tristram Hunt, son of Julian, Labour MP. Calverts John Calvert (1726–1804), MP 1801-02 John Calvert (died 1844), MP 1801–31. Son of John. (Bonham-)Carters John Carter, Mayor of Portsmouth. John Bonham-Carter (1788–1838), MP. Son of John. Maurice Bonham Carter (1880–1960), Principal Private Secretary to H. H. Asquith. Grandson of John. Violet Bonham Carter (1887–1969), President of the Liberal Party 1945–1947 and life peer. Spouse of Maurice. Mark Bonham Carter (1922–1994), Liberal MP and life peer. Son of Violet. Jane Bonham Carter (born 1957), Life peer since 2005. Daughter of Mark. Laura Bonham Carter, daughter of Violet Bonham Carter and married to Jo Grimond (1913–1983), MP for Orkney and Shetland 1950–1983, Leader of the Liberal Party 1956–1967 and created life peer (1983) Cavendishes (Duke of Devonshire) John Cavendish (before 1340–1381), Lord Chief Justice. William Cavendish (1505–1557), MP. Descendant of John. William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire (1552–1626), peer and MP. Son of William. William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire (1590–1628), peer and MP. Son of William. William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire (1617–1684), peer. Son of William. William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire (1640–1707), Whig MP for Derbyshire 1661–1681, peer. Son of William. William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire (1672–1729), MP for Derbyshire 1695–1701, Castle Rising 1702 and Yorkshire 1702–1707, peer. Son of 1st Duke. William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire (1698–1755), Whig MP for Lostwithiel 1721–1724, Grampound 1724–1727 and Huntingdonshire 1727–1729, peer. Son of 2nd Duke. William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire (1720–1764), Whig MP for Derbyshire 1741–51, peer, First Lord of the Treasury. Son of 3rd Duke. William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire (1744–1811), peer. Son of 4th Duke. Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire (1757–1806), spouse of William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, society host and key support of the Whig party George Cavendish, 1st Earl of Burlington (1754–1834), MP 1775–1831. Third son of William (4th duke) William Cavendish (1783–1812), MP 1804–1812. Son of George. Lord George Cavendish, MP for North Derbyshire 1834–1880. Son of William. William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire (1808–1891), MP for Cambridge 1829–1831, Malton 1831–1832 and Derbyshire North 1832–1834, later 7th Duke of Devonshire. Son of George. Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (1833–1908), Liberal then Liberal Unionist MP for Lancashire North 1857–1868, Radnor 1869–1880, Lancashire Northeast 1880–1885 and Rossendale 1885–1891, later 8th Duke of Devonshire, asked three times to be Prime Minister. Son of 7th Duke. Lord Frederick Cavendish (1836–1882), Liberal MP for the West Riding of Yorkshire and Chief Secretary for Ireland. Son of 7th Duke. Lord Edward Cavendish (1838–1891), MP for Derbyshire West. Son of 7th Duke. Victor Cavendish (1868–1938), Liberal Unionist MP for Derbyshire West 1891–1908, later 9th Duke of Devonshire. Son of Edward. Edward Cavendish (1895–1950), MP for Derbyshire West 1923–1938, later 10th Duke of Devonshire. Son of 9th Duke. Andrew Cavendish (1920–2004), 11th Duke of Devonshire, minister in Conservative government 1960–64. Son of 10th Duke. William Cavendish, Earl of Burlington (born 1969), High Sheriff of Derbyshire (2019–2020). Grandson of 11th Duke (his father the 12th Duke has not been elected representative peer). Alastair Morrison, 3rd Baron Margadale (born 1958), Deputy Lieutenant for Wiltshire (2003) Son-in-law of 10th Duke. Harold Macmillan (1894–1986), son-in-law (see Macmillan section) Richard Cavendish (1871–1946), MP for North Lancashire; son of Edward, brother of Victor Hugh Cavendish, Baron Cavendish of Furness, life peer; grandson of Richard George Henry Compton Cavendish (1784–1809), MP for Aylesbury 1806–1809. Son of George Henry Frederick Compton Cavendish (1789–1873), MP for Derby 1812–1834. Son of George. John Campbell, 2nd Earl Cawdor, MP. Son-in-law of Henry. Charles Cavendish, 1st Baron Chesham (1793–1863), MP 1814–1857. Son of George. Lord Charles FitzRoy. MP 1818–1830 1831–1847. Son-in-law of George. William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, Whig MP for Weobley 1761–62, later 3rd Duke of Portland and First Lord of the Treasury; son-in-law of 4th Duke Cawleys Frederick Cawley, 1st Baron Cawley, MP 1895–1918 and peer Harold Thomas Cawley, MP 1910–15. Son of the above. Cecils (Earls/Marquesses of Salisbury) William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley chief minister of Elizabeth I of England Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury chief minister of Elizabeth I of England and James I; son of William James Cecil, 3rd Earl of Salisbury politician, descendant James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury, politician, Conservative Leader of the House of Lords; descendant Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury Prime Minister Conservative Leader of the House of Lords; son of James James Gascoyne-Cecil, 4th Marquess of Salisbury, politician, Conservative Leader of the House of Lords; son of Robert Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury, politician, Conservative Leader of the House of Lords; son of James Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 6th Marquess of Salisbury, politician; son of Robert Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 7th Marquess of Salisbury, politician, Conservative Leader of the House of Lords; son of Robert. Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, politician, son of Robert. Lord Hugh Cecil, politician, son of Robert. Victor Alexander Gascoyne-Cecil, High Sheriff of Essex 1949. Grandson of Robert through William. Bill Benyon, politician. Nephew of Victor. (see Benyons) Arthur Balfour, Prime Minister, nephew of Robert Gerald Balfour, 2nd Earl of Balfour, Cabinet minister, nephew of Robert Chamberlains and related Joseph Chamberlain, politician Sir Austen Chamberlain, politician; son of Joseph Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister; son of Joseph Anna Spicer, 1964 Liberal Party candidate for Hertford. She married a great-nephew of Joseph, John B. Harman. Harriet Harman (1950–), MP for Peckham 1982–1997 and Camberwell and Peckham 1997–. Great-great-niece of Joseph Jack Dromey (1948–), MP for Birmingham Erdington 2010–. Husband of Harriet Richard Chamberlain, brother of Joseph Chichesters (Baron Fisherwick) Arthur Chichester, 1st Marquess of Donegall and 1st Baron Fisherwick (1739–1799), MP for Malmesbury, House of Lords peer George Chichester, 2nd Marquess of Donegall and 2nd Baron Fisherwick (1769–1844), House of Lords peer. Son of Arthur. George Hamilton Chichester, 3rd Marquess of Donegall, 1st Baron Ennishowen and Carrickfergus, and 3rd Baron Fisherwick (1797–1883), House of Lords peer. Elder son of George. Edward Chichester, 4th Marquess of Donegall (1799–1889) and 4th Baron Fisherwick, House of Lords peer. Younger son of George. George Augustus Hamilton Chichester, 5th Marquess of Donegall and 5th Baron Fisherwick (1822–1904), House of Lords peer. Elder son of Edward. Edward Chichester, 6th Marquess of Donegall and 6th Baron Fisherwick (1903–1975), House of Lords peer. Elder son of George. Adolphus John Spencer Churchill Chichester (1836–1901), High Sheriff of County Londonderry 1882. Younger son of Edward. Robert Chichester for South Londonderry 1921–1922. Dehra Parker, MP for Londonderry 1921–1929 and South Londonderry 1933–1960. Spouse of Robert. Two of Robert and Dehra's children can be found in the Chichester-Clark section. Washington Shirley, 9th Earl Ferrers (1822–1859), House of Lords peer. Father-in-law of Edward. Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Templemore (1797–1837), MP 1826–1830, House of Lords peer. Grandson of Arthur. Harry Spencer Chichester, 2nd Baron Templemore (1821–1906), House of Lords peer. Son of Arthur. Arthur Henry Chichester, 3rd Baron Templemore (1854–1924), House of Lords peer. Son of Harry. Arthur Claud Spencer Chichester, 4th Baron Templemore (1880–1953), House of Lords peer and Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire. Son of Arthur. Dermot Chichester, 7th Marquess of Donegall and 5th Baron Templemore (1916–2007), House of Lords pre-1999 peer. Son of Arthur. Chaplins Charles Chaplin, MP 1802-16 Charles Chaplin, MP 1809–31. Son of Charles. Chapman Jenny Chapman (1973–), MP for Darlington 2010–. Nick Smith (1960–), MP for Blaenau Gwent 2015–. Spouse of Jenny. Chichester-Clark James Johnston Clark, High Sheriff of County Londonderry 1849, MP for Londonderry 1857–1859} William Ovens Clark, Chief Justice of Punjab Chief Court. Son of James. James Lenox-Conyngham Chichester-Clark, Stormont MP for South Londonderry 1929–1933. Grandson of James. James Chichester-Clark, Baron Moyola, son of James, grandson of Robert and Dehra, Stormont MP for South Londonderry 1960–1972 and Prime Minister of Northern Ireland 1969-1971 Robin Chichester-Clark, son of James, Westminster MP for Londonderry 1955–1974 William Fitzwilliam Lenox-Conyngham, High Sheriff of Tyrone (1866). Maternal grandfather of James. Robert Chichester, Westminster MP for South Londonderry 1921-1922, father-in-law of James LC CC, grandfather of James and Robin Dehra Parker (nee Kerr-Fisher, then Chichester), Stormont MP for Londonderry 1921-1929 and for South Londonderry 1933-1960, wife of Robert, mother-in-law of James LC CC, grandmother of James and Robin Churchills, Spencers and related persons John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, military commander and politician George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough, politician; descendant of John, 1st Duke John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, politician, descendant of George Lord Randolph Churchill (1849–1895), MP and Leader of the House of Commons 1886–1887. Son of John Winston Churchill (1874–1965), Prime Minister 1940–1945 1951–1955; Son of Lord Randolph. Randolph Churchill (1911–1968), MP 1911–1968. Son of Winston. Pamela Harriman (1920–1997), United States Ambassador to France (1993–1997). Spouse of Randolph. Winston Churchill (1940–2010), MP 1970–1997. Son of Randolph and Pamela. Christopher Soames (1920–1987), MP 1950–1966, Leader of the House of Lords 1979–1981, Governor of Southern Rhodesia 1979–1980. Son-in-law of Winston. Nicholas Soames (1948–), MP 1983–. Son of Christopher. Duncan Sandys, politician; married to Diana Churchill, daughter of Sir Winston Laura Sandys, Member of Parliament; daughter of Duncan by second marriage Piers Dixon, Member of Parliament; married to Edwina Sandys, daughter of Duncan John Cronin, Member of Parliament; father-in-law of Piers by subsequent marriage Anthony Eden, Prime Minister; married to Clarissa Churchill, niece of Sir Winston Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough, politician, grandson of John, 7th Duke Ivor Bertie Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne (1835–1914), son-in-law of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (see Guests) Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire, descendant of John, 1st Duke Spencer Cavendish (1833–1908); son of the above (see Cavendish section) George Spencer, 2nd Earl Spencer (1758–1834), Whig MP for Northampton and Surrey, Lord Privy Seal in 1794, First Lord of the Admiralty in 1794–1801 under William Pitt the Younger and Charles James Fox, Home Secretary in 1806–1807 in the Ministry of All the Talents under Lord Grenville, brother of Georgiana John Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer (1782–1845), Whig MP for Northamptonshire and South Northamptonshire, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in 1830–1834, son of George Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer (1798–1857), Whig MP, Lord Chamberlain of the Household in 1846–1848 and Lord Steward of the Household in 1854–1857, brother of John John Spencer, 5th Earl Spencer (1835–1910), Liberal MP for South Northamptonshire, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland in 1868–1874 and 1882–1885, Lord President of the Council in 1880–1883 and in 1886, First Lord of the Admiralty in 1892–1895, son of Frederick Charles Spencer, 6th Earl Spencer (1857–1922), MP for North and Mid Northamptonshire, Lord Chamberlain of the Household in 1905–1912, brother of John and son of Frederick Clifton-Browns Sir William Brown, 1st Baronet, of Richmond Hill (1784–1864), MP 1846–1859. Sir William Richmond Brown, 2nd Baronet (1840–1906), High Sheriff of Northamptonshire 1873. Son of William. James Clifton Brown (1841–1917), MP 1876–1880. Brother of William. Howard Clifton Brown (1868–1946), MP 1922–1923 1924–1945. Son of James. Douglas Clifton Brown, 1st Viscount Ruffside (1879–1958), MP and Speaker of the House of Commons 1943–1951. Son of James. Audrey Hylton-Foster, Baroness Hylton-Foster (1908–2002), life peer. Edward Clifton-Brown (1870–1944), High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire 1936. Son of James. Geoffrey Clifton-Brown (1899–1983), MP 1945–1950. Geoffrey Clifton-Brown (1953–), MP 1992–. Grandson of Geoffrey. Coopers and Balls Yvette Cooper (1969–), MP for Pontefract and Castleford/Normanton, Pontefract and Castleford 1997–. Ed Balls (1967–), MP for Normanton 2005–2010 and Morley and Outwood 2010–2015. Spouse of Yvette. Copes Courtses A. E. Stubbs (1877–1962), MP 1945–1950. Robert Courts (born 1978), MP 1978-. Great-grandson of A. E. Stubbs. Cox and Leadbeater Jo Cox (1975-2016) MP for Batley and Spen 2015–2016. Kim Leadbeater (1976- ) MP for Batley and Spen 2021-onwards. Jo Cox's Sister Cromwells Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, Secretary of State, Master of the Rolls, Lord Privy Seal Oliver Cromwell (great-great-grandnephew of Thomas), army general, Lord Protector Richard Cromwell (son of Oliver), member of Council of State, Lord Protector Henry Ireton, son-in-law of Oliver, New Model Army general, deputy-governor of Ely, member of Parliament, Lord Deputy of Ireland Charles Fleetwood, son-in-law of Oliver, New Model Army general, governor of Isle of Wight, member of Parliament, member of Council of State, Lord Deputy of Ireland Cruddas and Healy Jon Cruddas MP Anna Healy, Baroness Healy of Primrose Hill. Spouse of Jon. Cryers Bob Cryer (1934–1994), MP 1974–1983 1987–1994 and MEP 1984–1989. Ann Cryer (1939–), MP 1997–2010. Spouse of Bob. John Cryer (1964–), MP for Hornchurch 1997–2005 and Leyton and Wanstead 2010–. Son of Bob and Ann. Ellie Reeves (1980–), MP for Lewisham West and Penge 2017–. Spouse of John. Rachel Reeves (1979–), MP 2010–. Sister of Ellie. Dashwoods Sir Henry Dashwood, 3rd Baronet, MP 1801-20 Sir George Dashwood, 4th Baronet, MP 1814–18. Son of Henry. Davidsons John Davidson, MP 1920–1937 Frances Davidson, Viscountess Davidson MP 1937–1959. Wife of John. Davies and Rees Ron Davies MP and AM Christina Rees MP. Spouse of the above. Davises Richard Hart Davis, MP 1807-31 Hart Davis, MP 1812–18. Son of Richard. Dawsons George Robert Dawson MP. Robert Peel Dawson (1818–1877), MP 1859-74 and Lord Lieutenant of County Londonderry 1870–77. Son of George. Robert Chichester MP. Grandson of Robert. (see Chichesters) Dickinsons and Davidsons Willoughby Dickinson was a Liberal MP, later 1st Baron Dickinson – his father and grandfather were also MPs Frances Davidson, later Baroness Northchurch, his daughter, served as Conservative MP for Hemel Hempstead 1937 to 1959, succeeding her husband John Davidson, later Viscount Davidson Doddses Nigel Dodds MLA and MP Diane Dodds MLA and MEP. Spouse of the above. Doran and Ruddock Frank Doran, MP for Aberdeen South 1987–1992, Aberdeen Central 1997–2005, and Aberdeen North 2005–2015. Joan Ruddock, MP for Lewisham Deptford 1987–2015. Spouse of the above. Dunnes Edward Marten Dunne (1864–1944), Liberal MP 1906–1910. Philip Dunne (1904–1965), Conservative MP 1935–1937. Son of Edward. Thomas Dunne (1933–), Lord Lieutenant of Hereford and Worcester 1977–1998. Son of Philip. Philip Dunne, Conservative MP 2005–. Son of Thomas. Martin Dunne (Lord Lieutenant) (1938–), Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire 1997–2010. Son of Philip. Dunwoodys Morgan Phillips (General Secretary of the Labour Party (1944–1961)) Norah Phillips, Baroness Phillips, Labour life peer, spouse of Morgan Gwyneth Dunwoody, MP for Exeter 1966–1970, Crewe 1974–1983, and Crewe and Nantwich 1983–2008. Daughter of Morgan and Norah. John Dunwoody, MP for Falmouth and Camborne 1966–1970. Spouse of Gwyneth. Tamsin Dunwoody, Welsh Assembly Member (2003–2007), Deputy Minister for Enterprise, Innovation and Networks (January 2005 – 2007), Deputy Minister for Environment, Planning & Countryside (October 2005 – 2007) Welsh Assembly Government, their daughter Durkans Mark Durkan, SDLP politician Mark H. Durkan, SDLP politician, nephew of Mark Eagleses Angela Eagle (1961–), Labour MP. Maria Eagle (1961–), Labour MP. Twin sister of Angela. Eccleses David Eccles, 1st Viscount Eccles, Conservative politician John Eccles, 2nd Viscount Eccles, Conservative excepted hereditary peer; son of David Diana Eccles, Viscountess Eccles, Conservative life peeress; spouse of John. Edwards and Goldings Ness Edwards MP Llin Golding MP. Daughter of Ness. John Golding MP. Spouse of Llin. Egertons William Egerton, MP 1784–90, 1792–1800, 1801–1806. Wilbraham Egerton, MP 1812-31 William Egerton, MP 1830–58. Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton MP 1868–1883. Alan de Tatton Egerton, MP 1883–1906. Ewings Winnie Ewing (1929–2023), SNP MP 1967–1970 1974–1979, MEP 1974–1999; MSP 1999–2003. Stewart Ewing (1927–2003, husband of Winnie) SNP activist and councillor for Glasgow Summerston 1977 Fergus Ewing (born 1957, son of Winnie), SNP MSP for Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber 1999–present Margaret Ewing (1945–2006, spouse of Fergus), SNP MP for East Dunbartonshire 1974–79 and for Moray 1987–2001; MSP for Moray 1999–2006 Annabelle Ewing (born 1960, daughter of Winnie), SNP MP for Perth 2001–2005; SNP MSP 2011–present. Ferguson and Butler Patricia Ferguson MSP Bill Butler MSP. Spouse of Patricia. Fieldens John Fielden (1784–1849), Liberal MP for Oldham 1832–47 Joshua Fielden (1827–87, son of John), Conservative MP for Eastern West Riding of Yorkshire 1868–80 Thomas Fielden (1854–97, son of Joshua), Conservative MP for Middleton 1886–92 and 1895–97 Edward Brocklehurst Fielden (1857–1942, brother of Thomas), Conservative MP for Middleton 1900–06 and Manchester Exchange 1924–35; married Mary Ellen, daughter of Thomas Knowles (1824–83), MP for Wigan 1874–83 Finnies John Finnie, Scottish Green Party MSP Ruth Maguire, SNP MSP, daughter of John Foleys Thomas Foley (died 1677), MP 1659 1660–61 1673–77. Thomas Foley (died 1701), MP 1679–85 1689–1698 1699 1701. First son of Thomas. Philip Foley (1648–1716), MP 1679–85 1689–1701. Third son of Thomas. Paul Foley (died 1699), Speaker of the House of Commons 1695–1698. Second son of Thomas. Thomas Foley (died 1737), MP 1691–1727 1734–37. Son of Paul. Thomas Foley (died 1749), MP 1734–41 1742–47. Son of Thomas. Thomas Foley, 1st Baron Foley (1716–1777), MP 1741–47 1754–76 and peer. Son of Thomas. Thomas Foley, 2nd Baron Foley (1742–1793), MP and peer. First son of Thomas. Edward Foley (1747–1803), MP 1768–1803. Second son of Thomas. Edward Thomas Foley (1791–1846), MP 1826–41. Son of Edward. John Hodgetts-Foley (1797–1861), MP 1822–1835 1847–1861. Son of Edward. Henry Hodgetts-Foley (1828–1894), MP 1857–68. Son of John. Paul Henry Hodgetts-Foley (1857–1928), High Sheriff of Herefordshire 1906. Major Henry Thomas Hamilton Foley MBE (1905–1959), High Sheriff of Herefordshire 1947. Grandson of Henry. Sir John Foley. Son of Henry. Andrew Foley (died 1818), MP 1801–18. Third son of Thomas. Thomas Foley (1778–1822), MP 1805–22. Foots Isaac Foot, MP 1922–35. Dingle Foot, MP 1931–70. Son of Isaac. Hugh Foot, (later Baron Caradon, 1907–1990, Governor of Cyprus, Permanent Representative at the United Nations 1964–70), son of Isaac Paul Foot (1937–2004, Socialist Workers Party/Socialist Alliance/Respect candidate), son of Hugh John Foot, (later Baron Foot, 1909–1999, lawyer and Liberal politician), son of Isaac Michael Foot (1913–2010), Leader of the British Labour Party (1980–1983), son of Isaac Fords Patricia Ford, MP for North Down 1953–55 Sir Michael Grylls, MP for Chertsey 1970–74 and North West Surrey 1974–97. Daughter-in-law of Patricia. Fosters Sam Foster, UUP MLA. Arlene Foster, First Minister of Northern Ireland, niece-in-law of Sam Galbraiths Thomas Dunlop Galbraith, 1st Baron Strathclyde, MP 1940–65 and peer. Tam Galbraith (1917–1982), MP for Glasgow Hillhead 1948–82, whip and junior minister. Son of Thomas. Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde, whip and junior minister. Son of Tam. Garniers Edward Garnier, Conservative politician Mark Garnier, Conservative politician, cousin of Edward Gibsons of Glasgow Kenneth Gibson MSP Patricia Gibson MP. Spouse of Kenneth Gibsons of Highlands and Islands Rob Gibson, SNP Member of Scottish Parliament 2003– Eleanor Scott, Green MSP 2003–2007. Domestic partner of Rob. Gladstones and relations Sir John Gladstone, 1st Baronet, MP 1818–1827. William Ewart Gladstone, MP 1832–95 Herbert Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone, MP 1880–1910 and Governor-General of South Africa 1910–1914. George Freeman (1967–), MP 2010–. Great-great-great-nephew of Herbert. Mabel Philipson, MP 1923–1929. Great-aunt of George. William Henry Gladstone, MP 1865–85. Son of William. Gildernews Phelim Gildernew, Mid Ulster District Councillor and Dungannon and South Tyrone Borough Council Mayor. Father of Colm and Michelle. Michelle Gildernew. Daughter of Phelim. Colm Gildernew. Brother of Michelle. Goldsmiths Frank Goldsmith (1878–1967), Conservative MP for Stowmarket. Edward Goldsmith (1928–2009), co-founder of the Green Party of England and Wales. Son of Frank. James Goldsmith (1933–1997), MEP for France. Son of Frank. Lady Annabel Goldsmith (1934–), president of Democracy Movement. Spouse of James. Zac Goldsmith, Baron Goldsmith of Richmond Park, Conservative MP for Richmond Park 2010–2016 and 2017–2019. Son of James and Annabel. Additionally, James Goldsmith's daughter Jemima Goldsmith married Imran Khan, former prime minister of Pakistan. Goschens George Goschen, 1st Viscount Goschen, MP 1863–1900 and peer. George Goschen, 2nd Viscount Goschen, MP 1895–1900 and peer. Son of George. Grady and Chichester Henry Deane Grady (1764–1847), MP for Limerick City 1798–1802. Edward Chichester, 4th Marquess of Donegall (1799–1889), House of Lords peer. Son-in-law of Henry. Grants Charles Grant, MP 1802–18 Charles, jnr, MP 1811–35. Grattans Henry Grattan, MP 1803–20 James Grattan, MP 1817–29. Son of Henry. Greenes Sir Edward Greene, 1st Baronet, MP 1900–06 Sir Raymond Greene, 2nd Baronet, MP 1895–1923. Greenwoods Arthur Greenwood, MP 1922–54 Tony Greenwood, MP 1946–70. Son of Arthur. Grenvilles Richard Grenville, MP for Wendover 1715–1722, Buckingham 1722–1727 Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Viscount Cobham, 2nd Earl Temple, son of Richard George Grenville, Prime Minister, son of Richard Thomas Grenville, son of Hester George Nugent-Temple-Grenville, 3rd Viscount Cobham, 1st Marquess of Buckingham, son of George William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, Prime Minister; son of George; also son-in-law of Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford Thomas Grenville, politician, son of George James Grenville, son of Richard, MP for Old Sarum 1742–1747, Bridport 1747–1754, Buckingham 1754–1768, Horsham 1768–1770 James Grenville, 1st Baron Glastonbury, twin son of James, MP for Thirsk 1765–1768, Buckingham 1770–1790, and Buckinghamshire 1790–1797, peer Richard Grenville, twin son of James, MP for Buckingham (1774–1780) Greys and related persons Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey (1729–1807), military commander Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (1764–1845), MP for Northumberland, Appleby and Tavistock, Foreign Secretary (1806–1807), Prime Minister (1830–1834) Lady Louisa Elizabeth Grey (1797–1841), married John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham (1792–1840), MP for Durham, Lord Privy Seal (1830–1833) Frederick Lambton, 4th Earl of Durham (1855–1929), MP for South East Durham (1900–1910) Lady Lilian Lambton (1881–1966), married Charles Douglas-Home, 13th Earl of Home (1873–1951), Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire (1930–1951) Alexander Frederick Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home, later Baron Home of the Hirsel (1903–1995), MP for Lanark (1931–1945) and (1950–1951), and for Kinross and Western Perthshire (1963–1974), Minister of State for Scotland (1951–1955), Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations (1955–1960), Leader of the House of Lords (1957–1960), Lord President of the Council (1959–1960), Foreign Secretary (1960–1963) and (1970–1974), Prime Minister (1963–1964) David Douglas-Home, 15th Earl of Home (1943-2022), excepted hereditary peer Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey (1802–1894), MP for Sunderland (1841–1845), Secretary at War (1835–1839), Secretary of State for War and the Colonies (1846–1852) Sir Charles Grey (1804–1870), MP for Wycombe (1832–1837), Private Secretary to the Sovereign (1861–1870) Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey (1851–1917), MP for South Northumberland (1880–1885), Governor General of Canada (1904–1911) Mary Cecil Grey, granddaughter of the above, (1907–2002), married Evelyn Baring, 1st Baron Howick of Glendale (1903–1973), Governor of Kenya (1952–1959), British High Commissioner to South Africa (1944–1951) Lady Mary Grey (1807–1884), married Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax (1800–1885), MP for Halifax (1832–1865), Chancellor of the Exchequer (1846–1852), President of the Board of Control (1852–1855), First Lord of the Admiralty (1855–1858), Secretary of State for India (1859–1866), Lord Privy Seal (1870–1874) E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax, grandson of the above, (1881–1959), MP for Ripon (1910–1925), President of the Board of Education and Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries (1922–1925), Viceroy of India (1926–1931), Lord Privy Seal and Lord President of the Council (1935–1938), Foreign Secretary (1938–1940), Leader of the House of Lords (1940), British Ambassador to the United States (1940–1946) Sir George Grey, 1st Baronet (1767–1828), naval commander Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet (1799–1882), MP for Devonport, North Northumberland and Morpeth (1832–1874), Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1841) and (1859–1861), Home Secretary (1846–1852), (1855–1858) and (1861–1866), Secretary of State for the Colonies (1854–1855), Judge Advocate General (1839–1841) Sir Edward Grey, grandson of the above, (1862–1933), MP for Berwick-upon-Tweed (1885–1916), Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (1892–1895), Foreign Secretary (1905–1916), British Ambassador to the United States (1919–1920) Jane Grey (1804–1838), married Francis Baring, 1st Baron Northbrook (1796–1866), MP for Portsmouth (1826–1865), Chancellor of the Exchequer (1839–1841), First Lord of the Admiralty (1849–1852) Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook (1826–1904), MP for Penryn and Falmouth, Under-Secretary of State for India (1859–1861) and (1861–1864), First Lord of the Admiralty (1880–1885), Viceroy of India (1872–1876) Lady Elizabeth Grey (1765–1846), married Samuel Whitbread (1764–1815), MP for Bedford Grieves Percy Grieve (1915–1998), MP 1964–1983. Dominic Grieve (1956–), MP 1997–2019. Son of Percy. Guests Sir John Josiah Guest, 1st Bt (1785–1852); Welsh engineer and entrepreneur, MP for Honiton and first MP for Merthyr Tydfil Ivor Bertie Guest, 1st Baron Wimborne (1835–1914); Welsh industrialist, first son of John Josiah Guest, High Sheriff of Glamorgan in 1862; mayor of Poole from 1896 to 1897; son-in-law of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough (see Churchills) Ivor Churchill Guest, 1st Viscount Wimborne (1873–1939), Conservative MP for Plymouth, he later accompanied his cousin Winston Churchill into the Liberal Party and sat as Liberal MP for Cardiff, government minister and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, 1915–1918. Son of Ivor. Henry Guest (1874–1957), Liberal and later Liberal National MP for four different constituencies between 1910 and 1945. Son of Ivor. Frederick Guest (1875–1937), Coalition Liberal MP and Chief Whip in Lloyd George's Coalition Government 1916–1922. Son of Ivor. Lionel George William Guest (1880–1935), elected Municipal Reform Party member of the London County Council for Mile End in 1928. Son of Ivor. Oscar Guest (1888–1958), Liberal MP for Loughborough, 1918–1922 and Conservative MP for Camberwell North West, 1935–1945. Son of Ivor. Montague Guest (1839–1909), Liberal MP for Youghal, County Cork and later for Wareham in Dorset. Third son of John. Guinness (Earl of Iveagh and Baron Moyne) and related persons Arthur Guinness, not a politician Frederick Darley, son-in-law of Arthur, Lord Mayor of Dublin (1809) Sir Benjamin Guinness, 1st Baronet, grandson of Arthur, Lord Mayor of Dublin (1851–1852) and MP for Dublin City (1865–1868) Arthur Guinness, 1st Baron Ardilaun, son of Benjamin, MP for Dublin City (1868–1870; 1874–1880) Edward Guinness, 1st Earl of Iveagh, son of Benjamin, candidate in the 1885 United Kingdom general election at Dublin St Stephen's Green Rupert Guinness, 2nd Earl of Iveagh, son of the above, MP for Southend from 1918 until he succeeded his father in 1927 Gwendolen Guinness, Countess of Iveagh, spouse of Rupert Guinness, MP for Southend from 1927 to 1935 Benjamin Guinness, 3rd Earl of Iveagh, son of Rupert and Gwendolen Member of Seanad Éireann (1972–1977) Sir Henry "Chips" Channon, son-in-law of Rupert and Gwendolen Guinness, MP for Southend from 1927 to 1950 and then of Southend West, one of its successor seats, from 1950 to his death in 1958 Paul Channon, son of Henry Channon, MP for Southend West (1958–1997) Alan Lennox-Boyd, 1st Viscount Boyd of Merton, son-in-law of Rupert and Gwendolen, MP for Mid Bedfordshire (1931–1960) Mark Lennox-Boyd, younger son of the above, MP for Morecambe and Lonsdale (1979–1983) and Morecambe and Lunesdale (1983–1997) Charles Wellesley, 9th Duke of Wellington, grandson-in-law of Rupert, MEP for Surrey (1979–1984) and Surrey West (1984–1989) Ernest Guinness, son of 1st Earl of Iveagh, not a politician Basil Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 4th Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, son-in-law of Arthur, Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies (1937–1940) Dominick Browne, 4th Baron Oranmore and Browne, son-in-law of Arthur Walter Guinness, 1st Baron Moyne, son of Edward, MP for Bury St Edmunds (1907–1931) and Leader of the House of Lords 1941–1942 Jonathan Guinness, 3rd Baron Moyne, grandson of Walter through Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne, candidate in the 1973 Lincoln by-election and 1976 Coventry North West by-election James Charteris, 13th Earl of Wemyss, son-in-law of Jonathan, Deputy Lieutenant of Gloucestershire (2005) Rock Feilding-Mellen, stepson of Wemyss, Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Councillor Diarmid Edward Guinness, grandson of Walter through Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne, not a politician Robert Carnwath, Lord Carnwath of Notting Hill, brother-in-law of Diarmid, life peer Oswald Phipps, 4th Marquess of Normanby, son-in-law of Walter, Lord Lieutenant of the North Riding of Yorkshire (1965–1974) and North Yorkshire (1974–1987) Somerset de Chair, great-great-grandson-in-law of Benjamin through his daughter Anne, MP for South West Norfolk (1935–1945) and Paddington South (1950–1951) Jacob Rees-Mogg, son-in-law of Somerset, MP for North East Somerset (since 2010) Richard Samuel Guinness, great-nephew of Arthur, MP for Kinsale (1847–1848) Robert Rundell Guinness, nephew of Richard, not a politician Loel Guinness, great-grandson of Robert through Richard, MP for Bath (1931–1945) Henry Guinness, grandson of Robert through Henry, Member of Seanad Éireann Zac Goldsmith, 3x-great-grandnephew-in-law of Henry through his brother Howard Rundell Guinness (see Goldsmith section) Henry Eustace Guinness, nephew of the above, Member of Seanad Éireann (1954–1957) Additionally, Arthur Guinness' great-grandson of the same name (through the former's son Hosea) was a politician in a different country: Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives. Gummers John Gummer, Conservative politician Ben Gummer, Conservative Member of Parliament; son of John Peter Gummer, life peer; brother of John Harcourts William Vernon Harcourt, MP 1868–1904 Lewis Harcourt, 1st Viscount Harcourt, MP 1904–17 and peer. Son of William. Hardies Keir Hardie, leader of the Labour Party George Hardie, Labour MP; half-brother of Keir Agnes Hardie, Labour MP; spouse of George David Hardie, Labour MP; half-brother of Keir Nan Hardie, Labour provost; daughter of Keir Emrys Hughes, Labour MP; husband of Nan Hardings John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton, peer John Harding, 2nd Baron Harding of Petherton. Son of John. Dido Harding, life peer. Daughter of John. John Penrose MP. Spouse of the above. Harpham and Furniss Harry Harpham (1954–2016), Labour MP 2015–2016. Gill Furniss (1957–), Labour MP 2016–. Widow of Harry; she took over his seat upon his death) Heathcotes Sir Gilbert Heathcote, 4th Baronet, MP 1801–41 Gilbert Heathcote, 1st Baron Aveland, MP 1820–56 and peer. Son of Gilbert. Gilbert Heathcote-Drummond-Willoughby, 1st Earl of Ancaster, MP 1852–67 and peer. Son of Gilbert. Hendersons of Faringdon Alexander Henderson, MP 1898–1916 Harold Henderson, MP 1910–16. Son of Alexander. Hendersons of Rowley Arthur Henderson, MP 1903–35 Arthur Henderson, Baron Rowley, MP 1923–66. Son of Arthur. William Henderson, 1st Baron Henderson, MP 1923–31. Son of Arthur. Hendrons Joe Hendron Jim Hendron. Brother of the above. Hicks-Beaches Michael Hicks-Beach (1760–1830), MP 1801-18 William Hicks-Beach (1783–1856), MP 1812–17. Son of Michael. Hodgeses Thomas Law Hodges, MP 1830-41 and 1847–52 Thomas Twisden Hodges, MP 1835-37 and 1847–52. Son of Thomas. Hodgsons Robin Hodgson, Baron Hodgson of Astley Abbotts Fiona Hodgson, Baroness Hodgson of Abinger. Spouse of the above. Hoggs (Viscounts Hailsham) Douglas Hogg, 1st Viscount Hailsham, Lord Chancellor 1928–1929, 1935–1938 Quintin Hogg, 2nd Viscount Hailsham & Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone, Lord Chancellor 1970–1974, 1979–1987; son of Douglas Douglas Hogg, 3rd Viscount Hailsham, politician; son of Quintin Sarah Hogg, Baroness Hogg, political advisor to Prime Minister John Major; spouse of Douglas Holmes and Benn Daniel Holmes (1863–1955), MP for Glasgow Govan 1911–1918 William Wedgwood Benn, 1st Viscount Stansgate (1877–1960), son-in-law (See Benn section) Hoosons Tom Hooson, Conservative MP for Brecon and Radnor his cousin and political opponent, Emlyn Hooson, Baron Hooson, Liberal MP for Montgomeryshire Hopes John Fitzalan Hope, MP 1900–29 Arthur, MP 1924–39. Hopkinsons Alfred Hopkinson, MP 1895-98 and 1926–29 Austin Hopkinson, MP 1918–29 and 1931–45. Hosie and Robison Stewart Hosie MP. Shona Robison MSP. Spouse of the above. Howarths Gerald Howarth, Conservative MP James Cartlidge, Conservative MP; son-in-law of Gerald Howes Geoffrey Howe and Elspeth Howe, Baroness Howe of Idlicote Hoyles Doug Hoyle, Baron Hoyle (1930–), Labour MP 1974–1979 1981–1997 and life peer. Lindsay Hoyle (1957–), Labour MP 1997–2019 and the Speaker 2019–present. Son of Doug Catherine Swindley, Chorley Borough Councillor. Spouse of Lindsay. Natalie Lewis-Hoyle (1988/1989–2017), parish councillor at Heybridge, Maldon. daughter of Lindsay. Miriam Lewis, district councillor at Maldon, Essex as of 2017. Mother of Natalie Lewis-Hoyle. Hubbards John Hubbard, 1st Baron Addington, MP 1859-87 Egerton Hubbard, 2nd Baron Addington, MP 1874–89. Son of Egerton. Hurds Sir Percy Hurd (1864–1950), MP for Frome (1918–23) and Devizes (1924–45) Anthony Hurd (1901–1966), MP for Newbury (1945–64) and life peer. Son of Percy. Douglas Hurd (1930–), MP for Mid-Oxfordshire (1974–1983), and Witney (1983–1997), Foreign Secretary. Son of Anthony. Nick Hurd (1962–), Conservative MP for Ruislip-Northwood (2005–2019). Son of Douglas. Michael Ancram, Member of Parliament, father-in-law of Nick. Husseys Derek Hussey, UUP MLA. Ross Hussey, UUP MLA. Brother of the above. Jacksons Caroline Jackson MEP 1984–2009 Robert V. Jackson MP. Spouse of the above. Janners Barnett Janner, Baron Janner (1892–1982), MP for Whitechapel and St Georges (1931–35), MP for Leicester West (1945–50), MP for Leicester North West (1950–1970), Labour life peer Greville Janner, Baron Janner of Braunstone (1928–2015), MP for Leicester West and Leicester North West (1970–1997), Labour life peer Jays Douglas Jay, Baron Jay (1907–1996), MP 1946–1983. Peggy Jay (1913–2008), Labour London County Councilor. Spouse of Douglas. Peter Jay (1937-), British Ambassador to the United States 1977–1979. Son of Douglas and Peggy. Barbara Rutherford-Smith, sister-in-law of Peggy. Margaret Jay (see Callaghans) Virginia Bottomley, niece of Peggy.(see Bottomleys) Jegers Santo Jeger MP Lena Jeger MP. Spouse of the above. Jenkins Patrick Jenkin, Baron Jenkin of Roding (1926–2016), Conservative MP 1964–1987. Bernard Jenkin (1959–), Conservative MP 1992–. Son of Patrick Anne Jenkin, Baroness Jenkin of Kennington, Conservative life peer, spouse of Bernard J. C. C. Davidson, 1st Viscount Davidson, Conservative politician, grandfather of Anne. Frances Davidson, Viscountess Davidson, Conservative politician, spouse of J. C. C. Johnsons Stanley Johnson, Conservative MEP for Wight and Hampshire East (1979–1984) Boris Johnson, Conservative Mayor of London (2008-2016), Conservative MP for Henley (2001–2008) and Uxbridge and South Ruislip (2015–2023), Prime Minister (2019–2022), son of Stanley Rachel Johnson, Change UK candidate in the 2019 European Parliament election in the United Kingdom at South West England, daughter of Stanley, Jo Johnson, Conservative MP for Orpington (2010–2019), life peer (2020-), son of Stanley Matthew Evans, Baron Evans of Temple Guiting (1941–2016), Labour life peer. Maternal uncle of Amelia Gentleman, spouse of Jo. Emily Beavan, Labour councillor in Manchester and Bradford. John Beavan, Baron Ardwick, life peer. Son of Emily. His granddaughter Carrie Symonds is Boris' wife. Joneses (Northern England) Dan Jones, Labour MP. Dari Taylor, Labour MP; daughter of Dan. Joneses (Wales) Gwilym Jones, Conservative MP for Cardiff North (1983–1997). Also served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Wales (1994–1996) Fay Jones, Conservative MP for Brecon and Radnorshire (2019–present); daughter of Gwilym. Keens and Heal Alan Keen MP. Ann Keen MP. Spouse of the above. Sylvia Heal MP. Sister of the above. Kennedys of Southwark and Cardley Roy Kennedy, Baron Kennedy of Southwark Alicia Kennedy, Baroness Kennedy of Cradley. Wife of the above. Kinnocks Neil Kinnock, Labour MP (1970–1995), Leader of the Labour Party (1983–1992), became a life peer in 2005. Glenys Kinnock, Labour MEP (1994–2009), became a life peer in 2009. Spouse of Neil. Stephen Kinnock, Labour MP (2015–present). Son of Neil and Glenys. Helle Thorning-Schmidt, Prime Minister of Denmark. Spouse of Stephen. Knollyses Sir Henry Knollys Sir Francis Knollys. Brother of Henry. Lambs Thomas Phillipps Lamb, MP 1812–? Thomas Davis Lamb, MP 1802–?. Son of Thomas. Lancaster and Dinenage Mark Lancaster (1970–), MP for North East Milton Keynes 2005–2010 and Milton Keynes North 2010–. Caroline Dinenage (1971–), MP for Gosport 2010–. Spouse of Mark. Laws Peter Law, MP. Trish Law, AM. Wife of the above. Lechmeres Sir Nicholas Lechmere (1613–1701) MP for Bewdley, judge Anthony Lechmere (MP) (1674–1720), MP for Bewdley 1710, Tewkesbury 1714–1717. Grandson of Sir Nicholas. Edmund Lechmere (MP for Worcestershire) (1710–1805), MP for Worcestershire 1734–1747. Son of Anthony. Nicholas Lechmere Charlton (1733–1807), MP for Worcester 1774. Son of Edmund (1710–1805). Edmund Lechmere Charlton (1789–1845), MP for Ludlow 1835–1837. Son of Nicholas Lechmere Charlton. Edmund Lechmere (MP for Worcester) (1747–1798), MP for Worcester 1790–1796. Son of Edmund (1710–1805). Nicholas Lechmere, 1st Baron Lechmere (1675–1727), MP for Appleby 1708–1710, Cockermouth 1710–1717, Tewkesbury 1717–1721, Baron Lechmere 1721. Grandson of Sir Nicholas. Lefroys Thomas Langlois Lefroy, MP 1830–41 Anthony Lefroy, MP 1830–70. Son of Thomas. Lemons Sir William Lemon, 1st Baronet, MP 1801–24 Sir Charles Lemon, 2nd Baronet, MP 1807–57. Son of Wllliam. Levers Harold Lever, Baron Lever of Manchester MP. Leslie Maurice Lever MP. Brother of the above. Lewises Thomas Frankland Lewis, MP 1812–55 George Cornewall Lewis, MP 1847–63. Son of Thomas. Lindsays (Earls of Crawford) James Lindsay, 26th Earl of Crawford, Conservative MP and peer David Lindsay, 27th Earl of Crawford, Conservative MP and peer. Son of James David Lindsay, 28th Earl of Crawford, Conservative MP and peer. Son of David Robert Lindsay, 29th Earl of Crawford, Conservative MP and peer. Son of David James Lindsay, Conservative MP. Son of David Reginald Manningham-Buller, 1st Viscount Dilhorne, Lord Chancellor. Son-in-law of David Eliza Manningham-Buller, life peeress; daughter of Reginald Godfrey Nicholson, Conservative politician; son-in-law of David Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne, Liberal Democrat MP, MEP, and life peer. Daughter of Godfrey Richard Luce, Baron Luce. Son-in-law of Godfrey. (see Luce section) Ronald Lindsay, Ambassador. Son of James Robert Lindsay, Australian politician. Grandson of James. Lloyd Georges David Lloyd George, Prime Minister and Liberal MP 1890–1945 Gwilym Lloyd George, 1st Viscount Tenby, son of David, Liberal MP 1922–1924 & 1929–1950; Liberal and Conservative MP 1951–1957; Home Secretary 1954–1957 William Lloyd George, 3rd Viscount Tenby, son of Gwilym, excepted hereditary peer Megan Lloyd George, daughter of David, Liberal MP 1929–1951; Labour MP 1957–1966 Owen Lloyd George, 3rd Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, grandson of David, active Crossbench member of the House of Lords 1968 – 1999. Longs and related persons All of the Longs in this list are related to each other, sharing a common ancestor. Walter, the 1st Viscount Long stated in his autobiography in 1923, that there was an unbroken line of Longs serving Parliament in the House of Commons for about 300 years. This list spans 555 years. John Long of Draycot Cerne MP for Cricklade in 1442. Thomas Long of Draycot MP for Westbury in 1491. Son of John. Henry Long (MP 1552–1553) for Wiltshire. Son of Thomas. Richard Long (courtier) MP for Southwark in 1539. Son of Thomas. Sir Robert Long, 1st Baronet MP for Devizes in 1626 and 1628–29, for Midhurst in 1640, for Tewkesbury in 1659 and Boroughbridge from 1661 to 1673. Also Secretary of State and Auditor of the Exchequer to Charles II. Sir James Long, 2nd Baronet MP for Chippenham, MP for Malmesbury 1679, 1681, 1690–92. Nephew of Sir Robert. Sir James Long, 5th Baronet MP for Chippenham in 1705, 1707, 1708, and 1710, and MP for Wootton Bassett in 1714. Grandson of Sir James, 2nd Bt. Sir Robert Long, 6th Baronet MP for Wootton Bassett in 1734, and MP for Wiltshire in 1741. Son of Sir James, 5th Bt. Richard Godolphin Long MP for Wiltshire 1806–18. Grandson of Richard Long (MP 1734–1741). Walter Long Member for North Wiltshire from 1835 to 1865. Son of Richard Godolphin Long. Richard Penruddocke Long MP for Chippenham 1859–65 and MP for North Wiltshire 1865–68. Son of Walter above. Walter Long, 1st Viscount Long MP for North Wiltshire 1880–85, MP for Devizes 1885–92, MP for Liverpool West Derby 1893–1900, MP for Bristol South 1900–06, MP for South Dublin 1906–10, MP for Strand 1910–18, and MP for St George's 1918–21. Also served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Local Government Board, President of the Board of Agriculture, President of the Local Government Board, Chief Secretary for Ireland, leader of the Irish Unionist Parliamentary Party, First Lord of the Admiralty, Lord Lieutenant of Wiltshire. Son of R.P Long above. Richard Chaloner, 1st Baron Gisborough MP for Westbury 1895–1900, MP for Abercromby 1910–1917. Brother of Walter, 1st Viscount Long. Richard Long, 3rd Viscount Long MP for Westbury 1927–31. Son of Walter, 1st Viscount Long. Richard Long, 4th Viscount Long Conservative Opposition Whip in 1974 and Lord-in-Waiting from 1979 to 1997. Son of Richard above. George Gibbs, 1st Baron Wraxall MP for Bristol West 1906–1928, Government Whip 1917–21. Son-in-law of Walter, 1st Viscount Long. Sir James Tylney-Long, 7th Baronet MP for Marlborough 1762–1780, MP for Devizes (1780–1788) and MP for Wiltshire in 1788. Son of Sir Robert, 6th Bt. William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, 4th Earl of Mornington MP for St Ives 1812–18 and MP for Wiltshire 1818. Son-in-law of Sir James Tylney-Long. Richard Mason (politician) MP for Yarmouth 1673, MP for Bishop's Castle, Shropshire 1680–1. Son-in-law of Sir James Long, 2nd Bt. Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford MP for Lyme Regis, Custos Rotulorum of Devon. Great-grandson of Richard Long (courtier). Gifford Long MP for Westbury in 1625. Sir Walter Long, 1st Baronet MP for Salisbury in 1625, MP for Bath 1627, and MP for Ludgershall 1649. Sir Philip Parker, 1st Baronet MP for Harwich 1679–85 and MP for Sandwich 1685–87. Grandson of Sir Walter Long, 1st Bt. Sir Philip Parker-a-Morley-Long, 3rd Baronet MP for Harwich 1715–1734. Son of Sir Philip Parker 1st Bt. Lislebone Long MP in the protectorate Parliament for Wells in 1654, 1659, MP for Somerset 1656–8. Richard Long (MP 1694) for Chippenham. Richard Long (MP 1734–1741) for Chippenham. Son of Richard above. John Rolls, 1st Baron Llangattock MP for Monmouthshire 1880–85. Grandson of Walter Long of Preshaw David Cunliffe-Lister, 2nd Earl of Swinton Deputy Chief Whip in the House of Lords under Margaret Thatcher 1982–1986. Government spokesman on agriculture and education 1983–1986. Great-great-great-grandson of Richard Godolphin Long. Charles Long, 1st Baron Farnborough Dudley Long North Lowthers William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale William Lowther, 2nd Earl of Lonsdale Henry Lowther, 3rd Earl of Lonsdale, MP 1847–72. Henry Lowther, MP 1812–67. Luces Richard Luce (1867–1952), Conservative MP. William Luce (1907–1977), Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Aden (1956–1960). Nephew of Richard. Richard Luce, Baron Luce (1936–), Conservative MP and life peer. Son of William. Luttrells John Fownes Luttrell (1752–1816), MP 1801-16 John Fownes Luttrell (1787–1857), MP 1812–32. Son of John. Lyons Alex Lyon MP Clare Short MP. Spouse of the above. Maberleys John Maberley, MP 1816-32 William Leader Maberley, MP 1819–34. Son of John. MacDonalds Sir Archibald MacDonald, 1st Baronet, MP 1777-92 Ramsay MacDonald, MP 1906–37 Malcolm MacDonald, MP 1929–45 Gordon MacDonald, 1st Baron MacDonald of Gwaenysgor, MP 1929-42 Archie MacDonald, MP 1945-51 Margo MacDonald, MP 1973-2011 Lewis MacDonald, MSP 2011- Gordon MacDonald, MSP 2011- MacKay and Kirkbride Andrew MacKay, MP for Birmingham Stechford 1977–1979, East Berkshire 1983–1997 and Bracknell 1997–2010. Julie Kirkbride, MP for Bromsgrove 1997–2010. Spouse of the above. Macmillans (Earl of Stockton) Harold Macmillan (1894–1986), MP for Stockton-on-Tees 1924–29, 1931–45, Bromley 1945–64, Prime Minister 1957–63, later Earl of Stockton. Married Dorothy Cavendish, daughter of Victor. Maurice Macmillan (1921–1984), MP for Halifax 1955–64, Farnham 1966–83, South West Surrey 1983–84, Secretary of State; son of Harold Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton, peer, Member of the European Parliament 1999–2004. Son of Maurice. Stormont Mancroft, 2nd Baron Mancroft, Conservative peer, step-father-in-law. William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech, peer. Son-in-law of Maurice. Julian Amery, MP 1950–1966 1969–1992. Son-in-law of Harold. David Faber, MP. Grandson of Harold through daughter Caroline Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein, life peer. His son married David's sister. Mahons and Dowd Simon Mahon (1886–1961), Mayor of Bootle 1929. Peter Mahon (1909–1980), MP 1964–1970. Son of Simon. Simon Mahon (1914–1986), MP 1955–1979. Son of Simon. Joseph Mahon, councillor at Bootle. Son of Simon. Peter Dowd (1957–), MP 2015–. Great-nephew of both Peter and Simon. Mallalieus Frederick Mallalieu, MP for Colne Valley 1916–1922 Lance Mallalieu, Frederick's son, MP for Colne Valley 1931–35; then Labour MP for Brigg from 1948 to 1974. Son of Frederick. Joseph Percival William Mallalieu, MP for Huddersfield 1945–50, then for Huddersfield East from 1950 to 1974 Son of Frederick. Ann Mallalieu, J. P. W's daughter, is a Labour life peer since 1991 and is a leading pro-hunting campaigner Mancrofts Arthur Samuel, 1st Baron Mancroft, MP 1918–1937, Conservative peer, Stormont Mancroft, 2nd Baron Mancroft, Conservative peer. Son of Arthur. Benjamin Mancroft, 3rd Baron Mancroft, Conservative elected peer. Son of Stormont. Martins Michael Martin, Labour MP, Speaker of the House of Commons Paul Martin, Labour MSP; son of Michael Maudes Angus Maude, Conservative politician Francis Maude, Conservative politician; son of Angus Maxton James Maxton Labour MP 1922–1946 John Maxton Labour MP 1979–2001, is a Labour life peer since 2004, Nephew of James McAteers Eddie McAteer, one-time leader of the Nationalist Party, was the brother of Hugh McAteer, a Sinn Féin and IRA activist, and the father of Fergus McAteer, a leader of the Irish Independence Party McCarthys Justin McCarthy (1830–1912), MP 1879–1900 Justin Huntly McCarthy, MP 1884–92. Son of Justin. McCreas William McCrea, DUP MP and MLA. Ian McCrea, DUP MLA; son of William. McGuinnesses Martin McGuinness, deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland Dodie McGuinness, Northern Ireland Forum member; sister-in-law of Martin McMahons Michael McMahon, Labour MSP Siobhan McMahon, Labour MSP; daughter of Michael McNair-Wilsons Michael McNair-Wilson, Conservative MP for Walthamstow East 1967–70 and Newbury 1974–92. Patrick McNair-Wilson, Conservative MP for Lewisham West 1964–66 and New Forest from 1968 to 1997. Brother of the above. Laura Farris née McNair-Wilson, Conservative MP for Newbury (2019–present). Daughter of Michael, niece of Patrick. Meachers and Layard Michael Meacher MP Molly Meacher, Baroness Meacher. Spouse of the above. Richard Layard, Baron Layard. Spouse of the above. Mileses Philip John Miles, MP 1820–37. Sir William Miles, 1st Baronet, MP 1818–65. Son of Philip. Milibands Ralph Miliband, noted political academic and Marxist David Miliband, son of Ralph, advisor to Tony Blair, Labour MP for South Shields 2001–2013, member of the Cabinet 2005–2010. Son of Ralph. Ed Miliband, son of Ralph, economic advisor to Gordon Brown, MP for Doncaster North 2005–present; leader of the Labour Party 2010–2015. Son of Ralph. Justine Thornton, Queen's Bench High Court Judge 2019-. Spouse of Ed. Millars Frank Millar, Deputy Lord Mayor of Belfast Frank Millar Jr, UUP Assembly member; son of Frank Mitchells David Mitchell (1928–2014), Conservative MP 1964–1997. Andrew Mitchell (1956–), Conservative MP 1987–1997 2001–. Son of David. Morgans Rhodri Morgan, First Minister of Wales Julie Morgan, MP and Welsh AM. Spouse of the above. Morleys Samuel Morley, MP 1866-85 Arnold Morley, MP 1880–95. Son of Arnold. Morrises Alf Morris, Labour MP for Manchester Wythenshawe 1964–1997 Charles Morris, Labour MP for Manchester Openshaw 1963–83, Alf's brother Estelle Morris, Labour MP for Birmingham Yardley 1992–2005, Secretary of State, Baroness Morris of Yardley from 2005, Charles' daughter Morrisons Hugh Morrison, Conservative politician John Morrison, 1st Baron Margadale, Conservative politician; son of Hugh Charles Morrison, Conservative MP for Devizes 1964–1992; son of John Peter Morrison, Conservative MP for Chester 1974–1992; son of John Hugh Trenchard, 3rd Viscount Trenchard, excepted hereditary peer; grandson-in-law of John James Morrison, Conservative MP; brother of Hugh Morrison and Mandelson Herbert Morrison (1888–1965), Labour MP 1920s – 1950s, held various senior positions including Chair of the Labour Party and Leader of London County Council, later Cabinet Minister 1940–1951, as Deputy Prime Minister 1945–1951 and spells as variously Home Secretary, Foreign Secretary and Leader of the House of Commons Peter Mandelson (born 1953), Labour MP for Hartlepool (1992–2004), Cabinet Minister 1998 and as Northern Ireland Secretary 1999–2001, European Commissioner for Trade 2004–2008, Cabinet Minister 2008 – 10; grandson of Herbert Morrison Mosleys of Ancoats Oswald Mosley MP Lady Cynthia Mosley MP. Spouse of the above. Mundells David Mundell, Conservative MP and MSP Oliver Mundell, son of David, Conservative MSP Nairns and Spencer-Nairns Sir Michael Nairn of Rankeilour, 2nd Baronet, Deputy Lieutenant of Fife Sir Douglas Spencer-Nairn, 2nd Baronet (1906–1970), MP for Central Ayrshire 1955–1959. Nephew of Michael. Christopher Frank Spencer-Nairn (1949–), Conservative Westminster candidate at Moray in 2001 Humphrey Atkins, Baron Colnbrook (1922–1996), who married Douglas' sister Margaret Spencer-Nairn (1924–2012) Normans Sir Henry Norman, 1st Baronet (1858–1939), MP 1900–1910 1910–1923 Sir Mark Norman, 3rd Baronet (1927–2013), High Sheriff of Oxfordshire 1983–1984. Grandson of Henry. Jesse Norman (1962-), MP 2010-. Great-grandson of Henry. and nephew of Mark. Nott and Swire John Nott, Conservative politician Hugo Swire, Conservative politician; son-in-law of John Nuttalls Sir Nicholas Nuttall, 3rd Baronet, while not a politician, had several marriage connections: Christopher York MP, father-in-law Alexander Macmillan, 2nd Earl of Stockton, peer, married Nicholas' third wife. Lord Patrick Beresford, a previous wife of Nicholas' second wife, was the son of John Charles de La Poer Beresford, 7th Marquess of Waterford, who sat in the House of Lords as Baron Tyrone. O'Connells Daniel O'Connell, MP 1828–46 John, MP 1832–57. Son of Daniel. Maurice, MP 1832–53. Son of Daniel. Morgan O'Connell, MP 1832–40. Son of Daniel. Ormsby-Gores William Ormsby-Gore, MP 1806–57 John Ormsby-Gore, 1st Baron Harlech, MP 1837–76 and peer. Overends Robert Overend, Vanguard Unionist member of the Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention Sandra Overend, Ulster Unionist MLA and daughter-in-law of Robert Overend Billy Armstrong, Ulster Unionist MLA and father of Sandra Overend Pagets Henry Paget, 1st Earl of Uxbridge, peer Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, MP 1790–1804 1806–10. Son of Henry. Arthur Paget 1794–1807. Son of Henry. Berkeley Paget 1807–26. Son of Henry. Charles Paget 1804–26 and 1831–33 and 1833–34. Son of Henry. Edward Paget, 1796–1806 and 1810–20. Son of Henry. William Paget 1790–94. Son of Henry. Paisleys Ian Paisley (1926–2014), First Minister of Northern Ireland 2007–2008. Eileen Paisley, Baroness Paisley of St George's (1931-), DUP MLA and life peer. Spouse of Ian. Ian Paisley Jr. (1966-), DUP MLA 1998–2010 and MP 2010-. Son of Ian and Eileen. Rhonda Paisley (1960-), Belfast City Councillor. Daughter of Ian and Eileen. Patons John Paton MP. Florence Paton MP. Spouse of the above. Pawseys Jim Pawsey (1933-), MP 1979–1987. Mark Pawsey (1957-), MP 2010-. Peases Joseph Pease (1799–1872), Quaker railway company promoter and industrialist, MP for South Durham, 1832–1841 Henry Pease (1807–1881), railway owner and peace campaigner, younger brother of Joseph Pease, Liberal MP for South Durham, 1857–1859 Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease, first baronet (1828–1903), Quaker industrialist and banker, son of Joseph Pease, Liberal MP for South Durham, 1865–1885 and for Barnard Castle, 1885–1903 Edmund Backhouse (1824–1906), Quaker banker, second cousin, wife's nephew, and business associate of Joseph Pease, Liberal MP for Darlington, 1867–1880 Sir Theodore Fry, first baronet (1836–1912), Quaker industrialist, married to Sophia Pease (niece of Joseph and Henry Pease), Liberal MP for Darlington, 1880–1895 Arthur Pease (1837–1898), coal and ironstone mine-owner, son of Joseph Pease, Liberal MP for Whitby, 1880–1885 and for Darlington, 1895–1898 Henry Fell Pease (1838–1896), coal and ironstone mine-owner, son of Henry Pease, Liberal MP for Cleveland division of the North Riding, 1885–1896 Sir Alfred Edward Pease, second baronet (1857–1939), politician and sportsman, elder son of Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease, Liberal MP for York, 1885–1892 and for the Cleveland division of the North Riding from 1897 to 1902 Joseph Albert Pease, first Baron Gainford (1860–1943), younger son of Sir Joseph Whitwell Pease, Liberal MP for Tynemouth from 1892 to 1900, Saffron Walden from 1900 – January 1910 and Rotherham from March 1910 – 1916. He was Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, President of the Board of Education and Postmaster General. Herbert Pike Pease first Baron Daryngton (1867–1949), son of Arthur Pease, MP for Darlington, sitting as a Liberal Unionist and then a Unionist 1898–1910, as a Conservative 1910–1923, and in the House of Lords 1923–1949. William Edwin Pease (1865–1926), industrialist, Conservative MP for Darlington, 1923–1926 Michael Beaumont (1903–1958), soldier, son-in-law of Joseph Albert Pease, Conservative MP for Aylesbury, 1929–1938 Joseph Edward Pease, 3rd Baron Gainford (born 1921), grandson of Joseph Albert Pease, Conservative member of the House of Lords 1971–1999 Timothy Beaumont, Baron Beaumont of Whitley (1928–2008), clergyman, publisher and politician, grandson of Joseph Albert Pease, Liberal, Liberal Democrat and from 1999 Green Party member of the House of Lords 1967–2008 Peels Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, MP for Tamworth 1790–1820 Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet, first son of Robert, Prime Minister 1834–1835 1841–1846, MP for Cashel 1809–1812, Chippenham 1812–1817, Oxford University 1817–1829, Westbury 1829–1830, Tamworth 1830–1850 Sir Robert Peel, 3rd Baronet, Chief Secretary for Ireland 1861–1865. Son of Robert. Frederick Peel, MP 1849–65, Financial Secretary to the Treasury 1860–1865. Son of Robert. Arthur Peel, 1st Viscount Peel, Speaker of the House of Commons 1884–1895. Son of Robert. William Peel, 1st Earl Peel, MP 1900–1906 1909–1912, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal 1931, created peer Arthur Peel, 2nd Earl Peel (1901–1969), Lord Lieutenant of Lancashire 1948–51 and peer. Son of William. William Peel, 3rd Earl Peel, Conservative-later-crossbench peer, Lord Chamberlain of the Household (2006-). Son of Arthur. George Peel, MP for Spalding 1917–18. Sidney Peel, MP for Uxbridge 1918–22. William Yates Peel, second son of Robert, MP for Bossiney 1817–1818, Tamworth 1818–1830 1835–1837 1847, Yarmouth 1830–1831, Cambridge University 1831–1832 Arthur Peel (1861–1952), Envoy Extraordinary to Siam, Brazil, and Bulgaria. Grandson of William through Arthur. Robert Francis Peel (1874–1924), MP for Woodbridge 1910–1920, Governor of Saint Helena 1920–1925 Edmund Peel, third son of Robert, MP for Newcastle-under-Lyme 1831–1832 1835–1837 Jonathan Peel, fourth son of Robert, MP for Norwich 1826–1830, Huntingdon 1831–1868 Sir Robert Morier, son-in-law, ambassador Michael Biddulph, 1st Baron Biddulph, son-in-law, MP for Herefordshire (1865–1880) and Ross (1885–1900) Laurence Peel, sixth son of Robert, MP for Cockermouth 1827–1830 Charles Lennox Peel (1823–1899), Clerk of the Privy Council 1875–1898 Robert Peel Dawson (1818–1877). Grandson of Robert through Mary. (see Dawsons) Pelhams Henry Pelham, Prime Minister (1743–1754) Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, Prime Minister (1757–1762). Brother of the above. Percival John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont First Lord of the Admiralty 1763–1766 and sat in the House of Commons for several constituencies. Spencer Perceval MP for Northampton 1796–1812, Chancellor of the Exchequer 1807–1812, Leader of the House of Commons 1807–1812, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1807–1812, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1809–1812. Son of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont. Perkins A. P. Herbert (1890–1971), MP 1935–1950. Toby Perkins (1970-), MP 2010-. Perrys Roy Perry, Conservative MEP Caroline Nokes, Conservative MP; daughter of Roy. Philipses Sir George Philips, 1st Baronet, MP 1812–35 Sir George Philips, 2nd Baronet, MP 1818–52. Pitts (Earl of Chatham) and Stanhopes Three prominent political dynasties of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, interrelated through several marriages. Thomas Pitt ("Diamond" Pitt), governor of the British East India Company Robert Pitt, politician, son of Thomas "Diamond" Pitt Thomas Pitt, son of Robert Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford, son of Thomas Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford, son of Thomas, 1st Baron William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, Prime Minister; son-in-law of Thomas, 1st Baron William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham ("William Pitt the Elder"), Prime Minister; son of Robert, brother-in-law of Prime Minister George Grenville (see below) John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham, politician, son of William, 1st Earl William Pitt ("William Pitt the Younger), Prime Minister; son of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham Thomas Pitt, 1st Earl of Londonderry, son of Thomas "Diamond" Pitt John Pitt, son of Thomas "Diamond" Pitt James Stanhope, 1st Earl Stanhope, son-in-law of Thomas "Diamond" Pitt, married to Lucy Pitt Philip Stanhope, 2nd Earl Stanhope, son of James and Lucy Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope, son of Philip, son-in-law of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham (by 1st marriage to Hester Pitt), great-nephew-in-law of George Grenville (by 2nd marriage to Louisa Grenville) Philip Henry Stanhope, 4th Earl Stanhope, son of Charles and Louisa by second marriage James Stanhope, 7th Earl Stanhope, descendant of Philip Henry Edward Stanhope, politician, son of Philip Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, politicians Richard Grenville, brother-in-law of Richard. Continue to the Grenvilles section. Plunkett-Ernle-Erle-Drax John Plunkett, 17th Baron of Dunsany (1853–1899), MP 1886–1892. Richard Drax (1958–), MP 2010–. Great-grandson of John. Pootses Charles Poots, DUP Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention member Edwin Poots, DUP MLA, son of Charles Prentices Bridget Prentice, MP for Lewisham East 1992–2010. Gordon Prentice, MP for Pendle 1992–2010. Spouse of the above. Prices William Philip Price, MP 1852-73 William Edwin Price, MP 1868-80. Son of William. Priors Jim Prior, Baron Prior, Conservative politician David Prior, Baron Prior of Brampton, Conservative politician, son of Jim Redmonds John Redmond, MP 1881–1918 William Redmond, MP 1910–22. Son of John. Ridleys Sir Matthew White Ridley, MP 1801-12 Nicholas Ridley-Colborne, MP 1805-37. Son of Matthew. Robinsons Peter Robinson (born 1948), First Minister of Northern Ireland Iris Robinson MP and MLA. Roes Marion Roe, MP 1983 to 2005 Philippa Roe, life peer and council leader. Daughter of Marion. Rothschilds (Baron Rothschild) Nathan Mayer Rothschild, not a politician Sir Anthony de Rothschild, 1st Baronet, High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire (1861) Cyril Flower, 1st Baron Battersea, son-in-law of Anthony by his elder daughter Constance, MP for Brecon (1880–1885) and Luton (1880–1885) and peer Charles Yorke, 5th Earl of Hardwicke, brother-in-law of Anthony's younger daughter Annie, MP for Cambridgeshire (1865–1973) and Conservative peer Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, nephew of Anthony, MP for Aylesbury (1865–1885), Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire (1889–1915), and peer Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, son of Nathan, MP for Aylesbury (1899–1910) and peer Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild, son of Walter, Labour peer Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, son of Victor, peer Zac Goldsmith, grandson-in-law of Victor through Amschel (see Goldsmith section) Lionel de Rothschild, son of Nathan Mayer, MP for City of London (1847–1868; 1869–1874) Ferdinand de Rothschild, son-in-law of Lionel, MP for Aylesbury (1885–1898) James de Rothschild, grandnephew of Ferdinand, MP for Isle of Ely (1929–1945) Lionel de Rothschild, grandson of Lionel, MP for Aylesbury (1910–1922) Mayer Amschel de Rothschild, son of Nathan Mayer, High Sheriff of Buckinghamshire (1847) and MP for Hythe (1859–1874) Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, son-in-law of Mayer Amschel, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Henry FitzRoy, son-in-law of Anthony, MP for Great Grimsby (1831–1832) and Lewes (1837–1841, 1842–1859) Runcimans Walter Runciman, 1st Baron Runciman, MP 1914–?. Walter Runciman, 1st Viscount Runciman of Doxford (1870–1949), MP 1899–? and peer. Son of Walter. Hilda Runciman, Viscountess Runciman of Doxford (1869–1956), MP. Spouse of the above. Russells William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford (1613–1700), eldest son of Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford (see Longs and related persons above), MP for Tavistock in the Short Parliament and the Long Parliament William Russell, Lord Russell (1639–1683), third son of the 1st Duke of Bedford. He was a leading member of the Country Party, forerunners of the Whigs, who opposed the succession of James II during the reign of Charles II, ultimately resulting in his execution for treason for his involvement in the Rye House Plot John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford (1710–1771), fourth son of the 2nd and brother of the 3rd Duke of Bedford. Whig First Lord of the Admiralty (1744–17480), Secretary of State for the Southern Department (1748–1751), Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (1757–1761), Lord Privy Seal (1761–1763) and Lord President of the Council (1763–1765) Francis Russell, Marquess of Tavistock (1739–1767), eldest son of the 4th Duke of Bedford. Whig MP in the Irish House of Commons for Armagh Borough 1759–1761 and then in the British House of Commons for Bedfordshire until 1767 Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford (1765–1802), eldest son of the Marquess of Tavistock. Whig politician, responsible for much of the development of central Bloomsbury. John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford (1766–1839), younger son of the Marquess of Tavistock. Whig politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1806–1807 Lord John Russell, 1st Earl Russell (1792–1878), 1st Earl Russell, third son of the 6th Duke of Bedford. Whig and Liberal Prime Minister (1846–1852, 1865–1866) and Foreign Secretary (1852–1853, 1859–1865) Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell (1865–1931), 2nd Earl Russell, eldest grandson of PM Lord John Russell, brother of Bertrand Russell. First peer to join the Labour Party and Labour's Leader in the House of Lords. He was Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Transport and Under-Secretary of State for India in Ramsay MacDonald's government 1929–1931 Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell (1937–2004), second son of Bertrand Russell. He was the first parliamentarian to take his seat as a Liberal Democrat (in the House of Lords), shortly after the party was formed in 1988 from a merger of the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party. Lord Russell was elected at the top of his party's list of hereditary peers to retain their seats after all but 92 hereditary peers were removed from the House of Lords in 1999. Francis Russell, 7th Duke of Bedford (1788–1861), eldest son of the 6th Duke of Bedford. Whig MP for Peterborough (1809–1812) and Bedfordshire (1812–1832) William Russell, 8th Duke of Bedford (1809–1872), only son of the 7th Duke of Bedford. Whig MP for Tavistock 1832–1841 Francis Russell, 9th Duke of Bedford (1819–1891), grandson of the 6th Duke of Bedford. Liberal MP for Bedfordshire 1847–1872 George Russell, 10th Duke of Bedford (1852–1893), eldest son of the 9th Duke of Bedford. Liberal MP for Bedfordshire 1875–1885 Sainsburys Alan Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury, Liberal life peer John Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Preston Candover, Conservative life peer; son of Alan Tim Sainsbury, Conservative politician; son of Alan Shaun Woodward, Conservative, then Labour MP; son-in-law of Tim David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Labour life peer; nephew of Alan Samuels and Montagus Samuel Montagu, 1st Baron Swaythling (1832–1911), Banker (founder of Samuel Montagu & Co.) and Liberal MP for Whitechapel 1885–1900 Louis Montagu, 2nd Baron Swaythling, son of Samuel Montagu. Political activist, founder of the anti-Zionist League of British Jews. Sir Stuart Samuel, 1st Baronet (1856–1926), nephew of Samuel Montagu, elder brother of Herbert Samuel. Liberal MP for Whitechapel 1900–1916. Herbert Louis Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel (1870–1963), nephew of Samuel Montgu, younger brother of Stuart Samuel. Liberal MP for Cleveland 1902–1918, for Darwen 1929–1935. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1909–1910 and 1915–1916, Postmaster General 1910–1914 and 1915–1916, President of the Local Government Board 1914–1915, Home Secretary 1916 and 1931–1932, High Commissioner of Palestine 1920–1925. Liberal leader 1931–1935 Edwin Samuel, 2nd Viscount Samuel (1898–1978), son of the 1st Viscount. Legislator in the House of Lords. Samuelsons Sir Bernhard Samuelson, MP 1859–95 Henry Samuelson, MP 1868–85. Son of Henry. Sandys Edwin Sandys (bishop) (1519–1588), Archbishop of York Sir Samuel Sandys (died 1623) (1560–1623), MP for Ripon 1586, Worcestershire 1609–1622. Son of the archbishop. Sir Edwin Sandys (died 1623) (1591–1623), MP for Droitwich 1614, Pontefract 1621–1622. Son of Sir Samuel. Sir Samuel Sandys (Royalist) (1615–1685). MP for Droitwich 1640–1642, 1660, Worcestershire 1661–1681, Droitwich 1681–1685. Son of Sir Edwin. Samuel Sandys (died 1701) (–1701), MP for Droitwich 1661–1681, 1685–1690. Son of Sir Samuel. Edwin Sandys (MP for Worcestershire) (1659–1699), MP for Worcestershire 1695–1698. Son of Samuel. Samuel Sandys, 1st Baron Sandys (1695–1770), MP for Worcester 1718–1743, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Baron Sandys 1743. Son of Edwin. Edwin Sandys, 2nd Baron Sandys (1726–1797), MP for Droitwich 1747–1754, Bossiney 1754–1762, Westminster 1762–1770. Son of 1st Baron. Sir Edwin Sandys (died 1629) (1561–1629), MP for 6 constituencies. Son of the archbishop. Henry Sandys (MP) (–1640), MP for Mitchell 1625. Son of Sir Edwin. Sir Miles Sandys, 1st Baronet (1563–1645), MP for Cambridge University 1614, Huntingdon 1621–1622, Cambridgeshire 1628–1629. Son of the archbishop. Miles Sandys (died 1601) (–1601), MP for 8 constituencies. Brother of the archbishop. Edwin Sandys (died 1608) (–1608), MP for Andover 1586–1587. Son of Miles. Miles Sandys (died 1636) (–1636), MP for Cirencester 1625–1626. Grandson of Miles (died 1601). William Sandys (waterworks engineer) (–1669), MP for Evesham 1640–1641, 1661–1669. Grandson of Miles (died 1601). Sarwar Chaudhry Mohammad Sarwar (1950-), Labour MP for Glasgow Govan 1997–2005 & Glasgow Central 2005-2010. Later moved to Pakistan, serving as Governor of Punjab 2013-2015, then as a member of the Senate of Pakistan in 2018, before being re-appointed as Governor of Punjab 2018-2022. Anas Sarwar (1983-), son of Mohammad. Labour MP for Glasgow Central 2010-2015, Deputy Leader of the Scottish Labour Party 2011-2014, Labour MSP for Glasgow since 2016, Leader of the Scottish Labour Party since 2021. Seymours (Marquess of Hertford) Francis Seymour-Conway, 1st Marquess of Hertford, peer, Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire 1757–1794 and Montgomeryshire 1775–1776 Francis Ingram-Seymour-Conway, 2nd Marquess of Hertford, first son of Francis, MP for Lisburn 1761–1768, County Antrim 1768–1776, Lostwithiel 1766–1768, and Orford 1768–1794, Tory peer, Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire 1816–1822 Henry-Seymour-Conway (later Lord Henry Seymour), second son of Francis, MP for County Antrim 1776–1783, Coventry 1766–1774, Midhurst 1774–1780, Downton 1780–1784 Lord Robert Seymour, third son of Francis, MP 1771–1790 and 1794–1820 Lord Hugh Seymour, fifth son of Francis, MP 1784–1786 and 1788–1801 Lord William Seymour, sixth son of Francis, MP 1783–1784 and 1785–1796 Lord George Seymour, seventh son of Francis, MP 1784–90 and 1796–1801 Sharpleses Richard Sharples, Governor of Bermuda Pamela Sharples, Baroness Sharples, life peer Shelleys Sir John Shelley, MP 1806-31 John Villiers Shelley, MP 1830–67. Son of John. Shinwells and Bergers Manny Shinwell, Baron Shinwell, MP 1922–1924 1928–1931 1935–1970 and life peer. Luciana Berger, MP 2010–. Great-niece of Lord Shinwell. Sillars and MacDonalds Jim Sillars, MP for South Ayrshire 1970–1979 and Glasgow Govan 1988–1992 Margo MacDonald, MP for Glasgow Govan 1973–1974 and MSP. Spouse of the above. Silkins Lewis Silkin, Labour MP for Peckham 1936–50 John Silkin, Labour MP for Deptford 1963–87, Lewis' son Samuel Silkin, Labour MP for Dulwich 1964–83, Lewis' son Sinclairs Sir John Sinclair, 1st Baronet (1754–1835), Scottish Whig MP for Caithness 1780–1784, 1790–1796, 1802–1806, 1807–1811, Lostwithiel 1784–1790, Petersfield 1797–1802. He was the first person to use the word statistics in the English language. Sir George Sinclair, 2nd Baronet (1790–1868), eldest son of the 1st Baronet. Scottish Whig MP for Caithness 1811, 1818–1820 and 1831–1841 Sir John Sinclair, 3rd Baronet (1825–1912), eldest son of the 2nd Baronet. Scottish Liberal MP for Caithness 1869–1885 Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso (1890–1970), 4th Baronet, grandson of the 3rd Baronet. Scottish Liberal MP for Caithness and Sunderland 1922–1945, Liberal Chief Whip 1930–1931, Secretary of State for Scotland 1931–1932, Secretary of State for Air 1940–1945. Leader of the Liberal Party 1935–1945. John Archibald Sinclair, 3rd Viscount Thurso, known as John Thurso (b. 1953), grandson of the 1st Viscount. Scottish Liberal Democrat MP for Caithness, Sutherland and Easter Ross 2001–2015. The first British hereditary peer allowed to sit in the Commons without first disclaiming his title (possible because of the exclusion of hereditary peers from the House of Lords in 1999). Excepted hereditary peer. Veronica Linklater (b. 1943), Baroness Linklater of Butterstone, granddaughter of the 1st Viscount. Liberal Democrat life peer since 1997. Smiles Sir Walter Smiles, Conservative MP for Blackburn 1931–45, Ulster Unionist MP for Down, then North Down 1945–53 Patricia Ford, MP for North Down 1953–1955. Daughter of Walter. Michael Grylls, son-in-law of Patricia Ford, Conservative MP for Chertsey and then North West Surrey Nigel Fisher, MP for Hitchin 1950–1955 and Surbiton 1955–1983. Spouse of Patricia Ford Mark Fisher, son of Nigel Fisher and stepson of Patricia Ford, Labour MP for Stoke-on-Trent Central Smiths and Abel Smiths (Baron Carrington and Baron Bicester) John Smith (c1470–1547), Baron of the Exchequer. Francis Smith (1522–1606), High Sheriff of Leicestershire. Son of John Thomas Smith (c1682–1727/1728), High Sheriff of Leicestershire 1717–1718. Great-great-grandnephew of Francis through the latter's brother William. Abel Smith (1717–1788), MP 1774–78 1780–88. Nephew of Thomas and brother of George. Abel Smith (1748–1779), MP 1778–79. Second son of Abel. Mary Smith. Her husband John Sargent was the son of John Sargent MP. Robert Smith, 1st Baron Carrington (1752–1838), MP and peer. Third son of Abel. Robert Carrington, 2nd Baron Carrington (1796–1868), MP and peer. Son of Robert. Charles Wynn-Carington, 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire (1843–1928), MP, peer, and Lord Privy Seal 1911–1912. First son of Robert. William Carington (1845–1914), MP 1868–1883. Second son of Robert. Rupert Carington, 4th Baron Carrington (1852–1929), MP and peer. Third son of Robert. Rupert Carington, 5th Baron Carrington (1891–1938), peer. Son of Rupert. Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington (1919–2018), peer, life peer. Son of Peter. Rupert Carington, 7th Baron Carrington (1948–), elected peer. Son of Peter. Samuel Smith (1754–1834), MP 1801–32. Fourth son of Abel. Abel Smith (1788–1859), MP 1810–47. Son of Samuel. Abel Smith (1829–1898), MP 1854–98. Son of Abel. Abel Henry Smith (1862–1930), MP 1892–1910. Son of Abel. Samuel George Smith (1822–1900), MP 1859–80. Grandson of Samuel through Samuel. Henry Abel Smith (1826–1890), DL. Grandson of Samuel through Henry. Sir Henry Abel Smith (1900–1993), Governor of Queensland 1958–66. Grandson of Henry through Francis. Richard Abel Smith (1933–2004), Vice Lord-Lieutenant of Nottinghamshire 1991–9. Son of Henry. David Liddell-Grainger (1930–2007), Berwickshire County Councillor and DL for Berwickshire. Son-in-law of Henry. Ian Liddell-Grainger (1959-), MP 2001-. Son of David. George Smith (1765–1836), MP 1791-96 1800–31. Sixth son of Abel. George Robert Smith (1793–1863), MP 1831-32 1838–41. Son of George. Eric Carrington Smith (1828–1906), DL. Grandson of George through Oswald. Basil Guy Oswald Smith (1861–1928), High Sheriff of Berkshire 1917. Nephew of Eric. John Smith (1767–1842), MP 1802–35. Seventh son of Abel. John Abel Smith (1802–1871), MP 1830–59. Elder son of John. Hugh Colin Smith (1836–1910), Governor of the Bank of England 1897–99. Son of John. Vivian Smith, 1st Baron Bicester (1867–1956), Lord Lieutenant of Oxfordshire 1934–1956 and peer. Son of Hugh. Randal Smith, 2nd Baron Bicester (1898–1968), High Sheriff of Oxfordshire 1945 and peer. Son of Vivian. Angus Edward Vivian Smith, 3rd Baron Bicester (1932–2014), 1999-excluded peer. Nephew of Randal. Martin Tucker Smith (1803–1880), MP 1831–32, 1847–65. Youuger son of John. Gerard Smith (1839–1920), MP 1883–85 and Governor of Western Australia 1895–1908 Sir George Smith, 1st Bt (c1714-1769), High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire 1758–59. Nephew of Thomas and brother of Abel. Sir George Pauncefote-Bromley, 2nd Bt (1753–1808), High Sheriff of Gloucestershire. Son of George. Sir Robert Howe Bromley, 3rd Bt (1778–1857), High Sheriff of Nottinghamshire 1816–17. Son of George. Sir Henry Bromley, 4th Bt (1816–1895), Deputy Lieutenant. Son of Robert. Sir Robert Bromley, 6th Bt (1874–1906), Administrator of St Kitts and Nevis 1904–1906. Sir Maurice Bromley-Wilson, 7th Bt (1875–1957), High Sheriff of Westmorland 1901. Smiths of Gilmorehill John Smith (1938–1994), MP for North Lanarkshire 1970–1983 and Monklands East 1983–1994. Elizabeth Smith, Baroness Smith of Gilmorehill, life peer. Spouse of the above. George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen (born 1946), MP for Hamilton 1978–1997 and Hamilton South 1997–1999, Secretary of State for Defence 1997–1999, Secretary General of NATO 1999–2004, and life peer. His son Malcolm married John and Elizabeth's second daughter Jane. Springs and Spring Rices Sir Henry Spring (died before 1311), Knight of the Shire for Northumberland John Spring (died 1435), MP for Northampton (1414, 1416 and 1426) William Spring of Lavenham (died 1599), High Sheriff of Suffolk (1578 and 1579), MP for Suffolk (1570). William Spring of Pakenham (died 1637), High Sheriff and MP for Suffolk. Grandson of William. Sir William Spring, 1st Baronet of Pakenham (1613–1654), MP for Bury St Edmunds (1646–8) and Suffolk (1654), High Sheriff of Suffolk (1641). Son of William. Sir William Spring, 2nd Baronet (1642–1684), MP for Suffolk (1679–1684), exclusionist and early Whig, son of the 1st Baronet Sir Christopher Calthorpe (1645–1718), MP for Norfolk (1679), son-in-law of the 1st Baronet Thomas Spring of Castlemaine (died 1597), High Sheriff of Kerry (1592). Uncle of William through his brother Thomas. Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1790–1866), Whig politician, MP for Limerick City (1820–32), MP for Cambridge (1832–39), Secretary of State for War and the Colonies (1834), Chancellor of the Exchequer (1835–39), great-great-grandson of Thomas Spring of Castlemaine Sir Stephen de Vere, 4th Baronet (1812–1904), MP for County Limerick (1854–1859), High Sheriff of County Limerick (1870), nephew of the 1st Baron Thomas Spring Rice, 2nd Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1849–1926), politician, grandson of the 1st Baron Thomas Spring Rice, 3rd Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1883–1934), diplomat, son of the 2nd Baron Francis Spring Rice, 4th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1852–1937), Conservative peer, younger son of the 3rd Baron Charles Spring Rice, 5th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1887–1946), Conservative peer, son of the 4th Baron Gerald Spring Rice, 6th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1926–2013), Conservative peer, son of the 5th Baron William Brownlow (1921–1998), Unionist politician, MP for North Down (1959–62), brother-in-law of the 6th Baron Sir Cecil Spring Rice (1859–1918), British Ambassador to the United States (1912–1918), grandson of 1st Baron Monteagle of Brandon Sir Francis Spring (1849–1933), British colonial civil servant and politician, Member of the Madras Legislative Council Sir Thomas Spring (1822–1905), Unionist politician, High Sheriff of Tipperary (1890) Richard Spring, Baron Risby (born 1946), Conservative MP for Bury St Edmunds (1983–1997) and West Suffolk (1997–2010), Trade Envoy to Algeria (2012–present), Conservative peer, great-grandson of Sir Thomas Spring Stanleys (Earls of Derby) Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, politician Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby, politician, son of Edward, 12th Earl Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister; son of Edward, 13th Earl Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby, politician; son of Edward, 14th Earl Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby, politician, son of Edward, 14th Earl Edward Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby, politician, son of Frederick Edward Stanley, Lord Stanley, politician, son of Edward, 17th Earl Oliver Stanley, politician, son of Edward, 17th Earl George Frederick Stanley, politician; son of Frederick Stanleys (Baron Stanley of Alderley) John Stanley, 1st Baron Stanley of Alderley, MP for Wootton Bassett 1790–1796, peer Edward John Stanley, MP for Hindon 1831–1832 and North Cheshire 1832–1841 1847–1848, Postmaster General of the United Kingdom 1860–1866, peer Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley, son of Edward, Lord Temporal Edward Stanley, 4th Baron Stanley of Alderley, son of Edward, Lord Temporal Arthur Stanley, 5th Baron Stanley of Alderley, son of Edward, MP for Eddisbury 1906–1910, Governor of Victoria 1914–1920, Lord Temporal Edward Stanley, 6th Baron Stanley of Alderley, son of Arthur, Lord Temporal Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 10th Earl of Shaftesbury, stepson of Edward, peer Lyulph Stanley, 7th Baron Stanley of Alderley, son of Arthur, removed peer Sir Lowthian Bell, 1st Baronet, father-in-law of Edward, MP for North Durham 1874, The Hartlepools 1875–1880 Edwin Montagu, son-in-law of Edward, MP for Chesterton 1906–1918, Cambridgeshire 1918–1922 Thomas Stanley, 8th Baron Sheffield, grandson of 4th Baron Sheffield, peer David Ogilvy, 10th Earl of Airlie, son-in-law of Edward, representative peer William Owen Stanley, son of John, MP for Anglesey 1837–1847, City of Chester 1850–1857, and Beaumaris 1857–1874 Sturgeon Nicola Sturgeon (1970-), Scottish National Party (SNP) MSP for Glasgow 1999-2007, Glasgow Govan 2007-2011, and Glasgow Southside since 2011. Deputy Leader of the SNP 2004-2014, Deputy First Minister of Scotland 2007-2014, First Minister of Scotland & Leader of the Scottish National Party 2014-2023. Peter Murrell (1964-), spouse of the above. Chief Executive of the Scottish National Party 2001-2023. St Leger Hayes St Leger, 4th Viscount Doneraile, Irish representative peer 1855–1887 George Lenox-Conyngham, father-in-law of Hayes, William Fitzwilliam Lenox-Conyngham, first cousin twice removed of George, High Sheriff of County Tyrone Summerskills Edith Summerskill, MP for Fulham West 1938–55 and Warrington 1955–61. Shirley Summerskill, MP for Halifax 1964–1983. Daughter of Edith. John Ryman, MP for Blyth 1974–1983 and Blyth Valley 1983–1987. Spouse of Shirley. Swanns Sir Charles Swann, 1st Baronet, MP 1886–1918 Duncan Swann, MP 1906–10. Son of Duncan. Swinson and Hames Jo Swinson, MP for East Dunbartonshire 2005–15 and 2017–19 and former leader of the Liberal Democrats. Duncan Hames, MP for Chippenham 2010–15. Spouse of the above. Tennyson (d'Eyncourt) George Tennyson, MP 1818-19 Charles Tennyson d'Eyncourt, MP 1818–52. Son of George. Todds Alfred Todd, Conservative MP 1929–35 Mark Todd, Labour MP 1997–. Grandson of Alfred. Tugendhats Christopher Tugendhat, Baron Tugendhat (1937–), Conservative MP 1970–1977. Michael Tugendhat (1944–), High Court judge. Brother of Christopher. Tom Tugendhat (1973–), Conservative MP 2015–. Tyrwhitt-Drakes Thomas Drake Tyrwhitt-Drake, MP 1801-10 Thomas Tyrwhitt-Drake, MP 1805–32. Son of Thomas. Vane-Tempest-Stewart Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry (1878–1949), MP 1906–1915 and peer. Robin Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 8th Marquess of Londonderry (1902–1955), MP 1931–1945 and peer. Son of Charles. Vaz Merlyn Verona Vaz, Leicester City Councillor. Valerie Vaz (1954–), MP for Wallsall South 2010–. Daughter of Merlyn and sister of Keith Keith Vaz (1956–), MP for Leicester East 1987–2019 . Son of Merlyn and brother of Valerie. Villiers (Earl of Clarendon) George Villiers, MP for Warwick 1792–1802 George Villiers, 4th Earl of Clarendon, first son of George, Liberal peer Thomas Hyde Villiers, second son of George, MP for Hedon 1826–1830, Wootton Bassett 1830–1831, Bletchingley 1831–1832 Charles Pelham Villiers, third son of George, MP for Wolverhampton 1835–1885 and Wolverhampton South 1885–1898 Vivians Hussey Vivian, 1st Baron Vivian, MP 1820–41 and peer. Charles Vivian, 2nd Baron Vivian, MP 1835–42 and peer. Wakefields Edward Wakefield, MP for West Derbyshire (1950–1962) Wavell Wakefield, 1st Baron Wakefield of Kendal, MP for Swindon (1935–1945) and St Marylebone (1945–1963). Brother of the above. Walkers Peter Walker, Baron Walker of Worcester (1932–2010), Conservative MP 1961–1992. Robin Walker (1978–), Conservative MP 2010–. Son of Peter. Ward, Seabeck, Raynsford Michael Ward MP Alison Seabeck, MP for Plymouth Devonport 2005–2010 and Plymouth Moor View 2010–2015. Daughter of Michael. Nick Raynsford, MP for Fulham 1986–1987, Greenwich 1992–1997 and Greenwich & Woolwich 1997–2015. Spouse of Alison Watkins Sir Edward Watkin, MP 1857-95 Alfred Mellor Watkin, MP 1877–80. Son of Edward. Watts Hamish Watt (1925–2014), SNP MP 1974–1979. Maureen Watt (1951–), SNP MSP 2006–2011 2011. Daughter of Hamish. Stuart Donaldson, SNP MP 2015–17. Son of Maureen. Whitbreads Samuel Whitbread, MP 1852–95 Samuel Howard Whitbread, MP 1892–1910. Son of Samuel. Wheatleys John Wheatley, MP 1922–30, Minister of Health 1924. John Wheatley, Baron Wheatley, MP 1947–54, Solicitor General for Scotland 1947, Lord Advocate 1947–51, Labour Life Peer. Nephew of John. John Wheatley, Lord Wheatley, Senator of the College of Justice 2000–11. Son of John. Whites (Baron Annaly) Luke White (died 1824), MP 1812–24. Samuel White (died 1854), MP 1824–47. Second son of Luke. Henry White, 1st Baron Annaly (1791–1873), MP 1823-61 and peer. Fourth son of Luke. Luke White, 2nd Baron Annaly (1829–1888), MP 1859-65 and peer. Son of Henry. Luke White, 3rd Baron Annaly (1857–1922), Longford DL and peer. Son of Luke. Luke White, 4th Baron Annaly (1885–1970), peer. Son of Luke. Luke White, 5th Baron Annaly (1927–1990), peer. Son of Luke. Luke White, 6th Baron Annaly (born 1954), Lord-in-Waiting and Conservative Cherwell District Councillor 2007–11. Son of Luke. Wiggins Jerry Wiggin (1937–2015), Conservative MP 1969–1997. Bill Wiggin (1966–), Conservative MP 2001–. Son of Jerry. Wigrams Sir Robert Wigram, 1st Baronet, MP 1802-07 Sir Robert Wigram, 2nd Baronet, MP 1806–30. Son of Robert. Williamses Robert Williams (1735–1814), MP 1807-12 Robert Williams (1767–1847), MP 1802–34. Son of Robert. Williams and Breeses David Williams (1799–1869), Liberal MP 1868–1869. Sir Osmond Williams, 1st Baronet (1849–1927), Liberal MP 1900–1910. Son of David. Charles Edward Breese (1867–1932), Liberal MP 1918–1922. Great-nephew of David. Wintertons Nicholas Winterton MP for Macclesfield 1971–2010. Ann Winterton, MP for Congleton 1983–2010. Spouse of the above. Wintringhams Thomas Wintringham, MP for Louth 1920–1921 Margaret Wintringham, MP for Louth 1921–1924. Spouse of the above. Wolfsons Leonard Wolfson, Baron Wolfson, Conservative life peer David Wolfson, Baron Wolfson of Sunningdale, Conservative life peer; cousin of Leonard Simon Wolfson, Conservative life peer; son of David. Patricia Rawlings, Baroness Rawlings, Conservative politician; first spouse of David Woods Sir Mark Wood, 1st Baronet, MP 1801-18 Sir Mark Wood, 2nd Baronet, MP 1816–18. Son of Mark. Yousaf Humza Yousaf (1985-), Scottish National Party MSP for Glasgow 2011-2016 & Glasgow Pollok since 2016. Leader of the Scottish National Party and First Minister of Scotland since 2023. Nadia El-Nakla (1984-), spouse of the above. SNP Councillor of Dundee City Council for West End Ward 3 since 2022. References Bibliography 3 volumes. 2 volumes. Political families United Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangerously%20in%20Love

Dangerously in Love

Dangerously in Love is the debut solo studio album by American singer Beyoncé. It was released on June 23, 2003, by Columbia Records and Music World Entertainment. During the recording of Destiny's Child's third studio album Survivor (2001), the group announced that each member would produce solo albums. Recording sessions for Dangerously in Love took place from March 2002 to March 2003 at various recording studios, during the group's hiatus. As the executive producer of the album, Beyoncé took a wider role in its production, co-writing a majority of the songs, choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on mixing and mastering. Although she remained discreet about her interpretation of the album's songs, their underlying meanings were attributed by media outlets as an allusion to her intimate relationship with rapper Jay-Z. Musically, the album is a mixture of uptempo tracks and ballads, all of which are primarily R&B songs, while also incorporating elements of soul, hip hop and Arabic music. Upon its release, Dangerously in Love received generally positive reviews from music critics, many of whom praised Beyoncé's "artistic leap". An international commercial success, the album debuted atop the US Billboard 200, selling 317,000 copies in its first week and earning Beyoncé the highest debut-week sales among Destiny's Child members' solo albums. At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards (2004), the album and its songs won five awards, including Best Contemporary R&B Album; Beyoncé consequently tied with Lauryn Hill, Alicia Keys and Norah Jones for the record of most Grammy Awards won by a woman at a single ceremony. Dangerously in Love has been certified sextuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and, as of 2011, has sold over 11 million copies worldwide. Dangerously in Love produced four singles. "Crazy in Love" spent eight consecutive weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100, reaching the top ten almost everywhere it charted and winning two Grammy Awards. "Baby Boy" replicated the international commercial success of "Crazy in Love" while outlasting it atop the Billboard Hot 100 by one week. "Me, Myself and I" peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 while attaining lower peaks than its predecessors internationally. "Naughty Girl" peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and within the top ten in several additional countries. Beyoncé promoted the album via numerous live performances and two concert tours—Dangerously in Love Tour (2003) and Verizon Ladies First Tour (2004), the latter of which was co-headlined with Alicia Keys and Missy Elliott, while the former produced the live album Live at Wembley (2004). Background and development Beyoncé launched her career as the lead singer in the R&B girl group Destiny's Child in the late 1990s. According to Corey Moss of MTV News, "fans [were] eager to see" how Beyoncé, after years with the group, performs solo. While recording their third album Survivor in late 2000, Beyoncé announced the group would be put on hiatus in order for the members to produce solo albums in the coming years, which they hoped would boost interest in Destiny's Child. The idea of individual releases emanated from the group's manager and Beyoncé's father Mathew Knowles. With different musical styles for each member to produce, the albums were not intended to compete on the charts. Destiny's Child's management strategically planned to stagger the release of each group member's album to maximize sales. Michelle Williams was the first to release a debut solo album, titled Heart to Yours, in April 2002. Meanwhile, Beyoncé had her film debut in the comedy film Austin Powers in Goldmember, and recorded her debut single "Work It Out", which was featured on the film's soundtrack. Rowland collaborated with American rapper Nelly on the song "Dilemma" (2002) as a featured artist; it became a US Billboard Hot 100 number-one single, leading the label to advance the release date of her debut solo album Simply Deep to October. Beyoncé additionally starred in The Fighting Temptations (2003) and recorded another solo single. In August 2002, she collaborated with her now-husband Jay-Z as a featured vocalist on his song "'03 Bonnie & Clyde". Peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100, the song earned Beyoncé credibility as a solo artist and paved the way for the release of Dangerously in Love. Recording and production Before Beyoncé began recording for Dangerously in Love, she selected the producers with whom she would collaborate. For two days, she held meetings with prospective producers from the West Coast across the East Coast, and had interviews with them. Beyoncé went to Miami to begin sessions with record producer Scott Storch, her first collaborator, and lived in a hotel in the following months. As she wanted to concentrate on the album, Beyoncé took her time to avoid pressure build-up, significantly different from the hasty productions of Destiny's Child's albums. Beyoncé felt that recording an album without her groupmates was "liberating and therapeutic", coming into the studio and freely expressing her ideas with her collaborators. The dependency she developed with Destiny's Child, however, meant it was harder "to be on [her] own creatively". As she wanted to grow as an artist, Beyoncé contacted other artists with a view to forming a collaborative partnership. When the collective finished writing several songs, she printed copies of each and sent them to prospective guest artists. She talked to them by phone for possible collaboration, eventually gaining their approval. Besides Jay-Z, Beyoncé was able to work with Jamaican artist Sean Paul and American rapper Missy Elliott, among others. In contrast, some artists sent copies of songs to Beyoncé, which were eventually produced. Beyoncé also worked with Elliott and Timbaland on a track titled "Wrapped Around Me", but it ultimately failed to appear on the album. Survivor included a track titled "Dangerously in Love", which was deemed too sophisticated compared to other tracks on the album, and Destiny's Child decided not to release it as a single. After recording several tracks for Dangerously in Love, Beyoncé decided to re-record and add the track, retitling it "Dangerously in Love 2", after realizing that it fit the overriding theme of her album. As she did on Survivor, Beyoncé took a wider role in the production of Dangerously in Love, co-writing a majority of the songs, choosing which ones to produce and sharing ideas on the mixing and mastering of tracks. Although Beyoncé did not create beats, she came up with melodies and ideas she shared with the producers. Since the album's release date was postponed so Columbia Records could capitalize on the success of Kelly Rowland's feature on Nelly's "Dilemma", Beyoncé had been offered the chance to further enhance the record. Although she was disappointed with the decision, Beyoncé realized that "everything happens for a reason", agreeing to return to the recording studio to work with other songwriters. This allowed her to record more songs, including the album's lead single "Crazy in Love". In late 2002, Beyoncé paused working on Dangerously in Love in favor of a holiday tour with Destiny's Child. With a few weeks left for recording in March 2003, Beyoncé was still collaborating with other guests on the album, including Sean Paul and P. Diddy. The latter contributed on "Summertime", which ultimately did not make the album's final cut. However, it was later sent to radio stations and received favorable response. Consequently, Beyoncé planned to release a follow-up album comprising leftover tracks from Dangerously in Love, as the creative output of its sessions left several tracks ready for another album pressing. With 43 songs completed, Beyoncé is credited as a co-writer and a co-producer, as well as the album's executive producer alongside her father and then-manager Mathew Knowles. Music and lyrics Beyoncé's father and then-manager Mathew Knowles said Dangerously in Love showcased her musical roots. While Williams and Rowland explored on gospel and alternative pop styles, respectively, Beyoncé focused on recording R&B songs. The album's tracks vary, ranging from mid-tempo and club-oriented tracks on the first half, to ballads on the second half. Beyoncé commented: "My album is a good balance of ... ballads and ... mid-tempos with just ridin'-in-your-car feels, to a lot of ... up-tempo club songs, to really sexy songs, to songs that make you feel emotional. It's a nice mixture of different types of tracks." Although it contains high-energy tracks such as "Crazy in Love" and "Naughty Girl", the album's focal mode, however, is slow and moody. Beyoncé said she had mainly written ballads for the album. She added that she wanted to be understood as an artist and showcase her range, and by doing so, she blended various genres and musical influences; consequently, the album incorporates R&B, hip hop, soul, reggae and Arabic music influences. Its hip hop influences came from Jay-Z, Outkast, and Lil' Kim, while the reggae influences came from Sean Paul. Additionally, Scott Storch's personal study of Arabic music gave the album a Middle Eastern vibe. Beyoncé and the producers also used a wide array of instrumentations. Lyrically, love was the theme Beyoncé had incorporated for Dangerously in Love the most. Surrounding the release of the album, there were persistent rumors of her relationship with Jay-Z, which would later be proven true. Though "most the material is vague enough to be about any relationship", the album consists multiple tracks suggesting affirmation of their relationship. On "Signs", Beyoncé sings about being in love with a Sagittarius, Jay-Z's zodiac sign. Beyoncé said the album was lyrically similar to Destiny's Child's albums. However, since she had to write only for herself, Beyoncé had the chance to compose personally deeper songs than previous records with the group. With a theme based upon different stages of a romantic relationship, the album contains tracks speaking of romance and honesty. In addition, Beyoncé admitted some address sex. The personal content of the album, however, was not generally attributed to Beyoncé's own experiences—although some songs were—instead, the theme kept recurring in her mind. Beyoncé later explained: "I wanted to have an album that everyone could relate to and would listen to as long as I'm alive and even after... Love is something that never goes out of style. It's something everybody experiences, and if they are not in love, people usually want to feel that..." While some songs merely focus on the "beauty of love", the album also explores another side of love, with songs that "celebrate breakup" and songs that narrate a woman's desire to have a degree of control in a relationship. The album's hidden track "Daddy" is a tribute to Mathew Knowles, being an account of Beyoncé wanting her future husband and child to possess qualities similar to her father's. Originally, Beyoncé did not intend to include the track on the album, having thought its lyrics would make her appear immature. However, considering it one of the songs that reflected her life at that transitional moment, she relegated "Daddy" as the closing track. Title and packaging Dangerously in Love was titled after a track of the same title from Destiny's Child's third studio album Survivor (2001), which Beyoncé re-recorded for the album. The song itself is lyrically about being romantically obsessed, as indicated in the chorus: "I am in love with you / You set me free / I can't do this thing called life without you here with me". When "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" was released as a single in October 2002, critics and the public had speculated that Beyoncé and Jay-Z were having a mutual affair. Despite widespread rumors, they remained silent about their relationship. According to critics, the album's title sounded "more intriguing" with Beyoncé singing personal songs. Though love was the theme Beyoncé had incorporated in the album, "most the material is vague enough to be about any relationship"; some tracks, however, alluded to the accuracy of the rumors. In response to the rumors allegedly echoed in the album's title, Beyoncé stated: "People can come to whatever conclusion they like... That's the beauty of music... I'm a singer, I'll talk about writing songs all you want. But when it comes to certain personal things any normal person wouldn't tell people they don't know, I just feel like I don't have to [talk about it]." The album cover for Dangerously in Love was photographed by Markus Klinko. Beyoncé asked for a diamond-themed portrait, inspired by Klinko's 2000 campaign for Diamond.com showing Laetitia Casta lying on diamond-studded spider web. Beyoncé's mother and stylist, Tina Knowles, brought a diamond top for the shoot. Tina had brought skirts to pair it with, but Beyoncé felt they would look too "red carpet" with the top, according to Klinko. Instead, he lent Beyoncé his Dolce & Gabbana jeans for the shoot. The photograph was edited in post-production to conceal Beyoncé's breasts. Klinko said: "That famous pose she struck, with her arms out, she just did that. I didn't tell her to do that ... I just captured it." He felt the image "projected who Beyoncé was about to become ... Within a couple of years she had become that iconic, undeniable superstar. The photoshoot created a road map to where she was headed." The diamond top was displayed in the 2020 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame exhibition dedicated to Beyoncé. Release and promotion Beyoncé said she had trouble convincing executives at Columbia Records to release Dangerously in Love. She recounted that it was almost not released: "In 2003, I had my first solo album. But when I played it through for my record label, they told me I didn't have one hit on my album. I guess they were kinda right, I had five—'Dangerously in Love', 'Naughty Girl', 'Me, Myself and I', 'Baby Boy' and 'Crazy in Love'." Since Kelly Rowland's "Dilemma" was concurrently charting atop the US Billboard Hot 100, Beyoncé's management released "Work It Out", one of the songs on the soundtrack to Austin Powers in Goldmember, instead of a single from Dangerously in Love to preclude it from possibly competing with "Dilemma". Dangerously in Love was consequently pushed back from its original October 2002 release date to December, and then to May 2003. Beyoncé recorded a cover version of 50 Cent's "In Da Club", which served its way to mixtapes before the original release date. The song failed to dominate as a "dancefloor favorite"; Mathew Knowles, however, confirmed that it was just a "buzz cut" and was not included on the album. Nonetheless, it earned enough airplay to chart on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. While Beyoncé was completing the album, several of its tracks had leaked online. In an effort to prevent more tracks from the album being spread illegally, as well as being a victim of bootlegging, Columbia Records, with high commercial expectations from the album, pulled the release of Dangerously in Love to June 24, two weeks ahead of the planned July 8 release. Buyers who pre-ordered Dangerously in Love via Sony Music's online store received links where they could download a song titled "I Can't Take No More"; the offer lasted until the album's release. On June 14, Beyoncé premiered songs from the album during her first solo concert and the pay-per-view television special titled Ford Presents Beyoncé Knowles, Friends & Family, Live From Ford's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn, Michigan. By the night of the album's release, Beyoncé's concert was broadcast in over 20 theaters across the United States. Rowland, Michelle Williams, Tyrese and Beyoncé's younger sister Solange also performed during the show. Beyoncé also promoted the album by performing on television shows such as Saturday Night Live, Late Show with David Letterman, Today, The Early Show, and The View. She further promoted it with her Dangerously in Love Tour in November 2003, performing in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Netherlands. Her concert at Wembley Arena in London on November 10, was filmed for her live album Live at Wembley, released on April 26, 2004. Additionally, Beyoncé co-headlined the Verizon Ladies First Tour with Alicia Keys and Missy Elliott across the US from March to April. Singles In April 2003, Columbia Records was choosing the lead single from Dangerously in Love between two songs. Sent to clubs, the song that would receive better reception would be selected as the lead single. Finally, "Crazy in Love" was released as the lead single on May 14, 2003. It was lauded by critics who described it as "deliriously catchy". The single topped the US Billboard Hot 100, based on heavy rotation alone. The same week the song reached number one, Dangerously in Love topped the Billboard 200 as well. The substantial airplay and later retail sales of "Crazy in Love" facilitated it to dominate the chart, subsequently spending eight straight weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100, making it Beyoncé's first number-one single in her solo career. According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Crazy in Love" was the most downloaded song in the United States for four consecutive weeks in July 2003. The digital single was certified sextuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The song also became a success internationally, reaching the top of the charts in Croatia, Ireland and the United Kingdom. At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards (2004), the song won Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration. Its Jake Nava-directed accompanying music video "celebrates the evolution of a woman. It is about a girl who is at the point of a relationship. She realizes that she is in love, she is doing stuff she would not normally do but she does not care. It does not matter she is just crazy in love." Critically acclaimed, the video won Best Female Video, Best R&B Video and Best Choreography in a Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. "Baby Boy" was released as the second single from Dangerously in Love on August 3, 2003. It was well received by critics, who declared it a "high-profile collaboration" which "bridges the gap between the genres of R&B and dancehall." It ultimately peaked atop the US Billboard Hot 100 eight weeks after its debut, and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks, surpassing the eight-week run atop the chart of "Crazy in Love". The digital single was certified platinum by the RIAA. Internationally, the song peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart, reaching the top ten in 15 additional countries. Its accompanying music video, Beyoncé's second consecutive to be directed by Nava, features Beyoncé performing the song infused with heavy choreography at a flooded party and on a Miami beach, among other sceneries. "Me, Myself and I" was released as the third single from Dangerously in Love on October 19, 2003. It received generally positive critical response, directed towards its production and Beyoncé's vocal performance. It peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100, and reached the top ten in Canada. The digital single was certified platinum by the RIAA. However, the song failed to replicate its predecessors' international commercial success, reaching the top 20 in Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Its Johan Renck-directed accompanying music video shows events of Beyoncé dealing with an adulterous boyfriend in reverse. Critically acclaimed, the video was nominated for Best R&B Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards. "Naughty Girl" was released as the fourth and final single from Dangerously in Love on March 14, 2004. The song was lauded by critics, who noted that "Beyoncé borrowed a portion of Donna Summer's naughty classic "Love to Love You Baby" to create this celebration of sensual naughtiness." It peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100, continuing Beyoncé's string of top-five singles on the chart. The digital single was certified platinum by the RIAA. Internationally, the song became a top-ten hit in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Despite "Me, Myself and I" and "Naughty Girl" not peaking atop the Billboard Hot 100, they still achieved high commercial success and helped Dangerously in Love reach a multi-platinum status. The accompanying music video for "Naughty Girl" was directed by Nava and features Beyoncé seductively dancing and flirting with Usher. The Studio 54-styled video was inspired by the dancing of Cyd Charisse and Fred Astaire in the 1953 musical comedy film The Band Wagon. Critically acclaimed, it won Best Female Video at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards. Leading up to the release of Dangerously in Love, "Daddy" was released as a promotional single via iTunes Store on June 3, 2003. Beyoncé and Luther Vandross' cover of Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway's "The Closer I Get to You" was released as the fourth and final single from Vandross' thirteenth and final studio album Dance with My Father on June 13, 2004. Having won Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, the song peaked at number 62 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. Despite never being released as a single, "Dangerously in Love 2" won Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, and peaked at number 57 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Its mastertone was certified gold by the RIAA. Critical reception Dangerously in Love received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 63, based on 17 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone viewed that it presents Beyoncé in two styles, one "far more flattering" than the other, and found the ballad-oriented songs on the album least flattering, commenting that Beyoncé has "plenty of time" to develop the style maturely that would "[make] sense for her". Entertainment Weeklys Neil Drumming commented that the album validates Beyoncé's "taste in innovation". He also viewed that Beyoncé's collaboration with various record producers explores new directions in contemporary music, doing more reinventing than revisiting. Like DeCurtis' review, however, Drumming pointed out that "most of the disc's missteps" are in its latter part. Slant Magazines Sal Cinquemani wrote that "[Beyoncé] is allowed more room to experiment vocally as a solo artist, exploring softer registers and lathering on the coquettish persona that was only hinted at on Destiny's Child tracks like 'Bootylicious.'". Steve Jones of USA Today stated, "Beyoncé succeeds by showing greater depth as a songwriter and broader range as a singer". Blenders Ben Ratliff complimented Beyoncé's performance and stated, "She's playing the cool-hunter but covering the bases with seraphic arrangements of multiple voices. Her reach is remarkable". Mark Anthony Neal of PopMatters called it an "artistic leap" and wrote that it "finds Ms. B in the midst of a fully flowering womanhood and doing the best singing of her career". In a mixed review, Vibes Jason King said Dangerously in Love occasionally "sounds desperate to reach every demographic". Kelefa Sanneh, writing for The New York Times, felt that the album missed the harmonies of Destiny's Child records and that Beyoncé was more effective "when she's got a posse behind her". Rob Fitzpatrick of NME called it "a cruel glimpse of a talent that occasionally blazes but is frustratingly inconsistent". Uncut called its ballads "self-pitying/self-mythologising", while Q stated: "She has good songs, but no great songs". Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols expressed that it "demonstrates vocal finesse [...] But, especially on the ballads, [Beyoncé] often drags things out with diva acrobatics". The Guardians Adam Sweeting wrote that "the desperate urge to cover every musical base from dancefloor to soul-ballad means that there is barely a track here with any distinctive identity or even a tune". In his consumer guide for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau cited "Yes" and "Baby Boy" as the album's highlights and quipped that the artist was "Dangerously in Love ... with her daddy, the bonus cut reveals—as if we didn't know." He gave the album a one-star honorable mention, indicating "a worthy effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like." In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented that "the first half is good enough to make Dangerously in Love one of the best mainstream urban R&B records released in 2003, and makes a strong case that Beyoncé might be better off fulfilling this destiny instead of reuniting with Destiny". Accolades Dangerously in Love and its singles earned Beyoncé numerous awards and nominations. Beyoncé was recognized as New Female Artist and New R&B Artist, among the four awards she won during the 2003 Billboard Music Awards. At the November 2003 American Music Awards, the album was nominated in the category for Favorite Soul/R&B Album. It also received a nomination in the category for Best Album at the 2003 MOBO Awards. At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, Beyoncé won Best Contemporary R&B Album along with four other awards for the album's songs. With that feat, she tied with Alicia Keys, Norah Jones, and Lauryn Hill for most Grammy Awards won by a female artist in one night. At the 2004 Brit Awards, the album was nominated in the category for Best International Album but lost to Justin Timberlake's Justified. However, the singer herself won in the category for International Female Solo Artist. Dangerously in Love was also nominated in the category for Best Album at the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards. Rankings Commercial performance In the United States, Dangerously in Love debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart dated July 12, 2003, with first-week sales of 317,000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan. Although its first-week sales failed to match those of Survivor (2001), which sold 663,000 copies, Beyoncé registered the highest single-week sales among Destiny's Child members' solo albums: Kelly Rowland's Simply Deep sold 77,000 copies in its first week, while Michelle Williams' Heart to Yours sold 17,000 copies in its strongest week. Beyoncé became the first female artist and the fifth artist ever to simultaneously top both the single–with "Crazy in Love"–and album charts in the United States and the United Kingdom, following the Beatles, Simon & Garfunkel, Rod Stewart and Men at Work. In its second week, the album registered a 42-percent sales decrease to 183,000 copies, descending to number two behind Ashanti's Chapter II. It remained behind Chapter II at number two in its third week, selling 132,000 copies. The album has been certified sextuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It remains Beyoncé's best-selling album in the country to date, with cumulative sales of five million copies as of June 2016. In Canada, the album debuted atop the Canadian Albums Chart and has since been certified triple platinum by Music Canada. Across Europe, Dangerously in Love reached the summit in Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland and Norway, also peaking atop the European Top 100 Albums. In November 2003, it was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for sales of one million copies across Europe. By July 2011, the album had sold over 1,143,000 copies in the UK, being certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In Australia, the album debuted at number three on the ARIA Top 100 Albums, ascending to its peak at number two the following week. It eventually went on to be certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). In New Zealand, the album debuted at number 14, peaking at number eight in its second week. It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ). In Japan, the album peaked at number 12 on the Oricon Albums Chart, being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ). As of 2011, Dangerously in Love has sold over 11 million copies worldwide. Impact and legacy With the release of Dangerously in Love and the combined commercial success of its singles, Beyoncé had established herself as a viable solo artist. Rebecca Louie of the New York Daily News wrote that the success of Dangerously in Love brought Beyoncé into a "sultry solo star" who "blossomed from a girly group", referring to Destiny's Child. The album also facilitated her to become one of the most marketable artists in the industry. She appeared on the cover of numerous magazines, guested television shows for promotions, and signed lucrative commercial deals. In 2003, she signed a contract with the conglomerate beverage manufacturer PepsiCo, and appeared on several television commercials for its products within the next ten years. The album's success also incited the public to infer that it signalled the disbandment of Destiny's Child, as pop singer Justin Timberlake "could not go back to 'N Sync after tasting solo success". However, Beyoncé said that their side projects were only "a brief diversion in the juggernaut that has become Destiny's Child". As time did not permit, Beyoncé's solo aspirations–which included a follow-up album to Dangerously in Love composed of its unreleased tracks–were put on hiatus for her to concentrate on her Super Bowl XXXVIII performance, wherein she was slated to sing the US national anthem "The Star-Spangled Banner", as well as the recording of Destiny's Child's fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled (2004). Destiny Fulfilled would also become their final album, as the group ultimately disbanded in 2006. Following the disbandment, Beyoncé recorded her second studio album B'Day, which was released on September 4, 2006, her 25th birthday. The album became her second to debut atop the US Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 541,000 units, which exceeded those of Dangerously in Love. Despite the album's first two singles' average commercial performance—neither of which reached the summit of the US Billboard Hot 100—its "handsome debut" was noted by Keith Caulfield of Billboard as having been generated "by goodwill earned from the performance of [Beyoncé's] smash first album Dangerously in Love." Track listing Notes signifies an additional vocal producer signifies a co-producer signifies a vocal producer Sample credits "Crazy in Love" contains samples from "Are You My Woman (Tell Me So)" by the Chi-Lites "Naughty Girl" contains interpolations from "Love to Love You Baby" by Donna Summer "Baby Boy" contains uncredited interpolations from "Hot Stepper" by Ini Kamoze "Be with You" contains interpolations from "I'd Rather Be with You" by Bootsy's Rubber Band, excerpts from "Strawberry Letter 23" by Shuggie Otis and an uncredited sample from "Ain't Nothing I Can Do" by Tyrone Davis "That's How You Like It" contains resung lyrics from "I Like It" by DeBarge "Gift from Virgo" is "inspired by" "Rainy Day" by Shuggie Otis "'03 Bonnie & Clyde" contains interpolations from "If I Was Your Girlfriend" by Prince and samples from "Me and My Girlfriend" by 2Pac "What's It Gonna Be" contains samples from "Do It Roger" by Roger Troutman Personnel Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Dangerously in Love. Nat Adderley, Jr. – arrangement (track 11), electric piano (track 11), production (track 11), string arrangements (track 11) Tawatha Agee – backing vocals (track 11) Vincent Alexander – additional engineering (track 4) Sanford Allen – concertmastering Chuckie Amos – hair styling Skip Anderson – additional keyboards (track 11), arrangement (track 11), programming (track 11) Delroy "D-Roy" Andrews – production (track 10), songwriting (track 10) Ray Bardani – mixing (track 11), string engineering (track 11) Sherrod Barnes – production (track 9), songwriting (track 9) Mark Batson – additional instrumentation (track 15), conducting (track 15), engineering (track 15), production (track 15), songwriting (track 15), string arrangements (track 15) Carlos "El Loco" Bedoya – engineering (tracks 2, 3, 6, 8, 9 and 13), vocal engineering (track 7) Pete Bellotte – songwriting (track 2) Angela Beyincé – songwriting (tracks 2, 5 and 9) Beyoncé – executive production, production (tracks 1–10 and 12–15), songwriting (tracks 1–7, 9, 10 and 12–15), vocal production (track 8), vocals (all tracks) Big Boi – additional vocal production (track 4), songwriting (track 4), vocals (track 4) Kevin Bird – prop styling Brian Bridgeman – songwriting (track 10) Craig Brockman – production (track 8), songwriting (track 8) John "Jab" Broussard – additional guitars (track 12) Al Brown – string contracting (track 11) Dan Bucchi – mixing assistance (track 9) Chris Carmouche – additional engineering (track 4) Jim Caruana – engineering (tracks 1, 5 and 8) Demacio "Demo" Castellon – mixing assistance (track 8) George Clinton, Jr. – songwriting (track 5) William Collins – songwriting (track 5) Gary Cooper – songwriting (track 5) Tom Coyne – mastering (all tracks) Ian Cuttler – art direction Dahlen – photography Jason Dale – mixing assistance (track 7) Makeda Davis – songwriting (track 4) Eldra DeBarge – songwriting (track 10) Randy DeBarge – songwriting (track 10) Missy Elliott – production (track 8), songwriting (track 8), vocals (track 8) Focus... – engineering (track 7), instrumentation (track 7), production (track 7), songwriting (track 7) Guru – engineering (tracks 4 and 10) Phil Hamilton – guitar (track 11) Ivan Hampden Jr. – drums (track 11) Rich Harrison – instrumentation (tracks 1 and 5), production (tracks 1 and 5), songwriting (tracks 1 and 5) Andreao "Fanatic" Heard – production (track 9), songwriting (track 9) Cissy Houston – backing vocals (track 11) James Hunter – graphic design Indrani – photography Jay-Z – songwriting (tracks 1, 3, 4, 7 and 10), vocals (tracks 1 and 10) Bashiri Johnson – percussion (track 11) Etterlene Jordan – songwriting (track 10) Scott Kieklak – mixing (track 8) Markus Klinko – photography Mathew Knowles – executive production Tina Knowles – styling Brendan Kuntz – mixing assistance (track 14) Reggie Lucas – songwriting (track 11) Tony Maserati – mixing (tracks 1–7, 9, 10, 14 and 15) Errol "Poppi" McCalla, Jr. – production (track 12), songwriting (track 12) Byron Miller – bass (track 11) Giorgio Moroder – songwriting (track 2) Mr. B – production (track 10) James Mtume – songwriting (track 11) Shuggie Otis – songwriting (tracks 5 and 14) Sean Paul – songwriting (track 3), vocals (track 3) Greg Price – mixing assistance (tracks 2, 3 and 6) Eugene Record – songwriting (track 1) Mally Roncal – make-up Dexter Simmons – mixing (track 12) Sleepy Brown – vocals (track 4) Matt Snedecor – mixing assistance (tracks 9 and 14) Brian Springer – engineering (track 12) Nisan Stewart – production (track 8), songwriting (track 8) Scott Storch – production (tracks 2, 3 and 6), songwriting (tracks 2, 3 and 6) Donna Summer – songwriting (track 2) Candace Thomas – backing vocals (track 11) Pat Thrall – engineering (tracks 1 and 3) Luther Vandross – vocal arrangement (track 11), vocals (track 11) Luz Vasquez – mixing assistance (tracks 1–6 and 10) Stan Wallace – engineering (track 11) Robert Waller – songwriting (tracks 2, 3 and 6) Brenda White-King – backing vocals (track 11) Teresa LaBarbera Whites – A&R Bryce Wilson – production (track 4), songwriting (track 4) Pat Woodward – mixing assistance (tracks 1, 4–6 and 10) Dan Workman – engineering (track 12), guitars (track 12) Charts Weekly charts Monthly charts Year-end charts Decade-end charts All-time charts Certifications Release history See also Beyoncé discography List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2003 List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2003 List of number-one albums of 2003 (Canada) List of number-one hits of 2003 (Germany) List of number-one albums of 2003 (Ireland) List of UK Albums Chart number ones of the 2000s List of UK R&B Albums Chart number ones of 2003 List of best-selling albums of the 21st century List of best-selling albums by women Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album References Notes Citations Bibliography External links Official website Dangerously in Love at Metacritic 2003 debut albums Albums produced by Craig Brockman Albums produced by Focus... Albums produced by Mark Batson Albums produced by Missy Elliott Albums produced by Rich Harrison Albums produced by Scott Storch Beyoncé albums Columbia Records albums Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album Albums produced by Beyoncé

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20dreadnought%20battleships%20of%20the%20Royal%20Navy

List of dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy

This is a list of dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom. In 1907, before the revolution in design brought about by of 1906, the United Kingdom had 62 battleships in commission or building, a lead of 26 over France and 50 over the German Empire. The launch of Dreadnought in 1906 prompted an arms race with major strategic consequences, as countries built their own dreadnoughts. Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to naval power, but also represented a nation's standing in the world. Germany, France, the Russian Empire, Japan, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and the United States all began dreadnought programmes; second-rank powers including the Ottoman Empire, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile commissioned dreadnoughts to be built in British and American shipyards. The Royal Navy at the start of the First World War was the largest navy in the world due, in the most part, to The Naval Defence Act 1889 formalising the adoption of the "two-power standard" which called for the navy to maintain a number of battleships at least equal to the combined strength of the next two largest navies. The majority of the Royal Navy's strength was deployed at home in the Grand Fleet, with the primary aim of drawing the German High Seas Fleet into an engagement. The capital ships of the Royal Navy and the German Imperial Navy did come into contact on occasions, notably in the Battle of Jutland, but there was no decisive naval battle where one fleet came out the victor. The inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out. Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against Great Britain and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan. The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties to limit warship size and numbers, concluding with the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936. These treaties became effectively obsolete on 1 September 1939 at the beginning of Second World War. The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched from 1919–1939 than from 1905–1914. The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships and forced the Royal Navy into compromise designs for the Nelson and King George V classes. Designs like the projected British N3-class battleship continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armour, but never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships. After the Second World War, the Royal Navy's four surviving King George V-class ships were scrapped in 1957 and Vanguard followed in 1960. All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949. Key HMS Dreadnought HMS Dreadnought was the first dreadnought battleship, a classification to which she gave her name, and was born out of the minds of Vittorio Cuniberti and First Sea Lord Admiral Sir John Fisher and the results of the Russo-Japanese War. She was the first large warship to use steam turbines, of which Dreadnought had two, from the Parsons company. They supplied four shafts that all told gave the long warship a revolutionary top speed of in spite of her displacement of . Dreadnoughts primary armament was a suite of ten 45-calibre Mk X 12-inch guns, arranged in such a way that only eight of her main guns could fire a broadside, and a secondary armament of ten 50-calibre 12-pounder guns and five torpedo tubes. Her belt armour ranged from to of Krupp armour. Dreadnought sparked a naval arms race that soon had all the world's major powers building new and bigger warships in her image. Although her concepts would be improved upon for decades, Dreadnoughts construction set an unbeaten record of 15 months for the fastest construction of a battleship ever. From 1907 until 1911, Dreadnought served as the flagship of the Home Fleet until being replaced by in March 1911. Dreadnought was then assigned to the 1st Division of the Home Fleet, and was present at the Fleet Review for the coronation King George V. In December 1912, the ship was transferred from the 1st Battle Squadron and became the flagship of the 4th Squadron until 10 December 1914. While patrolling the North Sea on 18 March 1915, she rammed and sank , becoming the only battleship to have sunk a submarine. Dreadnought did not participate in the Battle of Jutland as she was undergoing a refit. Two years later, she resumed her role as flagship of the 4th Squadron, but was moved into the reserve in February 1920 and sold for scrap on 9 May 1921. She was broken up 2 January 1923. Bellerophon class The Bellerophon-class battleships, , , and , were the first Royal Navy dreadnoughts to be built after Dreadnought, from 1906–1909. The sisters retained much of HMS Dreadnoughts design, such as her 45-calibre Mk X guns and their arrangement, but had changes like the relocation of the foremast behind the forward funnel and an improved secondary armament. The Bellerophon sisters were long and displaced and retained Dreadnoughts means of propulsion, two steam turbines powering four shafts, and her speed of . The thickness of the Bellerophons belt armour, at its thickest, was an inch thinner than that of Dreadnoughts at her thickest. Upon commissioning, all three ships were assigned to the 1st division of the Home Fleet, later the 1st Battle Squadron, and took part in the Coronation Review for King George V. From 17–20 July 1914, all three took part in the mobilisation and review of the Royal Navy during the July Crisis following the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. Bellerophon and Superb joined the Home Fleet but Temeraire did not until 1915. All three ships participated in the Battle of Jutland, firing no more than 62 shells at the cruiser and the battle cruiser , but without success. Later, Bellerophon served as the junior flagship of the 4th Squadron from June to September 1917 while its usual flagship () was being refitted. Superb and Temeraire were transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet, where Superb served as fleet flagship until the armistice. After the war, the now obsolete ships were placed in reserve. Temeraire became a training vessel until decommissioned and scrapped in 1921, Bellerophon was made a gunnery ship in March 1919 at The Nore and was sold for scrap 8 November 1921 and broken up 14 September 1922, and Superb relieved Bellerophon as a gunnery training vessel and then served briefly as a target ship before sold for scrapping in December 1923. St Vincent class The St Vincent-class was a line of three, originally four, dreadnought battleships, , , and . With the exception of their more powerful 50-calibre Mk XI (305 mm) main guns and twenty 50-calibre Mk VII (102 mm) secondaries, the St Vincent class closely followed the design of the . Two sets of Parsons steam turbines and the four shafts they powered gave the long sisters a top speed of despite a displacement of . Finally, the sisters were protected by a Krupp cemented armour belt thick, as was the case for the Bellerophon class. Upon commissioning, the St Vincent-class battleships were all assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the Home Fleet. The ships were present at the Coronation Review of King George V on 24 June 1911 and HMS Collingwood became the flagship of the 1st Squadron two days later. After a lengthy refit in mid-1914, the sisters participated in the mobilisation and British responses to the July Crisis and joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow on 22 July 1914. All three sisters participated in the Battle of Jutland and fired upon ; Collingwood and Vanguard also fired at and . The three sisters inflicted little damage, despite firing 98 shots during the battle. After the battle, Collingwood and St Vincent joined their sister Vanguard in the 4th Squadron, who had been transferred there in April 1916, and continued to serve with the Home Fleet until the end of the war. On 9 July 1917, one of Vanguards magazines exploded, killing 840 of her crew and two Australian sailors aboard . After the war, St Vincent became a gunnery training ship March 1919, before being made the flagship of the Reserve Fleet in June. In December, she was relieved and then sold for scrap 1 December 1921. Collingwood was also assigned to the Reserve Fleet, briefly served as a training vessel, and then was also sold for scrap 12 December 1922. HMS Neptune HMS Neptune, the only ship of her class, was the only battleship constructed during the 1908–1909 Naval Programme, and was the first British battleship to use superfiring gun turrets. She retained the 50-calibre Mk XI (305 mm) guns of the , belt armour, and the top speed of and the two Parsons steam turbines and their four shafts that produced that speed. Neptune, however, was longer at and displaced , 20 less than the St Vincent class. Her secondary weapons also made her unique from the preceding class, as her 50-calibre Mk VII secondary guns did not have shielding in the superstructure, a first for British dreadnoughts. HMS Neptune was commissioned on 19 January 1909. She replaced as the flagship of the Home Fleet and of the 1st Division 25 March 1909, two weeks after the completion of sea trials. Neptune then participated in the Coronation review of King George V, was replaced as the Home Fleet's flagship by 10 March 1914, and then participated in the British naval response to the July Crisis from 17–20 July 1914. She participated in many Royal Navy actions until the Battle of Jutland, at which she fired 48 main battery shells, scoring several ineffectual or unconfirmed hits of and and an assortment of German destroyers. After Jutland, she was transferred to the 4th Battle Squadron and never again saw combat. Neptune was placed in the reserve 1 February 1919 and sold for scrap in September 1922. Colossus class The two Colossus-class battleships were the final members of the first generation of British dreadnoughts. and were part of the first Naval Programme of 1909–1910 and improved upon the preceding . The Colossus class retained the same two Parsons steam turbines and their four shafts and the top speed of they produced and the same ten 50-calibre Mk XI main guns and 50-calibre Mk VII secondary guns of the previous classes of British dreadnoughts. What had changed was: the number of engine rooms (now three instead of two (the first ships in the world to have this many)); the length (now one foot shorter than the preceding at 545 feet (166 m)); the belt armour (now one inch thicker at 11 inches (279 mm)); and the displacement (now up to ). Upon commission, Colossus and Hercules were both assigned to the 2nd Division, renamed the 2nd Battle Squadron 1 May 1912, of the Home Fleet and Hercules became its flagship. Colossus was transferred to the 1st Squadron by the end of the year, and Hercules temporarily became a private ship in 1913 but later also joined the 1st Squadron. Before the First World War, Hercules had a collision with a merchant ship in Portland Harbour. After a long period of drilling and relative inactivity for the Grand Fleet, in which Colossus became the flagship of the 1st Squadron's 5th Division, both ships participated in the Battle of Jutland, firing a total of no more than 98 shells each at , , and , and were able to hit them without inflicting much damage as well as various German destroyers that neither ship managed to hit. After the battle, both ships were transferred into the 4th Squadron, Colossus becoming second-in-command, and entered another period of relative inactivity. Both ships were present at the surrender of the German fleet at Rosyth, Scotland on 21 November, and Hercules took the Allied Naval Armistice Commission to Kiel, Germany, then joined the Reserve Fleet in February 1919 a month after her sister ship had briefly become flagship. Colossus was for a time listed for scrapping, but was then made a boys' training vessel in September 1921 and was refitted. Colossus was then returned to the list the following year, but was once again removed and hulked for use by the training establishment HMS Impregnable and was finally sold for scrap in August 1928, with Hercules having preceded her on 8 November 1921. Orion class The four Orion-class dreadnought battleships, , , , and , were the first British super-dreadnoughts. The Orion class was the first to use a larger caliber main battery, with ten 45-calibre Mk V main guns on the centreline in superfiring gun turrets, an idea taken from the American battleships. The sisters were larger and more powerful than the first generation of British dreadnoughts. In addition to their bigger guns, they had Krupp armour thick on the belt, were longer at , and were heavier at a displacement of . However, they retained the same means of propulsion, two Parsons steam turbines powering four shafts, their top speed of , and the 50-calibre Mk VII secondary guns of the previous battleships. All four sister ships were assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron of the Home Fleet upon commission and Orion was named its flagship. The sisters then participated in the Fleet review at Spithead on 9 July 1914 and in the mobilisation of the Royal Navy during the July Crisis and following assembly at Scapa Flow. The sisters were four of the six dreadnoughts assigned to intercept the German fleet responsible for the 16 December raid on the northeast English coast. On 27 December 1914, Conqueror rammed her sister ship Monarch as the Grand Fleet was returning to Scapa Flow, damaging both vessels. All four warships were present at the Battle of Jutland. Conqueror and Thunderer made no hits, while Monarch and Orion struck and once each and five times between them; none of the four fired more than 57 of their primary shells during the entire battle. When on 21 November 1918 the German fleet surrendered at Rosyth, Scotland, the sisters were present. In February 1919, they were transferred to the 3rd Squadron and Orion retained her status as squadron flagship. By the end of 1919 the sisters were all transferred into the Reserve Fleet, but Monarch was transferred to Portsmouth in early 1920. In the summer of that year, Thunderer and Monarch were recommissioned to ferry troops to and from the Mediterranean Sea, and Orion joined Monarch at Portsmouth later in the year and became the flagship of the Reserve Fleet before being relieved in this duty by Conqueror in mid-1921 to once again ferry troops. In 1921, Thunderer and Orion were transformed into training vessels and were sold for scrap the following year in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty. Monarch was hulked and used for weapons testing until finally sunk in 1925. Thunderer, the last of the sisters, was sold for scrap in 1926. King George V class (1911) The King George V-class battleships, , , , and , were larger variants of the preceding "super-dreadnought." The four sisters used the same primary and secondary armament of the Orions, ten 45-calibre Mk V main guns and 16 50-calibre Mk VII secondary guns, and -thick belt armour, but were longer at and displaced . In addition, although the King George V class again retained the two Parsons steam turbines and their four shafts, they were faster than previous British battleships with a top speed of and enjoyed much-needed corrections in the arrangement of its funnels that made the spotting tops much easier to use. All four of the King George V-class ships were assigned to the 2nd Battle Squadron on commission, King George V becoming the Squadron's flagship by 18 February 1913, but Centurion began her career early, accidentally ramming and sinking an Italian steamer with all hands. From 17 to 20 July 1914 the sister ships participated in the July Crisis test mobilisation and were shortly thereafter ordered to join the Home Fleet, soon the Grand Fleet, at Scapa Flow. On 27 October 1914, Audacious struck a mine while conducting a training mission off the coast of Ireland and sank with only one death, an officer from . King George V also went out of service for a brief time beginning in November 1914 because of a condenser malfunction. The surviving sisters participated in a sortie that set out to engage Franz von Hipper's raiding force after its attack on three coastal British towns in December 1914, but did not see combat. At the Battle of Jutland nearly two years later, the sisters did see combat but none of them fired more than 19 shells, all without effect due to poor visibility. The sisters participated in the Royal Navy's subsequent war time actions and were present at the surrender of the German fleet at Rosyth on 21 November 1918. Into early 1919, the sisters remained with the 2nd Squadron, until King George V was moved to the 3rd Squadron and then became the flagship of the Reserve Fleet until 1920 when the 3rd Squadron was disbanded. She was refitted and reassigned to the 4th Squadron the same year, then in 1923 became a gunnery training vessel before finally being sold for scrap in December 1926. Ajax met the same fate, but was sold for scrap on 9 November 1926. The last of the King George V-class ships, Centurion was converted into a target ship, but was remilitarised in 1941 with light weapons and dummy main guns. On 9 June 1944, she was sunk as a block ship to defend a mulberry harbor established on Omaha Beach. Iron Duke class The four Iron Duke-class battleships, , , , and , were the third line of British super-dreadnoughts. In design the sisters were nearly identical to the , bearing the same ten Mk V main battery guns and Krupp armour of the King George V class, but were 25 feet longer at long and displaced . As with previous British battleships, the Iron Duke-class sisters had four shafts powered by two Parsons steam turbines for a top speed of , but they possessed an improved secondary armament of twelve 45-calibre Mk VII naval guns. New for British dreadnoughts, the four Iron Duke-class sisters were fairly separated from each other in their careers. On completion, Iron Duke joined the Royal Navy's Home Fleet as its new flagship, Marlborough followed her into the Home Fleet as the flagship of Lewis Bayly. Both ships were completed within two months before the start of World War I and were soon reorganized into the Grand Fleet, of which Iron Duke remained the flagship while Marlborough was assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron as Admiral John Jellicoe's flagship. At this time, Benbow and Emperor of India were completed and assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron, the latter as the flagship of the second division and the former of the whole squadron, and the sisters all had their casemates sealed and rearmost secondary guns removed. All the sisters but Emperor of India, in dock for refits, were present for the Battle of Jutland and fought with distinction. Iron Duke, surviving a near-miss as she entered combat, opened fire on , and scored seven hits. Marlborough and Benbow struggled with poor visibility, the former firing seven salvos at a group of s and the latter firing six salvos, both without effect. When fighting around resumed, all three sisters participated but without any hits on the torpedo boats around the disabled cruiser. Marlborough eventually neutralised the Wiesbaden, sustaining extensive damage in the process, and also struck three times with thirteen salvos. After the battle, Marlborough underwent three months of repairs and received increased armour plating, and Emperor of India rejoined the Home Fleet in the 1st Battle Squadron. In March 1919, the Iron Duke-class sisters were assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron with the Mediterranean Fleet to participate in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in the Black Sea, Marlborough even carrying Maria Feodorovna, Grand Duke Nicholas, and Prince Yusupov, and then the sisters served in the Greco-Turkish War until Greece's defeat in the war in 1922, at which point Marlborough, Benbow, and Emperor of India underwent refitting at different ports. Iron Duke remained in the Mediterranean and was present with for the Great fire of Smyrna and following Allied deliberations on Greece. Benbow relieved Iron Duke for a major refit of her own in May 1928, then was decommissioned and sold for scrap in March 1931. Marlborough and Emperor of India followed her the next year after being used as target ships, sold for scrap in February and June 1932, respectively. Iron Duke survived into World War II, serving at Scapa Flow as a floating anti-aircraft battery and was twice attacked and heavily damaged by Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 88s, and was refloated after the war and then sold for scrap in March 1946. HMS Agincourt HMS Agincourt was laid down in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1911 as the Brazilian battleship Rio de Janeiro, but was sold to the Ottoman Empire in December 1913, named Sultân Osmân-ı Evvel, and was seized by the British government and given her final name when Turkey entered the First World War for the Central Powers. Agincourt, long and displacing , was powered by four Parsons steam turbines and shafts for a top speed of . She was armed with fourteen 45-calibre Mk XIII main guns, and eighteen 50-calibre Mk XIII naval guns for its secondaries, and was protected by belt armour thick. After being commissioned into the Royal Navy on 7 August 1914, Agincourt joined the Grand Fleet's 4th Battle Squadron on 7 September 1914 but was reassigned to the 1st Battle Squadron on 31 May 1916, just in time for the Battle of Jutland. She engaged a German battlecruiser and destroyers and a with her main and secondary guns, firing a total of 144 of her main battery shells and secondary shells, but is not known to have hit any enemy ship. Agincourts participation in the Royal Navy's sorties after Jutland is not well explored, but she did sortie once with from Scapa Flow to protect merchant convoys from Norway to the United Kingdom on 23 April 1918. After being transferred to the 2nd Battle Squadron, Agincourt was present for the surrender of the High Seas Fleet and was then placed in reserve in March 1919. The Brazilian government was not interested in purchasing her, so Agincourt was listed for disposal and then sold for scrap on 19 December 1922 in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty. HMS Erin HMS Erin, originally the Turkish battleship Reşadiye, was one of two battleships being built for the Ottoman Empire (the other being ) and was derived from the . She had Krupp armour belt and was equipped with ten 45-calibre Mk VI guns, similar to the King George V class's main guns, but had the 's sixteen 50-calibre Mk XVI secondary guns. She was shorter in length at and displaced . Unlike either the Orion or King George V-class battleships, Erin had four Parsons steam turbines driving four shafts for a top speed of . On 29 July 1914, Reşadiye was seized under the orders of First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill, and on the 31st it entered the Royal Navy as HMS Erin. She joined the Grand Fleet's 4th Battle Squadron on 5 September of the same year and participated in the fleet's early war sorties and drills, most importantly in response to the German attack on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby. At some point from September to December 1915, Erin was transferred to the 2nd Battle Squadron. She participated in the Battle of Jutland, but was hindered by poor visibility and was the only British capital ship to not fire her main battery guns and only fired six 6-inch shells. After Jutland, Erin returned to active participation in the Grand Fleet's North Sea operations, sortieing against High Seas Fleet raids on merchant convoys and at the end of war was present for the surrender of the High Seas Fleet at Rosyth, Scotland on 21 November 1918. On 1 May 1919, Erin was assigned to the Home Fleet's 3rd Battle Squadron, but entered the reserves at Portland Harbour in October at the Nore. From July to August 1920 Erin underwent a refit as a gunnery practice ship, but came to be in violation of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 and was sold for scrap on 19 December 1922. HMS Canada In 1911, Chile ordered two battleships, Almirante Latorre and Almirante Cochrane (later ) from the Armstrong Whitworth company. Canada resembled the British battleships, but had changes in its above-deck structures and was longer at . She was also more heavily armed, sporting ten 45-calibre main guns and sixteen 50-calibre Mk XI secondary guns, but lightly armoured with only on her belt, making her an oddity in the Royal Navy. Her propulsion means was also unusual for British battleships. Four shafts were powered by two sets of Brown & Curtis and Parsons steam turbines gave Canada a top speed of , making her one of the Royal Navy's fastest battleships. On 9 September 1914, the British government purchased Almirante Latorre from Chile and christened her HMS Canada and undertook some minor alterations. She was commissioned on 15 October 1915, and assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron. She participated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916, firing a totality of 42 shells from her main guns and 109 secondary shells at , an unspecified German capital ship, and several destroyers, but did not make or receive any hits. Canada was transferred to the 1st Battle Squadron on 12 June 1916 and subsequently underwent more modification, and was placed in the reserves in March 1919. In April of the next year, she was sold back to Chile and resumed her original name. Queen Elizabeth class The Queen Elizabeth-class super-dreadnoughts, , , , , and , were a line of five, originally six, battleships. They had a main armament of eight guns arranged in four twin turrets. The new calibre guns were intended to still give the Royal Navy an advantage in range over newer American and Japanese ships which the Admiralty expected were to be armed with 14-inch guns. The initial design was for a five turret ship, but was reduced to four when it was found that even just four turrets of the new 15 inch guns would still provide greater broadside hitting power (15,000 pounds (6,800 kg)) compared to the previous Iron Duke-class (14,000 pounds (6,400 kg)). Secondary armament was fourteen 6-inch, two 3-inch anti-aircraft and four 21-inch torpedoes tubes. The space saved by the reduction of one turret was used to house additional boilers which gave the ships a speed of . Revenge class The Revenge class (sometimes known as the Royal Sovereign class) were designed as a cheaper alternative to the Queen Elizabeth class. Plans had initially been for a class of eight ships, but, at the start of the First World War, work stopped on all new capital ships and the last three planned ships of the class - Renown, Repulse and Resistance - were cancelled. (The first two of these were eventually redesigned as battlecruisers.) During design they were planned to have a maximum speed of just over and had reverted to coal- and oil-fuelled propulsion. However, in 1915, this was changed and they became oil-fuelled only. Secondary armament was fourteen 6-inch, two 3-inch anti-aircraft, four 3-pounder guns and four 21-inch torpedoes. Both Revenge and Royal Oak were completed in time to take part in the Battle of Jutland. Royal Oak was torpedoed at anchor in the supposedly safe harbour of Scapa Flow soon after the start of Second World War. N3 class The N3-class, like the contemporary G3-class battlecruiser design, was planned in response to other nations' intentions to build superior navies. The design concentrated the main guns forward of the bridge to save weight (while still allowing thick enough armour over the critical parts) by shortening the length of the armoured citadel - although, they still would've been about twice the displacement of their predecessors. The design was approved in late 1921, but, in early 1922 the major naval powers signed the Washington Naval Treaty, limiting the size and number of warships in their respective navies and thus resulting in the design's cancellation. (The treaty set an upper limit of 35,000 long tons (36,000 t) displacement and 16-inch guns.) The ships had not been ordered nor had construction been started when they were canceled. Nelson class The two ships of the Nelson class were the only new battleships the Royal Navy were allowed to build under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. The layout was based on that of the N3 battleship and G3 battlecruiser but further reduced to come under the weight limit. Nine BL 16 inch Mk I guns – the same as were to have been used on the G3 battlecruisers – were carried in three forward turrets. Secondary armament was twelve 6-inch guns mounted in six turrets at the rear of the ship, six anti-aircraft guns, seven eight-barrelled 2-pounder "pompom" mountings, four quadruple 40 mm Bofors guns and sixty five 20 mm Oerlikon cannon. King George V class (1939) The King George V class of ships were criticized for having 14-inch main guns (the preceding Nelson class had larger, though relatively lighter 16 inch guns). The decision to use 14-inch guns was taken in October 1935, while the United Kingdom was negotiating for a continuation of the Naval Treaties with the other parties to the London Treaty. The British Government favoured a reduction in the maximum gun calibre to 14 inches and, in early October, the government learned that the United States would support this position if the Japanese could also be persuaded to do so. Since the large guns needed to be ordered by the end of the year in order for ships to enter service on time, the British Admiralty decided on 14-inch guns for the King George V class. The guns were arranged in three turrets, two with four and one (behind and above the forward turret) with two guns. Secondary armament was sixteen QF 5.25-inch Mk I guns, four eight-barrelled 2-pounder "pom-pom" anti-aircraft mountings (King George V and Prince of Wales the later ships all had six mountings). Anson and Howe had eighteen Oerlikon 20 mm cannon and the Duke of York six. They were all fitted with amidships catapults for the three Supermarine Walrus spotter/patrol aircraft they carried. The King George V class were designed to reach a speed of over 27 knots. As the treaty negotiations collapsed, this lack of speed and the smaller size of their main armament left them slower and with a lesser broadside than foreign battleships that were being produced around the same time. However, their main armour belt was thicker than others, with the exception of the two very large ships of the from Japan. Lion class During the Second London Naval Treaty of 1936, the upper limit for battleships was agreed by the powers attending but an escalator clause allowed for increases if parties defaulted. By 1938 concerns about the Japanese prompted Britain and the United States to raise the limits allowed to and guns. The Admiralty had planned to scrap the ineffective Revenge class when the King George V ships entered service. These plans were soon changed, the Admiralty's new ambition was to raise a battle fleet of 20 ships, 15 of them to match the new standard, keeping the Revenge class until at least 1942. To meet this target the navy wanted three battleships added to the 1938 plans, but in the end only two were given the go ahead and even then they had to use reserve slipways, normally only used in emergencies. At the same time it was identified that unless the 1938 ships were completed by 1942, the Royal Navy between 1940 and 1943 would be at a disadvantage with only twelve modern and eight older battleships against a combined German–Japanese fleet of twenty modern ships. Construction work was halted at start of war so that resources could be diverted to more important production and although design was revised during war no further work took place. HMS Vanguard was the final Royal Navy battleship. She was armed with eight 42-calibre main guns, taken from the battlecruisers, and sixteen 50-calibre dual-purpose secondary guns. of Krupp armour made up the waterline belt protected -long Vanguard. Displacing , she was powered by four Parsons steam turbines, one shaft each, that gave her a top speed of . See also List of battleships List of ironclads of the Royal Navy List of pre-dreadnought battleships of the Royal Navy List of battlecruisers of the Royal Navy Notes Footnotes Citations References Further reading External links Battleships Royal Navy Royal Navy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border%20states%20%28American%20Civil%20War%29

Border states (American Civil War)

In the context of the American Civil War (1861–65), the border states were slave states that did not secede from the Union. They were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, and after 1863, the new state of West Virginia. To their north they bordered free states of the Union, and all but Delaware bordered slave states of the Confederacy to their south. Of the 34 U.S. states in 1861, nineteen were free states and fifteen were slave including the four border states; each of the latter held a comparatively low percentage of slaves. Delaware never declared for secession. Maryland was largely prevented from seceding by local unionists and federal troops. Two others, Kentucky and Missouri, saw rival governments, although their territory mostly stayed in Union control. Four others did not declare for secession until after the Battle of Fort Sumter and were briefly considered to be border states: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. They are referred to as the Upper South. A new border state was created during the war, West Virginia, which was formed from 50 counties of Virginia and became a new state in the Union in 1863 (with, initially, gradual abolition law). In Kentucky and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862–63 after Virginia Unionists from the northwestern counties of the state, then occupied by the Union Army consisting of many newly formed West Virginia regiments, had set up a loyalist "restored" state government of Virginia. Lincoln recognized this government and allowed them to divide the state. Kentucky and Missouri had adopted secession ordinances by their pro-Confederate governments (see Confederate government of Kentucky and Confederate government of Missouri), but the two states were never fully or officially under Confederate control, though at various points Confederate armies did enter those states and controlled certain parts of them. Besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region saw large-scale guerrilla warfare and numerous violent raids, feuds, and assassinations. Violence was especially severe in West Virginia, eastern Kentucky and western Missouri. The single bloodiest episode outside formal combat was the 1863 Lawrence Massacre in Kansas, in which at least 150 civilian men and boys were killed. It was launched in retaliation for an earlier, smaller raid into Missouri by Union men from Kansas. Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states. Of the states that were exempted from the proclamation, Maryland (1864), Missouri, Tennessee (January 1865), and West Virginia (February 1865) abolished slavery before the war ended. However, Delaware and Kentucky, while they saw a substantial reduction in slavery, did not see the abolition of slavery until December 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified. With geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war. They are considered still to delineate the cultural border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the border states because they never seceded from the Union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment after passage of amendments abolishing slavery and granting citizenship and the right to vote to freedmen. After 1880 most of these jurisdictions were dominated by white Democrats, who passed laws to impose the Jim Crow system of legal segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks. However, in contrast to the Confederate States, where almost all blacks were disenfranchised during the first half to two-thirds of the twentieth century, for varying reasons blacks remained enfranchised in the border states despite movements for disfranchisement during the 1900s. Background In the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton, especially in cities that were rapidly industrializing, such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, more than half of the African Americans in Delaware were free, as were a high proportion in Maryland. Some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders for transport to the markets of the Deep South, where the demand was still high for field hands on cotton plantations. In contrast to the near-unanimity of voters in the seven cotton states in the lower South, which held the highest number of slaves, the border slave states were bitterly divided about secession and were not eager to leave the Union. Border Unionists hoped that a compromise would be reached, and they assumed that Lincoln would not send troops to attack the South. Border secessionists paid less attention to the slavery issue in 1861, since their states' economies were based more on trade with the North than on cotton. Their main concern in 1861 was federal coercion; some residents viewed Lincoln's call to arms as a repudiation of the American traditions of states' rights, democracy, liberty, and a republican form of government. Secessionists insisted that Washington had usurped illegitimate powers in defiance of the Constitution, and thereby had lost its legitimacy. After Lincoln issued a call for troops, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina promptly seceded and joined the Confederacy. A secession movement began in western Virginia, where most farmers were yeomen and not slaveholders, to break away and remain in the Union. Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, which had many areas with much stronger cultural and economic ties to the South than the North, were deeply divided; Kentucky tried to maintain neutrality. Union military forces were used to guarantee that these states remained in the Union. The western counties of Virginia rejected secession, set up a loyal government of Virginia (with representation in the U.S. Congress), and created the new state of West Virginia (although it included many counties which had voted for secession). Divided loyalties Though every slave state except South Carolina contributed white battalions to both the Union and Confederate armies (South Carolina Unionists fought in units from other Union states), the split was most severe in these border states. Sometimes men from the same family fought on opposite sides. About 170,000 border state men (including African Americans) fought in the Union Army and 86,000 in the Confederate Army. Approximately 35,000 Kentuckians served as Confederate soldiers, while an estimated 125,000 Kentuckians served as Union soldiers. By the end of the war in 1865, nearly 110,000 Missourians had served in the Union Army and at least 30,000 in the Confederate Army. Some 50,000 citizens of Maryland signed up for the military, with most joining the United States Army. Approximately a tenth as many enlisted to "go South" and fight for the Confederacy. It has been estimated that, of the state's 1860 population of 687,000, about 4,000 Marylanders traveled south to fight for the Confederacy. While the number of Marylanders in Confederate service is often reported as 20,000–25,000 based on an oral statement of General Cooper to General Trimble, other contemporary reports refute this number and offer more detailed estimates in the range of 3,500 (Livermore) to just under 4,700 (McKim). West Virginia was unique among the Union states in that it did not give most of its soldiers to the Union, they were about equally divided, and it was the only state to contain many counties that had formally voted to secede from the Union. The five border states Each of these five states shared a border with the free states and were aligned with the Union. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederacy. Delaware By 1860, Delaware was almost fully integrated into the Northern economy. Slavery was rare, except in the southern districts of the state; less than 2 percent of the state's population was enslaved. Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession overwhelmingly; the House of Representatives was unanimous. There was quiet sympathy for the Confederacy by some state leaders, but it was tempered by distance; Delaware was entirely bordered by Union territory. Historian John Munroe concluded that the average citizen of Delaware opposed secession and was "strongly Unionist" but hoped for a peaceful solution even if it meant Confederate independence. Maryland Union troops had to go through Maryland to reach the national capital at Washington, D.C. If Maryland joined the Confederacy, Washington would have been surrounded. There was popular support for the Confederacy in Baltimore as well as in Southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore, where there were numerous slaveholders and slaves. Baltimore was strongly tied to the cotton trade and related businesses of the South. The Maryland Legislature rejected secession in the spring of 1861, though it refused to reopen rail links with the North. It requested that Union troops be removed from Maryland. The state legislature did not want to secede, but it also did not want to aid in killing southern neighbors in order to force them back into the Union. Maryland's wish for neutrality within the Union was a major obstacle given Lincoln's desire to force the South back into the Union militarily. To protect the national capital, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus and imprisoned without charges or trials, including one sitting U.S. congressman, as well as the mayor, police chief, and the entire Board of Police and city council of Baltimore. Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly). They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies. During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery, thus emancipating all remaining slaves in the state. Kentucky Kentucky was strategic to Union victory in the Civil War. Lincoln once said: I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland]. Lincoln reportedly also declared, "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky." Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin proposed that slave states such as Kentucky should conform to the US Constitution and remain in the Union. When Lincoln requested 1,000,000 men to serve in the Union army, however, Magoffin, a Southern sympathizer, countered, "Kentucky had no troops to furnish for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States." The Kentucky legislature did not vote on any bill to secede but passed two resolutions of neutrality, issuing a neutrality proclamation May 20, 1861, asking both sides to keep out of the state. In elections on June 20 and August 5, 1861, Unionists won enough additional seats in the legislature to overcome any veto by the governor. After the elections, the strongest supporters of neutrality were the Southern sympathizers. While both sides had already been openly enlisting troops from the state, after the elections the Union army established recruitment camps within Kentucky. Kentuckian neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. In response, the Kentucky legislature passed a resolution on September 7 that directed the governor to demand the evacuation of the Confederate forces from Kentucky soil. Magoffin vetoed the proclamation, but the legislature overrode his veto, and Magoffin issued the proclamation. The legislature decided to back General Ulysses S. Grant and his Union troops stationed in Paducah, Kentucky, on the grounds that the Confederacy voided the original pledge by entering Kentucky first. The General Assembly soon ordered for the Union flag be raised over the state capitol in Frankfort and declared its allegiance with the Union. Southern sympathizers were outraged at the legislature's decisions and stated that Polk's troops in Kentucky had been en route to counter Grant's forces. Later legislative resolutions passed by Unionists, such as inviting Union General Robert Anderson to enroll volunteers to expel the Confederate forces, requesting the governor to call out the militia, and appointing Union General Thomas L. Crittenden in command of Kentucky forces, incensed the Southerners. Magoffin vetoed the resolutions but was overridden each time. In 1862, the legislature passed an act to disenfranchise citizens who enlisted in the Confederate Army and so Kentucky's neutral status evolved into backing the Union. Most of those who had originally sought neutrality turned to the Union cause. During the war, a faction known as the Russellville Convention formed a Confederate government of Kentucky, which was recognized by the Confederate States as a member state. Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag. When Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston occupied Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861, the pro-Confederates in western and central Kentucky moved to establish a Confederate state government in that area. The Russellville Convention met in Logan County on November 18, 1861. The 116 delegates from 68 counties elected to depose the current government and create a provisional government loyal to Kentucky's new unofficial Confederate governor, George W. Johnson. On December 10, 1861, Kentucky became the 13th state admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky, along with Missouri, was a state with representatives in both Congresses and had regiments in both the Union and the Confederate Armies. Magoffin, still functioning as official governor in Frankfort, would not recognize the Kentucky Confederates or their attempts to establish a government in his state. He continued to declare Kentucky's official status in the war as a neutral state even though the legislature backed the Union. Fed up with the party divisions within the population and legislature, Magoffin announced a special session of the legislature and resigned his office in 1862. Bowling Green was occupied by the Confederates until February 1862, when General Grant moved from Missouri through Kentucky along the Tennessee line. Confederate Governor Johnson fled Bowling Green with the Confederate state records, headed south, and joined Confederate forces in Tennessee. After Johnson was killed fighting in the Battle of Shiloh, Richard Hawes was soon named Confederate governor of Kentucky. Shortly afterwards, and the Provisional Confederate States Congress was adjourned on February 17, 1862, on the eve of inauguration of a permanent Congress. However, as Union occupation dominated the state after the failure of the Confederate Heartland Offensive to take Kentucky firmly from August to October 1862, the Kentucky Confederate government, as of 1863, existed only on paper. Its representation in the permanent Confederate Congress was minimal. It was dissolved when the Civil War ended in the spring of 1865. By the end of the war more than 70% of the pre-war slaves in Kentucky had been freed by Union military measures or escape to Union lines. After the Emancipation Proclamation made the enrollment and freeing of slaves Union Army policy, commanders extended freedom to the Army recruit's entire family and granted liberty passes to freed slaves. When the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was sent to the states for ratification in February 1865, Kentucky's governor in presenting it to the legislature admitted that the continuation of slavery in the state was hopeless. While notices of slave sales continued, prices fell dramatically. But the legislature refused to ratify, leaving the last approximately 65,000 slaves out of a pre-war total 225,483 slaves to await freedom when the amendment became part of the U.S. Constitution in December 1865, without Kentucky's support. Missouri After the secession of Southern states began, the newly elected governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union, but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States. Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair). These events resulted in greater Confederate support within the state among some factions. The already pro-Southern Missouri State Legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital. Jackson, Price, and the pro-Confederate portions of the state legislature were forced to flee the state capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861, in the face of Lyon's rapid advance against the state government. In the absence of most of the now exiled state government, the Missouri Constitutional Convention reconvened in late July. On July 30, the convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a new provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as governor. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized the legitimacy of Gamble's government, which provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state, and volunteer regiments for the Union Army. Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCulloch. After a string of victories in Cole Camp, Carthage, Wilson's Creek, Dry Wood Creek, Liberty and going up as far north as Lexington (located in the Missouri River Valley region of western Missouri), the secessionist forces retreated to southwestern Missouri, as they were under pressure from Union reinforcements. On October 30, 1861, in the town of Neosho, Jackson called the supporting parts of the exiled state legislature into session, where they enacted a secession ordinance. It was recognized by the Confederate Congress, and Missouri was admitted into the Confederacy on November 28. The exiled state government was forced to withdraw into Arkansas. For the rest of the war, it consisted of several wagonloads of civilian politicians attached to various Confederate armies. In 1865, it vanished. Missouri abolished slavery during the war in January 1865. Guerrilla warfare Regular Confederate troops staged several large-scale raids into Missouri, but most of the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted of guerrilla warfare. The guerrillas were primarily Southern partisans, including William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson, and many personal feuds were played out in the violence. Small-unit tactics pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers were used in occupied portions of the Confederacy during the Civil War. The James' brothers outlawry after the war has been seen as a continuation of guerrilla warfare. Stiles (2002) argues that Jesse James was an intensely political postwar neo-Confederate terrorist, rather than a social bandit or a plain bank robber with a hair-trigger temper. The Union response was to suppress the guerrillas. It achieved that in western Missouri, as Brigadier General Thomas Ewing issued General Order No. 11 on 25 August 1863 in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas. The order forced the total evacuation of four counties that fall within the area of modern-day Kansas City, Missouri. These had been centers of local support for the guerrillas. Lincoln approved Ewing's plan beforehand. About 20,000 civilians (chiefly women, children, and old men) had to leave their homes. Many never returned, and the counties were economically devastated for years. According to Glatthaar (2001), Union forces established "free-fire zones". Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants, who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases. To gain recruits, and to threaten St. Louis, Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September/October 1864. Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas, but was nearly trapped, escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport. The battle, which took place in the modern-day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City, is identified as the "Gettysburg of the West"; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri's borders. The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness. Quantrill's Raiders, after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863, killing 150 civilians, broke up in confusion. Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed. West Virginia The serious divisions between the western and eastern sections of Virginia had been simmering for decades, related to class and social differences. The western areas were growing and were based on subsistence farms by yeomen; its residents held few slaves. The planters of the eastern section were wealthy slaveholders who dominated state government. By December 1860 secession was being publicly debated throughout Virginia. Leading eastern spokesmen called for secession, while westerners warned they would not be legislated into treason. A statewide convention first met on February 13; after the attack on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms, it voted for secession on April 17, 1861. The decision was dependent on ratification by a statewide referendum. Western leaders held mass rallies and prepared to separate, so that this area could remain in the Union. Unionists met at the Wheeling Convention with four hundred delegates from twenty-seven counties. The statewide vote in favor of secession was 132,201 to 37,451. An estimated vote on Virginia's ordinance of secession for the 50 counties that became West Virginia is 34,677 to 19,121 against secession, with 24 of the 50 counties favoring secession and 26 favoring the Union. The Second Wheeling Convention opened on June 11 with more than 100 delegates from 32 western counties; they represented nearly one-third of Virginia's total voting population. It announced that state offices were vacant and chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia (not West Virginia) on June 20. Pierpont headed the Restored Government of Virginia, which granted permission for the formation of a new state on August 20, 1861. The new West Virginia state constitution was passed by the Unionist counties in the spring of 1862, and this was approved by the restored Virginia government in May 1862. The statehood bill for West Virginia was passed by the United States Congress in December and signed by President Lincoln on December 31, 1862. The ultimate decision about West Virginia was made by the armies in the field. The Confederates were defeated, the Union was triumphant, so West Virginia was born. In late spring 1861 Union troops from Ohio moved into western Virginia with the primary strategic goal of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. General George B. McClellan destroyed Confederate defenses in western Virginia. Raids and recruitment by the Confederacy took place throughout the war. Current estimates of soldiers from West Virginia are 20,000-22,000 men each to the Union and the Confederacy. West Virginia was required as part of its admission as a state in 1863 to have a gradual emancipation clause in the new state's constitution. Children were born free or as they came of age, and no new slaves could be brought into the state. About 6,000 would remain enslaved. West Virginia later completely abolished slavery in February 1865, before the end of the war. The unique conditions attendant to the creation of the state led the Federal government to sometimes regard West Virginia as differing from the other border states in the post-war and Reconstruction Era. The terms of surrender granted to the Confederate army at Appomattox applied to the soldiers of the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia only. Returning Confederate soldiers from the other border states were required to obtain special permits from the War Department. Similarly, the Southern Claims Commission was originally designed to apply only to the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia, though claims from other states were sometimes honored. Other border areas Tennessee Though Tennessee had officially seceded and West Tennessee and Middle Tennessee had voted overwhelmingly in favor of joining the Confederacy, East Tennessee in contrast was strongly pro-Union and had mostly voted against secession. The state even went as far as sending delegates for the East Tennessee Convention attempting to secede from the Confederacy and join the Union; however, the Confederate legislature of Tennessee rejected the convention and blocked its secession attempt. Jefferson Davis arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union and held them without trial. Tennessee came under control of Union forces in 1862 and was occupied to the end of the war. It abolished slavery in January 1865 before the war ended. For this reason, it was omitted from the Emancipation Proclamation. After the war, Tennessee was the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to the US Congress. Restored Virginia With the creation of West Virginia in 1863, the Union supporting Restored Government of Virginia took up residence in Alexandria, Virginia, while much of its claimed territory was still held by the Confederacy. It called a state constitutional convention to make reforms in the state's pre-war constitution. In 1864, it adopted a new state constitution abolishing slavery, which in 1865 came to cover the entire state as the war ended. Indian Territory In the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most Indian tribes owned black slaves and sided with the Confederacy, which had promised them an Indian state after it won the war. However, some tribes and bands sided with the Union. A bloody civil war resulted in the territory, with severe hardships for all residents. Kansas After years of small-scale civil war, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state under the "Wyandotte Constitution" on January 29, 1861. Most people gave strong support to the Union cause. However, guerrilla warfare and raids from pro-slavery forces, many spilling over from Missouri, occurred during the Civil War. Although only one battle of official forces occurred in Kansas, there were 29 Confederate raids into the state during the war and numerous deaths caused by the guerrillas. Lawrence came under attack on August 21, 1863, by guerrillas led by William Clarke Quantrill. He was retaliating for "Jayhawker" raids against pro-Confederate settlements in Missouri. His forces left more than 150 people dead in Lawrence. New Mexico / Arizona Territory At the time the Civil War broke out, the present-day states of New Mexico and Arizona did not yet exist. There were various proposals, however, to create a new territory within the southern half of the New Mexico Territory prior to the war. The southern half of the territory was pro-Confederate while the northern half was pro-Union. The southern half was also a target of Confederate Texan forces under Charles L. Pyron and Henry Hopkins Sibley, who attempted to establish control there. They had plans to attack the Union states of California and Colorado Territory (both of which also had Southern sympathizers) as well as the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, Fort Laramie, and Nevada Territory, followed by an invasion of the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Lower California. Ultimately their defeat at the Battle of Glorieta Pass prevented these plans from fruition and Sibley's Confederates fled back to East Texas. See also Constitutional Union Party (United States) Central Confederacy Deep South History of slavery in Kentucky History of slavery in Maryland History of slavery in Missouri History of slavery in New Mexico History of slavery in Oklahoma History of slavery in West Virginia Missouri Constitutional Convention (1861–63) Missouri secession Old South Slave and free states Southern Unionist References Further reading Brownlee, Richard S. Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West, 1861–1865 (1958) online Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989). Dew, Charles B. Apostles of disunion: Southern secession commissioners and the causes of the Civil War (U of Virginia Press, 2017). Harris, William C. Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 416 pages Nevins, Allan. The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862. (1959). Phillips, Christopher. The Rivers Ran Backward: The Civil War and the Remaking of the American Middle Border (Oxford UP, 2016). Robinson, Michael D. A Union Indivisible: Secession and the Politics of Slavery in the Border South (2017) Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2008) 456 pp External links Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Border States Thomas, William G., III. “The Border South”. Southern Spaces, April 16, 2004. American Civil War by location Former regions and territories of the United States Regions of the Southern United States Politics of the American Civil War

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro

Euthyphro

Euthyphro (; ; c. 399–395 BC), by Plato, is a Socratic dialogue whose events occur in the weeks before the trial of Socrates (399 BC), between Socrates and Euthyphro. The dialogue covers subjects such as the meaning of piety and justice. As is common with Plato's earliest dialogues, it ends in aporia. In this dialogue, Socrates meets Euthyphro at the porch of the archon basileus (the 'king magistrate') at that time. Socrates tells him that he is preparing to go to court against the charges of Meletus on the grounds of impiety. Euthyphro tells Socrates that he is going to court himself to prosecute his father for binding a worker in chains and leaving him to die. This has granted him the ire of his own family who believe his father was in the right. The worker had killed a fellow worker, which they believe exempts his father from liability for leaving him bound in the ditch to starve to death. Since Euthyphro seems assured of himself, Socrates asks him to define piety. His help will clarify Socrates' case in the courtroom. If Socrates is asked to define piety, he can simply rely on Euthyphro's definition. This however leads to the main dilemma of the dialogue when the two cannot come to a satisfactory conclusion. Is something pious because the gods approve of it or do the gods approve of it because it is pious? This aporic ending has led to one of the longest theological and meta-ethical debates in history. Characters Socrates, the Athenian philosopher. He questions the nature of piety in this dialogue. Euthyphro, the Athenian prophet. His father owned land on the island of Naxos. His father's harsh treatment of a paid servant (Thetes under the Solonian Constitution) leads to Euthyphro raising charges against him. According to his own statements in this dialogue, his claims to prophecy and divination were considered a joke to other Athenians. He attempts to provide Socrates with a definition of piety but none are sufficient. It is entirely possible as well that Euthyphro was created by Plato as a literary device. His name in ancient Greek is ironically "straight thinker" or "Mr. Right-mind." A combination of εὐθύς (euthys), which means straight or direct and φρονέω (phroneô) which means to think or to reason. If Euthyphro and his father were historical people then this places the murder charges brought by Euthyphro and the main actions of this dialogue sometime between 405 BC and 399 BC, when the Athenian settlers were expelled from the Island of Naxos after the defeat at the Battle of Aegospotami. Background The dialogue in Euthyphro occurs near the court of the archon basileus (king magistrate), where Socrates and Euthyphro encounter each other; each man is present at the court for the preliminary hearings to possible trials (2a). Euthyphro has come to present charges of murder against his own father who, after arresting one of his workers (Thetes) for killing a slave from the family estate on Naxos Island, tied him and threw him in a ditch where he died of exposure to the elements (3e–4d) while Euthyphro's father waited to hear from the exegetes (cf. Laws 759d) about how to proceed. Socrates is astonished by Euthyphro's confidence in being able to prosecute his own father for the serious charge of manslaughter, despite the fact that Athenian Law allows only relatives of the dead man to file suit for murder (Dem. 43 §57). Euthyphro dismisses the astonishment of Socrates, which confirms his overconfidence in his own critical judgment of religious and ethical matters. In an example of Socratic irony, Socrates says that Euthyphro obviously has a clear understanding of what is pious or holy (τὸ ὅσιον to hosion) and impious or unholy (τὸ ἀνόσιον to anosion). Because he is facing a formal charge of impiety, Socrates expresses the hope to learn from Euthyphro, all the better to defend himself in the trial, as he himself is being accused of religious transgressions. Euthyphro says that what lies behind the charge of impiety presented against Socrates, by Meletus and the others, is Socrates' claim that he is subjected to a daimon (divine sign), which warns him of various courses of action (3b). From the perspective of some Athenians, Socrates expressed skepticism of the accounts about the Greek gods, which he and Euthyphro briefly discuss, before proceeding to the main argument of their dialogue: the definition of "piety". Moreover, Socrates further expresses critical reservations about such divine accounts that emphasize the cruelty and inconsistent behaviour of the Greek gods, such as the castration of the early sky-god Uranus, by his son Cronus; a story Socrates said is difficult to accept (6a–6c). After claiming to know and be able to tell more astonishing divine stories, Euthyphro spends little time and effort defending the conventional Greek view of the gods. Instead, he is led to the true task at hand, as Socrates forces him to confront his ignorance by pressing Euthyphro for a definition of "piety"; yet, Socrates finds flaw with each definition of "piety" proposed by Euthyphro (6d ff.). At the dialogue's conclusion, Euthyphro is compelled to admit that each of his definitions of "piety" has failed, but, rather than correct his faulty logic, he says that it is time for him to leave, and excuses himself from their dialogue. To that end, Socrates concludes the dialogue with Socratic irony: Since Euthyphro was unable to define "piety", Euthyphro has failed to teach Socrates about piety. Therefore, from his dialogue with Euthyphro, Socrates received nothing helpful to his defense against a formal charge of impiety (15c ff.). It is easier to understand Socrates' arguments in this dialogue if the reader keeps in mind that Athenian religion revolved around specific rituals and practices with no reference to sacred scripture, at least in the same sense as later Abrahamic religions. Priests might worship only one specific god while not paying respect to the others. Euthyphro uses Zeus as evidence for his notions of piety while disregarding Uranus and Cronus, for example. The argument Socrates asks Euthyphro to offer him a definition of piety or holiness. The purpose of establishing a clear definition is to provide a basis for Euthyphro to teach Socrates the answer to the question: "What is piety?" Ostensibly, the purpose of the dialogue is to provide Socrates with a definitive meaning of "piety", with which he can defend against the charge of impiety in the pending trial. Socrates seeks a definition of "piety" that is a universal (universally true), against which all actions can be measured to determine whether or not the actions are pious. To be universal, the definition of "piety" must express the 'essence' () of the thing defined (piety), a clear and unambiguous standard to which each particular instance of piety will conform. The dialogue Ostensibly in order to better defend himself in an upcoming trial for being an impious citizen of Athens, Socrates asks Euthyphro for a clear definition of piety (holiness); he offers Socrates four definitions. First definition Euthyphro's first definition of piety is what he is doing now, that is, prosecuting his father for manslaughter (5d). Socrates rejects Euthyphro's definition, because it is not a definition of piety, and is only an example of piety, and does not provide the essential characteristic that makes pious actions pious. Second definition Euthyphro's second definition: Piety is what is pleasing to the gods. (6e–7a) Socrates applauds this definition, because it is expressed in a general form, but criticizes it saying that the gods disagree among themselves as to what is pleasing. This means that a given action, disputed by the gods, would be both pious and impious at the same time – a logical impossibility. Euthyphro argues against Socrates' criticism, by noting that not even the gods would disagree, among themselves, that someone who kills without justification should be punished. Yet Socrates argues that disputes would still arise – over just how much justification actually existed; hence, the same action could be pious and impious; again, Euthyphro's definition cannot be a definition of "piety". Third definition To overcome Socrates' objection to his second definition of piety, Euthyphro amends his definition. (9e) Euthyphro's third definition of piety is: "What all the gods love is pious, and what they all hate is impious." In reply, Socrates poses the question that would eventually become known in philosophy as the Euthyphro dilemma: "Is the pious loved by the gods because it is pious? Or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?". Euthyphro seems unsure as to what the question means and so Socrates applies a dialectic technique: an analogy, to clarify his question (10a). He persuades Euthyphro to agree that when we call a thing "carried", it is simply because it is being carried by someone and not because it possesses an inherent characteristic, which could be called "carried". That is, "being carried" is not an essential trait of the thing being carried but a condition, a state that the object is currently in. He then moves to what we call "beloved" (φιλούμενόν filoumenon). Is something "beloved" in and of itself (like being big or red), or does it become beloved when it is loved by someone? Clearly, the answer is again the latter, something becomes beloved when it is loved. So then, continues Socrates, something beloved by the gods (θεοφιλές theofiles) becomes so because it is loved by them, to which Euthyphro agrees and Socrates moves to the conclusion that reveals his contradiction: What is beloved by the gods cannot be pious. Euthyphro seems to be taken aback so Socrates reminds him the definitions he gave previously (10e). He had said that something is loved by the gods because it is pious, which means that their love follows from something inherent in the pious. And yet they just agreed that what is beloved is put in that state as a result of being loved. So piety cannot belong to what is beloved by the gods since according to Euthyphro it does not acquire its characteristics by something (the act of being loved) but has them a priori, in contrast to the things that are beloved that are put in this state through the very act of being loved. It seems therefore that Euthyphro's third argument is flawed. At that juncture of their dialogue, Euthyphro does not understand what makes his definition of "piety" a circular argument; he agrees with Socrates that the gods like an action because it is pious. Socrates then argues that the unanimous approval of the gods is merely an attribute of "piety", that divine approval is not a defining characteristic of "piety". That divine approval does not define the essence of "piety", does not define what is "piety", does not give an idea of "piety"; therefore, divine approval is not a universal definition of "piety". Linguistic note Socrates' argument is convoluted not only because of its structure but because of the language used, and is said to have "reduced translators to babble and driven commentators to despair". The text presents the argument through a distinction between the active and the passive voice, as for example when Socrates asks about the difference between a "carried thing" (φερόμενον) and "being carried" (φέρεται), both using the word "carried" in the English translation. Fourth definition In the second half of the dialogue, Socrates suggests a definition of "piety", which is that "piety is a part of justice", but he leads up to that definition with some other observations and questions, starting with: ... Are you not compelled to think that all that is pious is just? Yet, Socrates later says that the information provided in his question to Euthyphro is insufficient for a clear definition of "piety", because piety belongs to those actions we call just, that is, morally good; however, there are actions, other than pious actions, which we call just (12d); for example, bravery and concern for others. Piety is only a portion of Justice and is not sufficient in giving a clear view of justice. Socrates gives a comparison to even numbers. If a definition of even numbers were provided it would not be suitable to clarify what numbers are because it is only a group of numbers and not the entire thing as a whole. Socrates asks: What is it that makes piety different from other actions that we call just? We cannot say something is true, because we believe it to be true. We must find proof. Euthyphro's response In response, Euthyphro says that piety is concerned with looking after the gods (12e), but Socrates objects, saying that "looking after", if used in its ordinary sense (with which Euthyphro agrees) would imply that when one performs an act of piety one thus makes one of the gods better – an example of hubris, a dangerous human emotion frowned upon by the Greek gods. (13c) In turn, Euthyphro responds that "looking after" involves service to others, and Socrates asks: What is the end product of piety? Euthyphro replies with his earlier (third) definition, that: Piety is what is loved by all the gods. (14b). Final definition Euthyphro then proposes a fifth definition: "Piety is an art of sacrifice and prayer". He proposes the notion of piety as a form of knowledge, of how to do exchange: Giving gifts to the gods, and asking favours in return. (14e) Socrates presses Euthyphro to say what benefit the gods perceive from human gifts – warning him that "knowledge of exchange" is a type of commerce. (14e) Euthyphro objects that the gifts are not a quid pro quo, between man and deity, but are gifts of "honour, esteem, and favour", from man to deity. (15a) In other words, Euthyphro admits that piety is intimately bound to the likes of the gods. The dialogue has come full circle, and Euthyphro leaves Socrates without a clear definition of "piety" as he faces a trial for impiety (ἀσέβεια asebeia). History Fragments of this dialogue exist on a papyrus from the 2nd century. The oldest surviving medieval manuscript was made in 895 by Arethas of Caesarea and copied by Johannes calligraphus. This dialogue is notable for containing one of the few surviving fragments of the poet Stasinus, a relative of Homer and author of the lost work Cypria. Socrates quotes him to show his disagreement with the poet's notion that fear and reverence are linked. The quoted excerpt is as follows: Of Zeus, the author and creator of all these things,/ You will not tell: for where there is fear there is also reverence. Reception In the early 3rd century BC, the Epicurean Metrodorus of Lampsacus wrote a pamphlet titled Against the Euthyphro which is now lost. This is the oldest literary criticism of this dialogue in the ancient world. Diogenes Laertius listed the dialogue as belonging to the first tetralogy in the 1st century BC. He considered it one of the tentative dialogues and gave On Holiness as an alternate title. He also mentioned that some teachers used it as the first dialogue in their courses meaning that it was in antiquity seen as the most suitable introduction to Plato's works. He also claimed that after the events of this dialogue, Euthyphro was persuaded not to prosecute his father though that is not supported by any of Plato's own writings. In the surviving fragment of On Plato's Secret Doctrines by Numenius of Apamea he suggests that the character of Euthyphro was entirely fictitious and represented the Athenian popular religion. He reasoned that Plato had to criticize the Athenian religion in dialogue form rather than directly attacking it in order to avoid being executed like Socrates himself. In the Anonymous Prolegomena to Platonic Philosophy it is stated that the Euthyphro was Plato's first dialogue. The dialogue returned to obscurity in the Latin speaking scholarly world until it was rediscovered in the Renaissance age. The dialogue was translated into Armenian in the 11th century. The Byzantine scholar Manuel Chrysoloras owned a copy of the Euthyphro. Francesco Filelfo completed the first Latin translation in 1436. Rinuccio da Castiglione completed a second translation a short time later in 1440 though it is considered of lower quality. Marsilio Ficino completed a third in 1484 in Florence in his translated collection of Plato's dialogues. The first edition of the Greek text appeared in Venice in September 1513 by Aldo Manuzio under an edition published by Markos Musuros. The influential Plato translator Friedrich Schleiermacher did not appreciate this dialogue. He saw it as "a very inferior work compared to Laches and Charmides. Olof Gigon likewise rated it poorly in the 20th century. He felt the dialogue relied too heavily on word games and semantics. Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff approved of the dialogue for separating piety from divine command theory. Michael Erler praised the dialogue for showing reflection on logical and grammatical issues. One criticism of this dialogue that was raised by Peter Geach is that the dilemma implies you must search for a definition that fits piety rather than work backwards by deciding pious acts (i.e. you must know what piety is before you can list acts which are pious). It also implies something can not be pious if it is only intended to serve the gods without actually fulfilling any useful purpose. Texts and translations Greek text at Perseus Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus. Greek with translation by Harold N. Fowler. Loeb Classical Library 36. Harvard Univ. Press (originally published 1914). Fowler translation at Perseus Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo. Greek with translation by Chris Emlyn-Jones and William Preddy. Loeb Classical Library 36. Harvard Univ. Press, 2017. HUP listing Plato. Opera, volume I. Oxford Classical Texts. Translated by Woods & Pack, 2007 Bundled with Socrates' Defense (aka Apology), Crito, and the death scene from Phaedo Translated by Jowett, 1891 at the Classics Archive G. Theodoridis, 2017: full-text translation Plato. Complete Works. Hackett, 1997. The Last Days of Socrates, translation of Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo. Hugh Tredennick, 1954. . Made into a BBC radio play in 1986. See also Divine command theory Euthyphro dilemma Dialectic Socratic dialogues Notes Further reading External links Guides to the Socratic Dialogues, a beginner's guide Works set in the 4th century BC Dialogues of Plato Books critical of religion Philosophy of religion literature Philosophy of religion

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepa%20Brena

Lepa Brena

Fahreta Živojinović (; ; born 20 October 1960), known by her stage name Lepa Brena (), is a Yugoslav singer, actress, and businesswoman. With around 25 million sold records, she is regarded as the commercially most successful recording artist from the former Yugoslavia. Brena is also often credited with creating the turbo-folk genre with her first two albums Čačak, Čačak (1982) and Mile voli disko (1982). Lepa Brena grew up in Brčko, Bosnia and Herzegovina, but has lived in Belgrade, Serbia since 1980, where she started her career. Lepa Brena is considered to be a symbol of the former Yugoslavia, due to the fact that she was one of the last popular acts to emerge before the breakup of the country. She has described herself as being "Yugo-nostalgic". Along with her husband, Slobodan Živojinović and friend, Saša Popović, Brena co-founded and co-owned Grand Production, the biggest record label and production company in the Balkans. In 2019, they decided to sell Grand Production for €30 million. Early life Born into a Muslim family in the outskirts of Tuzla, PR Bosnia and Herzegovina, she grew up in Brčko as the youngest child of Abid Jahić ( – 22 October 2010) and Ifeta (; 15 April 1934 – 21 November 2014) alongside her sister Faketa and brother Faruk. Both of her parents are originally from villages near Srebrenik; her father was born in Ježinac and her maternal family hailed from Ćehaje. At the start of the Bosnian War in 1992, her sister Faketa emigrated to Canada, where she lives today, while Brena stayed in Belgrade where she had been living since 1980. Her first performance for an audience was in the fifth grade at a local festival, singing a Kemal Monteno song named "Sviraj mi o njoj". She later reflected, "It was the only time in my life that I've ever experienced stage fright." Afterwards, she started performing regularly at dance parties in Brčko. While a guest on a Croatian television show in March 2014, she was asked if she had been ashamed of having a Muslim background, to which she replied: "Why would I be ashamed? I was and stay what I am. Today I am Fahreta. I am proud of my parents and roots". She said of her stage name, that Brena was given to her by her basketball coach Vlado, while the epithet Lepa () was given to her by showman Minimaks. Career 1980–1983: Slatki Greh and career beginnings In early 1980, at the age of 19, Fahreta began singing with a band called Lira Show when the group's original singer Spasa left the band because her husband, a boxer, did not want his wife to be a singer. Saša Popović, the band's frontman, was initially opposed to the idea that Fahreta should be the band's new singer, but later changed his opinion. She subsequently moved to Novi Sad and then to Belgrade. Brena's first performance with Lira Show occurred on 6 April 1980 in the hotel Turist in Bačka Palanka. Lira Show changed their name to Slatki Greh (Sweet Sin) in 1981. Brena and Slatki Greh premiered their first studio album, Čačak, Čačak, on 3 February 1982. The album was written mostly by Milutin Popović-Zahar, and the career-manager was Vladimir Cvetković. Since her career began in 1980, she has become arguably the most popular singer of the former Yugoslavia, and a top-selling female recording artist with more than 40 million records sold. The same year Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh appeared in the first part of Yugoslav classic comedy film A Tight Spot with popular comedian Nikola Simić and actress Ružica Sokić, which raised their status and brought them almost instant fame. They would again team up with songwriter Milutin Popović-Zahar for their second studio album Mile voli disko (Mile Loves Disco), released 18 November 1982. In addition to the title song, the album had a couple of other hit songs: "Duge noge" ("Long Legs") and "Dama iz Londona" ("London Lady"). In 1983, Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh ended their collaboration with Milutin Popović-Zahar and Vladimir Cvetković. That same year Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh participated in Jugovizija, the Yugoslav selection for the Eurovision Song Contest, with the song "Sitnije, Cile, sitnije". The song was released on an extended play of the same name, along with another song. Their appearance on Jugovizija caused controversy, since the competition was traditionally dominated exclusively by pop artists, and Lepa Brena belonged to a totally different music genre, which was folk-pop, or also called novokomponovana muzika. Although they did not qualify for the prestigious European competition, Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh won the contest, gaining even more popularity. 1984–1990: Bato, Bato and Hajde da se volimo 1984 saw Brena and her band begin a cooperation with a new manager and producer, Raka Đokić. Bato, Bato (Brother, Brother), their third album, was released the same year. A new provocative image was accompanied by a new musical style, different from the one fostered by Popović. Later that year, they held a concert in neighboring Romania, at the stadium in Timișoara to an audience of 65,000, what was at time among the most successful concerts of a Yugoslav musician outside their home country. Their next three albums, Pile moje (My Little One, 1985) and Voli me, voli (Love Me, Love) and Uske pantalone (Tight Trousers, both 1986) would propel her to the throne of the Yugoslav music scene. Along with these albums, Brena established a cooperation with Serbian folk star Miroslav Ilić and recorded a collaborative extended play Jedan dan života (One Day of Life), which featured four songs, including a romantic duet called "Jedan dan života", and the song "Živela Jugoslavija" (Long Live Yugoslavia), which was received with a mixed response. The latter song was in line with Brena's only official political stance: an uncompromising support of a united Yugoslavia, with her becoming a symbol of this view. By the end of 1986, Lepa Brena had become the star of Belgrade social jet-set, and the most popular public figure in Yugoslavia. Brena's manager Raka Đokić came up with the idea that her seventh studio album should be followed by a film in which she would play the lead role. This idea was successfully implemented in 1987 when the motion picture Hajde da se volimo (Let's Love Each Other) was filmed. The film shared the name with the album. Many then-popular Yugoslav actors co-starred in the film, including Dragomir "Gidra" Bojanić, Milutin "Mima" Karadžić, Velimir "Bata" Živojinović, Milan Štrljić, etc. During the premiere of the film on 24 October 1987, Brena met her future husband, Serbian tennis star Slobodan Živojinović. Based on the success of the original, two sequels were produced: Hajde da se volimo 2 (1989) and Hajde da se volimo 3 (1990), which was followed by the studio album Boli me uvo za sve (I Don't Care About Anything). Boli me uvo za sve also had multiple hit songs including "Čik pogodi" (Take a Guess), "Biće belaja" (There Will Be Trouble), "Tamba Lamba", and the title track. Their eighth studio album Četiri godine (Four Years) was released on 1 October 1989 and contained the controversial song Jugoslovenka (Yugoslav Woman) with Montenegrin vocalist Danijel Popović, Croatian vocalist Vlado Kalember and Bosnian vocalist Alen Islamović. The music video for the pop song "Čuvala me mama" (Mum Protected Me) was filmed on the Croatian island Lopud. Lepa Brena and Slatki Greh held more than 350 concerts yearly, and would often hold two concerts in one day. They set a record by holding thirty-one concerts consecutively at Dom Sindikata, and seventeen concerts consecutively at the Sava Centar. On 24 July 1990, Brena landed with a helicopter at Vasil Levski National Stadium in Sofia, Bulgaria, and held a concert with an audience of 90,000 people. While she was in Bulgaria in July 1990, she met with the Bulgarian mystic Baba Vanga. 1991–1999: Ja nemam drugi dom and Grand Production Brena and Slatki Greh released their second-to-last album together, Zaljubiška ( 'lovelysh'), in 1991. In December 1993, after two-year hiatus, Brena premiered her first solo album Ja nemam drugi dom (I Have No Other Home), and held a famous "concert in the rain" on 13 June 1994 at Belgrade's Tašmajdan Sports Centre which was attended by 35,000 people. After that, she recorded two more solo albums: Kazna Božija (God's Punishment, 1994) and Luda za tobom (Crazy Over You, 1996). In the mid-90s she had many popular songs; "Kazna Božija", "Luda za tobom", "Sve mi dobro ide osim ljubavi" (I'm Good at Everything But Love), "Izdajice" (Traitor), "Moj se dragi Englez pravi" (My Man's Acting an Englishman), "I da odem iza leđa bogu" (Even If I Go Behind God's Back), "Ja nemam drugi dom", "Dva dana" (Two Days), and "Ti si moj greh" (You Are My Sin), among others. The music video for "Ti si moj greh" had an ancient Egyptian theme, with Brena dressed as a pharaoh. Brena became co-founder of the Serbian record label Grand Production, which was formerly known as Zabava miliona (ZaM), in December 1998. 2000–2017: Pomračenje sunca, hiatus, and comeback After her marriage in 1991, when she briefly moved to the United States, she ceased cooperation with Slatki Greh. However, in 2000 they recorded another album together Pomračenje sunca (Solar Eclipse), their last album to date. After eight years of absence from the music business, Lepa Brena returned with Uđi slobodno... (Feel Free to Enter..., 2008) and Začarani krug (Vicious Circle, 2011). Both albums were major successes. Beginning in 2012, Brena started recording sessions for two studio albums. The first, Izvorne i novokomponovane narodne pesme (Original and Newly Composed Folk Songs) was released in December 2013. She dedicated the album to her ailing mother Ifeta, who sang folk songs to her when she was a child. Ifeta died the following year. In the month after that album's release, Brena premiered two other songs: "Ljubav čuvam za kraj" (I'm Keeping Love For the End) on 28 December 2013 and "Zaljubljeni veruju u sve" (Those in Love Believe in Everything), with lyrics written by Hari Varešanović, on 12 January 2014. On 19 December 2013, Brena, along with Dragana Mirković, Severina, Jelena Rozga, Haris Džinović, Aca Lukas and Jelena Karleuša, was a guest at a humanitarian concert by Goran Bregović at the Zetra Olympic Hall in the Bosnian capital city Sarajevo for the Roma in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Brena arrived in Sarajevo two days before the concert so that she could enjoy the city with friends before the concert. She said in an interview: "Sarajevo has suffered and survived so much, I'm really glad to see positive people and happiness in this city". Lepa Brena and Steven Seagal were the stars of Belgrade 2016 New Year party, an event held at Nikola Pašić Square in front of the Serbian National Assembly, and attended by 60,000 people. In December 2017, Brena published two new songs "Zar je važno da l' se pjeva ili peva" (Does It Matter Whether It's Sung (in Ijekavian) or Sung (in Ekavian)) and "Boliš i ne prolaziš" (You Hurt and You Don't Heal) as teasers for her new album expected to be published in the beginning of 2018. Personal life Her wedding to Serbian tennis star Slobodan Živojinović on 7 December 1991 was a media event throughout Yugoslavia. The lavish ceremony took place at Belgrade's InterContinental Hotel. The level of interest in the event was such that Brena's manager Raka Đokić released a VHS tape of the wedding. Their public relationship has been providing steady fodder for various tabloid publications ever since. Upon marriage, Brena became the stepmother to Živojinović's son Filip, born on 19 August 1985. Brena and Živojinović's first child together, a son named Stefan, was born in New York City on 21 May 1992. Their second son Viktor was born 30 March 1998. On 6 August 2019, Brena became a step-grandmother after Filip's wife Aleksandra Prijović gave birth to their first child together, son Aleksandar. Brena broke her leg in a skiing accident in November 1992, and it took six months for her to heal. Her manager and producer Raka Đokić died suddenly on 30 October 1993. On 23 November 2000, the couple's elder son Stefan was kidnapped by members of the Zemun mafia. After they paid a ransom of 2,500,000 Deutsche Marks in cash, he was released, having been held for five days. She has resided in Belgrade since 1980 and currently lives there with her husband, while their sons are studying in the United States. In a 2014 interview, she stated that she was still healing from the trauma of the kidnapping incident. After the debacle and family drama, she went on hiatus once again, lasting eight years, living between Belgrade and Miami, Florida with her family. Brena and her husband have a home in Coconut Creek, Florida, where they lived during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, although Brena visited Yugoslavia during the bombing and took part on one of the public morale-raising concerts on Belgrade's Republic Square. She also has an apartment in Monte Carlo and another townhouse in Fisher Island, Florida. In 2010, Brena and her husband purchased a five-bedroom villa with an in-ground heated pool on one of Miami's islands at a cost of $1.6 million. In October 2010, her father, Abid Jahić, was severely injured when a bus hit him as he walked in the town of Brčko. He was transported to a hospital in Tuzla, where he died on 22 October 2010 aged 82. He was buried in a Muslim funeral three days after his death. Brena, her two siblings and mother, along with other family members and citizens of Brčko attended the funeral. She later regarded the months after her father's death as the emotionally most difficult time of her life. Her mother Ifeta died 21 November 2014, aged 80. She was buried in a Muslim funeral in Brčko next to her husband. Brena was hospitalized on 27 July 2012 when she complained of pain and was diagnosed as having venous thrombosis, a blood clot. She remained in the hospital for three days, then was released. A similar incident had occurred in October 2004 when a blood clot in her hand was removed. In August 2012, she was forced to cancel three months of scheduled concerts to deal with further complications with her illness. She was again hospitalized on 25 July 2014 while at holiday in the Croatian resort of Novi Vinodolski where she fell down the stairs and broke both arms. She was hospitalized for five days and spent her month-long recovery at a local hotel. On 2 January 2015, Brena fell down the stairs again during a family vacation at Zlatibor, Serbia, and hurt her wrist. Unlike the previous incident, this injury did not require surgery. However, because of this, she stayed hospitalized in Belgrade and rescheduled upcoming performances in the Bosnian towns of Živinice and Travnik. Controversy During the late 1980s and early 1990s, ethnic tensions which started rising in Yugoslavia and eventually led to country's breakup, made Lepa Brena become one of main tabloid targets at the time. Some Bosniaks viewed her as a traitor as she was a Bosniak who sang and spoke with an Ekavian accent (which is predominantly spoken in Serbia) and she married Serbian Slobodan Živojinović. Several tabloids claimed that she had converted from Islam to Serbian Orthodoxy and that she had changed her name from Fahreta to Jelena. She intensely denied these allegations. In socialist Yugoslavia, religions in general were an unpopular topic, and people acknowledged the religion to which belonged in relation to its family roots, but were overwhelmingly non-practitioners. In that sense, being a Yugoslav icon, Lepa Brena never publicly spoke about her religious beliefs beyond stating that she had grown up being Sunni Muslim. In 2009, numerous Bosniaks and Croats protested when her concerts in Sarajevo on 30 May and in Zagreb on 13 June were announced. The reason behind the protests were pictures allegedly shot in 1993 during the Bosnian War in which she appears wearing the uniform of the Army of Republika Srpska in the besieged town of Brčko, where she grew up. In the pictures, taken and published by one Serbian magazine, she appears giving support to Bosnian Serb soldiers, which were at that time involved in intense fighting against Croatian and Bosniak forces in Posavina front. This is why Croatian and Bosnian protesters were angered calling her a "traitor" and a "". The concerts went ahead as scheduled with no incidents and she claimed the uniform was from the set of a 1990 music video for her song "Tamba lamba", in which she wore a similar uniform while filming at a zoo in Kenya for the film Hajde da se volimo 3. However, when compared side by side, the uniforms are different. Brena also claimed she was only in Brčko in 1993 to rescue her parents. Discography Studio albums Čačak, Čačak (1982) Mile voli disko (1982) Bato, Bato (1984) Pile moje (1984) Voli me, voli (1986) Uske pantalone (1986) Hajde da se volimo (1987) Četiri godine (1989) Boli me uvo za sve (1990) Zaljubiška (1991) Ja nemam drugi dom (1993) Kazna Božija (1994) Luda za tobom (1996) Pomračenje sunca (2000) Uđi slobodno... (2008) Začarani krug (2011) Izvorne i novokomponovane narodne pesme (2013) Zar je važno dal se peva ili pjeva (2018) Extended plays Sitnije, Cile, sitnije (1983) Jedan dan života (with Miroslav Ilić) (1985) Compilations Lepa Brena & Slatki Greh (1990) Lepa Brena (The Best of – Dupli CD) (2003) Lepa Brena (HITOVI – 6 CD-a) (2016) Filmography Film Tesna koža (1982) Nema problema (1984) Kamiondžije ponovo voze (1984) Hajde da se volimo (1987) Hajde da se volimo 2 (1989) Hajde da se volimo 3 (1990) Documentary Lepa Brena: Godine Slatkog greha (2017) Television Në orët e vona (1982) Jugovizija (1983) Kamiondžije 2 (1983) Jugovizija (1986) Obraz uz obraz: Novogodišnji special (1991) - TV film Novogodišnji show program sa Lepom Brenom (2002) Kursadžije (2007) - TV show; one episode role Mahalaši (2009) - Bosnian TV series; special guest star Veče sa Lepom Brenom (2014) - TV show Paparazzi (2017) - Bulgarian TV show Tours and concerts Tours Great Yugoslav Tour (1983) Great Yugoslav Tour '84 (1984) Uđi slobodno Tour (2008–11) Začarani krug Tour (2011–17) Zar je važno da l' se peva ili pjeva... World Tour (2017–22) Residency concerts Lepa Brena Live at Dom sindikata (1987) Other Dark Scene Records released in 2009 Dark Tribute to Lepa Brena, an electronic/rock album where 20 different artists interpret 20 of her songs. References External links 1960 births Living people Serbian turbo-folk singers Serbian folk-pop singers 21st-century Serbian women singers Yugoslav women singers Musicians from Tuzla People from Brčko District Singers from Belgrade Grand Production artists Bosnia and Herzegovina emigrants to Serbia 20th-century Serbian women singers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouts%20Canada

Scouts Canada

Scouts Canada is a Canadian Scouting association providing programs for young people, between the ages of 5 and 26, with the stated aim "To help develop well rounded youth, better prepared for success in the world". Scouts Canada, in affiliation with the French-language Association des Scouts du Canada, is a member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement. In 2021–22, youth membership stood at 33,899, a 48% decline from 64,693 in 2014–15. Over the same period, volunteer numbers also declined 43%, from 20,717 in 2015 to 11,765 in 2022. Scouts Canada has declined significantly in size since its peak: youth membership is down 82% from 288,084 in 1965 and volunteer numbers are down 50% from 33,524 in 1965. Values Scouts Canada states a commitment to the Scouting Method approach, which emphasizes the following elements: Scout Law and Promise Learning by Doing The Team System A Symbolic Framework Nature Personal Progression Adult Support Community Involvement As part of its greater Canadian Path program, Scouts Canada has a "Religion in Life" emblem, that is awarded upon completion of a particular denomination's program by a Scout. In 2009, a "Spirituality Award" for Scouts and Guides who did not belong to any denomination was also established. In the summer of 2020, alternative promises for Beaver Scouts, Cub Scouts, and higher levels were offered for individuals, to allow them to commit to their country or personal affirmation, rather than to God or the King specifically, if they so choose. History Scouts Canada states "There is evidence that a few Scouting groups started up in Canada in 1907". In his 1981 book, 75 Years of Scouting in Canada Robert Milks, the late Scouts Canada archivist, indicated that the first Scout groups in Canada were founded in 1908. St. Catharines and Merrickville are mentioned as among the locations of the first troops. Boy Scouts and the Scout Movement were well established in Canada, before Scouts Canada or its parent organization, The Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom were formed. The Boy Scouts Association was formed in the United Kingdom in 1910 and incorporated in 1912. It has been claimed that its founder, Baden-Powell, wrote to Earl Grey, the Governor General of Canada in 1910 and asked him to organize Scouting in Canada. A branch of The Boy Scouts Association was established in Canada under The Boy Scouts Association's Overseas Department. The Canadian General Council of The Boy Scouts Association was incorporated by an Act of the Canadian Parliament on 12 June 1914. The Canadian General Council continued to be represented internationally by The Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom until 30 October 1946, when the Canadian General Council became a direct member of the Boy Scout World Conference, now the World Organization of the Scout Movement. The Canadian General Council of The Boy Scouts Association later changed its name to Boy Scouts of Canada by an amendment to its incorporating Act of Parliament. In 1976 the Scouts Canada logo was introduced and the organization, by its By-laws, adopted the name Scouts Canada. In 2007, the organization's name was amended to Scouts Canada in the establishing legislation. In 1972, Scouts Canada began accepting female participants as part of its Rover Section. This was expanded in the late 1970s (but some sources cite 1984), to include the Venturer Section. In 1992, co-ed Scouting was an option for all program sections and became policy for all sections in 1998. The year following, the organization introduced its first gay Rover Crew in Toronto, Ontario. In 1990, Jim Blain, the Chief Executive of Scouts Canada, was awarded the 202nd Bronze Wolf, the only distinction of the World Organization of the Scout Movement, awarded by the World Scout Committee for exceptional services to world Scouting. He was also a recipient of the Silver World Award. In 2001 members saw a significant reorganization country wide. Regions and Districts were reorganized into Council and Areas. Many Districts employed their own staff, had their own youth assistance funds and separate Jamboree funds. All of this was under control and supervision of a local Board of Directors. This was made up of past commissioners and community business leaders, most of whom had a Scouting background in their youth. This was the group that handled staffing, helped identify future Trainers, Commissioners, and senior Service Scouters and supervised budgets for employees and camps and raised funds from the Community. There were other Districts, mainly rural and those in isolated communities who were not what were called 'employing councils' and the change was made to attempt to change these differences. Likewise, at this time Provincial Councils such as the Provincial Council for Ontario were disbanded. In March 2011 Scouts Canada introduced a significant re-design of the organization's uniform that had been designed by Joe Fresh Style. Beavers uniforms changed only in colour and fabric. While the major changes in the uniform design are seen in the changes to the style of the button-up shirt and its colour from khaki to grey, green, blue, or red, for Cubs, Scouts, Venturers, Rovers/Leaders respectively. As part of the re-design the sash was eliminated as a uniform component, which has resulted in smaller proficiency badges being made for Cub Scouts and Scouts to sew directly onto their uniforms. The new design received high marks from Fashion magazine Flare stating that the new uniforms are both stylish and comfortable. The material for the red uniform shirt (not the activity golf shirt) changed in mid-2016 because of performance issues. From 2012 through to 2017 Scouts Canada's National Youth Network organized an initiative to promote the principles of Scouting to both members of the organization and the general public. The campaign was designed to encourage Canadians to do 'good turns' for each other. For a number of years, silicon bracelets were distributed across Canada with the message "Good Turn Week." In addition to the original initiative, a fund was established to sponsor selected community service projects. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints discontinued its long association with Scouts Canada at the end of 2019, which reduced nationwide youth membership by over 5%. In 2021, Scouts Canada announced a mandatory COVID-19 vaccination requirement for all in-person meetings, effective from 1 November. The vaccine requirement was removed by Scouts Canada effective September 1, 2022. Organizational structure Scouts Canada is governed by a Board of Governors. Administration of the organization is divided into twenty Councils, each administering a whole province or large part thereof. The national body, Councils, and their respective Areas are organized around a key-three which include a Scouter, Youth, and Staff member. The national body is made up of a National Commissioner appointed by the Voting Members, a National Youth Commissioner appointed by the Voting Members, and an Executive Commissioner appointed the Board of Governors. The Council key-three is made up of a Council Commissioner appointed by the National Commissioner, a Council Youth Commissioner appointed by the National Youth Commissioner, and a Council Executive Director appointed by the Executive Commissioner. Council Commissioners in consultation with their respective key-three furthermore appoint their management teams to manage the interests of the council. All positions are advertised publicly and a selection committee interviews members based on skill set. The Area key-three is made up of an Area Commissioner appointed by the Council Commissioner, an Area Youth Commissioner appointed by the Council Youth Commissioner, and an Area Support Manager appointed by the Council Executive Director. Scouts Canada is affiliated with Association des Scouts du Canada. Under the World Organization of the Scout Movement's constitution, only one organization is recognized in each country. Canada is the only country in which this recognition is held jointly. Many other countries also have more than one Scouting organization and some of these have formed national federations which are the World Organization of the Scout Movement members. Scouts Canada and L'Association des Scouts du Canada send a joint delegation to meetings of the World Organization of the Scout Movement; this is coordinated through the Committee on Cooperation. The Patron Scout of Canada is the current Governor General of Canada. From 1910 to 1946, the position of Chief Scout for Canada and, from 1946 to 2013, the position of Chief Scout of Canada were held by successive Governors General of Canada. On 19 April 2013, the Scouts Canada Board of Governors appointed Terry Grant as Chief Scout of Canada and the honorary title held by the governor general was renamed to Patron Scout. Sections Full-time sections The full-time sections of Scouts Canada are divided primarily by participant age, with all following the organization's fiscal year of 1 September to 31 August. As of September 2016, all full-time sections utilize a redeveloped model called the Canadian Path. This overhaul which had begun in 2013 was the first since 1965. It has been said that the redevelopment was driven in part to address falling membership and meet the expectations set out in the World Organization of the Scout Movement resolutions' World Scout Youth Programme Policy, "to make programs relevant to the needs and demands of the current day's youth, the goal of the project was to do just that." The new approach takes notes from traditional Scouting practices, and is meant to allow youth to develop themselves along a common path (with section-specific themes) from Beaver Scouts up to and including Rover Scouts. Beaver Scouts Beaver Scouts is a Beavers section for children between ages 5 to 7. The Beaver Scout uniform includes a hat, a neckerchief, a neckerchief slide, and a vest. Activities include crafts, games, sports, music, hikes, and camping. Their motto is "Sharing Sharing Sharing". A Beaver is a Totem animal or representation of nature, hence the name. Cub Scouts The Cub Scouts section is for children ages 8 to 10. Activities of the program include hiking, camping, and water activities such as canoeing and kayaking. The program's purpose is to encourage members to "try new and more challenging activities". Their motto is "Do your best". A Wolf Cub is yet another representation of nature, hence the namesake. Scouts The Scouts section is for youth between 11 and 14 years old. Activities include outdoor activities, camping, and hiking, as well as participation in youth forums. It claims that its purpose is "having fun while gaining valuable leadership skills and self-confidence". Venturer Scouts The Venturer Scout section is for teens between 15 and 17 years old. Its stated aim to "offer exciting, real life, hands-on experiences for youth". Its activities include hiking, camping, and more advanced training programs: white water kayaking / canoeing, mountaineering, week-long expeditions in National parks and international activities including service projects. Rover Scouts Rover Scouts is the eldest youth section in Scouting and is for teens and young adults between 18 and 26 years old. Activities include "high adventure activities" ranging from multi-week expeditions with increasingly-difficult challenges, taking on leadership roles working with younger sections, and assisting with or running service projects at a local / national / international level. Vocational programs Medical Venturers/Medical Rovers (Medvents/Medrovers) is a program that consists of Venturers and Rovers that learn and provide first-aid. Medical Venturers have been credited with saving lives in Toronto by using an AED to assist a patient in cardiac arrest. Fire Venturers learn basic fire fighting skills while working with fire departments Police Venturers learn firearm safety, crowd control, and similar skills while working with police departments Service Corps Venturers/Rovers provide community service within the Scouting Community as well as outside organizations including Heritage Canada, The Ottawa Hospital Foundation, The Ottawa Food Bank and The Royal Canadian Legion's Dominion Command. In the Ottawa region (as a part of Scouts Canada's Voyageur Council), the Voyageur Council Service Alliance (VCSA) includes MedVents, PoliceVents and the Service Corps. Among its many efforts, the VCSA: Service Corps assists the Canadian Heritage (previously National Capital Commission) with on-the-ground services (notably the Lost Children Service) during events such as: Canada Day, Winterlude (on-canal patrols to assist the public), Lighting the Capital at Christmas, the spring Tulip Festival, and others. Part-time programs Scouts Canada also has programs designated as Part-Time Programs. ScoutsAbroad ScoutsAbroad is a program which was created to support the Canadian Brotherhood Fund. Scouts in wealthier countries like Canada help Scouts in developing countries help themselves on the road to self-sufficiency. The Canadian Brotherhood Fund provides through grants, "seed money" for many international development projects. The ScoutsAbroad program also promotes youth involvement in learning about their world through penpal programs, international events, and international exchanges. International Development Projects International Development Projects are known internally as Brotherhood Projects which stems from the Canadian Brotherhood Fund. Groups of Scouts in developing countries develop and carry out projects to improve their own lives and the future of their communities. In some cases, members of Scouts Canada participate in travelling abroad to assist in carrying out portions of a project. There has been over 13 projects completed since 2007. SCOUTSabout The SCOUTS about program aims to fulfill Scouting's mission with those children who are not members of a Scouting organization. SCOUTSabout is implemented in 3-month long modules, often after school, to appeal to those families who do not want or can not commit to year-round activities. Theme based, the focus is on structured play and learning by doing without uniforms, badge programs and ceremonies. SCOUTSabout is for children between 5 and 10 years old. Extreme Adventure Extreme Adventure offers the opportunity for young people aged from 14 to 17, to plan and participate in a variety of short-term adventure-based activities. Example activities are: hiking, long-term camping and travelling abroad to participate in humanitarian projects. The program seeks to realise Scouting's mission with non-members. There is no uniform and are no ceremonies associated with this program. It is designed to include development of leadership skills and self-esteem and the participation in community projects that is also offered through the ordinary programs. Extreme Adventure is based on the Venturer Amory Adventure Award concept. Major youth awards Scouts Canada has several major youth awards which include: The Chief Scout's Award was established in 1973 as the top award in the Scout section. The King's Venturer Award is the top award in the Venturer section. In 1968, the normal upper age for members of the Scout section was reduced from 17 to 14 and the Venturer section was created for ages 14–17. As part of these changes, Queen's Scout rank was replaced with the Queen's Venturer Award. The Amory Adventure Award is awarded to the Venturer company that exhibits the most initiative in conceiving, planning, and executing an outdoor adventure. The Medal of the Maple was created in 2007 and is awarded for distinguished youth service and excellence within the Scouting Movement. Camps Scouts Canada operates over 125 camps across Canada. Popular camps include Camp Impeesa, Haliburton Scout Reserve, Camp Byng and Tamaracouta Scout Reserve. The Tamaracouta Scout Reserve is among the oldest continually operating Scout camps in the world. Major events Canadian Scout Jamboree The Canadian Scout Jamboree or CJ is a national jamboree run by Scouts Canada for Scouts and Venturers from across Canada. They have been held in 1949, 1953, 1961, and about every four years since 1977. ADVenture ADVenture is run by Scouts Canada for members of the Venturer Scout Section. Created to further differentiate Scouts and Venturers, ADVenture provides a different style of national camp for an older age group. 2012: 1st Venturer ADVenture, Haliburton Scout Reserve, Haliburton, Ontario 2014: 2nd Venturer ADVenture, Camp Nor’ Wes, Newfoundland World Jamborees hosted by Scouts Canada 8th World Scout Jamboree, 1955, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario; first World Jamboree held outside of Europe 15th World Scout Jamboree, 1983, Kananaskis, Alberta 24th World Scout Jamboree, 2019, The Summit Bechtel Family National Scout Reserve in Glen Jean, West Virginia. Scouts Canada co-hosted along with the Asociación de Scouts de México and the Boy Scouts of America. Canadian Moots Moots are for Rover Scouts. 1st Canadian Rover Moot: 1951, Blue Springs, Ontario 538 Attend 2nd Canadian Rover Moot: 1956, Sussex, New Brunswick 3rd Canadian Rover Moot: 1959, Banff, Alberta 4th Canadian Rover Moot: 1962, Mekinac, Quebec Around 1000 attend 5th Canadian Rover Moot: 1966, Parksville, British Columbia 6th Canadian Rover Moot: 1970, Birds Hill Park, Winnipeg, Manitoba 7th Canadian Rover Moot: 1974, Camp Samac, Oshawa, Ontario 8th Canadian Rover Moot: 1978, Camp Impeesa, Pincher Creek, Alberta 9th Canadian Rover Moot: 1982, Camp Wetaskiwin, St. Catharines, Ontario 531 Attend 10th Canadian Rover Moot: 1986, McLean Park, Langley, British Columbia National Youth Network The National Youth Network consists of Scouts Canada youth from across the country. The purpose of the National Youth Network is to ensure meaningful youth involvement in all Scouts Canada decisions, support the organization of Council Youth Networks, and encourage youth to take on leadership roles. The National Youth Network typically consists of one National Youth Commissioner, three Assistant National Youth Commissioners and 20 Council Youth Commissioners. Projects Develop and promote FLEX, FAST and FOCUS – Scouts Canada's Youth Leadership training programs for Cub Scouts, Scouts, and Venturer Scouts. In 2018, Scouts Canada released the Scouts Canada Youth Leadership Training which will replace FLEX, FAST, and FOCUS, introducing courses for all five sections which integrate with the new Canadian Path program. The Youth Network also maintains and adjudicates the Medal of the Maple for Distinguished Youth Service. The National Youth Network is only a small part of the larger Scouts Canada Youth Network that is made up of the National Youth Network, the Council Youth Networks, the Area Youth Networks and other youth representatives across Canada. Initiatives Scouts Canada is in the process of actively increasing its membership nationwide. This process includes more direct program support to leaders; building on such things as a partnership with the Robert Bateman Foundation, a program help line, an award-winning Climate Change program and a variety of camping programs across the country. Controversies Organizational structure Scouts Canada is governed, like all incorporated non-profit organizations, by a Board of Governors. Each Council elects three Voting Members of whom at least one must be a youth. All members are able to vote for and or be nominees for Council Voting Members. At the National Annual General Meeting of Members, Voting Members elect the Board of Governors and the National Commissioner. There are Scouters, most notably members of an organization called SCOUT eh! who believe there is a lack of representation and lack of accountability of this governance structure. Child protection In 2012, the CBC ran a documentary suggesting that Scouts Canada had not always reported leaders who had sexually abused children to the police, relating to incidents that took place between 1960 and 1990. Scouts Canada subsequently posted a video apology followed by "a thorough, arms-length review of all records held by Scouts Canada on Leader suspensions or terminations that are related to abuse" by KPMG's forensic investigations unit. The report from KPMG subsequently "found no systemic intent to cover up or hide incidents of abuse". Youth Protection In the fall of 1996, Scouts Canada modernized its screening practices for adult members to require a Police Record Check, with a Vulnerable Sector Check added in 2015–2016. As part of this screening, local volunteers interview applicants and check the multiple references they must provide as part of the Volunteer Recruitment and Development (VRAD) process. Scouts Canada volunteers are prohibited from being alone with a youth member; two fully screened volunteers are required to be present at all times with any youth. In the event that a volunteer is suspected of misconduct, Scouts Canada policy requires that they are immediately suspended and the relevant authorities are notified with all information shared as part of an investigation into the volunteer's actions. Scouts Canada provides with some of its handbooks (and online), a booklet called How to Protect Your Children from Child Abuse: A Parent's Guide. In addition, it is a badge requirement in the Scout program for parents and youth to review a portion of How to Protect Your Children from Child Abuse: A Parent's Guide Relations with other Scout associations In 1999, the Baden-Powell Service Association Federation of Canada (B-PSAFC) was ordered by Industry Canada "to take the word 'scout' out of its title." Scouts Canada also sought for the removal of the name Baden Powell, going on to say "...there's one scouting association in Canada, one in the world, every country has only one that's how Baden Powell set up scouting..." because "[Baden Powell] felt anything else would dilute the program, cause confusion and hurt the programs for young people." The World Organization of the Scouting Movement website reinforces this policy which states, "There can only be one [National Scout Organization] per country." See also Scouting in Canada Girl Guides of Canada References External links Scouts Canada Camps operated by Scouts Canada Canadian Jamboree Badge Reference Page Charities based in Canada World Organization of the Scout Movement member organizations Scouting and Guiding in Canada Youth organizations established in 1946 1946 establishments in Canada Clubs and societies in Canada

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Persichetti

Vincent Persichetti

Vincent Ludwig Persichetti (June 6, 1915 – August 14, 1987) was an American composer, teacher, and pianist. An important musical educator and writer, he was known for his integration of various new ideas in musical composition into his own work and teaching, as well as for training many noted composers in composition at the Juilliard School. His students at Juilliard included Philip Glass, Steve Reich, Larry Thomas Bell, Bruce Adolphe, Louis Calabro, Moshe Cotel, Michael Jeffrey Shapiro, Laurie Spiegel, Kenneth Fuchs, Richard Danielpour, Lawrence Dillon, Peter Schickele, Lowell Liebermann, Robert Witt, Elena Ruehr, William Schimmel, Leonardo Balada, Gitta Steiner, Hank Beebe, Roland Wiggins, Randell Croley and Leo Brouwer. He also taught composition to Joseph Willcox Jenkins and conductor James DePreist at the Philadelphia Conservatory. Life Persichetti was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1915. Though neither of his parents was a musician, his musical education began early. Persichetti enrolled in the Combs College of Music at the age of five, where he studied piano, organ, double bass and later music theory and composition with Russel King Miller, whom he considered a great influence. He first performed his original works publicly at the age of 14. By the time he reached his teens, Persichetti was paying for his own education by accompanying and performing. He continued to do so throughout high school, adding church organist, orchestral player and radio staff pianist to his experience. In addition to developing his musical talents, he attended art school and remained an avid sculptor until his death. He attended Combs for his undergraduate education as well. After receiving a bachelor's degree in 1936, he was immediately offered a teaching position. By the age of 20, Persichetti was simultaneously head of the theory and composition department at Combs, a conducting major with Fritz Reiner at the Curtis Institute, and a student of piano (with Olga Samaroff) and composition at the Philadelphia Conservatory. He earned a master's degree in 1941 and a doctorate in 1945 from the Conservatory, as well as a conducting diploma from Curtis. In 1941, while still a student, Persichetti headed the theory and composition department as well as the department of postgraduate study at Philadelphia Conservatory. In 1941 Persichetti married Dorothea Flanagan who was a composer as well. They had a daughter Lauren, a dancer, and Garth, an actor. From 1932 to 1948 he was organist and eventually choirmaster of the Arch Street Presbyterian Church. In 1947, William Schuman offered him a professorship at Juilliard. While at the Juilliard School, Persichetti was devoted to the wind band movement and advocated William Schuman and Peter Mennin to compose pieces for wind band. He was on staff at Juilliard for over forty years. Persichetti's students included Einojuhani Rautavaara, Leonardo Balada, Steven Gellman, Peter Schickele (P.D.Q. Bach), Michael Jeffrey Shapiro, Claire Polin, Toshi Ichiyanagi, Robert Witt (who also studied with Persichetti at the Philadelphia Conservatory), Randell Croley and Philip Glass. He became editorial director of the Elkan-Vogel publishing house in 1952. Music Persichetti is one of the major figures in American music of the 20th century, both as a teacher and a composer. Notably, his Hymns and Responses for the Church Year has become a standard setting for church choirs. His numerous compositions for wind ensemble are often introductions to contemporary music for high school and college students. His early style was marked by the influences of Stravinsky, Bartók, Hindemith, and Copland before he developed his distinct voice in the 1950s. Persichetti's music draws on a wide variety of thought in 20th-century contemporary composition as well as Big Band music. His own style was marked by use of two elements he refers to as "graceful" and "gritty": the former being more lyrical and melodic, the latter being sharp and intensely rhythmic. Especially true of his early compositions, Persichetti said he "liked bumpy melodic lines and was crazy about music that moved along a zigzag path." He frequently used polytonality and pandiatonicism in his writing, and his music could be marked by sharp rhythmic interjections, but his embracing of diverse strands of musical thought makes characterizing his body of work difficult. This trend continued throughout his compositional career. His music lacked sharp changes in style over time. He frequently composed while driving in his car, sometimes taping staff paper to the steering wheel. His piano music forms the bulk of his creative output, with a concerto, a concertino, twelve sonatas, and a variety of other pieces written for the instrument. These were virtuosic pieces as well as pedagogical and amateur-level compositions. Persichetti was an accomplished pianist. He wrote many pieces suitable for less mature performers, considering them to have serious artistic merit. Persichetti is also one of the major composers for the concert wind band repertoire, with his 14 works for the ensemble. In 1950, Persichetti composed his first work for band, which was the Divertimento for Band. The Symphony No. 6 for band is of particular note as a standard larger work. This piece boasts complex percussion lines crucial to the work's thematic material as well as utilizes the full spectrum of colors and timbres of the wind band. He wrote one opera, entitled The Sibyl. The music was noted by critics for its color, but the dramatic and vocal aspects of the work were found by some to be lacking. He wrote nine symphonies, of which the first two were withdrawn, and four string quartets. Many of his other works are organized into series. One of these, a collection of primarily instrumental works entitled Parables, contains 25 works, many for unaccompanied wind instruments (complete listing below). His 15 Serenades include such unconventional combinations as a trio for trombone, viola, and cello, as well as selections for orchestra, for band, and for duo piano. During the 1950s, Persichetti was perceived to "truly achieve his own distinctive voice," in the words of Walter G. Simmons. One of Persichetti's most revered compositions is his Concerto for Piano, Four Hands. This duet was first performed at the Pittsburgh International Contemporary Music Festival on November 29, 1952. The piece itself gives the listener the illusion that the two pianists are having a pleasant conversation, without using words, but just musical notes. The duet featured both Vincent and Dorothea Persichetti as the performers. In his review in the Manchester Guardian, Colin Mason stated, "The Concierto (sic) for Piano, Four Hands was for me one of the most interesting stimulating American works of the Pittsburgh International Contemporary Music Festival." Persichetti's esthetic was essentially conservative, a distinctive blend of Classical, Romantic and Modernist elements, contrapuntal, rhythmically charged and expertly scored. His musical imagination was multifaceted and highly virtuosic. "Following the lineage of Mozart, Mendelssohn and Ravel, Persichetti's music suggests the innocence and childlike joy of pure musical creativity", Walter Simmons wrote in the New Grove Dictionary of American Music. "Hence many works for beginners stand, with neither condescension nor apology, alongside more difficult compositions." Persichetti frequently appeared as a lecturer on college campuses, for which he was noted for his witty and engaging manner. He wrote the noted music theory textbook, Twentieth Century Harmony: Creative Aspects and Practice. He and Flora Rheta Schreiber wrote a monograph on William Schuman. Persichetti was a big fan of collaboration between music and dance. He encouraged his students at Juilliard to work with the dance program to create compositions for the dancers choreography. Persichetti also collaborated with choreographers professionally. He worked with Martha Graham. He admired her seriousness and her commitment to movement. Persichetti believed that music has to stand on its own and can not be married to dance, one can not depend on the other. He once said, "There isn't such thing as dance music. Music is dance, it's motion." Persichetti performed many concerts consisting of improvisation. He believed any composer/artist must improvise to create. Works Selected works Celebrations, for Chorus and Wind Ensemble, Op. 103 Chorale Prelude: So Pure the Star, Op. 91 Chorale Prelude: Turn Not Thy Face, Op. 105 Divertimento for Band, Op. 42 Masquerade for Band, Op. 102 Masques for violin and piano Op. 99 Mass for a capella mixed chorus, Op. 84 Pageant, Op. 59 Parable IX for Band, Op. 121 Pastoral for Wind Quintet, Op. 21 Psalm for Band, Op. 53 Symphony No. 6 for Band (1956) The Hollow Men, for trumpet and string orchestra, Op. 25 The Sibyl: A Parable of Chicken Little (Parable XX): An Opera in One Act, Op. 135 Winter Cantata, Op. 97 for Women's Chorus, Flute, and Marimba Complete listing of parables Parable [I] for Flute, Op. 100 (1965) Parable II for Brass Quintet, Op. 108 (1968) Parable III for Oboe, Op. 109 (1968) Parable IV for Bassoon, Op. 110 (1969) Parable V for Carillon, Op. 112 (1969) Parable VI for Organ, Op. 117 (1971) Parable VII for Harp, Op. 119 (1971) Parable VIII for Horn, Op. 120 (1972) Parable IX for Band, Op. 121 (1972) String Quartet No. 4 (Parable X), Op. 122 (1972) Parable XI for Alto Saxophone, Op. 123 (1972) Parable XII for Piccolo, Op. 125 (1973) Parable XIII for Clarinet, Op. 126 (1973) Parable XIV for Trumpet, Op. 127 (1975) Parable XV for English Horn, Op. 128 (1973) Parable XVI for Viola, Op. 130 (1974) Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 (1974) Parable XVIII for Trombone, Op. 133 (1975) Parable XIX for Piano, Op. 134 (1975) The Sibyl: A Parable of Chicken Little (Parable XX): An Opera in One Act, Op. 135 Parable XXI for Guitar, Op. 140 (1978) Parable XXII for Tuba, Op. 147 (1981) Parable XXIII for Violin, Cello, and Piano, Op. 150 (1981) Parable XXIV for Harpsichord, Op. 153 (1982) Parable XXV for Two Trumpets, Op. 164 (1986) Poems for piano Volume 1, Op. 4: Unroll the flicker's rousing drum (Louis Untermeyer First Words Before Spring) Soft is the collied night (James Elroy Flecker Fountains) Gather for festival bright weed and purple shell (William Watson Songs from Cyprus) Wake subtler dreams, and touch me nigh to tears (William Watson The Frontier) Ravished lute, sing to her virgin ears (Robert Fitzgerald Song after Campion) Whose thin fraud I wink at privily (William Watson The Mock Self) Volume 2, Op. 5: And warm winds spilled fragrance into her solitudes (Edmond Kowalewski Change) To whose more clear than crystal voice the frost had joined a crystal spell (Léonie Adams Home Coming) Sleep, weary mind; dream, heart's desire (Edna St. Vincent Millay There are no islands any more) Dust in sunlight, and memory in corners (T. S. Eliot A Song for Simeon) Make me drunken with deep red torrents of joy (John Gould Fletcher Autumnal Clouds) Volume 3, Op. 14: Rear its frondings sighing in aetherial folds (Hart Crane Royal Palm) Listen! Can you hear the antic melody of fear those two anxious feet are playing? (Walter Prude) Puffed out and marching upon a blue sky (Amy Lowell Lilacs) And hunged like those top jewels of the night (Léonie Adams Twilit Revelation) Each gay dunce shall lend a hand (John Trumbull The Country Clown) List of selected works Concertino for Piano, op.16, 1941 Symphony no.1, op.18, 1942 Symphony no.2, op.19, 1942 Dance Overture, op.20, 1942 Fables, op.23, 1943 The Hollow Men, op.25, 1944 Symphony no.3, op.30, 1946 Serenade no.5, op.43, 1950 Fairy Tale, op.48, 195 Symphony no.4, op.51, 1951 Symphony for Strings (Sym. no.5), op.61, 1953 Symphony no.7 ‘Liturgical’, op.80, 1958 Piano Concerto, op.90, 1962 Introit, op.96, 1964 Symphony no.8, op.106, 1967 Symphony no.9 ‘Sinfonia janiculum’, op.113, 1970 Night Dances, op.114, 1970 A Lincoln Address, op.124, 1972, originally written for Nixon's 2nd inauguration, incorporating text from Lincoln's 2nd inaugural address, but pulled from the program. Later premiered January 25, 1973 by Walter Susskind and the St. Louis Symphony with narration by William Warfield. Concerto for English Horn and Strings, op.137, 1977 Band: Divertimento, op.42, 1950 Psalm, op.53, 1952 Pageant, op.59, 1953 Symphony for Band (Sym. no.6), op.69, 1956 Serenade no.11, op.85, 1960 Bagatelles, op.87, 1961 So Pure the Star, chorale prelude, op.91, 1962 Masquerade, op.102, 1965 Turn not thy Face, chorale prelude, op.105, 1966 O Cool is the Valley (Poem for Band), op.118, 1971 A Lincoln Address, op.124a, nar, band, 1973 O God Unseen, chorale prelude, op.160, 1984 Vocal Choral: Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis, op.8, SATB, pf, 1940 Canons, op.31, SSAA/TTBB/SATB, 1947 2 Cummings Choruses (e.e. cummings), op.33, 2vv, pf, 1948 I. jimmie's got a goil II. sam was a man Proverb, op.34, SATB, 1948 2 Cummings Choruses, op.46, SSAA, 1950 I. hist whist II. this is the garden Hymns and Responses for the Church Year (W.H. Auden, Dickinson, Milton, Shakespeare, Psalms, Shelley, and others), op.68, 1955, originally a commission for a single hymn by Carleton Sprague Smith for Smith's collection American Hymns. Seek the Highest (F. Adler), op.78, SAB, pf, 1957 Song of Peace (anon.), op.82, TTBB/SATB, pf, 1959 Mass, op.84, SATB, 1960 Stabat mater, op.92, SATB, orch, 1963 Te Deum, op.93, SATB, orch, 1963 Spring Cantata (Cummings), op.94, SSAA, pf, 1963 Winter Cantata (11 Haiku), op.97, SSAA, fl, mar, 1964 4 Cummings Choruses, op.98, 2vv, pf, 1964 I. dominic has a doll II. nouns to nouns III. maggie and millie and molly and may IV. uncles Celebrations (cant., W. Whitman), op.103, SATB, wind ens, 1966 The Pleiades (cant., Whitman), op.107, SATB, tpt, str, 1967 The Creation (Persichetti), op.111, S, A, T, Bar, SATB, orch, 1969; Love (Bible: Corinthians), op.116, SSAA, 1971 Glad and Very (Cummings), op.129, 2vv, 1974 Flower Songs (Cant. no.6) (Cummings), op.157, SATB, str, 1983 Hymns and Responses for the Church Year, vol. 2, op.166, 1987 Solo: e.e. cummings Songs, op.26, 1945, unpublished 2 Chinese Songs, op.29, 1945 3 English Songs (17th century), op.49, 1951, unpublished Harmonium (W. Stevens), song cycle, op.50, S, pf, 1951 Sara Teasdale Songs, op.72, 1957, unpublished Carl Sandburg Songs, op.73, 1957, unpublished James Joyce Songs, op.74, 1957 Hilaire Belloc Songs, op.75, 1957 Robert Frost Songs, op.76, 1957, unpublished Emily Dickinson Songs, op.77, 1957 A Net of Fireflies (Jap., trans. H. Steward), song cycle, op.115, 1970 Chamber and Solo Instrumental 3 or more instruments: Serenade no.1, op.1, 10 wind, 1929 Str Qt no.1, op.7, 1939 Concertato, op.12, piano quintet, 1940 Serenade no.3, op.17, violin, cello, piano, 1941 Pastoral, op.21, woodwind quintet, 1943 String Quartet no.2, op.24, 1944 King Lear, op.35, woodwind quintet, timpani, piano, 1948 Serenade no.6, op.44, trombone, viola, cello, 1950 Piano Quintet, op.66, 1954 String Quartet no.3, op.81, 1959 1–2 instruments: Suite, op.9, violin, cello, 1940, unpublished Sonata, op.10, violin, 1940 Fantasy, op.15, violin, piano, 1941, unpublished Vocalise, op.27, cello, piano, 1945 Serenade no.4, op.28, violin, piano, 1945 Sonata, op.54, cello, 1952 Little Recorder Book, op.70, 1956 Serenade no.9, op.71, 2 recorder, 1956 Serenade no.10, op.79, flute, harp, 1957 Infanta marina, op.83, viola, piano, 1960 Serenade no.12, op.88, tuba, 1961 Serenade no.13, op.95, 2 clarinets, 1963 Masques, op.99, violin, piano, 1965 Serenade no.14, op.159, oboe, 1984 Keyboard Piano: Serenade no.2, op.2, 1929 Sonata no.1, op.3, 1939 Poems, vols.1–2, opp.4–5, 1939 Sonata no.2, op.6, 1939 Sonata, op.13, 2 pianos, 1940 Poems, vol. 3, op.14, 1941 Sonata no.3, op.22, 1943 Variations for an Album, op.32, 1947 Sonata no.4, op.36, 1949 Sonata no.5, op.37, 1949 Sonatina no.1, op.38, 1950 Sonata no.6, op.39, 1950 Sonata no.7, op.40, 1950 Sonata no.8, op.41, 1950 Sonatina no.2, op.45, 1950 Sonatina no.3, op.47, 1950 Serenade no.7, op.55, 1952 Concerto, op.56, 4 hands, 1952 Parades, op.57, 1952 Sonata no.9, op.58, 1952; Little Piano Book, op.60, 1953 Serenade no.8, op.62, 4 hands, 1954 Sonatina no.4, op.63, 1954 Sonatina no.5, op.64, 1954 Sonatina no.6, op.65, 1954 Sonata no.10, op.67, 1955 Sonata no.11, op.101, 1965 Little Mirror Book, op.139, 1978 Reflective Studies, op.138, 1978 4 Arabesques, op.141, 1978 3 Toccatinas, op.142, 1979 Mirror Etudes, op.143, 1979 Sonata no.12, op.145, 1980 Winter Solstice, op.165, 1986 Other: Sonatine, op.11, organ pedals, 1940 Harpsichord Sonata no.1, op.52, 1951 Sonata for Organ, op.86, 1960, commissioned by the St. Louis chapter of the AGO, premiered by Rudolph Kremer at the AGO chapter's 50th anniversary concert. Shimah b'koli, op.89, organ, 1962 Drop, Drop Slow Tears, chorale prelude, op.104, organ, 1966 Do Not Go Gentle, op.132, organ pedals, 1974 Auden Variations, op.136, organ, 1977, commissioned by the Hartt College of Music for organist Leonard Raver, premiered by Raver at Hartt's International Contemporary Organ Music Festival on July 14, 1978. Dryden Liturgical Suite, op.144, organ, 1979, commissioned by the University of Michigan's Marilyn Mason Commissioning Fund, dedicated to Marilyn Mason, premiered by Mason on June 1980 at the AGO's national convention in Minneapolis. Harpsichord Sonata no.2, op.146, 1981 Song of David, op.148, org, 1981 Harpsichord Sonata no.3, op.149, 1981 Harpsichord Sonata no.4, op.151, 1982 Harpsichord Sonata no.5, op.152, 1982 Harpsichord Sonata no.6, op.154, 1982 Little Hpd Book, op.155, 1983 Harpsichord Sonata no.7, op.156, 1983 Harpsichord Sonata no.8, op.158, 1984 Serenade no.15, op.161, harpsichord, 1984 Give Peace, O God, chorale prelude, op.162, organ, 1985 Harpsichord Sonata no.9, op.163, 1985 Awards and honors In honor of Persichetti's influence on American music, on May 19, 1984, he was awarded the University of Pennsylvania Glee Club Award of Merit. Beginning in 1964, this award "established to bring a declaration of appreciation to an individual each year that has made a significant contribution to the world of music and helped to create a climate in which our talents may find valid expression." Persichetti was an honorary brother of the Delta Eta chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia at Youngstown State University. He was initiated into the fraternity on April 1, 1961. Persichetti was an honorary brother of the Omicron chapter of Kappa Kappa Psi at West Virginia University. He was initiated into the fraternity on November 17, 1967. References Further reading Bell, Larry. Review of Vincent Persichetti: The Louisville Orchestra for Sequenza21.com Burleson, Geoffrey "Vincent Persichetti and the Piano Sonata". Liner notes to Vincent Persichetti: Complete Piano Sonatas. New World Records. Cassaro, James P. "Persichetti, Vincent". Grove Music Online Minut, Mirabella A. Style and Compositional Techniques in Vincent Persichetti's Ten Sonatas for Harpsichord. DMA diss. Muncie: Ball State University, 2009. Morris, Donald. The Life of Vincent Persichetti, With Emphasis on His Works for Band. PhD dissertation, Florida State University, 1991. Patterson, Donald L., and Janet L. Patterson. Vincent Persichetti: A Bio-Biography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1988. Olmstead, Andrea. Vincent Persichetti: Grazioso, Grit, and Gold. New York, NY: Roman and Littlefield, 2018. Simmons, Walter. The Music of William Schuman, Vincent Persichetti, and Peter Mennin: Voices of Stone and Steel. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2011. . Simmons, Walter G. "Persichetti, Vincent". Grove Music Online External links Vincent Persichetti's page, Carl Fischer Vincent Persichetti's page, Theodore Presser Company Vincent Persichetti papers, 1901–1996 Music Division, New York Public Library Vincent Persichetti collection of noncommercial recordings, 1940–1987 Music Division, New York Public Library Dorothea Flanagan Persichetti scrapbook, 1925–1941 Music Division, New York Public Library Unsung Songs, discussion of Emily Dickinson songs, Opus 77, by Vincent Persichetti Persichetti information and trivia, bandroom.com List of works, ArkivMusic Vincent Persichetti Society Vincent Persichetti Music Association Interviews Vincent Persichetti interview by Bruce Duffie, November 15, 1986 David Dubal interview with Vincent Persichetti, WNCN-FM, June 3, 1984 Interview with Tim Page, WNYC, May 12, 1987 Listening Art of the States: Vincent Persichetti Night Dances, op. 114 (1970) 1915 births 1987 deaths 20th-century American composers 20th-century American male musicians 20th-century classical composers American classical composers American male classical composers American people of Italian descent Classical musicians from Pennsylvania Combs College of Music alumni Composers for carillon Concert band composers Curtis Institute of Music alumni Juilliard School faculty Musicians from Philadelphia Pupils of Fritz Reiner South Philadelphia High School alumni University of the Arts (Philadelphia) alumni University of the Arts (Philadelphia) faculty

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scout%20Association%20of%20Malta

Scout Association of Malta

Founded in 1908, The Scout Association of Malta (TSAM) is the Scouting organization in Malta. TSAM has always maintained a high and respectable Scouting tradition. Its leaders and members are committed to further the ideals of Scouting in line with those as traditionally established by the youth movement's Founder, Lord Robert Baden-Powell of Gilwell, and as further developed by the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM). TSAM is a forward looking youth movement which, as a non-governmental organisation (NGO), enjoys great respect both locally and internationally. It is the only association in Malta which is recognised by the WOSM, and is also a  member of the European Scout Region. TSAM's motto in Maltese is "Kun Lest", translating as Be Prepared in English. The official logo and membership badge of TSAM features the Maltese eight-pointed cross and the Scout fleur-de-lys logo motif. A Brief History Scouting, also known as the Scout Movement, is a worldwide youth movement with the stated aim of supporting young people in their physical, mental and spiritual development, so that they may play constructive roles in society. Scouting began in 1907 when Lord Robert Baden-Powell of Gilwell, a Lieutenant-General in the British Army, held the first Scouting encampment at Brownsea Island in England. This brief summary and highlight of events and other notable dates of the Scouts in Malta prior, during and soon after the end of the First World War (WW1), gives a very good insight of other Scout activities during this period. Being part of the British Empire, Malta was one of the first countries where Scouting started. The history of scouting in Malta is truly rich in events that mark its chequered history. The close connection the Islands have with the Scout Movement's founder, Lord Robert Baden-Powell started when he served in the rank of Captain as Assistant Military Secretary to his uncle, General Sir Henry Augustus Smyth who then was Governor of Malta, between 1890-1893. Scouting in Malta started in 1908, only one year after its establishment in Great Britain, and the Maltese Scouts were the first Association formed outside of the British Isles, together with Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and South Africa. Maltese scout troops were officially recognised in 1909 and by the end of the year a total of one hundred and forty four Scouts were enrolled in seven different Troops” (Mizzi, 1989, p40). The 1st Sliema Scout Troop applied to be registered by The Boy Scouts Association of the United Kingdom on October 12, 1909 and, a year later in 1910, it was registered as the second overseas troop with The Boy Scouts Association. At this time there were 338 Boy Scouts and 3 Scoutmasters listed as members in Malta. Chief Scout Baden-Powell returned many times to the island, including during a part of his delayed honeymoon with Lady Olave, in February 1913, and when he inspected six Troops from Baracca, Dockyard, Floriana, Sliema, Tigne and Valletta. Baden-Powell recognised and shook hands with two of the Scouts he had tea with in London, during the Coronation in 1911. On 15 September 1913, the Malta Boy Scouts Association was formally registered by Imperial Headquarters in London as an Overseas Branch of the Boy Scouts Association. The first known Maltese scout troop which was registered was the ‘Sliema Land Scouts’ in September 1909 (interestingly, the 1st Sliema Scout Group - Bernard’s Own - is the oldest surviving active Scout Group outside the UK, and in 2009 they celebrated the 100th Anniversary of scouting in Malta), followed by ‘Barracca Land Scouts’ in December 1911. The Boy Scouts Association formed a local association in Malta on 15 September 1913 which became The Boy Scouts Association Malta Branch. War was declared in August 1914. The First World War had a significant impact on Scouting on Malta, since most of the Scoutmasters were also British and Maltese Servicemen, and who were ordered to the front in Europe. Within weeks of the declaration of hostilities, these Scouts from Malta were on their way to the Western Front. As camps were cancelled, the Scouts volunteered for war service as interpreters, in hospitals, in convalescent centres and in tea rooms, in the censor’s office and as coast watchers and messengers. By November 1915, there were 84 scouts on war duty, 44 of whom had qualified for a special war badge. However, as the latter half of the war progressed, membership rose sharply, and the Association’s general meeting on 30 November 1917, reported 1,200 members with 28 Scout Troops on the Island. The first troop registered in Gozo was the 'Gozo Secondary School’ in November 1916. On Sunday October 14, 1917 a rally for all scouts was held at Mosta. On parade were two District Scoutmasters, 20 Scoutmasters, 33 Assistant Scoutmasters, 115 Patrol Leaders and 625 Scouts. The Chief Scout, Lord Methuen presented warrants to the first Island Commissioner of the Malta Boy Scouts Association, Mr. E. Bonavia. An incident which occurred, and which shed some dark light on the Boy Scouts, was when some allegations were made that Boy Scouts and Girl Guides Movements had an alliance with the Evangelical Alliance, whereas their members were Roman Catholics. Thus, in August 1925, a group of Scouts from the United Kingdom were going to Rome to meet with the Pope, including a party of thirty-four Maltese Scouts. In his book "Scouting in Malta: an Illustrated history" (1989), John A. Mizzi states that Baden-Powell told the Scouts: By your behaviour and good conduct, show to the heads of your Church in Rome that as Scouts you have not two masters but that your only Master is God and your Church. Your Scout masters are merely your elder brothers, showing you how better to do your duty as good Catholics. I want you to remember that and to obey the discipline of your Church. (Mizzi, 1989, p115). Mizzi (1989) also states that on his last visit to Malta, Baden-Powell said: I see a great change for the better in these boys as compared with the boys of the old days, now, as Scouts, they have interests, hobbies and aims in life and I would like your Scouters to realise that the time and energy which they put into Scouting is not thrown away; they are doing a big national service in giving their boys health of body, mind and spirit. They are thereby giving appreciable help respectively to the Church and Education. (Mizzi, 1989, p179). Shortly before his death in 1940, Baden-Powell wrote in a final letter to the Islands' Scouts: to congratulate my old friends, the Maltese on the plucky way they have stood up to the infernal bombing of the Italians ... They have the spirit of fearlessness and patience which enables them to face danger with a smile to stick it out to the triumphant finish ... The Second World War saw similar service from the Maltese Scouts, as they supported the Allied forces throughout the aerial siege of 1940 to 1943. This resulted in The Boy Scouts Association's branch and its members receiving a collective award of the Bronze Cross, "in recognition of their courage and devotion to duty in the face of continuous enemy action in the war for freedom". The Maltese Boy Scouts Association was then formed in October 1966, right after Malta became an independent nation earlier in 1964. In October 1966, an extraordinary general meeting of The Boy Scouts Association Malta Branch dissolved the branch and the Malta Boy Scouts Association was formed independent from The Scout Association of the United Kingdom. The Association became a member of the Boy Scouts International Conference in December 1966. The Vice-President of the International Conference, Lady Olave Baden-Powell, presented the registration certificate to the Chief Scout of Malta. In the years which followed, the Association changed its name to The Scout Association of Malta (TSAM). In 1966, the Association became an independent body and a full member of the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM). In 1976 the name of the Association was re-styled as "The Malta Scouts Association", and by a further amendment of its Policy, Organisation and Rules (P.O.R.) of 31 October 1978, in order to comply with the provisions of Act XXII of 1978 of the Laws of Malta, the name of the Association was established as "THE SCOUT ASSOCIATION". In 2007, TSAM inaugurated the Beaver section in its training programmes. Since its foundation, Scouting has been one of the "most active and strongest youth organization on the Island" ("Brief History," 2012). Origins of Scouting in Gozo Introduction: The Scout Movement in Gozo owes its beginning to Mr Carmelo Joseph Flores, a Maltese teacher at the Secondary School in Gozo. The first Scout Troop, known as The Gozo Secondary School Troop (No. 16), was established on 1 November 1916 and it was registered on 24 November 1916. The Troop, with Mr Flores as Scoutmaster, was recognised officially by the Scout Association of Malta on 26 December 1916. On the day of registration, the Troop consisted of 19 Scouts, but a year later, the number had increased to about 27. One of the first problems which the Troop had to face, was that of having a place where to hold its meetings. Through the intervention of W.C. Millard, Gozo Secretary for the Government, the Scouts were allocated a Government property at Triq Żenqa in the Citadel. Since 1890, this building had housed the archives of the Gozo Law Courts but it was then refurbished so that it could be used by the Scouts. This early experience of Scouting in Gozo is followed by a period during which there is no evidence of any form of Scouting activity on the island. The movement became popular again in the 1930s, when several Boy Scout Groups cropped up in Gozo namely Victoria, Lyceum, Għarb, Għasri, Żebbuġ, Xagħra, Xewkija, Għajnsielem and Nadur. A census on the number of Scouts in Malta, held in 1938, shows that in Gozo there were 359 Scouts in all: Għajnsielem 38, Għarb 37, Għasri 31, Lyceum 27, Nadur 68, Victoria 47, Xewkija 25, Xagħra 21 and Żebbuġ 15. At the time the Scouts used to meet in a building close to the chapel known as San Ġakbu in Main Square, nowadays known as Independence Square. When, World War II broke out, membership dwindled. However, during the war, the Victoria Scouts played a part in the ‘war effort’. The Scouts were used as messengers to give air raid alarms between police stations and churches. When the war ended, the few members that had survived the war used to meet in Casa Bondì in the Citadel. In 1948, the Victoria Scout Group was amalgamated with the Salesian Scout Group of the Don Bosco Oratory. However, due to the numerous activities organised at the Oratory, the interest in the Scout Group waned gradually and this was dissolved in 1964. During the 1950s, the Lyceum Scout Troop was formed again. However its existence was shortlived. During the same period, other Troops were formed at Sannat, the Victoria Primary School, Għajnsielem, Nadur and the Xagħra Catholic Action Movement. These too functioned for only a short while. The Victoria Scout Group: The Victoria Scout Group, as it is known today, was officially inaugurated on 13 July 1963. The first Group Scout Leader (GSL) was Mr. Joseph G. Grech, known as ‘Skip’ and the chaplain of the group was Fr Albert Curmi. The Group used to meet in a house in Għajn Qatet Street, owned by the Group Scout Leader’s mother, Mrs Ġorġa Grech, who offered her house free of charge to be used ‘temporarily’ as the Group’s headquarters. The headquarters were opened by the District Commissioner, Mr Anton Vassallo and were blessed by H.L. Mons. Giuseppe Pace, Bishop of Gozo. Led by Mr Joe Grech, the Group continued to grow from strength to strength. In 1963, it started to publish its own newssheet. Its members took part in the fund-raising activity known as ‘bob-ajob’ week. The group had its own Scout band. It organised hikes and held two camps annually, in summer and during the Easter holidays. Its members took part in expeditions both locally and abroad. It performed good deeds. It helped out whenever it was asked to. Most important of all, it gave its members an education for life, according to the Scouting Method. The first GSL of the Group, Mr Joe Grech remained at the helm for 27 years. Towards the end of 1990, Mr Grech was chosen by the Scout Association of Malta to take up the post of Chief Commissioner of the Association. This meant a new GSL was needed. The person chosen was Mr Lorrie Saliba who still occupies this post. In July 1989, the dream of the group of having its own premises came true when, after several years of hard work by council members, supporters, former Scouts and friends of the Group, a new Scout headquarters was inaugurated in Santa Dminka Street, Victoria. The Group had occupied the house lent by Mrs Ġorġa Grech for 27 years. Unfortunately, this great benefactor of the group was not there to see the realisation of this dream because she had died in March 1989. The Group is forever indebted to her. Were it not for her gesture way back in 1963, to provide the group with a premises it could call its headquarters, the story of the Group might have been quite different. The story of the headquarters did not end here. Another inauguration ceremony, this time of an extension to the headquarters was held in March 2001. The original headquarters had become too small to accommodate the ever increasing number of members so the Group had to undertake yet another major project to improve its facilities. Both headquarters had their share of distinguished visitors. In February 1964, the Chief Scout of the Commonwealth Sir Charles McLean paid a visit. On 7 November 1998, on the occasion of the 90th anniversary of the arrival of Scouting in Malta, it was the turn of Dr Charles Moreillon, Secretary General of the World Organisation of the Scout Movement. Along the years, various Presidents of Malta visited the headquarters. There were also visits by Prime Ministers, Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries, MEPs, bishops, officials of the Scout Association of Malta, various Scout groups from Malta and Scouts from all around the world. The headquarters also hosts foreign Scout Groups who are visiting Gozo. The Group was also present during certain historical events, such as the consecration of Bishop N. Cauchi in 1967 and that of Bishop M. Grech in 2005 and the visit to Gozo by Pope John Paul II in May 1990. In 1967 and 1992, it took part in the activities held on the occasion of the visits to Gozo by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The present Group is still doing its best to continue the tradition of Scouting and offer a quality as well as fun experience to its members. While the training programme has evolved along the years to meet the needs and realities of today’s children and youths, the core values of Scouting have not changed. The Scout Law and Scout Promise are still the same and bind members to do their duty to God and country and to be of service to others. The principle of learning by doing, working in a team, caring for the environment, the support provided by adults and the importance of youth involvement from the planning stage to the actual carrying out of the activities undertaken by the Group are still of the utmost importance. The Group’s members attend the weekly meetings at headquarters as well as other outdoor activities and Group and sectional camps. Members of the Group participate in national activities such as national camps, the annual rally for all the Scout and Girl Guide Groups in Malta and Gozo, Scout Forums and joint activities between both Maltese or foreign Scout groups. They take part in expeditions around the Maltese Islands and abroad. They participate in youth exchange projects funded by the EU. The group still issues its Newssheet on a quarterly basis. Scouts carry out clean-ups or tree planting sessions in different localities. Leaders of the Group attend training courses at Island Headquarters in Malta before they are registered as qualified leaders. The Victoria Scout Group puts a special emphasis on the importance of being of service to others. Each year it organises different fund raising activities for the benefit of other philanthropic organisations, both local as well as international ones. These include car washes, walks for charity, bicycle hikes, lunches, barbeques, blood donating sessions, providing support in activities organised by the local councils and visits to the elderly. In this way it instills in its members the importance of thinking of others before one’s self, which words are an integral part of the Scout Law and Promise. The Gozitan Scouts have participated in almost all the World Scout Jamborees held from 1920 onwards. Jamborees are international camps held once every four years in different countries where Scouts from all over the world come together for around ten days. The last Jamboree was held in Japan in July and August 2015 and the participants amounted to around 33,600. The next Jamboree will be held in the USA in 2019 and the Victoria Scout Group will be represented by 18 members. In 2013, the Group celebrated its 50th anniversary by publishing a book which narrates its history. The author of this book is former Venture Scout Leader, Mr Carmel C.Cachia. In 2016, the Group celebrated the 100th anniversary of Scouting in Gozo. A parade was held around the streets of Victoria. The majority of the Maltese Scout groups and several Scout bands took part in this rally. Presently, Gozo has 2 Scout Groups, the Victoria Scout Group and the Xagħra Scout Group. The latter Group was one of the first Scout Groups to be set up in Gozo and was one of the most active groups in the 1930s. In 1952 another attempt at reviving the group was made. In the 1970s, on the initiative of Vincent Vella, a leader with the Żejtun Group, the Xagħra Scout Group was revived. The same Scout Leader was instrumental in reopening the Xagħra Scout Group in May 2008. This Scout Group recently celebrated its 10th anniversary. Presently the Victoria Scout Group boasts of around 130 members, divided into four sections: Cubs, Scouts, Venture Scouts and Rover Scouts. This number also includes the members of the Group Council. The number of members in the Xagħra Scout Group amount to 111. This also includes members of their Group Council. The Xagħra Group is divided into four sections: the Beaver Colony, the Pack Section, the Scout Troop and the Venture Unit. The first GSL was Mr Vincent Vella who occupied the post from 2008 to 2012. In June 2012, Ms Loraine Borg became the 2nd GSL for the Xagħra Group. The present Group Scout Leader is Mr Josmar Azzopardi and he has occupied the post since October 2017. The Xagħra Scout Group can also boast of owning its own headquarters which was inaugurated in May 2016. During the year, the two Scout Groups organise several joint activities. Throughout the years, the Victoria Scout Group has received several recognitions for the services rendered to the Gozitan community. The Venture Unit was placed 2nd amongst 18 submissions in the Għarfien Nazzjonali Żgħażagħ fis-Soċjetà 2003. In 2007 the Group was awarded Ġieħ Għawdex by the Circolo Gozitano. In 2010, it was awarded Ġieħ il-Belt Vittoria by the local Council of Victoria. In 2010, it was chosen as the President’s Group in recognition for its efforts to raise a considerable amount of money (€4606) for the Strina campaign in aid of the Community Chest Fund. Organisation TSAM has at present four (4) Scouting districts: the main island of Malta has three of the Districts, with the fourth being the neighbouring island of Gozo (which currently has two groups, that of the towns of Victoria and of Xaghra . Each TSAM scout group belongs to a particular district depending on its location. Around forty (40) Scout Groups are registered and active with TSAM which boasts a membership in the region of 3,000 youths and approximately 500 adult leaders, makingTSAM the largest voluntary organisation of the Maltese Islands. There is a Chief Scout and an Island Headquarters of around 15 leaders and administrators. The mission of Scouting is to contribute to the education of young people, through a values-oriented system based on the Scout Promise and Law, to help build a better world where people are self-fulfilled as individuals and play a constructive role in society. This is achieved by: • involving them throughout their formative years in a non-formal educational process • using a specific method that makes each individual the principal agent of his or her development as a self-reliant, supportive, responsible and committed person • assisting them to establish a values system based upon spiritual, social and personal principles as expressed in the Promise and Law Scouting is about preparing for life. The motto "Be Prepared" has many applications especially when it comes to childhood development and its final scope is to aid in the development of active and responsible citizens thus contributing to the creation of a better world. TSAM promotes the social, physical, intellectual, characterial, emotional and spiritual formation of its young adult members through a policy of inclusivity. TSAM offers its youth programme in five sections in accordance to the different age groups: Beavers (5 to 7), Cub Scouts (7 to 11), Scouts (11 to 14 1/2), Venture Scouts (14 1/2 to 18 ), Rover Scouts (18 to 26 ) and Leaders (18 to 65) which are divided into Scout Groups according to their locality. In Scouting, children experience competitive and non-competitive activities that include physical and problem-solving activities, outdoor activities (such as water-sports, cooking, hiking, walking, aerial challenges and much more). Each Scout Group and Section within our Groups organize weekly outdoor activities ranging from community work to hikes, camping and life skills, which activities are all of a non-formal educational nature. At national level, TSAM, through its departments, handles all the leaders' training, updating of all youth section's programmes, organizes national events, manages administrative details and takes care of its national assets such as the Ghajn Tuffieha International Scout Campsite. TSAM is also active internationally and apart from participating at World Scout Jamborees and similar gatherings, it has also been in a position to contribute to Scouting at a European Level with members from the National Team actively assisting at such fora. Sections youth members follow programmes in the following age sections: Beaver scouts - 5-7 Cub scouts - 7-11 Scouts - 10.5-14.5 Venture scouts - 14.5-18 Rover scouts - 18-26 See also The Malta Girl Guides Association Baden Powell Scout Malta References External links Scout Association of Malta World Organization of the Scout Movement member organizations Scouting and Guiding in Malta Youth organizations established in 1913 Youth organizations established in 1966 1913 establishments in Malta

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug%20rehabilitation

Drug rehabilitation

Drug rehabilitation is the process of medical or psychotherapeutic treatment for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs, and street drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. The general intent is to enable the patient to confront substance dependence, if present, and stop substance misuse to avoid the psychological, legal, financial, social, and physical consequences that can be caused. Treatment includes medication for depression or other disorders, counseling by experts and sharing of experience with other addicts. Psychological dependency Psychological dependency is addressed in many drug rehabilitation programs by attempting to teach the person new methods of interacting in a drug-free environment. In particular, patients are generally encouraged, or possibly even required, to not associate with peers who still use the addictive substance. Twelve-step programs encourage addicts not only to stop using alcohol or other drugs but to examine and change habits related to their addictions. Many programs emphasize that recovery is an ongoing process without culmination. For legal drugs such as alcohol, complete abstention—rather than attempts at moderation, which may lead to relapse—is also emphasized ("One is too many, and a thousand is never enough.") Whether moderation is achievable by those with a history of misuse remains a controversial point. The brain's chemical structure is impacted by addictive substances and these changes are present long after an individual stops using. This change in brain structure increases the risk of relapse, making treatment an important part of the rehabilitation process. Types Various types of programs offer help in drug rehabilitation, including residential treatment (in-patient/out-patient), local support groups, extended care centers, recovery or sober houses, addiction counselling, mental health, and medical care. Some rehab centers offer age- and gender-specific programs. In an American survey of treatment providers from three separate institutions (the National Association of Alcoholism and Drug Abuse Counselors, Rational Recovery Systems and the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors) measuring the treatment provider's responses on the Spiritual Belief Scale (a scale measuring belief in the four spiritual characteristics Alcoholics Anonymous identified by Ernest Kurtz); the scores were found to explain 41% of the variance in the treatment provider's responses on the Addiction Belief Scale (a scale measuring adherence to the disease model or the free-will model addiction). Effective treatment addresses the multiple needs of the patient rather than treating addiction alone. In addition, medically assisted drug detoxification or alcohol detoxification alone is ineffective as a treatment for addiction. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) recommends detoxification followed by both medication (where applicable) and behavioral therapy, followed by relapse prevention. According to NIDA, effective treatment must address medical and mental health services as well as follow-up options, such as community or family-based recovery support systems. Whatever the methodology, patient motivation is an important factor in treatment success. For individuals addicted to prescription drugs, treatments tend to be similar to those who are addicted to drugs affecting the same brain systems. Medication like methadone and buprenorphine can be used to treat addiction to prescription opiates, and behavioral therapies can be used to treat addiction to prescription stimulants, benzodiazepines, and other drugs. Types of behavioral therapy include: Cognitive-behavioral therapy, which seeks to help patients to recognize, avoid and cope with situations in which they are most likely to relapse. Multidimensional family therapy, which is designed to support the recovery of the patient by improving family functioning. Motivational interviewing, which is designed to increase patient motivation to change behavior and enter treatment. Motivational incentives, which uses positive reinforcement to encourage abstinence from the addictive substance. EEG Biofeedback augmented treatment improves abstinence rates of 12-step, faith-based, and medically assisted addiction for cocaine, methamphetamine, alcohol use disorder, and opioid addictions. Treatment can be a long process and the duration is dependent upon the patient's needs and history of substance use. Research has shown that most patients need at least three months of treatment and longer durations are associated with better outcomes. Prescription drug addiction doesn't discriminate. It affects people from all walks of life and can be a devastatingly destructive force. Medications Certain opioid medications such as methadone and more buprenorphine are widely used to treat addiction and dependence on other opioids such as heroin, morphine or oxycodone. Methadone and buprenorphine are maintenance therapies intended to reduce cravings for opiates, thereby reducing illegal drug use, and the risks associated with it, such as disease, arrest, incarceration, and death, in line with the philosophy of harm reduction. Both drugs may be used as maintenance medications (taken for an indefinite period of time), or used as detoxification aids. All available studies collected in the 2005 Australian National Evaluation of Pharmacotherapies for Opioid Dependence suggest that maintenance treatment is preferable, with very high rates (79–100%) of relapse within three months of detoxification from levo-α-acetylmethadol (LAAM), buprenorphine, and methadone. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), patients stabilized on adequate, sustained doses of methadone or buprenorphine can keep their jobs, avoid crime and violence, and reduce their exposure to HIV and Hepatitis C by stopping or reducing injection drug use and drug-related high risk sexual behavior. Naltrexone is a long-acting opioid antagonist with few side effects. It is usually prescribed in outpatient medical conditions. Naltrexone blocks the euphoric effects of alcohol and opiates. Naltrexone cuts relapse risk in the first three months by about 36%. However, it is far less effective in helping patients maintain abstinence or retaining them in the drug-treatment system (retention rates average 12% at 90 days for naltrexone, average 57% at 90 days for buprenorphine, average 61% at 90 days for methadone). Ibogaine is a hallucinogenic drug promoted by certain fringe groups to interrupt both physical dependence and psychological craving to a broad range of drugs including narcotics, stimulants, alcohol, and nicotine. To date, there have never been any controlled studies showing it to be effective, and it is not accepted as a treatment by physicians, pharmacists, or addictionologist. There have also been several deaths related to ibogaine use, which causes tachycardia and long QT syndrome. The drug is an illegal Schedule I controlled substance in the United States, and the foreign facilities in which it is administered tend to have little oversight and range from motel rooms to one moderately-sized rehabilitation center. A few antidepressants have been proven to be helpful in the context of smoking cessation/nicotine addiction. These medications include bupropion and nortriptyline. Bupropion inhibits the re-uptake of nor-epinephrine and dopamine and has been FDA approved for smoking cessation, while nortriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant which has been used to aid in smoking cessation it has not been FDA approved for this indication. Acamprosate, disulfiram and topiramate (a novel anticonvulsant sulphonated sugar) are also used to treat alcohol addiction. Acamprosate has shown effectiveness for patients with severe dependence, helping them to maintain abstinence for several weeks, even months. Disulfiram produces a very unpleasant reaction when drinking alcohol that includes flushing, nausea and palpitations. It is more effective for patients with high motivation and some addicts use it only for high-risk situations. Patients who wish to continue drinking or may be likely to relapse should not take disulfiram as it can result in the disulfiram-alcohol reaction mentioned previously, which is very serious and can even be fatal. Nitrous oxide, also sometimes known as laughing gas, is a legally available gas used for anesthesia during certain dental and surgical procedures, in food preparation, and for the fueling of rocket and racing engines. People who use substances also sometimes use gas as an inhalant. Like all other inhalants, it is popular because it provides consciousness-altering effects while allowing users to avoid some of the legal issues surrounding illicit substances. Misuse of nitrous oxide can produce significant short-term and long-term damage to human health, including a form of oxygen starvation called hypoxia, brain damage and a serious vitamin B12 deficiency that can lead to nerve damage. Although dangerous and addictive in its own right, nitrous oxide has been shown to be an effective treatment for a number of addictions. Residential treatment In-patient residential treatment for people with an alcohol use disorder is usually quite expensive without insurance. Most American programs follow a 28–30 day program length. The length is based solely upon providers' experience. During the 1940s, clients stayed about one week to get over the physical changes, another week to understand the program, and another week or two to become stable. 70% to 80% of American residential alcohol treatment programs provide 12-step support services. These include, but are not limited to AA, Narcotics Anonymous, Cocaine Anonymous and Al-Anon. One recent study suggests the importance of family participation in residential treatment patient retention, finding "increased program completion rate for those with a family member or significant other involved in a seven-day family program". Brain implants Patients with severe opioid addiction are being given brain implants to help reduce their cravings, in the first trial of its kind in the US. Treatment starts with a series of brain scans. Surgery follows with doctors making a small hole in the skull to insert a tiny 1mm electrode in the specific area of the brain that regulates impulses such as addiction and self-control. This treatment is for those who have failed every other treatment, whether that is medicine, behavioral therapy, and/or social interventions. It is a very rigorous trial with oversight from ethicists and regulators and many other governing bodies. Recovery The definition of recovery remains divided and subjective in drug rehabilitation, as there are no set standards for measuring recovery. The Betty Ford Institute defined recovery as achieving complete abstinence as well as personal well-being while other studies have considered "near abstinence" as a definition. The wide range of meanings has complicated the process of choosing rehabilitation programs. The Recovery Model originates in the psychiatric survivor movement in the US, which argues that receiving a certain diagnoses can be stigmatizing and disempowering. While other treatment programs are focused on remission or a cure for substance abuse, the Recovery Model takes a humanistic approach to help people navigate addiction. Some characteristics of the Recovery Model are social inclusion, empowerment to overcome substance use, focusing on strengths of the client instead of their deficits and providing help living more fulfilling lives in the presence of symptoms of addiction. Another key component of the Recovery Model is the collaborative relationship between client and provider in developing the client's path to abstinence. Under the Recovery Model a program is personally designed to meet an individual clients needs, and does not include a standard set of steps one must go through. The Recovery Model uses integral theory: a four-part approach focusing on the individual, the collective society, along with individual and external factors. The four quadrants corresponding with each in Integral Theory are Consciousness, Behavior, Culture and Systems. Quadrant One deals with the neurological aspect of addiction. Quadrant Two focuses on building self-esteem and a feeling of connectedness, sometimes through spirituality. Quadrant three works on mending the "eroded relationships" caused by active addiction. Quadrant Four often involves facing the harsh consequences of drug use such as unemployment, legal discrepancies, or eviction. The use of integral theory aims to break the dichotomy of "using" or "not using" and focuses instead on emotional, spiritual, and intellectual growth, along with physical wellness. Criminal justice Drug rehabilitation is sometimes part of the criminal justice system. People convicted of minor drug offenses may be sentenced to rehabilitation instead of prison, and those convicted of driving while intoxicated are sometimes required to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings. There are a great number of ways to address an alternative sentence in a drug possession or DUI case; increasingly, American courts are willing to explore outside-the-box methods for delivering this service. There have been lawsuits filed, and won, regarding the requirement of attending Alcoholics Anonymous and other twelve-step meetings as being inconsistent with the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, mandating separation of church and state. In some cases, individuals can be court-ordered to drug rehabilitation by the state through legislation like the Marchman Act. Counseling Traditional addiction treatment is based primarily on counseling. Counselors help individuals with identifying behaviors and problems related to their addiction. It can be done on an individual basis, but it's more common to find it in a group setting and can include crisis counseling, weekly or daily counseling, and drop-in counseling supports. Counselors are trained to develop recovery programs that help to reestablish healthy behaviors and provide coping strategies whenever a situation of risk happens. It's very common to see them also work with family members who are affected by the addictions of the individual, or in a community to prevent addiction and educate the public. Counselors should be able to recognize how addiction affects the whole person and those around him or her. Counseling is also related to "Intervention"; a process in which the addict's family and loved ones request help from a professional to get an individual into drug treatment. This process begins with a professionals' first goal: breaking down denial of the person with the addiction. Denial implies a lack of willingness from the patients or fear to confront the true nature of the addiction and to take any action to improve their lives, instead of continuing the destructive behavior. Once this has been achieved, the counselor coordinates with the addict's family to support them in getting the individual to drug rehabilitation immediately, with concern and care for this person. Otherwise, this person will be asked to leave and expect no support of any kind until going into drug rehabilitation or alcoholism treatment. An intervention can also be conducted in the workplace environment with colleagues instead of family. One approach with limited applicability is the sober coach. In this approach, the client is serviced by the provider(s) in his or her home and workplace—for any efficacy, around-the-clock—who functions much like a nanny to guide or control the patient's behavior. Twelve-step programs The disease model of addiction has long contended the maladaptive patterns of alcohol and substance use displays addicted individuals are the result of a lifelong disease that is biological in origin and exacerbated by environmental contingencies. This conceptualization renders the individual essentially powerless over his or her problematic behaviors and unable to remain sober by himself or herself, much as individuals with a terminal illness are unable to fight the disease by themselves without medication. Behavioral treatment, therefore, necessarily requires individuals to admit their addiction, renounce their former lifestyle, and seek a supportive social network that can help them remain sober. Such approaches are the quintessential features of Twelve-step programs, originally published in the book Alcoholics Anonymous in 1939. These approaches have met considerable amounts of criticism, coming from opponents who disapprove of the spiritual-religious orientation on both psychological and legal grounds. Opponents also contend that it lacks valid scientific evidence for claims of efficacy. However, there is survey-based research that suggests there is a correlation between attendance and alcohol sobriety. Different results have been reached for other drugs, with the twelve steps being less beneficial for addicts to illicit substances, and least beneficial to those addicted to the physiologically and psychologically addicting opioids, for which maintenance therapies are the gold standard of care. SMART Recovery SMART Recovery was founded by Joe Gerstein in 1994 by basing REBT as a foundation. It gives importance to the human agency in overcoming addiction and focuses on self-empowerment and self-reliance. It does not subscribe to disease theory and powerlessness. The group meetings involve open discussions, questioning decisions and forming corrective measures through assertive exercises. It does not involve a lifetime membership concept, but people can opt to attend meetings, and choose not to after gaining recovery. Objectives of the SMART Recovery programs are: Building and Maintaining Motivation, Coping with Urges, Managing Thoughts, Feelings, and Behaviors, Living a Balanced Life. This is considered to be similar to other self-help groups who work within mutual aid concepts. Client-centered approaches In his influential book, Client-Centered Therapy, in which he presented the client-centered approach to therapeutic change, psychologist Carl Rogers proposed there are three necessary and sufficient conditions for personal change: unconditional positive regard, accurate empathy, and genuineness. Rogers believed the presence of these three items, in the therapeutic relationship, could help an individual overcome any troublesome issue, including but not limited to alcohol use disorder. To this end, a 1957 study compared the relative effectiveness of three different psychotherapies in treating alcoholics who had been committed to a state hospital for sixty days: a therapy based on two-factor learning theory, client-centered therapy, and psychoanalytic therapy. Though the authors expected the two-factor theory to be the most effective, it actually proved to be deleterious in the outcome. Surprisingly, client-centered therapy proved most effective. It has been argued, however, these findings may be attributable to the profound difference in therapist outlook between the two-factor and client-centered approaches, rather than to client-centered techniques. The authors note two-factor theory involves stark disapproval of the clients' "irrational behavior" (p. 350); this notably negative outlook could explain the results. A variation of Rogers' approach has been developed in which clients are directly responsible for determining the goals and objectives of the treatment. Known as Client-Directed Outcome-Informed therapy (CDOI), this approach has been utilized by several drug treatment programs, such as Arizona's Department of Health Services. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis, a psychotherapeutic approach to behavior change developed by Sigmund Freud and modified by his followers, has also explained substance use. This orientation suggests the main cause of the addiction syndrome is the unconscious need to entertain and to enact various kinds of homosexual and perverse fantasies, and at the same time to avoid taking responsibility for this. It is hypothesized specific drugs facilitate specific fantasies and using drugs is considered to be a displacement from, and a concomitant of, the compulsion to masturbate while entertaining homosexual and perverse fantasies. The addiction syndrome is also hypothesized to be associated with life trajectories that have occurred within the context of teratogenic processes, the phases of which include social, cultural, and political factors, encapsulation, traumatophobia, and masturbation as a form of self-soothing. Such an approach lies in stark contrast to the approaches of social cognitive theory to addiction—and indeed, to behavior in general—which holds human beings to regulate and control their own environmental and cognitive environments, and are not merely driven by internal, driving impulses. Additionally, homosexual content is not implicated as a necessary feature in addiction. Relapse prevention An influential cognitive-behavioral approach to addiction recovery and therapy has been Alan Marlatt's (1985) Relapse Prevention approach. Marlatt describes four psycho-social processes relevant to the addiction and relapse processes: self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, attributions of causality, and decision-making processes. Self-efficacy refers to one's ability to deal competently and effectively with high-risk, relapse-provoking situations. Outcome expectancy refers to an individual's expectations about the psychoactive effects of an addictive substance. Attributions of causality refer to an individual's pattern of beliefs that relapse to drug use is a result of internal, or rather external, transient causes (e.g., allowing oneself to make exceptions when faced with what are judged to be unusual circumstances). Finally, decision-making processes are implicated in the relapse process as well. Substance use is the result of multiple decisions whose collective effects result in the consumption of the intoxicant. Furthermore, Marlatt stresses some decisions—referred to as apparently irrelevant decisions—may seem inconsequential to relapse, but may actually have downstream implications that place the user in a high-risk situation. For example: As a result of heavy traffic, a recovering alcoholic may decide one afternoon to exit the highway and travel on side roads. This will result in the creation of a high-risk situation when he realizes he is inadvertently driving by his old favorite bar. If this individual can employ successful coping strategies, such as distracting himself from his cravings by turning on his favorite music, then he will avoid the relapse risk (PATH 1) and heighten his efficacy for future abstinence. If, however, he lacks coping mechanisms—for instance, he may begin ruminating on his cravings (PATH 2)—then his efficacy for abstinence will decrease, his expectations of positive outcomes will increase, and he may experience a lapse—an isolated return to substance intoxication. So doing results in what Marlatt refers to as the Abstinence Violation Effect, characterized by guilt for having gotten intoxicated and low efficacy for future abstinence in similar tempting situations. This is a dangerous pathway, Marlatt proposes, to full-blown relapse. Cognitive therapy An additional cognitively-based model of substance use recovery has been offered by Aaron Beck, the father of cognitive therapy and championed in his 1993 book Cognitive Therapy of Substance Abuse. This therapy rests upon the assumption addicted individuals possess core beliefs, often not accessible to immediate consciousness (unless the patient is also depressed). These core beliefs, such as "I am undesirable," activate a system of addictive beliefs that result in imagined anticipatory benefits of substance use and, consequentially, craving. Once craving has been activated, permissive beliefs ("I can handle getting high just this one more time") are facilitated. Once a permissive set of beliefs have been activated, then the individual will activate drug-seeking and drug-ingesting behaviors. The cognitive therapist's job is to uncover this underlying system of beliefs, analyze it with the patient, and thereby demonstrate its dysfunction. As with any cognitive-behavioral therapy, homework assignments and behavioral exercises serve to solidify what is learned and discussed during treatment. Emotion regulation and mindfulness A growing literature is demonstrating the importance of emotion regulation in the treatment of substance use. Considering that nicotine and other psychoactive substances such as cocaine activate similar psycho-pharmacological pathways, an emotion regulation approach may be applicable to a wide array of substance use. Proposed models of affect-driven tobacco use have focused on negative reinforcement as the primary driving force for addiction; according to such theories, tobacco is used because it helps one escape from the undesirable effects of nicotine withdrawal or other negative moods. Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), is showing evidence that it is effective in treating substance use, including the treatment of polysubstance use disorder and tobacco smoking. Mindfulness programs that encourage patients to be aware of their own experiences in the present moment and of emotions that arise from thoughts, appear to prevent impulsive/compulsive responses. Research also indicates that mindfulness programs can reduce the consumption of substances such as alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, marijuana, cigarettes and opiates. Dual diagnosis People who are diagnosed with a mental health disorder and a simultaneous substance use disorder are known as having a dual diagnosis. For example, someone with bipolar disorder who also has an alcohol use disorder would have dual diagnosis. On such occasions, two treatment plans are needed with the mental health disorder requiring treatment first. According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), 45 percent of people with addiction have a co-occurring mental health disorder. Behavioral models Behavioral models make use of principles of functional analysis of drinking behavior. Behavior models exist for both working with the person using the substance (community reinforcement approach) and their family (community reinforcement approach and family training). Both these models have had considerable research success for both efficacy and effectiveness. This model lays much emphasis on the use of problem-solving techniques as a means of helping the addict to overcome his/her addiction. The way researchers think about how addictions are formed shapes the models we have. Four main Behavioral Models of addiction exist: the Moral Model, Disease Model, Socio-Cultural Model and Psycho-dynamic Model. The Moral Model of addiction theorizes that addiction is a moral weakness and that it is the sole fault of the person for becoming addicted. Supporters of the Moral Model view drug use as a choice, even for those who are addicted, and addicts as people of bad character. Disease Model of addiction frames substance abuse as 'a chronic relapsing disease that changes the structure and function of the brain'. Research conducted on the neurobiological factors of addiction has proven to have mixed results, and the only treatment idea it offers is abstinence. The Socio-Cultural Model tries to provide an explanation of how certain populations are more susceptible to substance abuse than others. It focuses on how discrimination, poor quality of life, lack of opportunity and other problems common in marginalized communities can make them vulnerable to addiction. The Psycho-Dynamic Model looks at trauma and mental illness as a precursor to addiction. Many rehabilitation centers treat "co-occurring" disorders, which refer to substance abuse disorder paired with a mental health diagnosis. Barriers to treatment in the US Barriers to accessing drug treatment may worsen negative health outcomes and further exacerbate health inequalities in the United States. Stigmatization of drug use, the War on Drugs and criminalization, and the social determinants of health should all be considered when discussing access to drug treatment and potential barriers. Broad categories of barriers to drug treatment are: absences of problem, negative social support, fear of treatment, privacy concerns, time conflict, poor treatment availability, and admission difficulty. Other barriers to treatment include high costs, lack of tailored programs to address specific needs, and prerequisites that require participants to be house, abstinent from all substances, and/or employed. (See low-threshold treatment and housing first for more context on the latter point.) Further, barriers to treatment can vary depending on the geographical location, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and status of past or current criminal justice system involvement of the person seeking treatment. Criticism Despite ongoing efforts to combat addiction, there has been evidence of clinics billing patients for treatments that may not guarantee their recovery. This is a major problem as there are numerous claims of fraud in drug rehabilitation centers, where these centers are billing insurance companies for under-delivering much-needed medical treatment while exhausting patients' insurance benefits. In California, there are movements and laws regarding this matter, particularly the California Insurance Fraud Prevention Act (IFPA) which declares it unlawful to unknowingly conduct such businesses. Under the Affordable Care Act and the Mental Health Parity Act, rehabilitation centers are able to bill insurance companies for substance use treatment. With long wait lists in limited state-funded rehabilitation centers, controversial private centers rapidly emerged. One popular model, known as the Florida Model for rehabilitation centers, is often criticized for fraudulent billing to insurance companies. Under the guise of helping patients with opioid addiction, these centers would offer addicts free rent or up to $500 per month to stay in their "sober homes", then charge insurance companies as high as $5,000 to $10,000 per test for simple urine tests. Little attention is paid to patients in terms of addiction intervention as these patients have often been known to continue drug use during their stay in these centers. Since 2015, these centers have been under federal and state criminal investigation. As of 2017 in California, there are only 16 investigators in the CA Department of Health Care Services investigating over 2,000 licensed rehab centers. By country Afghanistan In Afghanistan since the Taliban took power in 2021, they have forced drug addicts into compulsory drug rehab. China As of 2013 China has compulsory drug rehabilitation centers. It was reported in 2018 1.3 million drug addicts were treated in China's compulsory detox centers. Compulsory drug rehabilitation has a long history in China: The Mao Zedong government is credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform. Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops. Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region. Indonesia In 2015 the National Narcotics Board (Indonesia) was pushing for compulsory drug treatment for people with drug dependence. Iran According to statistics best case scenario less than a 25% of addicts go back to being healthy. There are two types of rehab one is Revolutionary Guard Corp or FARAJA run article 16 quarantine which is part of operations cleaning the cities from addicts and homeless just as well, the others article 15 and article 17 run by others including State Welfare Organization of Iran and also those run by Ministry of health and medical education. There are also places called Trust houses since July 2023 run by IRGC. Italy In 1963, Pierino Gelmini founded Comunità Incontro, a drug rehabilitation center in Amelia, Italy. See also Coerced abstinence Drug policy of the Soviet Union Dual diagnosis Florida shuffle Low-threshold treatment programs Self-medication Sober living environment Sober Coach Procovery Baclofen References Further reading Substance dependence Substance-related disorders Alcohol and health Addiction

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghazal

Ghazal

The ghazal is a form of amatory poem or ode, originating in Arabic poetry. Ghazals often deal with topics of spiritual and romantic love and may be understood as a poetic expression of both the pain of loss or separation from the beloved and the beauty of love in spite of that pain. The ghazal form is ancient, tracing its origins to 7th-century Arabic poetry. The ghazal spread into South Asia in the 12th century due to the influence of Sufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic Sultanate, and is now most prominently a form of poetry of many languages of the Indian subcontinent and Turkey. A ghazal commonly consists of five to fifteen couplets, which are independent, but are linked – abstractly, in their theme; and more strictly in their poetic form. The structural requirements of the ghazal are similar in stringency to those of the Petrarchan sonnet. In style and content, due to its highly allusive nature, the ghazal has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation. Etymology and pronunciation The word ghazal originates from the Arabic word (ġazal). This genre of Arabic poetry is derived from (ḡazal) or (ḡazila) - To sweet-talk, to flirt, to display amorous gestures. The Arabic word ġazal is pronounced . In English, the word is pronounced or . Poetic form The ghazal is a short poem consisting of rhyming couplets, called bayt or sher. Most ghazals have between seven and twelve bayts. For a poem to be considered a true ghazal, it must have no fewer than five couplets. Almost all ghazals confine themselves to less than fifteen couplets (poems that exceed this length are more accurately considered as qasidas). Ghazal couplets end with the same rhyming pattern and are expected to have the same meter. The ghazal's uniqueness arises from its rhyme and refrain rules, referred to as the qaafiyaa and radif respectively. A ghazal's rhyming pattern may be described as AA BA CA DA, and so on. In its strictest form, a ghazal must follow a number of rules: Matla'a: The first sher in a ghazal is called the matlaa. Both lines of the matla must contain the qaafiyaa and radif. The matlaa sets the tone of the ghazal, as well as its rhyming and refrain pattern. . Radif: The refrain word or phrase. Both lines of the matlaa and the second lines of all subsequent shers must end in the same refrain word called the radif. Qaafiyaa: The rhyming pattern. The radif is immediately preceded by words or phrases with the same end rhyme pattern, called the qaafiyaa. Maqta'a/Maktaa: The last couplet of the ghazal is called the maqtaa. It is common in ghazals for the poet's nom de plume, known as takhallus to be featured in the maqtaa. The maqtaa is typically more personal than the other couplets in a ghazal. The creativity with which a poet incorporates homonymous meanings of their takhallus to offer additional layers of meaning to the couplet is an indicator of their skill. Bahr/Behr: Each line of a ghazal must follow the same metrical pattern and syllabic (or morae) count. Misra-e-uulaa: The first line of each verse must be a statement. Misra-e-sani: The second line of each verse must be the proof of statement given in the first line. Unlike in a nazm, a ghazal's couplets do not need a common theme or continuity. Each sher is self-contained and independent from the others, containing the complete expression of an idea. However, the shers all contain a thematic or tonal connection to each other, which may be highly allusive. A common conceit that traces its history to the origins of the ghazal form is that the poem is addressed to a beloved by the narrator. Interpreting a ghazal The Ghazal tradition is marked by the poetry's ambiguity and simultaneity of meaning. Learning the common tropes is key to understanding the ghazal. There are several locations a sher might take place in the Hindu/Urdu: The Garden, where the poet often takes on the personage of the bulbul, a songbird. The poet is singing to the beloved, who is often embodied as a rose. hoon garmi-i-nishat-i-tasavvur se naghma sanj Main andalib-i-gulshan-i-na afridah hoon - Ghalib I sing from the warmth of the passionate joy of thought I am the bulbul of a garden not yet created The Tavern, or the maikhana, where the poet drinks wine in search of enlightenment, union with God, and desolation of self. mir un neem-baaz ankhon men saari masti sharab ki si hai - Mir Taqi Mir 'Mir' is in those half-closed eyes all flirtation is a bit like wine History Origins in Arabia The ghazal originated in Arabia in the 7th century, evolving from the qasida, a much older pre-Islamic Arabic poetic form. Qaṣīdas were typically much longer poems, with up to 100 couplets. Thematically, qaṣīdas did not include love, and were usually panegyrics for a tribe or ruler, lampoons, or moral maxims. However, the qaṣīda's opening prelude, called the nasīb, was typically nostalgic and/or romantic in theme, and highly ornamented and stylized in form. In time, the nasīb began to be written as standalone, shorter poems, which became the ghazal. The ghazal came into its own as a poetic genre during the Umayyad era (661–750) and continued to flower and develop in the early Abbasid era. The Arabic ghazal inherited the formal verse structure of the qaṣīda, specifically, a strict adherence to meter and the use of the Qaafiyaa, a common end rhyme on each couplet (called a bayt in Arabic and a sher in Persian). The nature of the ghazals also changed to meet the demands of musical presentation, becoming briefer in length. Lighter poetic meters, such as khafîf, ramal, and muqtarab were preferred, instead of longer, more ponderous meters favored for qaṣīdas (such as kâmil, basît, and rajaz). Topically, the ghazal focus also changed from nostalgic reminiscences of the homeland and loved ones, towards romantic or erotic themes. These included sub-genres with themes of courtly love (udharî), eroticism (hissî), homoeroticism (mudhakkar), and as a highly stylized introduction to a larger poem (tamhîdî). Spread of the Arabian ghazal With the spread of Islam, the Arabian ghazal spread both westwards, into Africa and Spain, as well as eastwards, into Persia. The popularity of ghazals in a particular region was usually preceded by a spread of the Arabic language in that country. In medieval Spain, ghazals written in Hebrew as well as Arabic have been found as far back as the 11th century. It is possible that ghazals were also written in the Mozarabic language. Ghazals in the Arabic form have also been written in a number of major West African literary languages like Hausa and Fulfulde. Dispersion into Persia Early Arabo-Persian ghazals (10th to 11th century) However, the most significant changes to the ghazal occurred in its introduction into Iran in the 10th century. The early Persian ghazals largely imitated the themes and form of the Arabian ghazal. These "Arabo-Persian" ghazals introduced two differences compared to their Arabian poetic roots. Firstly, the Persian ghazals did not employ radical enjambment between the two halves of the couplet, and secondly, the Persian ghazals formalized the use of the common rhyme in both lines of the opening couplet ("matla"). The imitation of Arabian forms in Persia extended to the qaṣīda, which was also popular in Persia. Because of its comparative brevity, thematic variety and suggestive richness, the ghazal soon eclipsed the qaṣīda, and became the most popular poetry form in Persia. Much like Arabian ghazals, early Persian ghazals typically employed more musical meters compared to other Persian poetry forms. Rudaki (858–941 CE) is considered the most important Persian ghazal poet of this period, and the founder of classical Persian literature. Early Persian ghazal poetry (12th to early 13th century) The Persian ghazal evolved into its own distinctive form between the 12th and 13th centuries. Many of those innovations created what we now recognize as the archetypical ghazal form. These changes occurred in two periods, separated by the Mongol Invasion of Persia from 1219 to 1221 AD. The 'Early Persian poetry' period spanned approximately one century, from the Ghaznavid era (which lasted until 1187) till a little after the Mongol Invasion. Apart from the movement towards brevity, this period also saw two significant and lasting changes to the ghazal form. The first change was the adoption of the Takhallus, the practice of mentioning the poet's penname in the final couplet (called the maqta). The adoption of the takhallus became a gradually accepted part of the ghazal form, and by the time of Saadi Shirazi (1210–1291 AD), the most important ghazal poet of this period, it had become de rigueur. The second marked change from Arabian ghazal form in Persian ghazals was a movement towards far greater autonomy between the couplets. Late Persian poetry in the Early Mongol Period (1221–) The ghazal later spread throughout the Middle East and South Asia. It was famous all around the Indian subcontinent in the 18th and 19th centuries Introduction into Indian subcontinent The ghazal was spread from Persia into South Asia in the 12th century by the influence of Sufi mystics and the courts of the new Islamic sultanates. This period coincided with the early Islamic Sultanates in India, through the wave of Islamic invasions into the region in that period. The 13th century Chishti Sufi poet Hasan Sijzi is regarded as the originator of the Indo-Persian ghazal. Sijzi's contemporary, the poet and musician Ameer Khusrow is not only credited as the first Urdu poet but also created Hindustani as we know today by merging braj, khadhi boli, Hindi, Urdu, Persian and other local dialects. During the reign of the Sultan of Bengal Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah, the city of Sonargaon became an important centre of Persian literature, with many publications of prose and poetry. The period is described as the "golden age of Persian literature in Bengal". Its stature is illustrated by the Sultan's own correspondence with the Persian poet Hafez. When the Sultan invited Hafez to complete an incomplete ghazal by the ruler, the renowned poet responded by acknowledging the grandeur of the king's court and the literary quality of Bengali-Persian poetry. It is said that Atul Prasad Sen pioneered the introduction of Bengali ghazals. Residing in Lucknow, he was inspired by Persian ghazals and experimented with a stream of Bengali music which was later enriched profusely by the contribution of Kazi Nazrul Islam and Moniruddin Yusuf. Themes "The ghazal was initially composed to a purely religious theme". Now in this era ghazals are more likely to have romantic themes. Unconditional, superior love Can usually be interpreted for a higher being or for a mortal beloved. Love is always viewed as something that will complete a human being, and if attained will lift him or her into the ranks of the wise or will bring satisfaction to the soul of the poet. Traditional ghazal law may or may not have an explicit element of sexual desire in it, and the love may be spiritual. The love may be directed to either a man or a woman. The ghazal is always written from the point of view of the unrequited lover whose beloved is portrayed as unattainable. Most often, either the beloved has not returned the poet's love or returns it without sincerity or else the societal circumstances do not allow it. The lover is aware and resigned to this fate but continues loving nonetheless; the lyrical impetus of the poem derives from this tension. Representations of the lover's powerlessness to resist his feelings often include lyrically exaggerated violence. The beloved's power to captivate the speaker may be represented in extended metaphors about the "arrows of his eyes", or by referring to the beloved as an assassin or a killer. Take, for example, the following couplets from Amir Khusro's Persian ghazal Nemidanam che manzel būd shab: Sufism Many of the major historical ghazal poets were either avowed Sufis themselves (like Rumi or Hafiz), or were sympathizers with Sufi ideas. Somewhat like American soul music, but with melancholy instead of funk, most ghazals can be viewed in a spiritual context, with the Beloved being a metaphor for God or the poet's spiritual master. It is the intense Divine Love of Sufism that serves as a model for all the forms of love found in ghazal poetry. Most ghazal scholars today recognize that some ghazal couplets are exclusively about Divine Love (). Others are about earthly love (), but many can be interpreted in either context. Traditionally invoking melancholy, love, longing, and metaphysical questions, ghazals are often sung by Afghan, Pakistani, and Indian musicians. The form has roots in seventh-century Arabia, and gained prominence in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, thanks to such Persian poets as Rumi and Hafiz, and later to Indian poets such as Mirza Ghalib. In the eighteenth century, the ghazal was used by poets writing in Urdu. Among these poets, Ghalib is the recognized master. Important ghazal poets Ghazals were written by Rumi, Hafiz and Saadi Shirazi of Persia; the Turkic poets Yunus Emre, Fuzûlî and Nesimi of the Ottoman Empire; Mirza Ghalib and Muhammad Iqbal of North India; and Kazi Nazrul Islam of Bengal. Through the influence of Goethe (1749–1832), the ghazal became very popular in Germany during the 19th century; the form was used extensively by Friedrich Rückert (1788–1866) and August von Platen (1796–1835). The Kashmiri poet Agha Shahid Ali was a proponent of the form, both in English and in other languages; he edited a volume of "real Ghazals in English". Ghazals were also written by Moti Ram Bhatta (1866–1896), the pioneer of Nepali ghazal writing in Nepali. Ghazals were also written by Hamza Shinwari, He is known as the father of Pashto Ghazals. Translations and performance of classical ghazal Enormous collections of ghazal have been created by hundreds of well-known poets over the past thousand years in Persian, Turkish, and Urdu as well as in the Central Asian Turkic languages. Ghazal poems are performed in Uzbek-Tajik Shashmakom, Turkish Makam, Persian Dastgah and Uyghur Muqam. There are many published translations from Persian and Turkish by Annemarie Schimmel, Arthur John Arberry and many others. Ghazal "Gayaki", the art of singing or performing the ghazal in the Indian classical tradition, is very old. Singers like Ustad Barkat Ali and many other singers in the past used to practice it, but the lack of historical records make many names anonymous. It was with Begum Akhtar and later on Ustad Mehdi Hassan that classical rendering of ghazals became popular in the masses. The categorization of ghazal singing as a form of "light classical" music is a misconception. Classical ghazals are difficult to render because of the varying moods of the "shers" or couplets in the ghazal. Amanat Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Talat Mahmood, Mehdi Hassan, Abida Parveen, Jagjit Singh, Farida Khanum and Ustad Ghulam Ali, Moinuddin Ahamed, are popular classical ghazal singers. Popularity The ghazal has historically been one of the most popular poetic forms across the Middle East and South Asia. Even into the modern era the ghazal has retained its extreme popularity among South Asian royalty and nobility, among whom its education and patronisation has traditionally found shelter, especially with several Indian rulers including several Indian Emperors being profound composers of ghazals. In the 19th century ghazals gained popularity in Germany with Goethe's translations, as well as with Spanish ghazal writers such as Federico García Lorca. Despite often being written in strong Urdu and rendered with classical Indian Ragas along with complex terminology most usually accessible to the upper classes, in South Asia ghazals are nonetheless popular among all ages. They are most popular in Turkey and South Asia, and readings or musical renditions of ghazals—such as at mehfils and mushairas—are well attended in these countries, even by the laity. Ghazals are popular in South Asian film music. The ragas to which ghazals are sung are usually chosen to be in consonance with their lyrical content. Understanding the complex lyrics of traditional ghazals required education typically available only to the upper classes. The traditional classical rāgas in which the lyrics were rendered were also difficult to understand. The ghazal has undergone some simplification in recent years, in terms of words and phrasings, which helps it to reach a larger audience around the world. Modern shayars (poets) are also moving towards a less strict adherence to form and rules, using simpler language and words (sometimes even incorporating words from other languages, such as English - see Parveen Shakir), and moving away from a strictly male narrator. Most of the ghazals are now sung in styles that are not limited to khayāl, thumri, rāga, tāla and other classical and light classical genres. However, those forms of the ghazal are looked down on by purists of the Indian classical tradition. In Pakistan, Mehdi Hassan, Noor Jehan, Iqbal Bano, Abida Parveen, Farida Khanum, Ghulam Ali, Ahmed Rushdi, Ustad Amanat Ali Khan, and Parvez Mehdi are known for ghazal renditions. Indian Singers like Jagjit Singh (who first used a guitar in ghazals), Ahmed and Mohammed Hussain, Hariharan, Adithya Srinivasan, Pankaj Udhas, Umbayee and many others have been able to give a new shape to the ghazal by incorporating elements of Western music. Ghazals in other South Asian languages In addition to Urdu, ghazals have been very popular in the Gujarati language. For around a century, starting with Balashankar Kantharia, there have been many notable Gujarati ghazal writers including Kalapi, Barkat Virani 'Befaam', Asim Randeri, Shunya Palanpuri, Amrut Ghayal, Khalil Dhantejvi and many more. Some notable ghazals of those prominent writers have been sung by Bollywood playback singer Manhar Udhas. Renowned ghazal singer, and pioneer of Telugu ghazals, Ghazal Srinivas popularized the ghazal in Telugu. Ghazals in the Kannada language were pioneered in the 1960s by poet Shantarasam, though recordings of their poetry only began to be made in the early 2000s. Legendary musician Umbayee composed ghazals in Malayalam and popularized this form of music across Kerala. Suresh Bhat popularized ghazals in the Marathi language. Some of his amazing ghazals were sung by famous artists like Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosale. He was known as Ghazal Samrat (the Emperor of ghazals) for his exposition of the ghazal form of poetry and its adaptation to the Marathi language. His disciple Ilahi Jamadar continued the tradition, blending Urdu and Marathi verses in his work. Kazi Nazrul Islam brought ghazals to the Bengali language, composing numerous poems which are still famous in both Bangladesh and India. Teg Ali Teg introduced ghazals in Bhojpuri, his ghazals collection Badmash Darpan was published in 1895. In English After nearly a century of "false starts," the early experiments of James Clarence Mangan, James Elroy Flecker, Adrienne Rich, Phyllis Webb, etc., many of whom did not adhere wholly or in part to the traditional principles of the form, experiments dubbed as "the bastard Ghazal," the ghazal finally began to be recognized as a viable closed form in poetry of the English language some time in the early to mid-1990s. It came about largely as a result of serious, true-to-form examples being published by noted American poets John Hollander, W. S. Merwin and Elise Paschen as well as by Kashmiri-American poet Agha Shahid Ali, who had been teaching and spreading word of the Ghazal at American universities over the previous two decades. Jim Harrison created his own free-form Ghazal true to his poetic vision in Outlyer and Ghazals (1971). In 1996, Ali compiled and edited the world's first anthology of English-language ghazals, published by Wesleyan University Press in 2000, as Ravishing DisUnities: Real Ghazals in English. (Fewer than one in ten of the ghazals collected in Real Ghazals in English observe the constraints of the form.) A ghazal is composed of couplets, five or more. The couplets may have nothing to do with one another except for the formal unity derived from a strict rhyme and rhythm pattern. A ghazal in English observes the traditional restrictions of the form: Where are you now? Who lies beneath your spell tonight? Whom else from rapture's road will you expel tonight? Those "Fabrics of Cashmere—" "to make Me beautiful—" "Trinket"— to gem– "Me to adorn– How– tell"— tonight? I beg for haven: Prisons, let open your gates– A refugee from Belief seeks a cell tonight. God's vintage loneliness has turned to vinegar– All the archangels– their wings frozen– fell tonight. Lord, cried out the idols, Don't let us be broken Only we can convert the infidel tonight. Mughal ceilings, let your mirrored convexities multiply me at once under your spell tonight. He's freed some fire from ice in pity for Heaven. He's left open– for God– the doors of Hell tonight. In the heart's veined temple, all statues have been smashed No priest in saffron's left to toll its knell tonight. God, limit these punishments, there's still Judgment Day– I'm a mere sinner, I'm no infidel tonight. Executioners near the woman at the window. Damn you, Elijah, I'll bless Jezebel tonight. The hunt is over, and I hear the Call to Prayer fade into that of the wounded gazelle tonight. My rivals for your love– you've invited them all? This is mere insult, this is no farewell tonight. And I, Shahid, only am escaped to tell thee– God sobs in my arms. Call me Ishmael tonight. — Agha Shahid Ali Notable poets who composed ghazals in English Agha Shahid Ali, "Ghazal ('...exiles')" Robert Bly, The Night Abraham Called to the Stars and My Sentence Was a Thousand Years of Joy Francis Brabazon, In Dust I Sing (Beguine Library, 1974). Fern G. Z. Carr, "Ghazal for M." G.S. Sharat Chandra, "The Anonymous Lover" Andrew D. Chumbley, "Qutub" (Xoanon), 1995. Maryann Corbett, "Storybook Ghazal" Lorna Crozier, "Bones in Their Wings" Sukhdarshan Dhaliwal, "Ghazals at Twilight" (SD Publications), 2009 Judith Fitzgerald, Twenty-Six Ways Out of This World (Oberon), 1999. Marilyn Hacker, A Stranger's Mirror: New and Selected Poems 1994 - 2014 (2015) ISBN 978-0-393-24464-9 Jim Harrison, Outlyer and Ghazals (Touchstone), 1971 John Hollander, "Ghazal On Ghazals" Galway Kinnell, "Sheffield Ghazal 4: Driving West", "Sheffield Ghazal 5: Passing the Cemetery" (Mariner Books), 2001 Marilyn Krysl, "Ghazals for the Turn of the Century" Maxine Kumin, "On the Table" Edward Lowbury, "A Ghazel (for Pauline)" (1968); "Prometheus: a ghazel" (1976); "Remembering Nine (a ghazel for Peter Russell)" (1981) William Matthews, "Guzzle", "Drizzle" W. S. Merwin, "The Causeway" Elise Paschen, "Sam's Ghazal" Robert Pinsky, "The Hall" Spencer Reece, Florida Ghazals Adrienne Rich, Ghazals: Homage to Ghalib John Thompson, "Stilt Jack" (Anansi), 1978. Natasha Trethewey, "Miscegenation", 2006. Phyllis Webb, Water and Light: Ghazals and Anti Ghazals (Coach House), 1984. John Edgar Wideman, "Lost Letter" Eleanor Wilner, "Ghazal on What's to Lose, or Not" Rob Winger, "The Chimney Stone" (Nightwood Editions), 2010 Ghazal in Music Ghazals has been used in music throughout South Asia and has become a genre of its own, simply called "Ghazal" which refers to the music genre. The Ghazal music genre is most popular in Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Some notable Afghan ghazal singers are (Persian/Pashtu): Sarahang Ulfat Some notable Pakistani and Indian ghazal singers are (Urdu/Hindi): Ahmed Rushdi Abida Parveen Ali Sethi Amjad Parvez Anuradha Paudwal Anup Jalota Ataullah Khan Ateeq Hussain Khan Salma Agha Kiran Ahluwalia Begum Akhtar Najma Akhtar Ghulam Ali Talat Aziz Gulbahar Bano Iqbal Bano Beauty Sharma Barua Munni Begum Asha Bhosle Rahmatullah Dard Chandan Dass Pankaj Udhas Hariharan Mehdi Hassan Ahmed and Mohammed Hussain Cassius Khan Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan Ustad Amanat Ali Khan Asad Amanat Ali Khan Shafqat Amanat Ali Khan Shreya Ghoshal Bade Fateh Ali Khan Hamid Ali Khan Shahabaz Aman Khalil Haider Farida Khanum Runa Laila Master Madan Talat Mahmood Mahwash Lata Mangeshkar Penaz Masani Aziz Mian Habib Wali Mohammad Mukesh Sonu Nigam Nizami Brothers Nayyara Noor Noorjehan Bhimrao Panchale Shishir Parkhie Malika Pukhraj Mohammed Rafi Roop Kumar Rathod Sunali Rathod Reshma Rahat Fateh Ali Khan Sabri Brothers Jagjit Singh Sajjad Ali Mohammad Hussain Sarahang Mohammad Reza Shajarian Bhupinder and Mitali Singh Jasvinder Singh Ghazal Srinivas Adithya Srinivasan Tahira Syed Manhar Udhas Nirmal Udhas Pankaj Udhas Suresh Wadkar Ahmad Wali Alka Yagnik Umbayee Many Indian and Pakistani film singers are famous for singing ghazals, such as these: Ahmed Rushdi Hariharan Mehdi Hassan Jagjit Singh Noor Jehan Talat Mahmood Lata Mangeshkar Srilekha Parthasarathy Mohammad Rafi Shiv Dayal Batish Shreya Ghoshal Ghulam Ali K. L. Saigal Chitra Singh Asha Bhosle Tina Sani Some Malay singers are famous for singing Ghazal, such as these: Jamal Abdillah Sharifah Aini Rosiah Chik Noraniza Idris Rhoma Irama M. Nasir See also Filmi-ghazal, Indian filmi music based on ghazal poetry Notes Footnotes References Agha Shahid Ali (ed.). Ravishing Disunities: Real Ghazals in English. Agha Shahid Ali. Call Me Ishmael Tonight: A Book of Ghazals. Bailey, J. O. The Poetry of Thomas Hardy: A handbook and Commentary. de Brujn, “ḠAZAL i. HISTORY”, Encyclopaedia Iranica. 2012. Doty, Gene (ed. 1999–2014) and Jensen, Holly (ed. 2015-today). The Ghazal Page; various postings, 1999—today Kanda, K.C., editor. Masterpieces of the Urdu Ghazal: From the 17th to the 20th Century. Sterling Pub Private Ltd., 1991 Mufti, Aamir. "Towards a Lyric History of India." boundary 2, 31: 2, 2004 Reichhold, Jane (ed.). Lynx; various issues, 1996–2000 Sells, Michael A. Early Islamic Mysticism. Watkins, R. W. (ed.). Contemporary Ghazals; Nos. 1 and 2, 2003–2004 Lall, Inder jit. "Ghazal Movements", Century, May 23, 1964 Lall, Inder jit. "Heightened sensibility" The Economic Times, December 31, 1978 Lall, Inder jit. "The Ghazal – Evolution & Prospects", The Times of India, November 8, 1970 Lall, Inder Jit. "The New Ghazal", The Times of India, July 3, 1971 Lall, Inder jit. "Ghazal: A Sustainer of Spasms", Thought, May 20, 1967 Lall, Inder jit. "Tuning into modern ghazals", Sunday Herald, January 29, 1989 Lall, Inder Jit. "Ghazal: Melodies and minstrels", Sunday Patriot, June 29, 1986 Lall, Inder jit. "Charm of ghazal lies in lyricism", Hindustan Times, August 8, 1985 External links A Desertful of Roses The Divan-e Ghalib – in Urdu, with Devanagari and Roman transliterations. Ghazal Radio dedicated ghazal radio. Ghazal poets A list of ghazal writers. Mere Rashke Qamar One of the Best ghazal of Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. Ghazals Manuscript, Rare Book & Manuscript Library University of Pennsylvania LJS 44 Persian literature Persian poetry Urdu-language literature Arabic and Central Asian poetics Pakistani poetics Literary genres Indian music Pakistani music Ancient Persian literature Persian poetic forms Arabic poetry forms

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trent%20Affair

Trent Affair

The Trent Affair was a diplomatic incident in 1861 during the American Civil War that threatened a war between the United States and Great Britain. The U.S. Navy captured two Confederate envoys from a British Royal Mail steamer; the British government protested vigorously. The Lincoln administration ended the incident by releasing the envoys. On November 8, 1861, , commanded by Union Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted the British mail packet and removed, as contraband of war, two Confederate envoys: James Murray Mason and John Slidell. The envoys were bound for Britain and France to press the Confederacy's case for diplomatic recognition and to lobby for possible financial and military support. Public reaction in the United States was to celebrate the capture and rally against Britain, threatening war. In the Confederate states, the hope was that the incident would lead to a permanent rupture in Anglo-American relations and possibly even war, or at least diplomatic recognition by Britain. Confederates realized their cause potentially depended on intervention by Britain and France. In Britain, there was widespread disapproval of this violation of neutral rights and insult to their national honor. The British government demanded an apology and the release of the prisoners and took steps to strengthen its military forces in British North America and the North Atlantic. President Abraham Lincoln and his top advisors did not want to risk war with Britain over this issue. After several tense weeks, the crisis was resolved when the Lincoln administration released the envoys and disavowed Captain Wilkes's actions, although without a formal apology. Mason and Slidell resumed their voyage to Europe. Background Relations with the United States were often strained and even verged on war when Britain came near to supporting the Confederacy in the early part of the American Civil War. British leaders were constantly annoyed from the 1840s to the 1860s by what they saw as Washington's pandering to the mob, as in the Oregon boundary dispute of 1844 to 1846. These tensions came to a head during the Trent affair; this time London would draw the line. The Confederacy and its president, Jefferson Davis, believed from the beginning that European dependence on Southern cotton for its textile industry would lead to diplomatic recognition and intervention, in the form of mediation. Historian Charles Hubbard wrote: The Union's main focus in foreign affairs was just the opposite: to prevent any British recognition of the Confederacy. The issues of the Oregon boundary dispute, British involvement in Texas, and the Canada–US border dispute had all been resolved in the 1840s, and despite the Pig War of 1859, a relatively minor border incident in the Pacific Northwest, Anglo-American relations had steadily improved throughout the 1850s. Secretary of State William H. Seward, the primary architect of American foreign policy during the war, intended to maintain the policy principles that had served the country well since the American Revolution: non-intervention by the United States in the affairs of other countries and resistance to foreign intervention in the affairs of the United States and other countries in the Western Hemisphere. British prime minister Lord Palmerston urged a policy of neutrality. His international concerns were centered in Europe, where both Napoleon III's ambitions in Europe and Bismarck's rise in Prussia were occurring. During the Civil War, British reactions to American events were shaped by past British policies and their own national interests, both strategically and economically. In the Western Hemisphere, as relations with the United States improved, Britain had become cautious about confronting the United States over issues in Central America. As a naval power, Britain had a long record of insisting that neutral nations honor its blockades of hostile countries. From the earliest days of the war, that perspective would guide the British away from taking any action that might have been viewed in Washington as a direct challenge to the Union blockade. From the perspective of the South, British policy amounted to de facto support for the Union blockade and caused great frustration. The Russian Minister in Washington, Eduard de Stoeckl, noted, "The Cabinet of London is watching attentively the internal dissensions of the Union and awaits the result with an impatience which it has difficulty in disguising." De Stoeckl advised his government that Britain would recognize the Confederate States at its earliest opportunity. Cassius Clay, the US minister in Russia, stated, "I saw at a glance where the feeling of England was. They hoped for our ruin! They are jealous of our power. They care neither for the South nor the North. They hate both." At the beginning of the Civil War, the U.S. minister to the Court of St. James was Charles Francis Adams. He made clear that Washington considered the war strictly an internal insurrection affording the Confederacy no rights under international law. Any movement by Britain towards officially recognizing the Confederacy would be considered an unfriendly act towards the United States. Seward's instructions to Adams included the suggestion that it be made clear to Britain that a nation with widely-scattered possessions, as well as a homeland that included Scotland and Ireland, should be very wary of "set[ting] a dangerous precedent". Lord Lyons, an experienced diplomat, was the British minister to the US. He warned London about Seward: Despite his distrust of Seward, Lyons, throughout 1861, maintained a "calm and measured" diplomacy that contributed to a peaceful resolution to the Trent crisis. Issue of diplomatic recognition (February–August 1861) The Trent affair did not erupt as a major crisis until late November 1861. The first link in the chain of events occurred in February 1861, when the Confederacy created a three person European delegation consisting of William Lowndes Yancey, Pierre Rost, and Ambrose Dudley Mann. Their instructions from Confederate Secretary of State Robert Toombs were to explain to these governments the nature and purposes of the southern cause, to open diplomatic relations, and to "negotiate treaties of friendship, commerce, and navigation". Toombs' instructions included a long legal argument on states' rights and the right of secession. Because of the reliance on the double attack of cotton and legality, many important issues were absent from the instructions including the blockade of Southern ports, privateering, trade with the North, slavery, and the informal blockade the Southerners had imposed whereby no cotton was being shipped out. British leaders—and those on the Continent—generally believed that division of the U.S. was inevitable. Remembering their own unsuccessful attempt to keep their former American colonies in the Empire by force of arms, the British considered Union efforts to resist a fait accompli to be unreasonable, but they also viewed Union resistance as a fact that they had to deal with. Believing the war's outcome to be predetermined, the British saw any action they could take to encourage the end of the war as a humanitarian gesture. Lyons was instructed by Foreign Secretary Lord Russell to use his own office and any other parties who might promote a settlement of the war. The commissioners met informally with Russell on May 3. Although word of Fort Sumter had just reached London, the immediate implications of open warfare were not discussed at the meeting. Instead the envoys emphasized the peaceful intent of their new nation and the legality of secession as a remedy to Northern violations of states' rights. They closed with their strongest argument: the importance of cotton to Europe. Slavery was discussed only when Russell asked Yancey whether the international slave trade would be reopened by the Confederacy (a position Yancey had advocated in recent years); Yancey's reply was that this was not part of the Confederacy's agenda. Russell was noncommittal, promising the matters raised would be discussed with the full Cabinet. In the meantime, the British were attempting to determine what official stance they should have to the war. On May 13, 1861, on the recommendation of Russell, Queen Victoria issued a declaration of neutrality that served as recognition of Southern belligerency—a status that provided Confederate ships the same privileges in foreign ports that U.S. ships received. Confederate ships could obtain fuel, supplies and repairs in neutral ports but could not secure military equipment or arms. The availability of Britain's far-flung colonial ports made it possible for Confederate ships to pursue Union shipping throughout much of the world. France, Spain, the Netherlands, and Brazil followed suit. Belligerency also gave the Confederate government the opportunity to purchase supplies, contract with British companies, and purchase a navy to search out and seize Union ships. The Queen's proclamation made clear that Britons were prohibited from joining the military of either side, equipping any ships for military use in the war, breaking any proper blockade, and from transporting military goods, documents, or personnel to either side. On May 18, Adams met with Russell to protest the declaration of neutrality. Adams argued that Great Britain had recognized a state of belligerency "before they [the Confederacy] had ever showed their capacity to maintain any kind of warfare whatever, except within one of their own harbors under every possible advantage […] it considered them a maritime power before they had ever exhibited a single privateer upon the ocean." The major United States concern at this point was that the recognition of belligerency was the first step towards diplomatic recognition. While Russell indicated that recognition was not currently being considered, he would not rule it out in the future, although he did agree to notify Adams if the government's position changed. Meanwhile, in Washington, Seward was upset with both the proclamation of neutrality and Russell's meetings with the Confederates. In a May 21 letter to Adams, which he instructed Adams to share with the British, Seward protested the British reception of the Confederate envoys and ordered Adams to have no dealings with the British as long as they were meeting with them. Formal recognition would make Britain an enemy of the United States. President Lincoln reviewed the letter, softened the language, and told Adams not to give Russell a copy but to limit himself to quoting only those portions that Adams thought appropriate. Adams in turn was shocked by even the revised letter, feeling that it almost amounted to a threat to wage war against all of Europe. When he met with Russell on June 12, after receiving the dispatch, Adams was told that Great Britain had often met with representatives of rebels against nations that Great Britain was at peace with, but that he had no further intention of meeting with the Confederate mission. Further problems developed over possible diplomatic recognition when, in mid-August, Seward became aware that Britain was secretly negotiating with the Confederacy in order to obtain its agreement to abide by the Declaration of Paris. The 1856 Declaration of Paris prohibited signatories from commissioning privateers against other signatories, protected neutral goods shipped to belligerents except for "contrabands of war", and recognized blockades only if they were proved effective. The United States had failed to sign the treaty originally, but after the Union declared a blockade of the Confederacy, Seward ordered the U.S. ministers to Britain and France to reopen negotiations to restrict the Confederate use of privateers. On May 18 Russell had instructed Lyons to seek Confederate agreement to abide by the Paris Declaration. Lyons assigned this task to Robert Bunch, the British consul in Charleston, South Carolina, who was directed to contact South Carolina Governor Francis Wilkinson Pickens. Bunch exceeded his instructions: he bypassed Pickens, and openly assured the Confederates that agreement to the Paris Declaration was "the first step to [British] recognition". His indiscretion soon came to Union ears. Robert Mure, a British-born Charleston merchant, was arrested in New York. Mure, a colonel in the South Carolina militia, had a British diplomatic passport issued by Bunch, and was carrying a British diplomatic pouch (which was searched). The pouch contained some actual correspondence from Bunch to Britain, and also pro-Confederate pamphlets, personal letters from Southerners to European correspondents, and a Confederate dispatch which recounted Bunch's dealings with the Confederacy, including the talk of recognition. When confronted, Russell admitted that his government was attempting to get agreement from the Confederacy to adhere to the provisions of the treaty relating to neutral goods (but not privateering), but he denied that this was in any way a step towards extending diplomatic relations to the Confederates. Rather than reacting as he had to the earlier recognition of belligerency, Seward let this matter drop. He did demand Bunch's recall, but Russell refused. Under Napoleon III, France's overall foreign policy objectives were at odds with Britain's, but France generally took positions regarding the Civil War combatants similar to, and often supportive of, Britain's. Cooperation between Britain and France was begun in the U.S. between Henri Mercier, the French minister, and Lyons. For example, on June 15 they tried to see Seward together regarding the proclamation of neutrality, but Seward insisted that he meet with them separately. Edouard Thouvenel was the French Foreign Minister for all of 1861 until the fall of 1862. He was generally perceived to be pro-Union and was influential in dampening Napoleon III's initial inclination towards diplomatic recognition of Confederate independence. Thouvenel met unofficially with Confederate envoy Pierre Rost in June and told him not to expect diplomatic recognition. William L. Dayton of New Jersey was appointed by Lincoln as U.S. minister to France. He had no foreign affairs experience and did not speak French, but was assisted a great deal by the U.S. consul general in Paris, John Bigelow. When Adams made his protest to Russell on the recognition of Confederate belligerency, Dayton made a similar protest to Thouvenel. Napoleon offered "his good office" to the United States in resolving the conflict with the South and Dayton was directed by Seward to acknowledge that "if any mediation were at all admissible, it would be his own that we should seek or accept." When news of the Confederate victory at the First Battle of Bull Run reached Europe it reinforced British opinion that Confederate independence was inevitable. Hoping to take advantage of this battlefield success, Yancey requested a meeting with Russell but was rebuffed and told that any communications should be in writing. Yancey submitted a long letter on August 14 detailing again the reasons why the Confederacy should receive formal recognition and requesting another meeting with Russell. Russell's August 24 reply, directed to the commissioners "of the so-styled Confederate States of America" reiterated the British position that it considered the war as an internal matter rather than a war for independence. British policy would change only if "the fortune of arms or the more peaceful mode of negotiation shall have determined the respective positions of the two belligerents." No meeting was scheduled and this was the last communication between the British government and the Confederate envoys. When the Trent Affair erupted in November and December the Confederacy had no effective way to communicate directly with Great Britain and they were left totally out of the negotiation process. By August 1861, Yancey was sick, frustrated, and ready to resign. In the same month, President Davis had decided that he needed diplomats in Britain and France. Specifically, ministers that would be better suited to serve as Confederate ministers, should the Confederacy achieve international recognition. He selected John Slidell of Louisiana and James Mason of Virginia. Both men were widely respected throughout the South, and had some background in foreign affairs. Slidell had been appointed as a negotiator by President Polk at the end of the Mexican War, and Mason had been chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee from 1847 to 1860. R. M. T. Hunter of Virginia was the new Confederate Secretary of State. His instructions to Mason and Slidell were to emphasize the stronger position of the Confederacy now that it had expanded from seven to eleven states, with the likelihood that Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky would also eventually join the new nation. An independent Confederacy would restrict the industrial and maritime ambitions of the United States and lead to a mutually beneficial commercial alliance between Great Britain, France, and the Confederate States. A balance of power would be restored in the Western Hemisphere as the United States' territorial ambitions would be restricted. They were to liken the Confederate situation to Italy's struggles for independence which Britain had supported, and were to quote Russell's own letters which justified that support. Of immediate importance, they were to make a detailed argument against the legality of the Union blockade. Along with their formal written instructions, Mason and Slidell carried a number of documents supporting their positions. Pursuit and capture (August–November 1861) The intended departure of the envoys was no secret, and the Union government received daily intelligence on their movements. By October 1 Slidell and Mason were in Charleston, South Carolina. Their original plan was to run the blockade in , a fast steamer, and sail directly to Britain. But the main channel into Charleston was guarded by five Union ships, and Nashvilles draft was too deep for any side channels. A night escape was considered, but tides and strong night winds prevented this. An overland route through Mexico and departure from Matamoros was also considered, but the delay of several months was unacceptable. The steamer Gordon was suggested as an alternative. She had a shallow enough draft to use the back channels and could make over 12 knots, more than enough to elude Union pursuit. Gordon was offered to the Confederate government either as a purchase for $62,000 or as a charter for $10,000. The Confederate Treasury could not afford this, but a local cotton broker, George Trenholm, paid the $10,000 in return for half the cargo space on the return trip. Renamed Theodora, the ship left Charleston at 1 a.m. on October 12, and successfully evaded Union ships enforcing the blockade. On October 14, she arrived at Nassau in the Bahamas, but had missed connections with a British steamer going to St. Thomas in the Danish West Indies, the main point of departure for British ships from the Caribbean to Britain. They discovered that British mail ships might be anchored in Spanish Cuba, and Theodora turned southwest towards Cuba. Theodora appeared off the coast of Cuba on October 15, with her coal bunkers nearly empty. An approaching Spanish warship hailed Theodora. Slidell and George Eustis Jr. went aboard, and were informed that British mail packets docked at Havana, but that the last one had just left, and that the next one, the paddle steamer , would arrive in three weeks. Theodora docked in Cárdenas, Cuba on October 16, and Mason and Slidell disembarked. The two men decided to stay in Cardenas before making an overland trip to Havana to catch the next British ship. Meanwhile, rumors reached the Federal government that Mason and Slidell had escaped aboard Nashville. Union intelligence had not immediately recognized that Mason and Slidell had left Charleston on Theodora. U.S. Navy Secretary Gideon Welles reacted to the rumor that Mason and Slidell had escaped from Charleston by ordering Admiral Samuel F. DuPont to dispatch a fast warship to Britain to intercept Nashville. On October 15, the Union sidewheel steamer , under the command of John B. Marchand, began steaming towards Europe with orders to pursue Nashville to the English Channel if necessary. James Adger reached Britain and docked in Southampton Harbor in early November. The British government was aware that the United States would attempt to capture the envoys and believed they were on Nashville. Palmerston ordered a Royal Navy warship to patrol within the three-mile limit around Nashville'''s expected port of call, to assure that any capture would occur outside British territorial waters. This would avoid the diplomatic crisis that would result if James Adger pursued Nashville into British waters. When Nashville arrived on November 21, the British were surprised that the envoys were not on board. The Union steam frigate , commanded by Captain Charles Wilkes, arrived in St. Thomas on October 13. San Jacinto had cruised off the African coast for nearly a month before setting course westward with orders to join a U.S. Navy force preparing to attack Port Royal, South Carolina. In St. Thomas, Wilkes learned that the Confederate raider CSS Sumter had captured three U.S. merchant ships near Cienfuegos in July. Wilkes headed there, despite the unlikelihood that Sumter would have remained in the area. In Cienfuegos he learned from a newspaper that Mason and Slidell were scheduled to leave Havana on November 7 in the British mail packet , bound first for St. Thomas and then England. He realized that the ship would need to use the "narrow Bahama Channel, the only deepwater route between Cuba and the shallow Grand Bahama Bank". Wilkes discussed legal options with his second in command, Lt. D. M. Fairfax, and reviewed law books on the subject before making plans to intercept. Wilkes adopted the position that Mason and Slidell would qualify as "contraband", subject to seizure by a United States ship. Historians have concluded that there was no legal precedent for the seizure. This aggressive decision making was typical of Wilkes' command style. On one hand, he was recognized as "a distinguished explorer, author, and naval officer". On the other, he "had a reputation as a stubborn, overzealous, impulsive, and sometimes insubordinate officer". Treasury officer George Harrington had warned Seward about Wilkes: "He will give us trouble. He has a superabundance of self-esteem and a deficiency of judgment. When he commanded his great exploring mission he court-martialed nearly all his officers; he alone was right, everybody else was wrong."Trent left on November 7 as scheduled, with Mason, Slidell, their secretaries, and Slidell's wife and children aboard. Just as Wilkes had predicted, Trent passed through Bahama Channel, where San Jacinto was waiting. Around noon on November 8, lookouts aboard the San Jacinto spotted Trent, which unfurled the Union Jack as it neared. San Jacinto then fired a shot across the bow of Trent, which Captain James Moir of Trent ignored. San Jacinto fired a second shot from her forward pivot gun which landed right in front of Trent. Trent stopped after the second shot. Lieutenant Fairfax was summoned to the quarterdeck, where Wilkes presented him with the following written instructions: Fairfax then boarded Trent from a cutter. Two cutters carrying a party of twenty men armed with pistols and cutlasses sidled up to Trent.Fairfax, p. 137. Fairfax, certain that Wilkes was creating an international incident and not wanting to enlarge its scope, ordered his armed escort to remain in the cutter. Upon boarding, Fairfax was escorted to an outraged Captain Moir, and announced that he had orders "to arrest Mr. Mason and Mr. Slidell and their secretaries, and send them prisoners on board the United States war vessel nearby". The crew and passengers then threatened Lieutenant Fairfax, and the armed party in the two cutters beside Trent responded to the threats by climbing aboard to protect him. Captain Moir refused Fairfax's request for a passenger list, but Slidell and Mason came forward and identified themselves. Moir also refused to allow a search of the vessel for contraband, and Fairfax failed to force the issue which would have required seizing the ship as a prize, arguably an act of war. Mason and Slidell made a formal refusal to go voluntarily with Fairfax, but did not resist when Fairfax's crewmen escorted them to the cutter.Fairfax, pp. 137–139; Ferris, pp. 23–24. Wilkes would later claim that he believed that Trent was carrying "highly important dispatches and were endowed with instructions inimical to the United States". Along with the failure of Fairfax to insist on a search of Trent, there was another reason why no papers were found in the luggage that was carried with the envoys. Mason's daughter, writing in 1906, said that the Confederate dispatch bag had been secured by Commander Williams RN, a passenger on Trent, and later delivered to the Confederate envoys in London. This was a clear violation of the Queen's Neutrality Proclamation. International law required that when "contraband" was discovered on a ship, the ship should be taken to the nearest prize court for adjudication. While this was Wilkes' initial determination, Fairfax argued against this since transferring crew from San Jacinto to Trent would leave San Jacinto dangerously undermanned, and it would seriously inconvenience Trent's other passengers as well as mail recipients. Wilkes, whose ultimate responsibility it was, agreed and the ship was allowed to proceed to St. Thomas, absent the two Confederate envoys and their secretaries.San Jacinto arrived in Hampton Roads, Virginia, on November 15, where Wilkes wired news of the capture to Washington. He was then ordered to Boston where he delivered the captives to Fort Warren, a prison for captured Confederates. American reaction (November 16 – December 18, 1861) Most Northerners learned of the Trent capture on November 16 when the news hit afternoon newspapers. By Monday, November 18, the press seemed "universally engulfed in a massive wave of chauvinistic elation". Mason and Slidell, "the caged ambassadors", were denounced as "knaves", "cowards", "snobs", and "cold, cruel, and selfish". Everyone was eager to present a legal justification for the capture. The British consul in Boston remarked that every other citizen was "walking around with a Law Book under his arm and proving the right of the S. Jacintho to stop H.M.'s mail boat". Many newspapers likewise argued for the legality of Wilkes' actions, and numerous lawyers stepped forward to add their approval. Harvard law professor Theophilus Parsons wrote, "I am just as certain that Wilkes had a legal right to take Mason and Slidell from the Trent, as I am that our government has a legal right to blockade the port of Charleston." Caleb Cushing, a prominent Democrat, and former Attorney General (under Franklin Pierce) concurred: "In my judgment, the act of Captain Wilkes was one which any and every self-respecting nation must and would have done by its own sovereign right and power, regardless of circumstances." Richard Henry Dana Jr., considered an expert on maritime law, justified the detention because the envoys were engaged "solely [in] a mission hostile to the United States", making them guilty of "treason within our municipal law". Edward Everett, a former minister to Great Britain and a former Secretary of State, also argued that "the detention was perfectly lawful [and] their confinement in Fort Warren will be perfectly lawful." A banquet was given to honor Wilkes at the Revere House in Boston on November 26. Massachusetts governor John A. Andrew praised Wilkes for his "manly and heroic success" and spoke of the "exultation of the American heart" when Wilkes "fired his shot across the bows of the ship that bore the British Lion at its head". George T. Bigelow, the chief justice of Massachusetts, spoke admiringly of Wilkes: "In common with all loyal men of the North, I have been sighing, for the last six months, for someone who would be willing to say to himself, 'I will take the responsibility. On December 2, Congress passed unanimously a resolution thanking Wilkes "for his brave, adroit and patriotic conduct in the arrest and detention of the traitors, James M. Mason and John Slidell" and proposing that he receive a "gold medal with suitable emblems and devices, in testimony of the high sense entertained by Congress of his good conduct". But as the matter was given closer study, people began to have doubts. Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles reflected the ambiguity that many felt when he wrote to Wilkes of "the emphatic approval" of the Navy Department for his actions while cautioning him that the failure to take the Trent to a prize court "must by no means be permitted to constitute a precedent hereafter for the treatment of any case of similar infraction of neutral obligations". On November 24, the New York Times claimed to find no actual on point precedent. Thurlow Weed's Albany Evening Journal suggested that, if Wilkes had "exercised an unwarranted discretion, our government will properly disavow the proceedings and grant England 'every satisfaction' consistent with honor and justice". It did not take long for others to comment that the capture of Mason and Slidell very much resembled the search and impressment practices that the United States had always opposed since its founding and which had previously led to the War of 1812 with Britain. The idea of humans as contraband failed to strike a resonant chord with many. Henry Adams wrote to his brother on the impressment issue: People also started to realize that the issue might be resolved less on legalities and more on the necessity of avoiding a serious conflict with Britain. Elder statesmen James Buchanan, Thomas Ewing, Lewis Cass, and Robert J. Walker all publicly came out for the necessity of releasing them. By the third week of December much of the editorial opinion started to mirror these opinions and prepare the American citizens for the release of the prisoners. The opinion that Wilkes had operated without orders and had erred by, in effect, holding a prize court on the deck of the San Jacinto was being spread. The United States was initially very reluctant to back down. Seward had lost the initial opportunity to immediately release the two envoys as an affirmation of a long-held U.S. interpretation of international law. He had written to Adams at the end of November that Wilkes had not acted under instructions, but would hold back any more information until it had received some response from Great Britain. He reiterated that recognition of the Confederacy would likely lead to war. Lincoln was at first enthused about the capture and reluctant to let them go, but as reality set in he stated: On December 4, Lincoln met with Alexander Galt, the future Canadian Minister of Finance. Lincoln told him that he had no desire for troubles with England or any unfriendly designs toward Canada. When Galt asked specifically about the Trent incident, Lincoln replied, "Oh, that'll be got along with." Galt forwarded his account of the meeting to Lyons who forwarded it to Russell. Galt wrote that, despite Lincoln's assurances, "I cannot, however, divest my mind of the impression that the policy of the American Govt is so subject to popular impulses, that no assurance can be or ought to be relied on under present circumstances." Lincoln's annual message to Congress did not touch directly on the Trent affair but, relying on estimates from Secretary of War Simon Cameron that the U.S. could field a 3,000,000 man army, stated that he could "show the world, that while engaged in quelling disturbances at home we are able to protect ourselves from abroad". Finance also played a role: Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase was concerned with any events that might affect American interests in Europe. Chase was aware of the intent of New York banks to suspend specie payments, and he would later make a lengthy argument at the Christmas cabinet meeting in support of Seward. In his diary, Chase wrote that the release of Mason and Slidell "…was like gall and wormwood to me. But we cannot afford delays while the matter hangs in uncertainty, the public mind will remain disquieted, our commerce will suffer serious harm, our action against the rebels must be greatly hindered." Warren notes, "Although the Trent affair did not cause the national banking crisis, it contributed to the virtual collapse of a haphazard system of war finance, which depended on public confidence." On December 15 the first news on British reaction reached the United States. Britain first learned of the events on November 27. Lincoln was with Senator Orville Browning when Seward brought in the first newspaper dispatches, which indicated Palmerston was demanding a release of the prisoners and an apology. Browning thought the threat of war by Britain was "foolish" but said, "We will fight her to the death." That night at a diplomatic reception Seward was overheard by William H. Russell saying, "We will wrap the whole world in flames." The mood in Congress had also changed. When they debated the issue on December 16 and 17, Clement L. Vallandigham, a peace Democrat, proposed a resolution stating that the U.S. maintain the seizure as a matter of honor. The motion was opposed and referred to a committee by the vote of 109 to 16. The official response of the government still awaited the formal British response which did not arrive in America until December 18. British reaction (November 27 – December 31, 1861) When arrived in Southampton and Commander Marchand learned from The Times that his targets had arrived in Cuba, he reacted to the news by boasting that he would capture the two envoys within sight of the British shore if necessary, even if they were on a British ship. As a result of the concerns raised by Marchand's statements, the British Foreign Office requested a judicial opinion from the three Law Officers of the Crown (the queen's advocate, the attorney general, and the solicitor general) on the legality of capturing the men from a British ship. The written reply dated November 12 declared: On November 12, Palmerston advised Adams in person that the British nonetheless would take offense if the envoys were removed from a British ship. Palmerston emphasized that seizing the Confederates would be "highly inexpedient in every way Palmerston could view it" and a few more Confederates in Britain would not "produce any change in policy already adopted". Palmerston questioned the presence of Adger in British waters, and Adams assured Palmerston that he had read Marchand's orders (Marchand had visited Adams while in Great Britain) which limited him to seizing Mason and Slidell from a Confederate ship. The news of the actual capture of Mason and Slidell did not arrive in London until November 27. Much of the public and many of the newspapers immediately perceived it as an outrageous insult to British honor, and a flagrant violation of maritime law. The London Chronicles response was typical: The London Standard saw the capture as "but one of a series of premeditated blows aimed at this country … to involve it in a war with the Northern States". A letter from an American visitor written to Seward declared, "The people are frantic with rage, and were the country polled I fear 999 men out of 1,000 would declare for immediate war." A member of Parliament stated that unless America set matters right the British flag should "be torn into shreds and sent to Washington for use of the Presidential water-closets". The seizure provoked one anti-Union meeting, held in Liverpool (later a hub of Confederate sympathy) and chaired by the future Confederate spokesman James Spence.The Times published its first report from the United States on December 4, and its correspondent, W. H. Russell, wrote of American reactions, "There is so much violence of spirit among the lower orders of the people and they are … so saturated with pride and vanity that any honorable concession … would prove fatal to its authors." Times editor John T. Delane took a moderate stance and warned the people not to "regard the act in the worst light" and to question whether it made sense that the United States, despite British misgivings about Seward that went back to the earliest days of the Lincoln administration, would "force a quarrel upon the Powers of Europe". This restrained stance was common in Britain: "the press, as a whole, preached calm and praised it too, noting the general moderation of public temper it perceived". The government got its first solid information on the Trent from Commander Williams who went directly to London after he arrived in England. He spent several hours with the Admiralty and the Prime Minister. Initial reaction among political leaders was firmly opposed to the American actions. Lord Clarendon, a former foreign secretary, expressed what many felt when he accused Seward of "trying to provoke us into a quarrel and finding that it could not be effected at Washington he was determined to compass it at sea". Resisting Russell's call for an immediate cabinet meeting, Palmerston again called on the Law Officers to prepare a brief based on the actual events that had occurred, and an emergency cabinet meeting was scheduled two days later for Friday, November 29. Palmerston also informed the War Office that budget reductions scheduled for 1862 should be put on hold. Russell met briefly with Adams on November 29 to determine whether he could shed any light on American intent. Adams was unaware that Seward had already sent him a letter indicating Wilkes had acted without orders and was unable to provide Russell any information that might defuse the situation. Palmerston, who believed he had received a verbal agreement from Adams that British vessels would not be interfered with, reportedly began the emergency cabinet meeting by throwing his hat on the table and declaring, "I don't know whether you are going to stand this, but I'll be damned if I do." The Law Officers' report was read and confirmed that Wilkes actions were: Dispatches from Lyons were given to all in attendance. These dispatches described the excitement in America in support of the capture, referred to previous dispatches in which Lyons had warned that Seward might provoke such an incident, and described the difficulty that the United States might have in acknowledging that Wilkes had erred. Lyons also recommended a show of force including sending reinforcements to Canada. Palmerston indicated to Lord Russell that it was very possible that the entire incident had been a "deliberate and premeditated insult" designed by Seward to "provoke" a confrontation with Britain. After several days of discussion, on November 30 Russell sent to Queen Victoria the drafts of the dispatches intended for Lord Lyons to deliver to Seward. The Queen in turn asked her husband and consort, Prince Albert, to review the matter. Although ill with typhoid that would shortly take his life, Albert read through the dispatches, decided the ultimatum was too belligerent, and composed a softened version. In his November 30 response to Palmerston, Albert wrote: The cabinet incorporated in its official letter to Seward Albert's suggestions that would allow Washington to disavow both Wilkes' actions and any American intent to insult the British flag. The British still demanded an apology and the release of the Confederate emissaries. Lyons' private instructions directed him to give Seward seven days to reply and to close the British Legation in Washington and return home if a satisfactory response was not forthcoming. In a further effort to defuse the situation, Russell added his own private note telling Lyons to meet with Seward and advise him of the contents of the official letter before it was actually delivered. Lyons was told that as long as the commissioners were released, the British would "be rather easy about the apology" and that an explanation sent through Adams would probably be satisfactory. He reiterated that the British would fight if necessary, and suggested that the "best thing would be if Seward could be turned out and a rational man put in his place." The dispatches were shipped on December 1 via the Europa, reaching Washington on December 18. Diplomacy on hold While military preparations were accelerated, diplomacy would be on hold for the rest of the month while Britain waited for the American response. There had been unrest in the British financial markets since the news of the Trent was first received. Consols, which had initially declined in value in the early part of the month, fell by another 2 percent, reaching the level during the first year of the Crimean War. Other securities fell another 4 to 5 percent. Railway stocks and colonial and foreign securities declined. The Times noted that the financial markets were reacting as if war were a certainty. In the early deliberations over the appropriate British response to the capture of the envoys, there was concern that Napoleon III would take advantage of a Union-British war to act against British interests in "Europe or elsewhere". French and British interests clashed in Indochina, in building the Suez Canal, in Italy, and in Mexico. Palmerston saw French stockpiling of coal in the West Indies as indicating France was preparing for war with Britain. The French Navy remained smaller, but had otherwise shown itself equal to the Royal Navy in the Crimean War. A possible buildup of ironclads by the French would present a clear threat in the English Channel. France quickly alleviated many of Britain's concerns. On November 28, with no knowledge of the British response or any input from Mercier in the U.S., Napoleon met with his cabinet. They had no doubts about the illegality of the U.S. actions and agreed to support whatever demands Britain made. Thouvenel wrote to Count Charles de Flahault in London to inform Britain of their decision. After learning of the actual content of the British note, Thouvenel advised the British ambassador Lord Cowley, that the demand had his complete approval, and on December 4 instructions were sent to Mercier to support Lyons. A minor stir occurred when General Winfield Scott, until recently the commander of all Union troops, and Thurlow Weed, a known confidant of Seward, arrived in Paris. Their mission, to counter Confederate propaganda efforts with propaganda efforts of their own, had been determined before the Trent affair, but the timing was considered odd by Cowley. Rumors circulated that Scott was blaming the whole incident on Seward who had somehow manipulated Lincoln into acquiescing with the seizure. Scott put the rumors to rest with a December 4 letter that was published in the Paris Constitutional and reprinted throughout Europe, including most London papers. Denying the rumors, Scott stated that "every instinct of prudence as well as of good neighborhood prompts our government to regard no honorable sacrifice too great for the preservation of the friendship of Great Britain." The benign intentions of the United States were also argued by John Bright and Richard Cobden, strong supporters of the United States and leaders of the Anti-Corn Law League in Britain. Both had expressed strong reservations about the legality of American actions, but argued strongly that the United States had no aggressive designs against Great Britain. Bright publicly disputed that the confrontation had been intentionally engineered by Washington. In an early December speech to his constituents, he condemned the British military preparations "before we have made a representation to the American Government, before we have heard a word from it in reply, [we] should be all up in arms, every sword leaping from its scabbard and every man looking about for his pistols and blunderbusses?" Cobden joined with Bright by speaking at public meetings and by writing letters to newspapers, organizers of meetings that he could not attend, and influential people in and out of Britain. As time passed and voices opposing war were heard more and more, the Cabinet also began considering alternatives to war, including arbitration. Military preparations (December 1860 – December 1861) Even before the Civil War erupted, Britain, with her worldwide interests, needed to have a military policy regarding the divided United States. In 1860 Rear Admiral Sir Alexander Milne took command of the North America and West Indies station of the Royal Navy. On December 22, 1860, with secession still in its early stages, Milne's orders were to avoid "any measure or demonstration likely to give umbrage to any party in the United States, or to bear the appearance of partizanship on either side; if the internal dissensions in those States should be carried to the extent of separation". Until May 1861, in compliance with these instructions and as part of a long-standing policy of the Royal Navy to avoid ports where desertion was likely, Milne avoided the American coast. In May the Neutrality Proclamation of May 13 was issued. This increased British concern over the threat of Confederate privateers and Union blockading ships to British neutral rights, and Milne was reinforced. On June 1 British ports were closed to any naval prizes, a policy that was of great advantage to the Union. Milne did monitor the effectiveness of the Union blockade, but no effort to contest its effectiveness was ever attempted, and the monitoring was discontinued in November 1861. Milne received a letter from Lyons on June 14 that said he did not "regard a sudden declaration of war against us by the United States as an event altogether impossible at any moment". Milne warned his scattered forces, and in a June 27 letter to the Admiralty asked for further reinforcements and deplored the weakness of the defenses in the West Indies. Referring to Jamaica, Milne reported conditions that included, "works badly contrived and worse executed—unserviceable guns—decayed gun cartridges—corroded shot—the absence of stores of all kinds and of ammunition, with dilapidated and damp powder magazines". Milne made it clear that his existing forces were totally absorbed simply in protecting commerce and defending possessions, many inadequately. He had only a single ship available "for any special service that may be suddenly required". The Duke of Somerset, the First Lord of the Admiralty, opposed Palmerston's inclination to reinforce Milne. He felt that the existing force made up largely of steam ships was superior to the primarily sail ships of the Union fleet, and he was reluctant to incur additional expenses while Britain was in the process of rebuilding her fleet with iron ships. This resistance by Parliament and the cabinet led historian Kenneth Bourne to conclude, "When, therefore the news of the Trent outrage arrived in England the British were still not properly prepared for the war which almost everyone agreed was inevitable if the Union did not back down." Land forces On the land, at the end of March 1861, Britain had 2,100 regular troops in Nova Scotia, 2,200 in the rest of Canada, and scattered posts in British Columbia, Bermuda, and the West Indies. Lieutenant General Sir William Fenwick Williams, Commander in Chief, North America, did what he could with his small forces, but he wrote repeatedly to the authorities back in Britain that he needed considerable reinforcements to prepare his defenses adequately. Some land reinforcements were sent in May and June. When Palmerston, alarmed by the blockade and the Trent affair, pressed for increasing the number of regular troops in Canada to 10,000, he met resistance. Sir George Cornwall Lewis, head of the War Office, questioned whether there was any real threat to Great Britain. He judged it "incredible that any Government of ordinary prudence should at a moment of civil war gratuitously increase the number of its enemies, and, moreover, incur the hostility of so formidable a power as England". In the debate in Parliament on June 21 there was general opposition to reinforcements, based on political, military, and economic arguments. A long standing issue was the attempt by Parliament to shift more of the burden of Canadian defense to the local government. Colonial secretary Newcastle felt that the requests by Williams were part of a pattern of the "last few years" in which he had "been very fertile of demands and suggestions". Newcastle was also concerned that there were no winter quarters available for additional troops and he feared desertions would be a serious problem. From the beginning of the Trent crisis British leaders were aware that a viable military option was an essential part of defending the nation's interests. The First Lord of the Admiralty believed Canada could not be defended from a serious attack by the U.S. and winning it back later would be difficult and costly. Bourne noted, "After 1815 the ambiguity of Anglo-American relations, the parsimony of the house of commons [sic] and the enormous practical difficulties involved always seemed to have prevented adequate preparations being made for an Anglo-American war." Somerset suggested a naval war as opposed to a ground war. Military preparation began quickly after news of the Trent reached Great Britain. Secretary of War Sir George Lewis proposed within a week to send "thirty thousand rifles, an artillery battery, and some officers to Canada". He wrote to Lord Palmerston on December 3, "I propose to engage a Cunard Steamer & send out one regiment & one battery of artillery next week" followed as quickly as possible by three more regiments and more artillery. Given the realities of the North Atlantic in winter, the reinforcements would have to land in Nova Scotia, since the Saint Lawrence River begins to ice up in December. Russell was concerned that Lewis and Palmerston might take actions prematurely that would eliminate what chances for peace that there were, so he requested "a small committee …[to] assist Lewis, & the Duke of Somerset" with their war plans. The group was created and convened on December 9. The group consisted of Palmerston, Lewis, Somerset, Russell, Newcastle, Lord Granville (foreign secretary) and the Duke of Cambridge (commander-in-chief of the British Army), advised by Earl de Grey (Lewis' undersecretary), Lord Seaton (a former commander-in-chief in Canada), General John Fox Burgoyne (the inspector general of fortifications) and Colonel Patrick Leonard MacDougall (the former commander of the Royal Canadian Rifles). The first priority of the committee was Canadian defense, and the committee relied on both plans developed by previous explorations of the issue and information that the committee developed on its own from the testimony of experts. The current resources in Canada consisted of five thousand regular troops and about an equal number of "ill-trained" militia of which only one-fifth were organized. During December the British managed to send 11,000 troops using 18 transport ships and by the end of the month they were prepared to send an additional 28,400 men. By the end of December, as the crisis ended, reinforcements had raised the count to 924 officers and 17,658 men against an anticipated American invasion of from 50,000 to 200,000 troops. Including the units sent overland and the British forces already in the Province of Canada, British field forces in the province would have amounted to nine infantry battalions and four field artillery batteries by mid-March, 1862, a force equivalent to three brigades (i.e., one division), with four infantry battalions and two field artillery batteries (the equivalent of two more brigades) split between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. There were also 12 batteries of garrison artillery – six in the Province of Canada, three in Nova Scotia, two in New Brunswick and one in Newfoundland—and three companies of engineers in Canada, plus various headquarters, service, and support elements including two battalions of the Military Train Five infantry battalions, three field artillery batteries, and six garrison artillery batteries moved by sea from Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Saint John, New Brunswick, then overland by sleigh from Saint John to Riviere du Loup, Province of Canada, between January 1 and March 13, 1862. The 10-day-long overland passage, and the railway from Riviere du Loup to Ville du Quebec, was within a day's march of the border (in some locations, the overland trail was almost within rifle shot from U.S. territory in Maine), so the British staff planned on deploying infantry to defend the road, if necessary. The 96th Regiment, travelling on the Calcutta, reached New Brunswick in February; the other half were forced to abandon their voyage in the Azores when their ship, the Victoria, nearly sank. The Headquarters staff, who landed in Halifax on 5 January 1862 after the crisis was over, decided to take a quicker route to Montreal and, covering up their military baggage labels to disguise their identities, took a Cunard steamer to Boston from where they caught the railway to Montreal. In Canada, General Williams had toured the available forts and fortifications in November and December. Historian Gordon Warren wrote that Williams found that, "forts were either decaying or nonexistent, and the amount of necessary remedial work was stupefying." To defend Canada, the British government estimated their manpower requirements as 10,000 regulars and 100,000 auxiliary troops, the latter forming garrisons and harassing the enemy's flanks and rear. Canada offered two potential sources of such auxiliary troops: the Sedentary Militia, which consisted of all Canadian males between ages 16 and 60, and volunteer organisations similar to the British rifle volunteers. Bourne summed up these two forces as follows: Williams' task in raising, arming and disciplining this army was not dissimilar to the one that the Union and Confederates had faced at the beginning of the Civil War, a year earlier. In the Province of Canada there were 25,000 arms, 10,000 of them smoothbores, and in the Maritimes there were 13,000 rifles and 7,500 smoothbores: though weapons were readily available in England, the difficulty was in transporting them to Canada. 30,000 Enfield rifles were sent on December 6 with the Melbourne, and by February 10, 1862, the Times reported that modern arms and equipment for 105,550 had arrived in Canada along with 20 million cartridges. On December 2, at Williams' urging, the Canadian government agreed to raise its active volunteer force to 7,500. The risk of war pushed the number of volunteers to 13,390 by May 1862, although the number of "efficient" volunteers was only 11,940. On December 20, Williams also began training one company of 75 men from each battalion of the Sedentary Militia, about 38,000 men in total, with the intention of raising this to 100,000. Warren describes the Sedentary militia on their initial muster, before arms and equipment were served out to them: By the summer of 1862, long after the crisis had subsided, the available Canadian volunteers numbered 16,000; 10,615 infantry; 1,615 cavalry; 1,687 artillery; 202 volunteer engineers besides new corps not yet accepted into service and the militia. Militia returns for 1862 show 470,000 militiamen in Canada, but with the volunteers it was not expected to raise more than 100,000 Canadian troops for active service. It was within the context of a generally unprepared Canadian military that military ground plans were formulated—plans contingent on troops that would not be available until spring 1862. Canada was not prepared for war with the United States. In the War Cabinet there had been disagreement between MacDougall, who believed that the Union would suspend the war and turn its full attention to Canada, and Burgoyne, who believed the war would continue. Both agreed that Canada would face a major ground assault from the United States—an assault that both recognized would be difficult to oppose. The defense depended on "an extensive system of fortifications" and "seizing command of the lakes". While Burgoyne stressed the natural tactical advantages of fighting on the defense out of strong fortifications, the fact was that the fortification plans previously made had never been executed. On the Great Lakes, both Canada and the United States had no naval assets to speak of in November. The British would be vulnerable here at least until the spring of 1862. Invasion plans In order to counter their weaknesses to an American offensive, the idea of a British invasion of the United States from Canada was proposed. It was hoped that a successful invasion would occupy large sections of Maine, including Portland. The British believed that this would require the U.S. to divert troops that would otherwise be occupied with an invasion of Canada directed at its east-west communication and transportation lines. Burgoyne, Seaton, and MacDougall all supported the plan and Lewis recommended it to Palmerston on December 3. No preparations for this attack were ever made, and success depended on the attack being initiated at the very beginning of the war. MacDougall believed that "a strong party is believed to exist in Maine in favor of annexation to Canada" (a belief that Bourne characterizes as "dubious"), and that this party would assist a British invasion. The Admiralty hydrographer, Captain Washington, and Milne both felt that if such a party existed that it would be best to postpone an attack and wait until it became apparent that "the state was inclined to change masters." On December 28, 1861, Governor of the Colony of British Columbia James Douglas wrote to Secretary of State for the Colonies Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle, arguing that Britain should have the opportunity to take parts of the U.S.-held Pacific Northwest while America was preoccupied with the Civil War. He lay out his reasoning in the letter regarding the military strength of both nations in the region: Naval forces It was at sea that the British had their greatest strength and their greatest ability to bring the war to the United States if necessary. The Admiralty, on December 1, wrote to Russell that Milne "should give his particular attention to the measures that may be necessary for the protection of the valuable trade between America, the West Indies, and England". Somerset issued provisional orders to British naval units around the world to be prepared to attack American shipping wherever it might be found. The Cabinet was also agreed that establishing and maintaining a tight blockade was essential to British success. In 1864 Milne wrote that his own plan was: Regarding possible joint operations with the Confederacy, Somerset wrote to Milne on December 15: Somerset was opposed to attacking heavily fortified positions and Milne concurred: The British strongly believed that they had naval superiority over the Union. Although Union ships outnumbered Milne's available force, many of the United States fleet were simply remodeled merchant ships, and the British had an advantage in the number of total guns available. Bourne suggested that this advantage could change during the war as both sides turned more to ironclads. In particular, British ironclads had a deeper draught and could not operate in American coastal waters, leaving a close blockade dependent on wooden ships vulnerable to Union ironclads. Of course, the military option was not needed. If it had been, Warren concluded that, "Britain's world dominance of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had vanished; the Royal Navy, although more powerful than ever, no longer ruled the waves." Military historian Russell Weigley concurs in Warren's analysis and adds: Some contemporaries were less sanguine about the U.S. Navy's prospects in a war with Britain. On 5 July 1861, Lieutenant David Dixon Porter wrote to his old friend, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Gustavus Fox: In February 1862, the Duke of Cambridge, the British Army's commander-in-chief, gave his analysis of British military reaction to the Trent affair: Resolution (December 17, 1861 – January 14, 1862) On December 17, Adams received Seward's November 30 dispatch stating that Wilkes acted without orders, and Adams immediately told Russell. Russell was encouraged by the news, but deferred any action until a formal response to the British communication was received. The note was not released to the public, but rumors were published by the press of the Union intent. Russell refused to confirm the information, and John Bright later asked in Parliament, "How came it that this dispatch was never published for the information of the people of this country?" In Washington, Lyons received the official response and his instructions on December 18. As instructed, Lyons met with Seward on December 19 and described the contents of the British response without actually delivering them. Seward was told that the British would expect a formal reply within seven days of Seward's receipt of the official communication. At Seward's request, Lyons gave him an unofficial copy of the British response which Seward immediately shared with Lincoln. On Saturday December 21 Lyons visited Seward to deliver the "British ultimatum", but after further discussion they agreed that the formal delivery would be postponed for another two days. Lyons and Seward reached an agreement that the seven-day deadline should not be considered as part of the official communication from the British government. Senator Charles Sumner, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and a frequent consultant to President Lincoln on foreign relations, had recognized immediately that the United States must release Mason and Slidell, but he had remained publicly silent during the weeks of high excitement. Sumner had traveled in England and carried on regular correspondence with many political activists in Britain. In December, he received particularly alarming letters from Richard Cobden and John Bright. Bright and Cobden discussed the preparations of the government for war and the widespread doubts, including their own, of the legality of Wilkes' actions. The Duchess of Argyll, a strong antislavery advocate in Great Britain, wrote Sumner that the capture of the envoys was "the maddest act that ever was done, and, unless the [United States] government intend to force us to war, utterly inconceivable." Sumner took these letters to Lincoln, who had just learned of the official British demand. Sumner and Lincoln met daily over the next week and discussed the ramifications of a war with Great Britain. In a December 24 letter Sumner wrote that the concerns were over the British fleet breaking the blockade and establishing their own blockade, French recognition of the Confederacy and movement into Mexico and Latin America, and the post-war (assuming Confederate independence) widespread smuggling of British manufactures via the South that would cripple American manufacturing. Lincoln thought that he could meet directly with Lyons and "show him in five minutes that I am heartily for peace", but Sumner persuaded him of the diplomatic impropriety of such a meeting. Both men ended up agreeing that arbitration might be the best solution, and Sumner was invited to attend a cabinet meeting scheduled for Christmas morning. Relevant information from Europe flowed to Washington right up to the time of the cabinet meeting. On December 25 a letter written on December 6 by Adams was received in Washington. Adams wrote: Two messages from American consuls in Great Britain were also received at the same time. From Manchester the news was that Britain was arming "with the greatest energy" and from London the message was that a "strong fleet" was being built with work going on around the clock, seven days a week. Thurlow Weed, who had moved from Paris to London to ensure that General Scott's letter was circulated, also sent a letter advising Seward that "such prompt and gigantic preparations were never known." The disruption of trade threatened the Union war effort as well as British prosperity. British India was the only source of the saltpeter used in Union gunpowder. Within hours of learning of the Trent Affair Russell moved to halt the export of saltpeter and two days later the Cabinet banned the export of arms, ammunition, military stores and lead. Britain was one of the few sources of weapons designated "first class" by the Union army, and between 1 May 1861 and 31 December 1862 it supplied more than 382,500 muskets and rifles and 49,982,000 percussion caps to the Union. One historian concluded of the Union's source of weapons that "The domestic market, which consisted of few sporting arms and a few hastily manufactured and often inferior rifles and muskets, was soon exhausted… Foreign arms became the major source of supply in the first year and a half of the war… British and European arms allowed the Union army to take the field early in the war." The wider U.S. economy was soon hit by the effects of the Trent crisis. On December 16, the actions of the British cabinet reached New York: the stock exchange fell across the board, with government securities dropping by 2.5 per cent and the sterling exchange rising by two points, and an overall suspension seemed imminent. On December 20, Salmon P. Chase's broker refused to sell some of the secretary's holdings of railway stock because they were almost worthless, and informed him that the business community "trust you will have allayed this excitement with England: one war at a time is enough". A run on New York banks followed the stock market troubles, with $17,000,000 being withdrawn in three weeks, and on December 30 the banks voted by 25–15 to suspend specie payments. Banks across the country soon followed them, with only those of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky continuing to redeem in coin. This suspension left the Treasury unable to pay its suppliers, contractors or soldiers. Though the crisis was resolved soon afterwards, these difficulties were not: on January 10, Lincoln asked Quartermaster General Meigs "General, what shall I do? The people are impatient; Chase has no money, and he tells me he can raise no more; the General of the Armies has typhoid fever. The bottom is out of the tub. What shall I do?" The Treasury was eventually forced to issue fiat money in the form of "greenbacks" to meet its obligations. With all of the negative news, the official response from France also arrived. Dayton had already told Seward of his own meeting with Thouvenel, in which the French foreign minister had told him that Wilkes' actions were "a clear breach of international law" but that France would "remain a spectator in any war between the United States and England". A direct message was received on Christmas Day from Thouvenel (it was actually delivered during the cabinet meeting) urging that the United States release the prisoners and in so doing affirm the rights of neutrals on the seas that France and the United States had repeatedly argued against Great Britain. Seward had prepared a draft of his intended response to the British prior to the cabinet meeting and he was the only one present who had a detailed, organized position to present. His main point in the debate was that releasing the prisoners was consistent with the traditional American position on the right of neutrals, and the public would accept it as such. Both Chase and Attorney General Edward Bates were strongly influenced by the various messages from Europe, and Postmaster Montgomery Blair had been in favor of releasing the captives even before the meeting. Lincoln clung to arbitration but received no support, the primary objection being the time that would be involved and an impatient Britain. No decision was made at the meeting and a new meeting was scheduled for the next day. Lincoln indicated he wished to prepare his own paper for this meeting. The next day Seward's proposal to release the prisoners was accepted without dissent. Lincoln did not submit a counter argument, indicating afterwards to Seward that he had found he was unable to draft a convincing rebuttal to Seward's position. Seward's reply was "a long, highly political document". Seward stated that Wilkes had acted on his own and denied allegations by the British that the seizure itself had been conducted in a discourteous and violent manner. The capture and search of Trent was consistent with international law, and Wilkes' only error was in failing to take Trent to a port for judicial determination. The release of the prisoners was therefore required in order "to do to the British nation just what we have always insisted all nations ought to do to us". Seward's reply, in effect, accepted Wilkes' treatment of the prisoners as contraband and also equated their capture with the British exercise of impressment of British citizens off of neutral ships. This response contradicted itself in a number of ways. Citing the precedent of impressment implied that Mason and Slidell had been removed for their status as American nationals, rather than as contraband; it was a reversal of America's previous position on the topic, referred to a right the British had not exercised for half a century, and—as Mason and Slidell were taken prisoner rather than being conscripted into the navy—was irrelevant to the case. More fundamentally, Seward's stance assumed that a state of war was in effect: otherwise, Federal warships would have had no legal status as belligerents with the right of search. At the time of the Trent Affair, the North was not only refusing to acknowledge a state of war, but was still demanding that the British government withdraw its recognition of Confederate belligerency in the form of the Proclamation of Neutrality. Lyons was summoned to Seward's office on December 27 and presented with the response. Focusing on the release of the prisoners rather than Seward's stated analysis of the situation, Lyons forwarded the message and decided to remain in Washington until further instructions were received. The news of the release was published by December 29 and the public response was generally positive. Among those opposed to the decision was Wilkes who characterized it "as a craven yielding and an abandonment of all the good … done by [their] capture". Mason and Slidell were released from Fort Warren and boarded the Royal Navy screw sloop at Provincetown, Massachusetts. The Rinaldo took them to St. Thomas; on January 14, they left on the British mail packet La Plata bound for Southampton. The news of their release reached Britain on January 8. The British accepted the news as a diplomatic victory. Palmerston noted that Seward's response contained "many doctrines of international law" contrary to the British interpretation, and Russell wrote a detailed response to Seward contesting his legal interpretations, but, by this time, the crisis was over. Aftermath Historian Charles Hubbard describes the Confederate perspective to the resolution of the crisis: The issue of diplomatic recognition of the Confederacy remained alive. It was considered further throughout 1862 by the British and French governments within the context of formally extending an offer, difficult to refuse, for mediation of the war. As the war in America intensified and the bloody results of the Battle of Shiloh became known, the humanitarian reasons for European intervention seemed to have more merit. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September 1862 made it clear that the issue of slavery was now at the forefront of the war. At first the British reaction to the Battle of Antietam and the preliminary announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation was that this would only create a slave rebellion within the South as the war itself became progressively more violent. Only in November 1862 did the momentum for European intervention reverse course. Historians have given special credit to Seward and Lincoln for their handling of the crisis. Seward always favored handing back the captives. Lincoln, realizing the disaster that war would bring, also had to deal with an angry public opinion. Biographer James Randall argues that Lincoln's contribution was decisive, as it lay: in his restraint, his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence, his early softening of State Department's attitude toward Britain, his deference toward Seward and Sumner, his withholding of his own paper prepared for the occasion, his readiness to arbitrate, his golden silence in addressing Congress, his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted, and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America's true position at the same time that full satisfaction was given to a friendly country. See also United Kingdom and the American Civil War References Sources Secondary sources Bourne, Kenneth. "British Preparations for War with the North, 1861–1862", The English Historical Review Vol 76 No 301 (Oct 1961) pp. 600–632 in JSTOR Campbell, W. E. "The Trent Affair of 1861,". The (Canadian) Army Doctrine and Training Bulletin. Vol. 2, No. 4, Winter 1999 pp. 56–65 Carroll, Francis M. "The American Civil War and British Intervention: The Threat of Anglo-American Conflict." Canadian Journal of History (2012) 47 #1 Chartrand, Rene. "Canadian Military Heritage, Vol. II: 1755–1871", Directorate of History, Department of National Defence of Canada, Ottawa, 1985 Donald, David Herbert, Baker, Jean Harvey, and Holt, Michael F. The Civil War and Reconstruction. (2001) Ferris, Norman B. The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis. (1977) ; a major historical monograph. Ferris, Norman B. Desperate Diplomacy: William H. Seward's Foreign Policy, 1861 (1976) Foreman, Amanda. A World on Fire: Britain's Crucial Role in the American Civil War (2011) excerpt Goodwin, Doris Kearns. Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln. (2005) Graebner, Norman A. "Northern Diplomacy and European Neutrality", in Why the North Won the Civil War edited by David Herbert Donald. (1960) (1996 Revision) Hubbard, Charles M. The Burden of Confederate Diplomacy. (1998) Jones, Howard. Union in Peril: The Crisis Over British Intervention in the Civil War. (1992) Jones, Howard. Blue & Gray Diplomacy: A History of Union and Confederate Foreign Relations (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2010) online. Mahin, Dean B. One War at A Time: The International Dimensions of the Civil War. (1999) Monaghan, Jay. Abraham Lincoln Deals with Foreign Affairs. (1945). (1997 edition) Musicant, Ivan. Divided Waters: The Naval History of the Civil War. (1995) Nevins, Allan. The war for the Union: The Improvised War 1861–1862. (1959) Niven, John. Salmon P. Chase: A Biography. (1995) . Peraino, Kevin. "Lincoln vs. Palmerston" in his Lincoln in the World: The Making of a Statesman and the Dawn of American Power (2013) pp. 120–69. Taylor, John M. William Henry Seward: Lincoln's Right Hand. (1991) Walther, Eric H. William Lowndes Yancey: The Coming of the Civil War. (2006) Warren, Gordon H. Fountain of Discontent: The Trent Affair and Freedom of the Seas, (1981) Weigley, Russell F. A Great Civil War. (Indiana University Press, 2000) Primary sources Baxter, James P., III. "Papers Relating to Belligerent and Neutral Rights, 1861–1865". American Historical Review (1928) 34 #1 in JSTOR Baxter, James P., III. "The British Government and Neutral Rights, 1861–1865." American Historical Review (1928) 34 #1 in JSTOR Fairfax, D. Macneil. "Captain Wilkes's Seizure of Mason and Slidell" in Battles and Leaders of the Civil War: North to Antietam edited by Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buel. (1885). Hunt, Capt. O. E. The Ordnance Department of the Federal Army, p. 124–154, New York; 1911 Moody, John Sheldon, et al. The war of the rebellion: a compilation of the official records of the Union and Confederate armies; Series 3 – Volume 1; United States. War Dept., p. 775 Petrie, Martin (Capt., 14th) and James, Col. Sir Henry, RE – Topographical and Statistical Dept., War Office, Organization, Composition, and Strength of the Army of Great Britain'', London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office; by direction of the Secretary of State for War, 1863 (preface dated Nov., 1862) External links Library of Congress Memory Archive for November 8 Harper's Weekly news magazine coverage People involved 1861 in the American Civil War 1861 in international relations 1861 in the United Kingdom November 1861 events Maritime incidents in November 1861 Foreign relations during the American Civil War History of the foreign relations of the United States International maritime incidents United Kingdom–United States relations War scare John Russell, 1st Earl Russell Queen Victoria

427981

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nona%20Hendryx

Nona Hendryx

Nona Bernis Hendryx (born October 9, 1944) is an American vocalist, record producer, songwriter, musician, and author. Hendryx is known for her work as a solo artist as well as for being one-third of the trio Labelle, who had a hit with "Lady Marmalade". In 1977, Hendryx released her self-titled debut solo album, a commercial failure that resulted in Hendryx being released from her recording contract. In the early 1980s, Hendryx sang with experimental funk group Material, achieving the hit "Busting Out". Material produced her second album, Nona (1983), containing the modest Top 30 R&B and Dance charts hit "Keep It Confidential". The album cut "Transformation" became a Hendryx signature song. In 1985, Hendryx wrote and recorded the Grammy nominated song "Rock This House" with Keith Richards from her fourth solo album The Heat (1985). Hendryx went on to record the theme for Moving Violations and "I Sweat (Going Through the Motions)," a commercial hit for Hendryx from the Jamie Lee Curtis film Perfect. She also took part in the Artists United Against Apartheid project with the international hit, "Sun City", from the album of the same title. Hendryx's 1987 single "Why Should I Cry?", from her fifth album became a Top 10 R&B chart hit. She recorded "Transparent" from the 1988 Eddie Murphy vehicle, Coming to America. Hendryx received an Emmy nomination as a composer of People: A Musical Celebration in 1996 for Outstanding Music and Lyrics. She has also appeared on the third season of The L Word. Her music has ranged from soul, funk, and R&B to hard rock, new wave, and new-age. She stated in an interview that her family's last name was originally spelled with an 'i' and that she is a distant cousin of guitarist Jimi Hendrix. Biography Early career Hendryx was born in Trenton, New Jersey in 1944 where she met fellow New Jersey native Sarah Dash and later met Philadelphia-born singer Patricia Holte (Patti LaBelle). After a short-lived tenure as a member of the Del-Capris, Hendryx and Dash formed a singing group with Holte (once the lead singer of a girl group in Philadelphia called The Ordettes). In 1961, Cindy Birdsong, from Camden, New Jersey, became the fourth member of the group, who became the Bluebelles and signed their first deal with Newtown Records. After the release of their debut hit, 1962's "I Sold My Heart to the Junkman", their name altered again to Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles. Hendryx's husky alto differed from Dash's sharp soprano, LaBelle's mezzo-soprano and Birdsong's second soprano. During this tenure, the group became known for their emotional live performances and their renditions of classic standards such as "You'll Never Walk Alone", "Over The Rainbow", and "Danny Boy". The group often found themselves competing against girl groups such as The Chantels, Shirelles, and The Supremes. In 1967, Hendryx, LaBelle, and Dash were shocked to discover that Birdsong had secretly joined the Supremes after Florence Ballard was ousted from the group by Motown. Different members of the group were in touch with Birdsong over the years. Birdsong's relationships with the Bluebelles healed and they came together again for the ceremony when the group won an R&B Foundation Lifetime Achievement Award in 1999. Labelle For the next three years, the group struggled to compete against the changing musical landscape for which their girl group sound had fallen out of favor with popular audiences. In 1971, they moved to England, where they had a cult fan base, and on the advice of Vicki Wickham, changed their name to Labelle and ditched the dresses and bouffant wigs for jeans and Afros. Releasing transitional albums including 1971's Labelle and 1972's Moon Shadow, the group recorded material that included sexual and political subject matter – unheard of for an all-female black group. The transition was hard for lead singer LaBelle, who was a fan of the group's early-era ballads, but she eventually gave in. Member Dash remained neutral throughout the tenure of the group. Shortly after releasing Labelle, the group became the opening act for The Who, whose producer Kit Lambert had produced the group's Warner debut. They also opened for Laura Nyro during that same time and sang backup on her album Gonna Take a Miracle. Beginning with the Moon Shadow album, Hendryx became the chief songwriter for most of the group's records while LaBelle and Dash occasionally wrote their own material. After successfully opening for The Rolling Stones during the group's American tour in 1973, the group released Pressure Cookin', where they once again adopted a new look as "glam rock, space-age divas". As a songwriter, Hendryx subsequently wrote powerful ballads ("You Turn Me On" and "Nightbird" from Nightbirds, "Going Down Makes Me Shiver" from Labelle's final album, Chameleon), and a wealth of more uptempo numbers ("Space Children," "Messin' with My Mind," "Gypsy Moths," and "Who's Watching the Watcher"). Her themes were unconventional, diverse, and often experimental. Her composition "A Man in a Trenchcoat (Voodoo)" from Chameleon also marked Hendryx's first time singing lead vocal on an album. In 1974, the group hit gold with the release of Nightbirds following the release of the smash hit "Lady Marmalade". In her memoir Don't Block the Blessings, Labelle frontwoman Patti LaBelle attributed the band's 1976 breakup to musical and personal tensions within the group. Labelle, Dash, and Hendryx all embarked on solo careers; Wickham stayed on with Hendryx to manage her solo career. Solo career In 1977, Hendryx released her first solo album, a self-titled collection. A blend of soul and hard rock, it contained notable tracks such as her cover of "Winning" and the ballad "Leaving Here Today". It quickly disappeared from the shelves, and Hendryx was dropped from Epic. Subsequently, she recorded four singles for Arista (London), which also did not achieve chart success. She did find success doing session work during this period, most notably providing background vocals for Talking Heads and touring with them, appearing first at the major Heatwave festival in August 1980. She contributed to Dusty Springfield's album It Begins Again in 1978 (the first of Springfield's multiple attempts at a comeback) by writing the song "Checkmate". In the early 1980s, Hendryx fronted her own progressive art rock group, Zero Cool, which included guitarist Naux (China Shop, Richard Hell), bassist Michael Allison (Darshan Ambient), guitarist Kevin Fullen and drummer Jimmy Allington. Simultaneously, she sang with experimental funk group Material, achieving a giant club hit with "Busting Out". She had two other major club hits soon after: a dance remake of The Supremes' "Love Is Like an Itching in My Heart," and, in a lead vocal guest spot for the Cage, "Do What You Wanna Do". Material also produced her second album Nona in 1983. The hip, contemporary dance sound of this album proved to be more charts-compatible, with the disco music times, and the single "Keep It Confidential" becoming a modest R&B hit written by Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Kent, Ellen Foley, and a remix of "B-boys" finding major success on the dance charts. "Transformation" became a Hendryx staple, and later was covered by Fierce Ruling Diva. Another particularly noteworthy track on the album is the ballad "Design for Living," which featured guests Laurie Anderson, Gina Shock of The Go-Go's, Valerie Simpson of Ashford & Simpson, Tina Weymouth of Tom Tom Club and Talking Heads, Nancy Wilson of Heart, and former bandmate Patti LaBelle. In the mid-1980s, Hendryx was recruited by RCA to record songs for various soundtracks, including the theme for Moving Violations; "I Sweat (Going Through the Motions)," a commercial hit for Hendryx from the Jamie Lee Curtis film Perfect; and "Transparent" from the Eddie Murphy vehicle, Coming to America. Her album The Art of Defense was released in 1984. In 1985, Hendryx wrote and recorded "Rock This House" with Keith Richards from her album The Heat. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female at the 28th Grammy Awards. The same year, the MTV broadcast of the video "I Need Love" co-written by Jean Beauvoir, stirred some controversy for featuring drag queens. As a result, it quickly was removed from MTV's playlist. In the same year, she also took part in the Artists United Against Apartheid project with the song, "Sun City", from the album of the same title. The song was recorded along with other artists Bruce Springsteen, Little Steven, Bono from U2, Eddie Kendricks, Hall & Oates, Bobby Womack, Lou Reed and many others. This was one of the greatest and strongest protest songs against South Africa's Apartheid during those days. Her biggest commercial success came with 1987's single "Why Should I Cry?", a top 5 R&B hit which also reached No. 58 on the Billboard 100. The accompanying album, Female Trouble, boasted an impressive list of contributors, including Dan Hartman (who also served as a producer), Peter Gabriel, Prince ("Baby Go Go"), George Clinton, David Van Tieghem and Mavis Staples. Around this time, she became a member of the Black Rock Coalition, founded by Vernon Reid of Living Colour. Hendryx took a detour from commercial music with Skin Diver, a new age record produced with long-time Tangerine Dream member Peter Baumann. The album generally was greeted with positive feedback from critics, but was commercially unsuccessful. The title track did attract some attention, as did "Women Who Fly", which later was covered by Jefferson Starship. In addition to the duet-album You Have to Cry Sometime with Billy Vera in 1992 and a couple of compilation-only tracks, Hendryx has recorded more than five albums worth of music, but she has been unable to release any of it due to lack of interest from major and independent record labels. Her Epic, RCA and EMI albums have been out of print and only recently attracted the attention of specialist reissue labels, but a greatest hits album titled Transformation was released in 1999 by Razor & Tie. Her 1977 debut solo album was issued for the first time on CD by the T-Bird imprint of the UK reissue label Cherry Red in the fall of 2010. UK R&B reissue label Funky Town Grooves released The Heat on CD in late 2011, which included three bonus tracks. Funky Town Grooves announced plans to release both Nona and The Art of Defense in early 2012. Each CD is to include seven bonus tracks. Hendryx also dabbled in acting. She wrote and performed the theme for Landlord Blues (1987), while also having a small part in the film as attorney Sally Viscuso. She played herself in the late-1990s Pam Grier series Linc's, and at the end of the show, accompanied herself on the piano for "Lift Every Voice". Most recently, she appeared in the third season of The L Word, which closed with Grier, Hendryx, and the trio BETTY singing a cover of the Hendryx track "Transformation". Hendryx has been involved in many musical collaborations, both for her vocals and her songwriting. One of her early collaborations was with Jerry Harrison's (Talking Heads) The Red and the Black album in 1981. In 1992, she recorded a duet with Billy Crawford, "Urgently in Love,". In 1998, she performed in the video of the rap hit "It's a Party" with Bounty Killer. She has written songs for Dusty Springfield and Ultra Nate. She has produced albums for Lisa Lisa and The Bush Tetras. Other artists with whom she has recorded with over the years include David Johansen, Yoko Ono, Cameo, Talking Heads (3 albums:Speaking in Tongues, Remain in Light), Garland Jeffreys, Dan Hartman, Afrika Bambaata (performing a duet of "Giving Him Something He Can Feel" with Boy George), Rough Trade, Curtis Hairston, and Graham Parker on "Soul Christmas". In the beginning of the current decade, Hendryx was asked to appear on two of Paul Haslinger's albums. She sang lead vocals for two tracks "Higher Purpose" and "Beginning to End", featured on the soundtrack for the Showtime series Sleeper Cell. Later career and Labelle reunions Hendryx still tours and has written music for the theatre, songs for the play with music Blue. Sandra St. Victor (The Family Stand) recruited daughters of famous African American soul/blues icons – including Lalah Hathaway, Simone, Indira Khan, and Leah McCrae – together with "spiritual daughters" Joyce Kennedy, Caron Wheeler, and Nona, to form the group Daughters of Soul, which has enjoyed much success, especially on the European tour circuit. Hendryx formed Rhythmbank, her own record label with Bob Banks, in 2005. They signed and released several EPs and albums, the Showtime series Sleeper Cell, and a gospel album by protégé Najiyah Threatt. Since the breakup of Labelle, Patti, Sarah, and Nona have reunited on occasion. These reunions include Patti LaBelle's "Live in New York" video, the dance hit "Turn It Out" from the soundtrack To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar (1995), and two television specials. In January 2006, Labelle again reunited to record "Dear Rosa," a tribute to civil rights leader Rosa Parks. Labelle also performed the theme song for the soundtrack for the film Preaching to the Choir, with Nona being the composer of the film's soundtrack. In late 2008, Labelle released their comeback album Back to Now, and went on a successful concert tour that carried through the spring of 2009. Speaking in April 2009 to noted UK soul/R&B writer Pete Lewis of the award-winning Blues & Soul, Hendryx discussed the background to Labelle reuniting for Back to Now: "Well, there were lots of ongoing times when we'd discussed doing it. And a lot of it was really down to the fact that the fans were DEMANDING that we did it! But, rather than just going back and doing what we'd done in the past, we did want to be able to make an album of new music before coming back out together. And it was really once we'd recorded the song 'Dear Rosa', together that Patti finally became convinced that yes, we should make a new record and then go out and tour behind it. So I'd say basically our reunion was down to two things – pressure from the fans; plus Patti hearing a sound again that she loved and hadn't heard for many years." Hendryx has written a children's book titled The Brownies. On May 27, 2010, Hendryx performed selections from Skindiver, a sci-fi musical she is co-writing with Charles Randolph-Wright. The surprise show was at Busboys and Poets in Washington DC and sponsored by Arena Stage. Hendryx & Wright presented two late-night staged readings of Skindiver at Arena Stage in 2011.In September 2012, Hendryx's digital-only album, Mutatis Mutandis, received a CD release. To promote the album, Hendryx appeared on the BBC's Later... with Jools Holland on 28 November 2012, where she performed two tracks, Let's Give Love A Try, and Temple Of Heaven (the latter only being available to watch online via BBC iPlayer). In February 2013, she appeared as a special guest as part of The World of Captain Beefheart, a tribute concert arranged by Dutch radio presenter, Co de Kloet, and featuring Gary Lucas with the 60 piece Metropole Orchestra. Hendryx released several singles in 2016, including a collaboration with American DJ and production duo, Soul Clap, which resulted in the single, Shine (This Is It). Shine (This Is It) was included on Soul Clap's self-titled album in October 2016, and an EP featuring different remixes of the track was released the following year. Hendryx also collaborated with guitarist, Gary Lucas, that same year, which resulted in the album, The World of Captain Beefheart, a collection of cover versions of songs by avant-garde artist Captain Beefheart. In February 2018, Hendryx released an EP, Keep Funkin, which was produced by Soul Clap, and featured contributions from Nile Rogers and Jason Miles. Hendryx also contributed vocals to another track, "Peel Back", produced by FSQ, which was included as a bonus track on digital versions of the Keep Funkin EP (as well as FSQ's own album in 2020). Personal life and activism Hendryx has been living in the Upper West Side of New York City since the early 1970s. Her long-term partner is English talent manager Vicki Wickham, and she discussed her bisexuality in an interview with The Advocate magazine. Hendryx is a gay-rights activist; in summer 2008, she joined Cyndi Lauper on her True Colors Tour, raising awareness of discrimination and the LGBT community. Discography Albums Nona Hendryx, 1977, Epic Nona, 1983, RCA Records (R&B No. 25, Pop No. 83) The Art of Defense, 1984, RCA (Pop No. 167) The Heat, 1985, RCA Female Trouble, 1987, EMI (R&B No. 30, Pop No. 96) Skin Diver 1989, Private Music You Have to Cry Sometime (with Billy Vera), 1992, Shanachie It's Time (with Kahil El'Zabar's Ethnics), 2011, Katalyst Entertainment Mutatis Mutandis, 2012, Righteous Babe Records The World of Captain Beefheart (with Gary Lucas), 2017, Knitting Factory Records Compilations Transformation – The Best of Nona Hendryx 1999, Razor & Tie Rough & Tough 2001, EMI (Basically, a repackaged version of 1987's "Female Trouble" album with 2 extended/dance mixes added) Singles and EPs "Everybody Wants to Be Somebody", 1977, Epic "You're the Only One That I Ever Needed", 1979, Arista Records "Love It", 1979, Arista "Snakes Alive", 1979, Arista "Love Is Like an Itching in My Heart", 1980, Barclay "Busting Out", 1980, Island Records "Holiday", 1980, Island Records "Do What You Wanna Do", 1982, Metropolis "Do What You Wanna Do", 1982, Hot Tracks Remix, 1983 "Keep It Confidential", 1983, RCA (R&B No. 22, Club No. 25, Pop No. 91) (written by Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Kent, Ellen Foley) "Keep It Confidential", 1983, Hot Tracks Remix, 1983 (written by Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Kent, Ellen Foley) "Transformation", 1983, RCA (R&B No. 40) "B-Boys", 1983, RCA (Club No. 25) "I Sweat (Going Through The Motions)", 1984, RCA (R&B No. 28) "To the Bone", 1984, RCA "Heart of a Woman", 1984, RCA "If Looks Could Kill (D.O.A.)", 1985, RCA (R&B No. 71) "Sun City", 1985, Manhattan Records (Billboard Hot 100 chart No. 38, UK Singles Chart No. 21) "I Need Love", 1985, RCA (R&B No. 68) "Baby Go-Go", 1987, EMI (R&B No. 60) "Why Should I Cry?", 1987, EMI, (R&B No. 5, Club No. 6, Pop No. 58, UK No. 60) "Winds of Change (Mandela to Mandela)", 1987, EMI "SkinDiver", 1989, Private Music Records "Women Who Fly", 1989, Private Music Records "Urgently in Love", (with Billy Crawford), 1998 "It's a Party", (with Bounty Killer), 1998 "The Ballad of Rush Limbaugh", 2010 "The Tea Party", 2011 "In Praise of Older Men (Father, Brother, Lover, Son)", 2016 "Walk with Me", 2016 "Shine (This Is It) (With Soul Clap)", 2016 "Shine (This Is It) (With Soul Clap) (EP)", 2017 "Keep Funkin'", 2018, Soul Clap Records Filmography Film Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, 1978, Cameo in finale, (MCA film) Heartbreakers, 1984 (song "Transformation") Landlord Blues, 1987, composer (musical score), vocalist (title track), acting (as attorney "Sally Viscuso") Gospa, (Composer) 1995, (MCA film) Preaching to the Choir, a.k.a. On the One, 2006, (Composer) Television People: A Musical Celebration, (composer), 1996 The L Word, season 3 episode 8 (as herself), 2006 Theater Blue, (Composer), 2001 The Who's Tommy ("The Acid Queen"), 2008, Ricardo Montalbán Theatre Radio Playback '78, (interview) 1978, (radio) Interchords, (interview) 1978, (radio) References External links Official website Nona Hendryx Interview at Allaboutjazz.com 1944 births Living people Musicians from Trenton, New Jersey 20th-century African-American women singers African-American rock musicians American contraltos American women pop singers American pop rock singers American women rock singers American funk singers American hard rock musicians American new-age musicians American new wave musicians American rhythm and blues singers American soul singers Bisexual singers Bisexual songwriters Bisexual women musicians Women new wave singers Labelle members African-American LGBT people LGBT people from New Jersey American LGBT rights activists American LGBT singers American LGBT songwriters Private Music artists Musicians from Philadelphia Singers from New Jersey Singers from Pennsylvania ZE Records artists 21st-century American women singers 21st-century American singers 20th-century American LGBT people 21st-century American LGBT people 21st-century African-American women singers American bisexual writers

427992

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20hammer

Water hammer

Hydraulic shock (colloquial: water hammer; fluid hammer) is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid in motion, usually a liquid but sometimes also a gas is forced to stop or change direction suddenly; a momentum change. This phenomenon commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave propagates in the pipe. This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe rupture or collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, blowoff valves, and other features. The effects can be avoided by ensuring that no valves will close too quickly with significant flow, but there are many situations that can cause the effect. Rough calculations can be made using the Zhukovsky (Joukowsky) equation, or more accurate ones using the method of characteristics. History In the 1st century B.C., Marcus Vitruvius Pollio described the effect of water hammer in lead pipes and stone tubes of the Roman public water supply. Water hammer was exploited before there was even a word for it. The Alhambra, built by Nasrid Sultan Ibn al-Ahmar of Granada beginning AD1238, used a hydram to raise water. Through a first reservoir, filled by a channel from the Darro River, water emptied via a large vertical channel into a second reservoir beneath, creating a whirlpool that in turn propelled water through a much smaller pipe up six metres whilst most water drained into a second, slightly larger pipe. In 1772, Englishman John Whitehurst built a hydraulic ram for a home in Cheshire, England. In 1796, French inventor Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740–1810) built a hydraulic ram for his paper mill in Voiron. In French and Italian, the terms for "water hammer" come from the hydraulic ram: coup de bélier (French) and colpo d'ariete (Italian) both mean "blow of the ram". As the 19th century witnessed the installation of municipal water supplies, water hammer became a concern to civil engineers. Water hammer also interested physiologists who were studying the circulatory system. Although it was prefigured in work by Thomas Young, the theory of water hammer is generally considered to have begun in 1883 with the work of German physiologist Johannes von Kries (1853–1928), who was investigating the pulse in blood vessels. However, his findings went unnoticed by civil engineers. Kries's findings were subsequently derived independently in 1898 by the Russian fluid dynamicist Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky (1847–1921), in 1898 by the American civil engineer Joseph Palmer Frizell (1832–1910), and in 1902 by the Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi (1856–1941). Cause and effect Water flowing through a pipe has momentum. If the moving water is suddenly stopped - such as by closing a valve downstream of the flowing water, the pressure can rise suddenly with a resulting shock wave. In domestic plumbing this shock wave is experienced as a loud banging resembling a hammering noise. Water hammer can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is sufficiently high. Air traps or stand pipes (open at the top) are sometimes added as dampers to water systems to absorb the potentially damaging forces caused by the moving water. For example, the water traveling along a tunnel or pipeline to a turbine in a hydroelectric generating station may be slowed suddenly if a valve in the path is closed too quickly. If there is of tunnel of diameter full of water travelling at , that represents approximately of kinetic energy. This energy can be dissipated by a vertical surge shaft into which the water flows which is open at the top. As the water rises up the shaft its kinetic energy is converted into potential energy, avoiding sudden high pressure. At some hydroelectric power stations, such as the Saxon Falls Hydro Power Plant In Michigan, what looks like a water tower is in fact a surge drum. In residential plumbing systems, water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine or toilet suddenly shuts off water flow. The result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging (as the shock wave travels back and forth in the plumbing system), or as some shuddering. Other potential causes of water hammer: A pump stopping A check valve which closes quickly (i.e., "check valve slam") due to the flow in a pipe reversing direction on loss of motive power, such as a pump stopping. "Non-slam" check valves can be used to reduce the pressure surge. Filling an empty pipe that has a restriction such as a partially open valve or an orifice that allows air to pass easily as the pipe rapidly fills, but with the pressure increasing once full the water encounters the restriction. Related phenomena Steam hammer can occur in steam systems when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal section of the piping. The steam forcing the liquid water along the pipe forms a "slug" which impacts a valve of pipe fitting, creating a loud hammering noise and high pressure. Vacuum caused by condensation from thermal shock can also cause a steam hammer. Steam hammer can be minimized by using sloped pipes and installing steam traps. On turbocharged internal combustion engines, a "gas hammer" can take place when the throttle is closed while the turbocharger is forcing air into the engine. There is no shockwave but the pressure can still rapidly increase to damaging levels or cause compressor surge. A pressure relief valve placed before the throttle prevents the air from surging against the throttle body by diverting it elsewhere, thus protecting the turbocharger from pressure damage. This valve can either recirculate the air into the turbocharger's intake (recirculation valve), or it can blow the air into the atmosphere and produce the distinctive hiss-flutter of an aftermarket turbocharger (blowoff valve). Mitigation measures Water hammers have caused accidents and fatalities, but usually damage is limited to breakage of pipes or appendages. An engineer should always assess the risk of a pipeline burst. Pipelines transporting hazardous liquids or gases warrant special care in design, construction, and operation. Hydroelectric power plants especially must be carefully designed and maintained because the water hammer can cause water pipes to fail catastrophically. The following characteristics may reduce or eliminate water hammer: Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by fitting a regulator. Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing charts for some applications recommend flow velocity at or below . Fit slowly closing valves. Toilet fill valves are available in a quiet fill type that closes quietly. Non-slam check valves do not rely on fluid flow to close and will do so before the water flow reaches significant velocity. High pipeline pressure rating (does not reduce the effect but protects against damage). Good pipeline control (start-up and shut-down procedures). Water towers (used in many drinking water systems) or surge tanks help maintain steady flow rates and trap large pressure fluctuations. Air vessels such as expansion tanks and some types of hydraulic accumulators work in much the same way as water towers, but are pressurized. They typically have an air cushion above the fluid level in the vessel, which may be regulated or separated by a bladder. Sizes of air vessels may be up to hundreds of cubic meters on large pipelines. They come in many shapes, sizes and configurations. Such vessels often are called accumulators or expansion tanks. A hydropneumatic device similar in principle to a shock absorber called a 'Water Hammer Arrestor' can be installed between the water pipe and the machine, to absorb the shock and stop the banging. Air valves often remediate low pressures at high points in the pipeline. Though effective, sometimes large numbers of air valves need be installed. These valves also allow air into the system, which is often unwanted. Blowoff valves may be used as an alternative. Shorter branch pipe lengths. Shorter lengths of straight pipe, i.e. add elbows, expansion loops. Water hammer is related to the speed of sound in the fluid, and elbows reduce the influences of pressure waves. Arranging the larger piping in loops that supply shorter smaller run-out pipe branches. With looped piping, lower velocity flows from both sides of a loop can serve a branch. Flywheel on a pump. Pumping station bypass. Magnitude of the pulse One of the first to successfully investigate the water hammer problem was the Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi. Water hammer can be analyzed by two different approaches—rigid column theory, which ignores compressibility of the fluid and elasticity of the walls of the pipe, or by a full analysis that includes elasticity. When the time it takes a valve to close is long compared to the propagation time for a pressure wave to travel the length of the pipe, then rigid column theory is appropriate; otherwise considering elasticity may be necessary. Below are two approximations for the peak pressure, one that considers elasticity, but assumes the valve closes instantaneously, and a second that neglects elasticity but includes a finite time for the valve to close. Instant valve closure; compressible fluid The pressure profile of the water hammer pulse can be calculated from the Joukowsky equation So for a valve closing instantaneously, the maximal magnitude of the water hammer pulse is where ΔP is the magnitude of the pressure wave (Pa), ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3), a0 is the speed of sound in the fluid (m/s), and Δv is the change in the fluid's velocity (m/s). The pulse comes about due to Newton's laws of motion and the continuity equation applied to the deceleration of a fluid element. Equation for wave speed As the speed of sound in a fluid is , the peak pressure depends on the fluid compressibility if the valve is closed abruptly. where a = wave speed, B = equivalent bulk modulus of elasticity of the system fluid–pipe, ρ = density of the fluid, K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid, E = elastic modulus of the pipe, D = internal pipe diameter, t = pipe wall thickness, c = dimensionless parameter due to on wave speed. Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid When the valve is closed slowly compared to the transit time for a pressure wave to travel the length of the pipe, the elasticity can be neglected, and the phenomenon can be described in terms of inertance or rigid column theory: Assuming constant deceleration of the water column (dv/dt = v/t), this gives where: F = force [N], m = mass of the fluid column [kg], a = acceleration [m/s2], P = pressure [Pa], A = pipe cross-section [m2], ρ = fluid density [kg/m3], L = pipe length [m], v = flow velocity [m/s], t = valve closure time [s]. The above formula becomes, for water and with imperial unit, For practical application, a safety factor of about 5 is recommended: where P1 is the inlet pressure in psi, V is the flow velocity in ft/s, t is the valve closing time in seconds, and L is the upstream pipe length in feet. Hence, we can say that the magnitude of the water hammer largely depends upon the time of closure, elastic components of pipe & fluid properties. Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer When a valve with a volumetric flow rate Q is closed, an excess pressure ΔP is created upstream of the valve, whose value is given by the Joukowsky equation: In this expression: ΔP is the overpressurization in Pa; Q is the volumetric flow in m3/s; Z is the hydraulic impedance, expressed in kg/m4/s. The hydraulic impedance Z of the pipeline determines the magnitude of the water hammer pulse. It is itself defined by where ρ the density of the liquid, expressed in kg/m3; A cross sectional area of the pipe, m2; B equivalent modulus of compressibility of the liquid in the pipe, expressed in Pa. The latter follows from a series of hydraulic concepts: compressibility of the liquid, defined by its adiabatic compressibility modulus Bl, resulting from the equation of state of the liquid generally available from thermodynamic tables; the elasticity of the walls of the pipe, which defines an equivalent bulk modulus of compressibility for the solid Bs. In the case of a pipe of circular cross-section whose thickness t is small compared to the diameter D, the equivalent modulus of compressibility is given by the formula , in which E is the Young's modulus (in Pa) of the material of the pipe; possibly compressibility Bg of gas dissolved in the liquid, defined by γ being the specific heat ratio of the gas, α the rate of ventilation (the volume fraction of undissolved gas), and P the pressure (in Pa). Thus, the equivalent elasticity is the sum of the original elasticities: As a result, we see that we can reduce the water hammer by: increasing the pipe diameter at constant flow, which reduces the flow velocity and hence the deceleration of the liquid column; employing the solid material as tight as possible with respect to the internal fluid bulk (solid Young modulus low with respect to fluid bulk modulus); introducing a device that increases the flexibility of the entire hydraulic system, such as a hydraulic accumulator; where possible, increasing the fraction of undissolved gases in the liquid. Dynamic equations The water hammer effect can be simulated by solving the following partial differential equations. where V is the fluid velocity inside pipe, is the fluid density, B is the equivalent bulk modulus, and f is the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor. Column separation Column separation is a phenomenon that can occur during a water-hammer event. If the pressure in a pipeline drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation will occur (some of the liquid vaporizes, forming a bubble in the pipeline, keeping the pressure close to the vapor pressure). This is most likely to occur at specific locations such as closed ends, high points or knees (changes in pipe slope). When subcooled liquid flows into the space previously occupied by vapor the area of contact between the vapor and the liquid increases. This causes the vapor to condense into the liquid reducing the pressure in the vapor space. The liquid on either side of the vapor space is then accelerated into this space by the pressure difference. The collision of the two columns of liquid (or of one liquid column if at a closed end) causes a large and nearly instantaneous rise in pressure. This pressure rise can damage hydraulic machinery, individual pipes and supporting structures. Many repetitions of cavity formation and collapse may occur in a single water-hammer event. Simulation software Most water hammer software packages use the method of characteristics to solve the differential equations involved. This method works well if the wave speed does not vary in time due to either air or gas entrainment in a pipeline. The wave method (WM) is also used in various software packages. WM lets operators analyze large networks efficiently. Many commercial and non-commercial packages are available. Software packages vary in complexity, dependent on the processes modeled. The more sophisticated packages may have any of the following features: Multiphase flow capabilities. An algorithm for cavitation growth and collapse. Unsteady friction: the pressure waves dampen as turbulence is generated and due to variations in the flow velocity distribution. Varying bulk modulus for higher pressures (water becomes less compressible). Fluid structure interaction: the pipeline reacts on the varying pressures and causes pressure waves itself. Applications The water hammer principle can be used to create a simple water pump called a hydraulic ram. Leaks can sometimes be detected using water hammer. Enclosed air pockets can be detected in pipelines. The water hammer from a liquid jet created by a collapsing microcavity is studied for potential applications noninvasive transdermal drug delivery. See also Blood hammer Cavitation Fluid dynamics Hydraulophone – musical instruments employing water and other fluids Impact force Transient (civil engineering) Watson's water hammer pulse References External links What Is Water Hammer and Why Is It Important That You Prevent it? Use accumulator to prevent water hammer in pipeline What Is Water Hammer/Steam Hammer? "Water hammer"—YouTube (animation) "Water Hammer Theory Explained"—YouTube; with examples Hydraulics Irrigation Plumbing Physical phenomena

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Fodor

Jerry Fodor

Jerry Alan Fodor (; April 22, 1935 – November 29, 2017) was an American philosopher and the author of many crucial works in the fields of philosophy of mind and cognitive science. His writings in these fields laid the groundwork for the modularity of mind and the language of thought hypotheses, and he is recognized as having had "an enormous influence on virtually every portion of the philosophy of mind literature since 1960." At the time of his death in 2017, he held the position of State of New Jersey Professor of Philosophy, Emeritus, at Rutgers University, and had taught previously at the City University of New York Graduate Center and MIT. Early life and education Jerry Fodor was born in New York City on April 22, 1935, and was of Jewish descent. He received his A.B. degree (summa cum laude) from Columbia University in 1956, where he wrote a senior thesis on Søren Kierkegaard and studied with Sidney Morgenbesser, and a PhD in philosophy from Princeton University in 1960, under the direction of Hilary Putnam. Academic career From 1959 to 1986 Fodor was on the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. From 1986 to 1988 he was a full professor at the City University of New York (CUNY). From 1988 until his retirement in 2016 he was State of New Jersey Professor of philosophy and cognitive science at Rutgers University in New Jersey, where he was emeritus. Besides his interest in philosophy, Fodor passionately followed opera and regularly wrote popular columns for the London Review of Books on that and other topics. Philosophical work Fodor argued that mental states, such as beliefs and desires, are relations between individuals and mental representations. He maintained that these representations can only be correctly explained in terms of a language of thought (LOT) in the mind. Furthermore, this language of thought itself is an actually existing thing that is codified in the brain and not just a useful explanatory tool. Fodor adhered to a species of functionalism, maintaining that thinking and other mental processes consist primarily of computations operating on the syntax of the representations that make up the language of thought. For Fodor, significant parts of the mind, such as perceptual and linguistic processes, are structured in terms of modules, or "organs", which he defines by their causal and functional roles. These modules are relatively independent of each other and of the "central processing" part of the mind, which has a more global and less "domain specific" character. Fodor suggests that the character of these modules permits the possibility of causal relations with external objects. This, in turn, makes it possible for mental states to have contents that are about things in the world. The central processing part, on the other hand, takes care of the logical relations between the various contents and inputs and outputs. Although Fodor originally rejected the idea that mental states must have a causal, externally determined aspect, in his later years he devoted much of his writing and study to the philosophy of language because of this problem of the meaning and reference of mental contents. His contributions in this area include the so-called asymmetric causal theory of reference and his many arguments against semantic holism. Fodor strongly opposed reductive accounts of the mind. He argued that mental states are multiple realizable and that there is a hierarchy of explanatory levels in science such that the generalizations and laws of a higher-level theory of psychology or linguistics, for example, cannot be captured by the low-level explanations of the behavior of neurons and synapses. He also emerged as a prominent critic of what he characterized as the ill-grounded Darwinian and neo-Darwinian theories of natural selection. Fodor and the nature of mental states In his article "Propositional Attitudes" (1978), Fodor introduced the idea that mental states are relations between individuals and mental representations. Despite the changes in many of his positions over the years, the idea that intentional attitudes are relational has remained unchanged from its original formulation up to . In that article, he attempted to show how mental representations, specifically sentences in the language of thought, are necessary to explain this relational nature of mental states. Fodor considers two alternative hypotheses. The first completely denies the relational character of mental states and the second considers mental states as two-place relations. The latter position can be further subdivided into the Carnapian view that such relations are between individuals and sentences of natural languages and the Fregean view that they are between individuals and the propositions expressed by such sentences. Fodor's own position, instead, is that to properly account for the nature of intentional attitudes, it is necessary to employ a three-place relation between individuals, representations and propositional contents. Considering mental states as three-place relations in this way, representative realism makes it possible to hold together all of the elements necessary to the solution of this problem. Further, mental representations are not only the objects of beliefs and desires, but are also the domain over which mental processes operate. They can be considered the ideal link between the syntactic notion of mental content and the computational notion of functional architecture. These notions are, according to Fodor, our best explanation of mental processes. The functional architecture of the mind Following in the path paved by linguist Noam Chomsky, Fodor developed a strong commitment to the idea of psychological nativism. Nativism postulates the innateness of many cognitive functions and concepts. For Fodor, this position emerges naturally out of his criticism of behaviourism and associationism. These criticisms also led him to the formulation of his hypothesis of the modularity of the mind. Historically, questions about mental architecture have been divided into two contrasting theories about the nature of the faculties. The first can be described as a "horizontal" view because it sees mental processes as interactions between faculties which are not domain specific. For example, a judgment remains a judgment whether it is judgment about a perceptual experience or a judgment about the understanding of language. The second can be described as a "vertical" view because it claims that our mental faculties are domain specific, genetically determined, associated with distinct neurological structures, and so on. The vertical vision can be traced back to the 19th century movement called phrenology and its founder Franz Joseph Gall. Gall claimed that mental faculties could be associated with specific physical areas of the brain. Hence, someone's level of intelligence, for example, could be literally "read off" from the size of a particular bump on his posterior parietal lobe. This simplistic view of modularity has been disproved over the course of the last century. Fodor revived the idea of modularity, without the notion of precise physical localizability, in the 1980s, and became one of the most vocal proponents of it with the 1983 publication of his monograph The Modularity of Mind, where he points to Gall through Bernard Hollander, which is the author cited in the references instead, more specifically Hollander's In search of the soul. Two properties of modularity in particular, informational encapsulation and domain specificity, make it possible to tie together questions of functional architecture with those of mental content. The ability to elaborate information independently from the background beliefs of individuals that these two properties allow Fodor to give an atomistic and causal account of the notion of mental content. The main idea, in other words, is that the properties of the contents of mental states can depend, rather than exclusively on the internal relations of the system of which they are a part, also on their causal relations with the external world. Fodor's notions of mental modularity, informational encapsulation and domain specificity were taken up and expanded, much to Fodor's chagrin, by cognitive scientists such as Zenon Pylyshyn and evolutionary psychologists such as Steven Pinker and Henry Plotkin, among many others. But Fodor complained that Pinker, Plotkin and other members of what he sarcastically called "the New Synthesis" have taken modularity and similar ideas way too far. He insisted that the mind is not "massively modular" and that, contrary to what these researchers would have us believe, the mind is still a very long way from having been explained by the computational, or any other, model. Intentional realism In A Theory of Content and Other Essays (1990), Fodor takes up another of his central notions: the question of the reality of mental representations. Fodor needs to justify representational realism to justify the idea that the contents of mental states are expressed in symbolic structures such as those of the LOT. Fodor's criticism of Dennett Fodor starts with some criticisms of so-called standard realism. This view is characterized, according to Fodor, by two distinct assertions. One of these regards the internal structure of mental states and asserts that such states are non-relational. The other concerns the semantic theory of mental content and asserts that there is an isomorphism between the causal roles of such contents and the inferential web of beliefs. Among modern philosophers of mind, the majority view seems to be that the first of these two assertions is false, but that the second is true. Fodor departs from this view in accepting the truth of the first thesis but rejecting strongly the truth of the second. In particular, Fodor criticizes the instrumentalism of Daniel Dennett. Dennett maintains that it is possible to be realist with regard to intentional states without having to commit oneself to the reality of mental representations. Now, according to Fodor, if one remains at this level of analysis, then there is no possibility of explaining why the intentional strategy works:There is ... a standard objection to instrumentalism ...: it is difficult to explain why the psychology of beliefs/desires works so well, if the psychology of beliefs/desires is, in fact, false.... As Putnam, Boyd and others have emphasized, from the predictive successes of a theory to the truth of that theory there is surely a presumed inference; and this is even more likely when ... we are dealing with the only theory in play which is predictively crowned with success. It is not obvious ... why such a presumption should not militate in favour of a realist conception ... of the interpretations of beliefs/desires. Productivity, systematicity and thought Fodor also has positive arguments in favour of the reality of mental representations in terms of the LOT. He maintains that if language is the expression of thoughts and language is systematic, then thoughts must also be systematic. Fodor draws on the work of Noam Chomsky to both model his theory of the mind and to refute alternative architectures such as connectionism. Systematicity in natural languages was explained by Chomsky in terms of two more basic concepts: productivity and compositionality. Productivity refers to a representational system's unbounded ability to generate new representations from a given set of symbols. "John", "loves", and "Mary" allow for the construction of the sentences "John loves Mary" and "Mary loves John". Fodor's language of thought theorizes that representations are decomposable into constituent parts, and these decomposed representations are built into new strings. More important than productivity is systematicity since it does not rely on questionable idealizations about human cognition. The argument states that a cognizer is able to understand some sentence in virtue of understanding another. For example, no one who understands "John loves Mary" is unable to understand "Mary loves John", and no one who understands "P and Q" is unable to understand "P". Systematicity itself is rarely challenged as a property of natural languages and logics, but some challenge that thought is systematic in the same way languages are. Still others from the connectionist tradition have tried to build non-classical networks that can account for the apparent systematicity of language. The fact that systematicity and productivity depend on the compositional structure of language means that language has a combinatorial semantics. If thought also has such a combinatorial semantics, then there must be a language of thought. The second argument that Fodor provides in favour of representational realism involves the processes of thought. This argument touches on the relation between the representational theory of mind and models of its architecture. If the sentences of Mentalese require unique processes of elaboration then they require a computational mechanism of a certain type. The syntactic notion of mental representations goes hand in hand with the idea that mental processes are calculations which act only on the form of the symbols which they elaborate. And this is the computational theory of the mind. Consequently, the defence of a model of architecture based on classic artificial intelligence passes inevitably through a defence of the reality of mental representations. For Fodor, this formal notion of thought processes also has the advantage of highlighting the parallels between the causal role of symbols and the contents which they express. In his view, syntax plays the role of mediation between the causal role of the symbols and their contents. The semantic relations between symbols can be "imitated" by their syntactic relations. The inferential relations which connect the contents of two symbols can be imitated by the formal syntax rules which regulate the derivation of one symbol from another. The nature of content From the beginning of the 1980s, Fodor adhered to a causal notion of mental content and of meaning. This idea of content contrasts sharply with the inferential role semantics to which he subscribed earlier in his career. Fodor criticizes inferential role semantics (IRS) because its commitment to an extreme form of holism excludes the possibility of a true naturalization of the mental. But naturalization must include an explanation of content in atomistic and causal terms. Anti-holism Fodor has made many and varied criticisms of holism. He identifies the central problem with all the different notions of holism as the idea that the determining factor in semantic evaluation is the notion of an "epistemic bond". Briefly, P is an epistemic bond of Q if the meaning of P is considered by someone to be relevant for the determination of the meaning of Q. Meaning holism strongly depends on this notion. The identity of the content of a mental state, under holism, can only be determined by the totality of its epistemic bonds. And this makes the realism of mental states an impossibility:If people differ in an absolutely general way in their estimations of epistemic relevance, and if we follow the holism of meaning and individuate intentional states by way of the totality of their epistemic bonds, the consequence will be that two people (or, for that matter, two temporal sections of the same person) will never be in the same intentional state. Therefore, two people can never be subsumed under the same intentional generalizations. And, therefore, intentional generalization can never be successful. And, therefore again, there is no hope for an intentional psychology. The asymmetric causal theory Having criticized the idea that semantic evaluation concerns only the internal relations between the units of a symbolic system, Fodor can adopt an externalist position with respect to mental content and meaning. For Fodor, in recent years, the problem of naturalization of the mental is tied to the possibility of giving "the sufficient conditions for which a piece of the world is relative to (expresses, represents, is true of) another piece" in non-intentional and non-semantic terms. If this goal is to be achieved within a representational theory of the mind, then the challenge is to devise a causal theory which can establish the interpretation of the primitive non-logical symbols of the LOT. Fodor's initial proposal is that what determines that the symbol for "water" in Mentalese expresses the property H2O is that the occurrences of that symbol are in certain causal relations with water. The intuitive version of this causal theory is what Fodor calls the "Crude Causal Theory". According to this theory, the occurrences of symbols express the properties which are the causes of their occurrence. The term "horse", for example, says of a horse that it is a horse. In order to do this, it is necessary and sufficient that certain properties of an occurrence of the symbol "horse" be in a law-like relation with certain properties which determine that something is an occurrence of horse. The main problem with this theory is that of erroneous representations. There are two unavoidable problems with the idea that "a symbol expresses a property if it is ... necessary that all and only the presences of such a property cause the occurrences". The first is that not all horses cause occurrences of horse. The second is that not only horses cause occurrences of horse. Sometimes the A(horses) are caused by A (horses), but at other times—when, for example, because of the distance or conditions of low visibility, one has confused a cow for a horse—the A (horses) are caused by B (cows). In this case the symbol A doesn't express just the property A, but the disjunction of properties A or B. The crude causal theory is therefore incapable of distinguishing the case in which the content of a symbol is disjunctive from the case in which it isn't. This gives rise to what Fodor calls the "problem of disjunction". Fodor responds to this problem with what he defines as "a slightly less crude causal theory". According to this approach, it is necessary to break the symmetry at the base of the crude causal theory. Fodor must find some criterion for distinguishing the occurrences of A caused by As (true) from those caused by Bs (false). The point of departure, according to Fodor, is that while the false cases are ontologically dependent on the true cases, the reverse is not true. There is an asymmetry of dependence, in other words, between the true contents (A= A) and the false ones (A = A or B). The first can subsist independently of the second, but the second can occur only because of the existence of the first:From the point of view of semantics, errors must be accidents: if in the extension of "horse" there are no cows, then it cannot be required for the meaning of "horse" that cows be called horses. On the other hand, if "horse" did not mean that which it means, and if it were an error for horses, it would never be possible for a cow to be called "horse". Putting the two things together, it can be seen that the possibility of falsely saying "this is a horse" presupposes the existence of a semantic basis for saying it truly, but not vice versa. If we put this in terms of the crude causal theory, the fact that cows cause one to say "horse" depends on the fact that horses cause one to say "horse"; but the fact that horses cause one to say "horse" does not depend on the fact that cows cause one to say "horse"... Functionalism During the 1960s, various philosophers such as Donald Davidson, Hilary Putnam, and Fodor tried to resolve the puzzle of developing a way to preserve the explanatory efficacy of mental causation and folk psychology while adhering to a materialist vision of the world which did not violate the "generality of physics". Their proposal was, first of all, to reject the then-dominant theories in philosophy of mind: behaviorism and the type identity theory. The problem with logical behaviorism was that it failed to account for causation between mental states and such causation seems to be essential to psychological explanation, especially if one considers that behavior is not an effect of a single mental event/cause but is rather the effect of a chain of mental events/causes. The type-identity theory, on the other hand, failed to explain the fact that radically different physical systems can find themselves in the identical mental state. Besides being deeply anthropocentric (why should humans be the only thinking organisms in the universe?), the identity-type theory also failed to deal with accumulating evidence in the neurosciences that every single human brain is different from all the others. Hence, the impossibility of referring to common mental states in different physical systems manifests itself not only between different species but also between organisms of the same species. One can solve these problems, according to Fodor, with functionalism, a hypothesis which was designed to overcome the failings of both dualism and reductionism. What is important is the function of a mental state regardless of the physical substrate which implements it. The foundation for this view lies in the principle of the multiple realizability of the mental. Under this view, for example, I and a computer can both instantiate ("realize") the same functional state though we are made of completely different material stuff (see graphic at right). On this basis functionalism can be classified as a form of token materialism. Evolution Fodor and the biolinguist Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini co-authored the book What Darwin Got Wrong (2010), in which they describe neo-Darwinists as "distressingly uncritical" and say of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution that "it overestimates the contribution the environment makes in shaping the phenotype of a species and correspondingly underestimates the effects of endogenous variables". Evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne describes this book as "a profoundly misguided critique of natural selection" and "as biologically uninformed as it is strident". Moral philosopher and anti-scientism author Mary Midgley praises What Darwin Got Wrong as "an overdue and valuable onslaught on neo-Darwinist simplicities". The book also received a positive review from mathematician and intelligent-design theorist William Dembski. Awards and honors Fodor was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He received numerous awards and honors: New York State Regent's Fellowship, Woodrow Wilson Fellowship (Princeton University), Chancellor Greene Fellow (Princeton University), Fulbright Fellowship (University of Oxford), Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, and a Guggenheim Fellowship. He won the first Jean Nicod Prize for philosophy of mind and cognitive philosophy in 1993. His lecture series for the Prize, later published as a book by MIT Press in 1995, was titled The Elm and the Expert: Mentalese and Its Semantics. In 1996–1997, Fodor delivered the prestigious John Locke Lectures at the University of Oxford, titled Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong, which went on to become his 1998 Oxford University Press book of the same name. He has also delivered the Patrick Romanell Lecture on Philosophical Naturalism (2004) and the Royce Lecture on Philosophy of Mind (2002) to the American Philosophical Association, of whose Eastern Division he has served as Vice President (2004–2005) and President (2005–2006). In 2005, he won the Mind & Brain Prize. Criticism A wide variety of philosophers of diverse orientations have challenged many of Fodor's ideas. For example, the language of thought hypothesis has been accused of either falling prey to an infinite regress or of being superfluous. Specifically, Simon Blackburn suggested in an article in 1984 that since Fodor explains the learning of natural languages as a process of formation and confirmation of hypotheses in the LOT, this leaves him open to the question of why the LOT itself should not be considered as just such a language which requires yet another and more fundamental representational substrate in which to form and confirm hypotheses so that the LOT itself can be learned. If natural language learning requires some representational substrate (the LOT) in order for it to be learned, why shouldn't the same be said for the LOT itself and then for the representational substrate of this representational substrate and so on, ad infinitum? On the other hand, if such a representational substrate is not required for the LOT, then why should it be required for the learning of natural languages? In this case, the LOT would be superfluous. Fodor, in response, argues that the LOT is unique in that it does not have to be learned via an antecedent language because it is innate. In 1981, Daniel Dennett had formulated another argument against the LOT. Dennett suggested that it would seem, on the basis of the evidence of our behavior toward computers but also with regard to some of our own unconscious behavior, that explicit representation is not necessary for the explanation of propositional attitudes. During a game of chess with a computer program, we often attribute such attitudes to the computer, saying such things as "It thinks that the queen should be moved to the left." We attribute propositional attitudes to the computer and this helps us to explain and predict its behavior in various contexts. Yet no one would suggest that the computer is actually thinking or believing somewhere inside its circuits the equivalent of the propositional attitude "I believe I can kick this guy's butt" in Mentalese. The same is obviously true, suggests Dennett, of many of our everyday automatic behaviors such as "desiring to breathe clear air" in a stuffy environment. Some linguists and philosophers of language have criticized Fodor's self-proclaimed "extreme" concept nativism. Kent Bach, for example, takes Fodor to task for his criticisms of lexical semantics and polysemy. Fodor claims that there is no lexical structure to such verbs as "keep", "get", "make" and "put". He suggests that, alternatively, "keep" simply expresses the concept KEEP (Fodor capitalizes concepts to distinguish them from properties, names or other such entities). If there is a straightforward one-to-one mapping between individual words and concepts, "keep your clothes on", "keep your receipt" and "keep washing your hands" will all share the same concept of KEEP under Fodor's theory. This concept presumably locks on to the unique external property of keeping. But, if this is true, then RETAIN must pick out a different property in RETAIN YOUR RECEIPT, since one can't retain one's clothes on or retain washing one's hands. Fodor's theory also has a problem explaining how the concept FAST contributes, differently, to the contents of FAST CAR, FAST DRIVER, FAST TRACK, and FAST TIME. Whether or not the differing interpretations of "fast" in these sentences are specified in the semantics of English, or are the result of pragmatic inference, is a matter of debate. Fodor's own response to this kind of criticism is expressed bluntly in Concepts: "People sometimes used to say that exist must be ambiguous because look at the difference between 'chairs exist' and 'numbers exist'. A familiar reply goes: the difference between the existence of chairs and the existence of numbers seems, on reflection, strikingly like the difference between numbers and chairs. Since you have the latter to explain the former, you don't also need 'exist' to be polysemic." Some critics find it difficult to accept Fodor's insistence that a large, perhaps implausible, number of concepts are primitive and undefinable. For example, Fodor considers such concepts as EFFECT, ISLAND, TRAPEZOID, and WEEK to be all primitive, innate and unanalyzable because they all fall into the category of what he calls "lexical concepts" (those for which our language has a single word). Against this view, Bach argues that the concept VIXEN is almost certainly composed out of the concepts FEMALE and FOX, BACHELOR out of SINGLE and MALE, and so on. Personal life and death Fodor lived in Manhattan with his wife, the linguist Janet Dean Fodor, and had two children. Fodor died at home on November 29, 2017. Books The Structure of Language, with Jerrold Katz (eds.), Prentice Hall, 1964, . Psychological Explanation, Random House, 1968, . The Psychology of Language, with T. Bever and M. Garrett, McGraw Hill, 1974, . The Language of Thought, Harvard University Press, 1975, . Representations: Philosophical Essays on the Foundations of Cognitive Science, Harvard Press (UK) and MIT Press (US), 1979, . The Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology, MIT Press, 1983, . Psychosemantics: The Problem of Meaning in the Philosophy of Mind, MIT Press, 1987, . A Theory of Content and Other Essays, MIT Press, 1990, . Holism: A Shopper's Guide, with Ernie Lepore, Blackwell, 1992, . Holism: A Consumer Update, with Ernie Lepore (eds.), Grazer Philosophische Studien, Vol 46. Rodopi, Amsterdam, 1993, . The Elm and the Expert: Mentalese and Its Semantics, The 1993 Jean Nicod Lectures, MIT Press, 1994, . Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong, The 1996 John Locke Lectures, Oxford University Press, 1998, . In Critical Condition, MIT Press, 1998, . The Mind Doesn't Work That Way: The Scope and Limits of Computational Psychology, MIT Press, 2000, . The Compositionality Papers, with Ernie Lepore, Oxford University Press, 2002, . Hume Variations, Oxford University Press, 2003, . LOT 2: The Language of Thought Revisited, Oxford University Press, 2008, . What Darwin Got Wrong, with Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010, . Minds without meanings: an essay on the contents of concepts, with Zenon W. Pylyshyn, MIT Press, 2014, . See also Computational theory of mind Special sciences References External links Jerry Fodor's Homepage Jerry Fodor at the London Review of Books "Semantics – An Interview with Jerry Fodor", ReVEL. Vol. 5, n. 8 (March 2007). BloggingHeads dialogue between Jerry Fodor and Elliott Sober meaningful words without sense, & other revolutions Interview by Richard Marshall Guardian obituary Jerry A. Fodor, Philosopher Who Plumbed the Mind’s Depths, Dies at 82 New York Times obituary Jerry A. Fodor (1935—2017) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1935 births 2017 deaths 20th-century American essayists 20th-century American philosophers 21st-century American essayists 21st-century American philosophers 20th-century American Jews Linguists from the United States American logicians American male essayists American male non-fiction writers American philosophy academics Analytic philosophers Columbia College (New York) alumni American consciousness researchers and theorists Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society Jean Nicod Prize laureates Jewish linguists Jewish philosophers Philosophers of language Philosophers of logic Philosophers of mind Philosophers of psychology Philosophers of science Philosophers of social science Philosophy writers Presidents of the American Philosophical Association Princeton University alumni Rationalists Rutgers University faculty 21st-century American Jews

428004

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Less%20Than%20Jake

Less Than Jake

Less Than Jake is an American ska punk band from Gainesville, Florida, formed in 1992. The band consists of Chris DeMakes (guitars, vocals), Roger Lima (bass, vocals), Matt Yonker (drums), Buddy Schaub (trombone), and Peter "JR" Wasilewski (saxophone). The group released its debut album, Pezcore, in 1995, following a series of independent seven-inch single releases. The band's subsequent two studio albums, Losing Streak (1996) and Hello Rockview (1998), were released on major label, Capitol Records, leading to increased exposure. Borders and Boundaries was released in 2000 on Fat Wreck Chords. The band's fifth studio album Anthem (2003) was the group's most commercially successful to date, featuring the singles "She's Gonna Break Soon" and "The Science of Selling Yourself Short". In 2008, the band founded its own label, Sleep It Off Records, and released its seventh full-length album, GNV FLA. The band has recently stated its preference for EP releases, and independently issued Greetings from Less Than Jake (2011) and its counterpart, Seasons Greetings from Less Than Jake (2012). In late 2012, the band combined the two to create the compilation album, Greetings and Salutations (2012). The band's eighth studio album, See the Light, was released on November 12, 2013. The band entered the studio in 2016 to record their latest EP, titled Sound the Alarm, which was released in February 2017 through Pure Noise Records. Their ninth studio album, Silver Linings, was released on December 11, 2020. History Formation and Pezcore (1992–1995) Before the formation of Less Than Jake, vocalist and guitarist Chris DeMakes, drummer Vinnie Fiorello, and bassist Shaun Grief led a local band named Good Grief while attending high school in Port Charlotte, Florida. Good Grief broke up when DeMakes moved north to attend the University of Florida. On July 13, 1992, Less Than Jake was born. While Grief moved to New York City (he would later return as the band's roadie), DeMakes and Fiorello began writing songs on the weekends before Fiorello would join DeMakes at the University of Florida. When united, the pair decided they needed a bass player, but first, they wanted a name. Fiorello said: Band members have told various media outlets different versions of the origin of the band's name. DeMakes has stated in interviews that the band's name came from Fiorello's family's pet parrot. His story claimed that the parrot would squawk during the band's practice sessions, leading to Fiorello's mother telling the band that they needed to stop playing because they were disturbing the bird. This would lead to the band referring to themselves as being "less than Jake". In June 2020, however, Fiorello clarified that Jake was not a parrot but was, in fact, an English Bulldog. After practicing with a different bass player for a couple of weeks, the band met Roger Lima, a guitarist who also attended the University of Florida. After Lima practiced with the band on guitar for a few hours, the band fired the current bass player and recruited him instead. Citing influence from Snuff, the band decided it wanted to add a horn section. In 1993, the group added its first horn player, Jessica Mills, and released its first 7-inch record, Smoke Spot, with the band members hand pressing all 300 records themselves. Soon after, trombone player Buddy Schaub joined the band. Over the first few years, the band put out its first EP, Better Class Of Losers, made compilation appearances, and released several vinyl records (featuring songs that would later appear on the 1995 Losers, Kings, and Things We Don't Understand compilation), before Mike Park agreed to release the band's debut album on Dill Records. Right before the band's first U.S. tour in June 1995 with Skankin' Pickle, Schaub had already made plans to travel to Europe with his friends. The band found a temporary replacement in saxophonist Derron Nuhfer, who filled in for Schaub during his absence. Derron became a permanent member in August 1995. Less Than Jake's first full-length LP Pezcore debuted in August 1995, featuring such staples as "Liquor Store" and "My Very Own Flag". Originally on Dill Records, the CD contained 21 tracks, including two covers of the TV theme songs for Jeffersons and Laverne and Shirley (which were omitted on the subsequent reissues on Asian Man and Fueled By Ramen records). The title of the album stems from Roger and Vinnie's unexplained fondness for Pez candy, clearly apparent in their reportedly sizable Pez dispenser collections, and the pervasively used suffix "core". Ever since, Pez dispenser motifs have been a common feature of Less Than Jake's merchandise. Losing Streak and Hello Rockview (1996–1999) Shortly following the release of Pezcore, the band was signed to Capitol Records. The group debuted on the label in 1996 with Losing Streak, containing ska-punk songs. Following the 1997 Warped Tour, saxophonist Jessica Mills left the band to perform with Citizen Fish. Mills was replaced by ex-Slapstick trombonist Pete Anna in January 1998 (trombonist Lars Nylander served as a fill-in during the fall of 1997). Around this time, Vinnie Fiorello also started his own record label, Fueled by Ramen, with friend John Janick. During 1997 the band embarked on the Caffeine Nation Tour with the Descendents, Guttermouth, and Handsome; the Race Around Uranus Tour with Blink-182 and Frenzal Rhomb; and the Warped Tour. In 1998, after participating in the Ska Against Racism Tour with such ska acts as the Toasters and Mustard Plug, and the Warped Tour, the band released Hello Rockview. The band spawned a minor college radio hit with "History of a Boring Town", which reached No. 39 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks, despite not being released as a video single. Borders and Boundaries (2000–2002) After recording what would be Borders & Boundaries, the band opted to buy out its contract from the major label and release the album on Fat Wreck Chords instead. In October 2000, the band released Borders & Boundaries, and landed the opening spot on Bon Jovi's North American tour. While it was not as commercially successful as previous releases initially, the album contained singles "Look What Happened" (which received minor airplay on college stations) and the group's home-town anthem, "Gainesville Rock City" (which received some airtime on MTV2). Shortly after the album's recording, Derron Nuhfer left the band (going on to join Gunmoll and later Escape Grace), and Less Than Jake found a replacement in former Spring Heeled Jack saxophonist, Pete Wasilewski. To avoid the confusion of having two Petes within the band, Pete Wasilewski was nicknamed JR (as in "Peter Junior"). In 2001 the band took part in the Vans Warped Tour, after which the first Pete departed. That year, the band toured the US along with New Found Glory, Anti-Flag, and the Teen Idols. In 2002, Less Than Jake spent time touring with Bad Religion and Hot Water Music while spending most of the summer touring in Europe. Less Than Jake re-released its compilation album, Goodbye Blue and White, which included various 7-inch releases spanning from 1996 to 2001, and provided a different track listing from the first pressing. The album was named in honor of the group's original tour van, with the liner notes having the band recounting memories of the van. To celebrate the band's 10th anniversary, Pezcore was re-released and the band's first four 7-inch releases, Smoke Spot, Pez Kings, Unglued, and Rock-n-Roll Pizzeria, were repressed and included in a limited edition Cereal Box (which also featured a T-shirt, bobblehead, and pin). Anthem (2003–2004) Less Than Jake returned to major label status with its next album Anthem, releasing the 2003 LP on Warner Bros./Sire Records. Debuting at No. 45 on the Billboard 200 (the band's highest to date), the album featured three major singles in both the US and the UK, with "She's Gonna Break Soon" (which spent a couple weeks on TRL), "The Science Of Selling Yourself Short" (which spent five weeks on the Billboard Top 40, peaking at No. 37), and "The Brightest Bulb Has Burned Out" (featuring Billy Bragg), which spent time in the UK Top 40. Actress Alexis Bledel, known for her role as Rory Gilmore on Gilmore Girls, appeared in the video for "She's Gonna Break Soon", where she played the unnamed subject of the song, an angsty teen girl who has a nervous breakdown and destroys her bedroom over the course the song. The band spent the rest of the year promoting the new album by playing the Warped Tour and gained support from Fall Out Boy, Yellowcard, and Bang Tango during its fall 2003 tour. The band released B Is for B-sides in July 2004. The album comprised tracks that didn't make Anthems final cut and was produced by Less Than Jake. The DVD retrospective The People's History of Less Than Jake appeared a month later, featuring both professional and bootleg recordings of the band. The band also held the opening spot on the main stage during the Projekt Revolution tour in the summer of 2004 with Linkin Park, Korn, Snoop Dogg, and The Used before taking a long break to write the group's next record. In with the Out Crowd (2005–2007) After spending the majority of 2005 writing and recording, the band opened 2006 by going on a full U.S. and Europe tour that also featured Catch 22, A Wilhelm Scream, The Loved Ones, The New Mexican Disaster Squad, Rock-n-Roll Soldiers, Damone, Dropkick Murphys, and Far From Finished. In April 2006, the band released its four-song Absolution for Idiots and Addicts EP, with the group's next full-length, In with the Out Crowd, following a month later on Sire Records. The album was also issued in a limited edition that came in a leather-bound case complete with bonus multimedia discs that contained music videos, bonus tracks, and an elaborate photo gallery. In February 2007, Less Than Jake played six shows in Florida that each featured the band playing one of its albums in its entirety, plus B-sides and rarities. The band played two shows each in Jacksonville, Orlando, and St. Petersburg, to be recorded for a possible DVD release. The records performed were Borders and Boundaries, Pezcore, Losing Streak, Anthem, Hello Rockview, and In with the Out Crowd. The group then did the same in London, United Kingdom, in September 2007, playing at the Astoria II for 6 nights in a row. On May 21, 2007, after much speculation, Vinnie Fiorello announced on his blog that the band had asked and been granted its release from its contract with Sire Records and Warner Bros. Following this split, the band released five high-quality (MP3, 320kbit/s), DRM-free, unedited recordings of the band's live shows, taken directly from the mixing console at each show. These recordings are being released for sale on the band's website via Snocap. During the 6 Albums / 6 Shows / 6 Nights in London, Chris stated that Less Than Jake's new record label in the UK and Europe would be Cooking Vinyl. In summer 2007, Less Than Jake embarked on the Shout It Loud Tour, co-headlining with Reel Big Fish and featuring support from Streetlight Manifesto and Against All Authority. During the shows, the band held a spoof of The Price Is Right, quizzing the contestants on various Less Than Jake "trivia", having them play a few games from the shows, using the games to determine which album the band would play selections from, and giving prizes to the winners. The band reunited with Reel Big Fish and Streetlight Manifesto for a Japan and Australia tour in December 2007. GNV FLA (2008–2009) On January 8, 2008, after speculation that the next Less Than Jake record could be released on Fat Wreck Chords or Victory Records, CMJ reported that the band was starting its own label, named Sleep It Off Records, the name taken from the title of a song from the B is for B-sides record. The purpose of the new label is to release the band's forthcoming album in summer 2008 and to reissue the group's back catalog. Reissues of Goodbye Blue And White, Pezcore, Losers, Kings And Things We Don't Understand, and the DVD The Peoples History Of Less Than Jake were released on March 18. The reissues include new artworks and bonus DVDs. Upon talking about the group's new album, Vinnie mentioned his desire to "combine third wave ska and pop punk in each song," hinting at a possible return to the band's older sound. He also had the following to say: On April 20, Vinnie announced via his blog that the new album, recorded at Atlas Studios in Chicago, was totally finished. On April 23, Vinnie revealed the title of the album would be GNV FLA, the name being an abbreviation for Gainesville's airport code. Buddy Schaub stated the reason behind the album title was "to get back to our roots". The first single from GNV FLA was "Does The Lion City Still Roar?", GNV FLA was officially released June 24, 2008. Touring in support of the album included the Reading and Leeds Festivals and a tour of UK during the fall containing thirteen dates with the band Zebrahead. "Conviction Notice" was the second and final single off the album. The group also stated at other various concerts during its recent Europe tour that the band was recording video footage for a new DVD. In June 2009, Internet radio station PunkRadioCast teamed up with Jones Soda to create a punk pop 6 pack featuring labels designed by PunkRadioCast and five punk artists, one of which was "Less Than Jake – Root Beer". EP releases and See the Light (2010–2018) On July 7, 2010, the band announced that it had started recording again. On October 12, 2010, the group released TV/EP, consisting of sixteen covers of television theme songs in the span of thirteen minutes: "Spanning from the vintage adverts of yesteryear to the frenetic promos of modern day, TV/EP reimagines a world where pop punk and ska is the music de rigueur, and this is the soundtrack to your couch potato life. Tracklisted as anonymously numbered channels, the experience they have planned is akin to the feeling of flipping random television channels." The first revealed track off the disc is a rendition of the Animaniacs theme song. The band also performed in Tavares, Florida along with the Supervillains and local acts to support funding for the surrounding counties' high school band programs. On June 20, 2011, the band released an EP entitled Greetings from Less Than Jake, which was made available on the group's online store and was sold on Warped Tour 2011 as well. On February 16, 2012, Less Than Jake released a follow-up EP entitled Seasons Greetings from Less Than Jake. The band announced both EPs would be re-released, with 2 previously unreleased songs, as part of a new album called Greetings and Salutations from Less Than Jake, released in October 2012 through Fat Wreck Chords, who had released Borders and Boundaries. On April 17, 2013, Less Than Jake announced through its Facebook page that the band had signed back to Fat Wreck Chords and would release its first album full of new material since 2008 sometime in the Fall. On August 9, the album's title, track listing and release date were announced, and See the Light was subsequently released on November 12, 2013. On July 29, 2016, at Vans Warped Tour 2016, Peter "JR" Wasilewski told Fuse, "We're working on a new record right now, nothing to really speak of, but it will be coming out in 2017 for sure." Less Than Jake launched a tour with Pepper in the January and February 2017 to promote their latest release, the Sound the Alarm EP. Released on February 3, 2017, by Pure Noise Records, it debuted at 114 on the Billboard 200. Vinnie Fiorello's departure and Silver Linings (2018–present) On October 24, 2018, Fiorello stated that, while he would remain a member of Less Than Jake, he would no longer be touring with the band. On October 26, following Fiorello's announcement, the band announced that former Teen Idols drummer Matt Yonker would be the touring drummer moving onwards. Yonker subsequently joined the band on a full-time basis, having worked with the band previously in a number of behind-the-scenes capacities. Roger Lima noted: "It was a fairly smooth transition having long time friend and LTJ workhorse Matt Yonker jump on the drum kit late in 2018. He had done merch, guitar tech, stage, and more recently, live sound and tour managing and management for us! So we had some restructuring to do." In October 2020, Lima reflected on Fiorello's departure: "He was the primary lyricist for the band, and it took a bit of refocusing of creative juices as the rest of us took on that role as part of the songwriting, absolutely. Vinnie was becoming tired of life on the road and wanted to spend more time with his daughter. No bad feelings, I am just happy we got to where we got and I'm ready to pick up the torch and continue forward on this crazy path." In an email to fan club members, the title of their next album was announced to be Silver Linings. An official release was delayed due to COVID-19; the album was ultimately released on December 11, 2020. In 2022, Less Than Jake and Bowling for Soup performed over forty shows as part of their Back for the Attack Tour, which also featured The Aquabats on some dates. Fiorello has since joined a new supergroup The Inevitables with other colleagues from other ska/punk bands. Side projects In 1996, Vinnie and his friend John Janick launched the independent record label Fueled by Ramen, leaving it in 2006. On May 13, 2008, Vinnie launched his new indie label, called Paper + Plastick. In the press release, Vinnie stated the inspiration for the name; "If you think about it, prints and books are the paper side, while vinyl records and toys are the plastic side. It's a simple and to-the-point concept." Vinnie also owns a toy company called Wünderland War, originally called "Monkey VS Robot". The name was changed due to legal issues. Vinnie has also started a second toy company with a friend called Symptoms. Many of these toys have been featured in art books and shows. Roger has a side-project called Rehasher, who have recorded an album Off Key Melodies on Gainesville-based record label No Idea Records in 2004. He plays guitar for Rehasher and is also the group's lead singer. Roger also has a recording studio at his home, dubbed as the "Moat House". Some local bands record music here, and Rehasher's second album, High Speed Access To My Brain, was recorded here. JR composes his own solo music on top of working with a promoting company called the CT Mafia. He contributed one track to the Drive-Thru Records tribute to Bob Dylan, under the name "The Stay at Home Joneses", which also featured secondary vocals by Roger. In 1996, Vinnie, Chris, and Roger served as backup musicians for Asian Man Records owner Mike Park in The Bruce Lee Band (former sax player Derron also provided horns on some of the tracks). Buddy is involved in a side band called PB&J, in which he provides the bass, vocals and occasional trombone, as well as the band Black Ice that he plays all instruments for. Buddy is one half of Coffee Project along with Jake Crown, who released a self-titled album on the aforementioned Paper + Plastick label. Together they decided that "a couple of acoustic guitars and a trombone was all they really needed". Chris has been recording his own solo music while not working with Less Than Jake. He is a guest vocalist on the 2010 album The Seven Degrees Of Stephen Egerton by Descendents guitarist Stephen Egerton. He performed on the Ska Goes Solo Tour with JT Turret of The Arrogant Sons of Bitches and Ryan Eldred of Catch 22 in 2014. He released the song "Up" on the Ska Goes Solo split 7-inch prior to the tour. Chris also is the host of his own podcast called Chris DeMakes a Podcast. Every week, he and a guest from the world of music discuss the subject of songwriting. Band membersCurrent members Chris DeMakes – vocals, guitars (1992–present) Roger Lima – vocals, bass (1993–present) Matt Yonker – drums (2018–present) Buddy "Goldfinger" Schaub – trombone (1993–present) Peter "JR" Wasilewski – saxophone (2000–present)Former members Vinnie Fiorello – drums (1992–2018) Shaun Grief – bass (1992) Jessica Mills – saxophone (1993–1998) Derron Nuhfer – saxophone (1995–2000) Lars "Slim" Nylander – trombone (1998) Peter "Pete" Anna – trombone (1998–2001)Timeline''' Discography Pezcore (1995) Losing Streak (1996) Hello Rockview (1998) Borders & Boundaries (2000) Anthem (2003) In with the Out Crowd (2006) GNV FLA (2008) See the Light (2013) Silver Linings'' (2020) References External links Musical groups from Gainesville, Florida American ska punk musical groups Third-wave ska groups Pop punk groups from Florida Punk rock groups from Florida Musical groups established in 1992 Fueled by Ramen artists Fat Wreck Chords artists American musical quintets Kerrang! Awards winners Asian Man Records artists 1992 establishments in Florida Pure Noise Records artists American punk rock groups

428008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Chauvel

Harry Chauvel

General Sir Henry George Chauvel, (16 April 1865 – 4 March 1945) was a senior officer of the Australian Imperial Force who fought at Gallipoli and during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the Middle Eastern theatre of the First World War. He was the first Australian to attain the rank of lieutenant general and later general, and the first to lead a corps. As commander of the Desert Mounted Corps, he was responsible for one of the most decisive victories and fastest pursuits in military history. The son of a grazier, Chauvel was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Upper Clarence Light Horse, a unit organised by his father, in 1886. After the family moved to Queensland he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Queensland Mounted Infantry in 1890, and saw service during the 1891 Australian shearers' strike. He became a regular officer in 1896, and went to the United Kingdom as part of the Queensland contingent for the 1897 Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. In 1899 he commanded one of two companies of Queensland Mounted Infantry that were Queensland's initial contribution to the Boer War. After the war, he was closely involved with the training of the Australian Light Horse. Promoted to colonel in 1913, Chauvel became the Australian representative on the Imperial General Staff but the First World War broke out while he was still en route to the United Kingdom. Chauvel arranged for the Australian Imperial Force to be diverted to Egypt, where he joined his new command, the 1st Light Horse Brigade, in December. In May 1915, it was sent dismounted to Gallipoli, where Chauvel assumed responsibility for some of the most dangerous parts of the line. He took charge of the 1st Division that November. In March 1916, Chauvel became commander of the Anzac Mounted Division, gaining victories in the Battle of Romani in August and the Battle of Magdhaba in December, and nearly winning the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917. The following month, he took over the Desert Column, later known as the Desert Mounted Corps, thereby becoming the first Australian to command a corps, and the first to reach the rank of lieutenant general. At Beersheba in October 1917, his light horse captured the town and its vital water supply in one of history's last great cavalry charges. By September 1918, Chauvel was able to effect a secret redeployment of three of his mounted divisions and launch a surprise attack on the enemy that won the Battle of Megiddo. He followed up this victory with one of the fastest pursuits in military history. In 1919, Chauvel was appointed Inspector General, the Army's most senior post. He was forced to maintain an increasingly hollow structure by politicians intent on cutting expenditure. He was concurrently Chief of the General Staff from 1923 until his retirement in 1930. In November 1929, he became the first Australian to be promoted to the rank of general. During the Second World War, he was recalled to duty as Inspector in Chief of the Volunteer Defence Corps. Early life Henry George Chauvel was born in Tabulam, New South Wales, on 16 April 1865, the second child of a grazier, Charles Henry Edward Chauvel, and his wife Fanny Ada Mary, née James. By 1884, Charles Henry Chauvel's station at Tabulam consisted of , on which he raised 12,000 head of cattle and 320 horses. From an early age Henry George Chauvel was known as "Harry". He was educated at Mr Belcher's School near Goulburn, before going to Sydney Grammar School from 1874 to 1880, and Toowoomba Grammar School from 1881 to 1882. While at Sydney Grammar, Harry served in the school cadet unit, rising to the rank of lance corporal. In 1886, Charles Henry was given permission to raise two troops of cavalry. On 14 March 1886, he was commissioned as a captain in the Upper Clarence Light Horse, with his sons Arthur and Harry becoming second lieutenants, while his two younger sons became troopers. The unit escorted Lord Carrington, Governor of New South Wales, when he formally opened the railway at Tenterfield in 1886. Following a series of severe droughts in northern New South Wales, Charles Henry Chauvel sold his property at Tabulam in 1888 for £50,000. After paying his debts, he bought a much smaller property at Canning Downs on the Darling Downs in Queensland. In 1889, Harry Chauvel embarked on a solo tour of Europe, visiting Venice, Rome, Florence, Paris and London. While in the United Kingdom, he watched military manoeuvres near Aldershot in the presence of Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany. Harry resigned his commission in the New South Wales Military Forces when he moved to Queensland, but on 9 January 1890 he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Queensland Mounted Infantry. After completing his examinations for the rank, he was confirmed as lieutenant in June 1890. Chauvel's unit was called up in March 1891 during the shearers' strike that had begun earlier that year. Leading his troops and a small detachment of Queensland Police, Chauvel was given the task of escorting a party of strikebreakers to a station north of Charleville. Near Oakwood, Chauvel's troops were confronted by a crowd of around two hundred mounted sheep shearers. When the inspector in charge of the police detachment arrested four of the shearers who were wanted by the police, the crowd became agitated, but Chauvel managed to disperse the crowd peacefully, and bring his charges safely to their destination. During the 1894 Australian shearers' strike, the Queensland government enrolled special constables rather than calling up the militia. Chauvel was appointed a temporary sub-inspector in Clermont, and later the district around Longreach. On 9 September 1896, Chauvel transferred to the Queensland Permanent Military Forces with the rank of captain in the Moreton Regiment. He was sent to the United Kingdom with the Queensland contingent for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. Sporting the emu feathers worn by Queensland units, he marched with the colonial troops through London behind Lord Roberts on 21 June 1897. Chauvel qualified at the School of Musketry at Hythe, Kent, and served on exchange with the 3rd Battalion, King's Royal Rifle Corps and 2nd Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment at Aldershot. On returning to Australia, he became a staff officer at headquarters, Queensland Defence Force. Boer War In July 1899, the Premier of Queensland, James Dickson, offered a contingent of troops for service in South Africa in the event of war between the British Empire, and the Boer Transvaal Republic and Orange Free State. For a time Chauvel served as an enrolment officer, signing up volunteers from the Darling Downs. The Boer War broke out in October 1899, and Chauvel was given command of one of two companies of Queensland Mounted Infantry that departed Brisbane on 1 November 1899. They disembarked at Cape Town on 14 December and joined the Imperial force under Lord Methuen at the Orange River. The Queensland Mounted Infantry's first fighting was in an action at Sunnyside on 1 January 1900 alongside the infantry of the Royal Canadian Regiment. In February, the Queensland Mounted Infantry became part of Major General John French's Cavalry Division. After a strenuous march, the Cavalry Division relieved the siege of Kimberley on 15 February. In the reorganisation that followed, the Queensland Mounted Infantry became part of Major General Edward Hutton's 1st Mounted Infantry Brigade, along with the Canadian and New Zealand mounted units. Chauvel distinguished himself fighting alongside a group of New Zealanders and capturing a Maxim gun. The Queensland Mounted Infantry participated in the capture of Pretoria and the Battle of Diamond Hill. Chauvel was given a mixed force of British, Australian, Canadian and New Zealand mounted troops that became known as "Chauvel's Mounted Infantry", with Victor Sellheim as his chief of staff. Initially, Chauvel was given the mission of escorting 10,000 head of cattle to Belfast, Mpumalanga to supply the troops in the eastern Transvaal. However, his force was diverted by local commanders, who assigned it to burning homesteads sheltering Boer commandos and attacking Boer units. The Queensland Mounted Infantry embarked for Australia on 13 December 1900. They reached Brisbane on 17 January 1901 and the regiment was disbanded there on 23 January. For his part in the fighting, Chauvel was mentioned in despatches, and appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG). On 1 January 1901, the colonies of Australia federated to form the Commonwealth of Australia. When Chauvel returned to Australia on 17 January, he found that during his absence he had become an officer in the newly formed Australian Army. A force of 14,000 troops was assembled for the opening of the first Federal Parliament on 9 May 1901 in Melbourne; Chauvel was selected as brigade major of the mounted contingent, his first Federal posting. He became Staff Officer, Northern Military District, based at Townsville, Queensland, in July. In 1902, Chauvel was appointed to command of the 7th Commonwealth Light Horse, a unit newly raised for service in South Africa, with the local rank of lieutenant colonel. Departing from Brisbane on 17 May 1902, the 7th Commonwealth Light Horse arrived at Durban on 22 June, three weeks after the war ended. It therefore re-embarked for Brisbane, where it was disbanded. Chauvel remained in South Africa for a few weeks in order to tour the battlefields. On returning to Australia he became Staff Officer, Northern Military District once more. He was promoted to the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel in December 1902. In 1903, Hutton, now General Officer Commanding Australian Military Forces, sent Chauvel to South Australia to organise the light horse regiments there. On returning to Queensland in 1904, he became acting Chief Staff Officer Queensland, based in Brisbane. He was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant colonel in December 1909, but his ambition to become the Australian representative on the Imperial General Staff in London was blocked by Hutton's successor Major General Charles Hoad. Based on his experiences in South Africa, Chauvel propounded ideas on the nature of mounted infantry. He recommended that Australian troops improve their discipline in the field, called for stronger leadership from officers, and emphasised the need for better organisation for supply and for timely and efficient medical evacuation. Chauvel knew Keith Jopp of Newmarket, Queensland even before the Boer War, and while stationed in Brisbane, Chauvel and Major Brudenell White played tennis at the Jopps' place with their daughters Dora and Sibyl. Chauvel became engaged to Sibyl in January 1906, and they were married on 16 June 1906 at All Saints Anglican Church, Brisbane. Their union ultimately produced two sons and two daughters. That year Chauvel also sold the property at Canning Downs South. In the shuffle of senior positions that followed Hoad's death in 1911, Chauvel was appointed to the Military Board in Melbourne as Adjutant General. As such, Chauvel was involved in the implementation of the universal training scheme. Chauvel was particularly involved with the training of the light horse. "When the next war comes," White predicted, "it will only need an Ashby or a J.E.B. Stuart to make their name immortal." First World War War Office Chauvel was promoted to colonel in 1913. On 3 July 1914, he sailed for England with his wife and three children to replace Colonel James Gordon Legge as the Australian representative on the Imperial General Staff. While he was still travelling, the First World War broke out. On reporting for duty at the War Office in mid-August 1914, Chauvel was given a cable directing him to assume command of the 1st Light Horse Brigade of the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) when it arrived in the United Kingdom. Chauvel became concerned with slow progress on construction of the AIF's proposed quarters on the Salisbury Plain. He made frequent visits to the site and had a Royal Australian Engineers officer, Major Cecil Henry Foott, appointed to the local staff to safeguard Australian interests. Convinced that the huts would not be ready on time, and that Australian troops would therefore have to spend a winter on Salisbury Plain under canvas, Chauvel persuaded the High Commissioner for Australia in London, former Prime Minister Sir George Reid, to approach Lord Kitchener with an alternate plan of diverting the AIF to Egypt, which was done. Accompanied by Major Thomas Blamey, Chauvel sailed for Egypt on the ocean liner on 28 November 1914, arriving at Port Said on 10 December 1914. Gallipoli Chauvel began training his brigade upon arrival in Egypt. He was noted for insisting on high standards of dress and bearing from his troops. The 1st Light Horse Brigade became part of Major General Alexander Godley's New Zealand and Australian Division, along with the 4th Infantry Brigade, the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade. When the rest of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps departed for Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, the mounted brigades remained in Egypt – the Gallipoli Peninsula being unsuited to mounted operations. Following heavy casualties in the early days of the Gallipoli Campaign, however, the light horse were called upon to provide 1,000 reinforcements. The British commander in Egypt, Lieutenant General Sir John Maxwell, elected instead to ship the mounted brigades to Anzac Cove intact. Chauvel arrived on 12 May 1915 and took over the critical sector, which included Pope's Hill and Quinn's, Courtney's and Steele's Posts, from Colonel John Monash. Open to Turkish observation on two sides, these four advanced posts at the top of Monash Valley were the linchpin of the defence. Chauvel reorganised the defence, appointing permanent commanders for the posts. He also formed special sniper groups who eventually managed to suppress the Turkish snipers, making it safe even for mule trains to move up Monash Valley. Chauvel's brigade soon found itself under heavy pressure from the Turks. On 29 May 1915, the Turks fired a mine under Quinn's Post and broke into it. The permanent commander of the post, Lieutenant Colonel J. H. Cannan was absent on leave and the acting commander, Lieutenant Colonel G. J. Burnage was wounded in the fighting. Chauvel responded by bringing up reserves and appointing a temporary post commander, Lieutenant Colonel H. Pope, with orders to drive the Turks out at all costs. Major S. C. E. Herring was miraculously able to charge across the open practically unscathed, his attack having coincided with a Turkish one on another part of the post so that the Turkish machine gunners could not shoot without hitting their own men. There were in fact only about seventeen Turks in the post, who eventually surrendered. Chauvel's decision may have been the wrong one, but it was decisive; he was also lucky. For this action, he was mentioned in despatches. On 9 July 1915, Chauvel was promoted to brigadier general, back-dated to when he assumed command of the 1st Light Horse Brigade on 10 December 1914. He spent six weeks in Egypt, in June and July, in hospital with pleurisy, but returned in time for the August offensive, for which he was mentioned in despatches. Chauvel was acting commander of the New Zealand and Australian Division for short periods in September and October in Godley's absence. Then on 6 November 1915, he became commander of the 1st Division, and was promoted to major general. He commanded this division through the final phase of the Gallipoli Campaign, the evacuation, and the reorganisation in Egypt in February and March 1916. For his part in the evacuation, he was mentioned in despatches. His role in the campaign as a whole was recognised by his appointment as a Companion of the Order of the Bath. Sinai Anzac Mounted Division Chauvel assumed command of the newly formed Anzac Mounted Division on 16 March 1916, the day after it relieved the 1st Division on the Suez Canal defences. Chauvel was again mentioned in despatches for his part in the defence of the Canal. His division was committed to No. 3 Section of the Suez Canal Defences, the northern part of the Canal, under Major General H. A. Lawrence. Arrangements were far from ideal. The mounted troops were parcelled out so that only two brigades of the Anzac Mounted Division remained under Chauvel's command. The 3rd Light Horse Brigade had been placed under No. 2 Section by General Sir Archibald Murray GHQ Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF). Lawrence was too far away to control the battle, especially once the telephone lines were cut. Murray, in Ismailia, was even further back. For the Battle of Romani, Chauvel chose his ground carefully, reconnoitring it from the ground and the air, and selecting both forward and fall back positions. His luck held; the German commander – Friedrich Kreß von Kressenstein – selected the same position as the forming up area for his attack in August 1916. Under great pressure, Chauvel maintained his position until Brigadier-General Edward Chaytor's New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade arrived after being released by Lawrence. The counter-attack that Chauvel had been calling for all day did not materialise until dusk. At Katia and again at Bir el Abd, Chauvel attempted to sweep around the Turkish flank but wound up making frontal attacks on the Turkish rearguard and was beaten off by determined counter-attacks and artillery fire against the 3rd Light Horse Brigade. Despite killing 1,250 Turks and taking over 4,000 prisoners, Chauvel was criticised for his failure to rout and destroy the Turks. However, for the Australian and New Zealand horsemen, who suffered over 900 of the 1,130 British casualties, it was a clear-cut victory, their first decisive win and the turning point of the campaign. Later, Chauvel realised that Romani was the first decisive British victory of the war outside West Africa Campaign. In his report to the War Office on the battle, Murray passed lightly over the part played by the Anzac Mounted Division. The majority of awards for the Battle of Romani went to British troops, including a generous number to officers of Murray's staff. Lawrence was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath, but Chauvel, having already been made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George for South Africa and Companion of the Order of the Bath for Gallipoli, was recommended for a lesser award, which he refused. In view of this, Murray decided that Chauvel should receive no award at all, and he was merely mentioned in despatches. Desert Column In October 1916 Major General Sir Charles Macpherson Dobell, a Canadian officer with broad experience in fighting colonial wars took over command of Eastern Force. Its advanced troops – including Chauvel's Anzac Mounted Division – became part of the newly formed Desert Column under Major-General Sir Philip Chetwode, a British cavalry baronet. In the Battle of Magdhaba in December 1916, Chauvel therefore was answerable to the newly arrived Chetwode, instead of the distant commanders on the Canal. His intelligence on enemy dispositions was considerably better thanks to the work of the aviators of No. 5 Wing, which consisted of No. 14 Squadron, Royal Flying Corps and No. 1 Squadron, Australian Flying Corps. However, he had only limited time to capture the position and its water supply, and when the issue was in doubt Chauvel ordered a withdrawal. The order was ignored by Brigadier-General Charles Frederick Cox of the 1st Light Horse Brigade, whose troops carried the position, and was cancelled by Chetwode. Despite his premature withdrawal order, it was Chauvel's plan of attack that won the battle. "Chauvel's leadership," wrote Henry Gullett, "was distinguished by the rapidity with which he summed up the very obscure Turkish position in the early morning, and by his judgement and characteristic patience in keeping so much of his force in reserve until the fight developed sufficiently to ensure its most profitable employment." Chauvel gained another important success in the Battle of Rafa in January 1917. In many ways, the battle was similar to Magdhaba, but the Turkish position was stronger and the threat of its reinforcement was greater. Once again, the availability of water was a crucial feature of the battle. This time it was Chetwode who decided to call off the battle, with Chauvel's concurrence, but once again the troops carried the day. The victories at Magdhaba and Rafah changed Murray's mind about awarding Chauvel a knighthood and in January 1917 Chauvel was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George. In July, he was mentioned in despatches for these operations. However, Chauvel continued to be concerned about the lack of recognition for Australian and New Zealand troops and on 28 September 1917 wrote: Chauvel appended 32 names of soldiers he recommended for awards that had been ignored. Two New Zealanders recommended for a Bar to their Distinguished Service Orders (DSO) were not even mentioned in despatches and an outstanding Australian regimental commander recommended for the CMG was also not even mentioned in despatches, while a brigade commander and a staff officer Chauvel recommended for DSOs received mentions. Palestine In January 1917, a second mounted division – the Imperial Mounted Division – was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and the British 5th and 6th Yeomanry Brigades. A British regular army officer fresh from experience in the Senussi Campaign, Major General Sir H. W. Hodgson, was appointed to command, with an all-British staff. The deliberate mixing of Australian and Imperial troops was done with Chauvel's approval but was contrary to the policy of the Australian Government, which soon registered its displeasure, sending Brigadier General Sir Robert Anderson to Cairo to discuss the matter frankly with Chauvel and his superiors. As a result, the Imperial Mounted Division was renamed the Australian Mounted Division. In the First Battle of Gaza in March 1917, Chauvel's mission was similar to Rafa and Magdhaba, but on a larger scale. He enveloped the Turkish position at Gaza while the British 53rd (Welsh) Infantry Division and 54th (East Anglian) Infantry Division attempted to capture it. When this failed, Chetwode ordered Chauvel to attempt to capture Gaza from the rear. Chauvel successfully improvised a late afternoon assault on Gaza that captured the town despite the barriers of high cactus hedges and fierce enemy opposition, entering it after dark, only to have an out-of-touch Dobell order the mounted troops to withdraw, despite Chauvel's protests. This time his brigadiers at the front, Generals Ryrie and Chaytor, although they believed that Gaza could be held, felt compelled to obey, as they could not see the whole battle. All guns, including captured ones were hauled away, as were all unwounded prisoners, the wounded and even the dead. Chauvel ensured that wounded Turkish prisoners that were unfit to make the march to Deir al-Balah were each left with a full water bottle. Dobell launched the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917 with a full scale frontal assault supported by naval gunfire, tanks and poison gas. It ended even more unsatisfactorily, and Dobell was relieved of command of Eastern Force on 19 April. His place was taken by Chetwode, while Chauvel took over the Desert Column, thereby becoming the first Australian to reach the rank of lieutenant general. Command of the Anzac Mounted Division passed to Chaytor. In June, during the Stalemate in Southern Palestine, General Sir Edmund Allenby took over the EEF from Murray. Allenby moved his headquarters to Palestine and re-organised his command along more regular lines. Eastern Force was abolished and two corps headquarters were formed, XX Corps under Chetwode and XXI Corps under Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin. The three corps commanders were professional soldiers, none of whom had graduated from a military college or a staff college, they had all been commissioned from the militia or volunteers. Two weeks before Allenby arrived, Chauvel attended an awards ceremony: Desert Mounted Corps When Chauvel learned that the Desert Column was to be renamed the 2nd Cavalry Corps he requested Desert Mounted Corps. The corps consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division, the Australian Mounted Division, the newly formed Yeomanry Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade. Although some British thought that Allenby should replace Chauvel with a British officer, Allenby retained him in command. However he overrode Chauvel's own preference to appoint a Royal Horse Guards officer, Brigadier General Richard Howard-Vyse, known as "Wombat", as Chauvel's chief of staff. Chauvel thus, on 2 August 1917, became the first Australian to permanently command a corps. A "brass-bound brigadier" was quoted as saying, "Fancy giving the command of the biggest mounted force in the world's history to an Australian." On being told of the appointments, in a letter dated 12 August 1917 Chetwode wrote to congratulate Chauvel, "I cannot say how much I envy you the command of the largest body of mounted men ever under one hand – it is my own trade – but Fate has willed it otherwise." At Romani Chauvel had been a battleground commander who led from the front while Chetwode, relying on the phone had been deciding to retreat at the victory at Rafa. Chetwode's "arms length" style of command also impacted the First Battle of Gaza. In the Battle of Beersheba in October 1917, it was again Chauvel and his Desert Mounted Corps that had the critical role. Chetwode believed that the EEF did not have the resources to defeat the Turks in their fixed positions so he planned to drive the Turks from them by turning the enemy flank at Beersheba, in a waterless area on the flank of the enemy line. The Desert Mounted Corps would have a long overnight approach over waterless desert and would have to capture the town with its wells intact or be forced to retreat. The Battle of Beersheba went right down to the line, but the mission was accomplished, albeit not without a mounted infantry bayonet charge by the 4th Light Horse Brigade – the last of history's great cavalry charges – to capture the town and its vital water supply. Few battles have been won in such spectacular fashion. For this decisive victory, and the subsequent capture of Jerusalem, Chauvel was mentioned in despatches twice more, and appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1918 New Year Honours List. Chauvel, however, was still disappointed with the failure to destroy the Turkish army. The Turks had fought hard, forcing the commitment of the Desert Mounted Corps in heavy action before the moment for a sweeping pursuit came. When it did, the men and horses were too tired and could not summon the required energy. In February 1918, the EEF began a series of operations across the Jordan. Allenby soon found his British troops diverted to France, to be replaced by two Indian cavalry divisions, and the Australian Mounted Division faced a similar fate for a time. In the meantime, during the second Transjordan operations Chauvel faced great difficulties with the terrain, the weather and a tenacious enemy; the campaign was not a success. The Desert Mounted Corps found itself fighting outnumbered, with Turkish reinforcements closing in from all sides. Chauvel was forced to withdraw to the West Bank of the Jordan. Subsequently, the 5th Yeomanry Mounted Brigade was disbanded and Chauvel replaced it with the 5th Light Horse Brigade, formed from the Australian and New Zealand components of the now disbanded Imperial Camel Corps Brigade, and a composite French cavalry regiment of Spahis and Chasseurs d'Afrique. In September 1918, Chauvel was able to effect a secret redeployment of two of his mounted divisions. Allenby launched a surprise attack on the enemy and won the Battle of Megiddo. He then followed up this victory with one of the fastest pursuits in military history – 167 km in only three days. This time he succeeded in destroying the Turkish army. The Desert Mounted Corps moved across the Golan Heights and captured Damascus on 1 October. Between 19 September and 2 October, the Australian Mounted Division lost 21 killed and 71 wounded, and captured 31,335 Turkish prisoners. To restore calm in the city, Chauvel ordered a show of force. Lieutenant Colonel T. E. Lawrence later lampooned this as a "triumphal entry" but it was actually a shrewd political stroke, freeing Chauvel's forces to advance another 300 km to Aleppo, which was captured on 25 October. Five days later, Turkey surrendered. For this victory, Chauvel was again mentioned in despatches. Chauvel was obliged to remain in the Middle East due to the situation in Syria and the Egyptian Rebellion, although he was able to have Lady Chauvel join him there in January 1919. By April, the situation had calmed and Chauvel was able to hand over command of the AIF in the Middle East to Ryrie. Chauvel and Lady Chauvel then headed for London on the RMS Malwa. They arrived in time for him to lead Australian troops on a victory march through the city on 3 May. Soon after, he was hospitalised at the 3rd London General Hospital at Wandsworth with appendicitis. The whole Chauvel family was able to sail for home on the transport HMAT Demosthenes on 26 July 1919. For his services as commander of the Desert Mounted Corps, Chauvel was created a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George in June 1919, was awarded the French Croix de Guerre avec Palme by the President of France and the Order of the Nile (2nd Class) by the Sultan of Egypt, and was mentioned in despatches for the 11th time. At his special request, when he was conferred with vestments and accoutrements of the Order of St Michael and St George by King George V, the King dubbed him "Sir Harry" rather than "Sir Henry". Later life Between the wars Chauvel's AIF appointment was terminated on 9 December 1919, and the next day he was appointed Inspector General, the Army's most senior post, which he held until 1930. The office of Inspector General had been created as an auditor who provided annual reports to the Council of Defence. In the event of war, it was intended that the Inspector General would become the Commander in Chief with the Military Board as his general staff. Chauvel's annual reports tended to emphasise the parlous state of the nation's defences. He warned, for example, that if war came, soldiers would "be subject to the unfair handicap and the certainty of increased loss of life which inferiority in armament and shortage of ammunition must inevitability entail". Looking back from the perspective of the Second World War, historian Gavin Long noted that Chauvel's annual reports were "a series of wise and penetrating examinations of Australian military problems of which, however, little notice was taken". In February 1920, Chauvel was promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant general, back-dated to 31 December 1919. In January 1920, he chaired a committee to examine the future structure of the army. The committee's recommendations proved to be next to impossible to implement in the face of defence cuts that were imposed in 1920 and 1922. On Lieutenant General Brudenell White's retirement as Chief of the General Staff in 1923, that post was divided into two, with Chauvel becoming 1st Chief of the General Staff as well as Inspector General, while Brigadier General Thomas Blamey became 2nd Chief of the General Staff. Chauvel also served as Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, being the senior of the three service chiefs. In November 1929, he became the first Australian to be promoted to the rank of general. He attempted to maintain the Army's structure in the face of short-sighted politicians intent on cutting expenditure. As a result, the Army became increasingly hollow, retaining the form of a large force without the substance. When conscription was abolished by Prime Minister James Scullin's government in 1929, it was left up to Chauvel to attempt to make the new volunteer system work. He finally retired in April 1930. Chauvel's sons Ian and Edward resigned their commissions in the Australian Army in 1930 and 1932 respectively, and accepted commissions in cavalry regiments of the British Indian Army. His daughter Elyne married Thomas Walter Mitchell, a grazier. Chauvel became a frequent visitor to their property "Towong Hill" near Corryong, Victoria. He was staying at Towong Hill during the Black Friday Bushfires of 1939. When the property was threatened by fire, he directed the firefighting effort, and at one point climbed a tree close to the house to hack away burning branches. The dedication of the Shrine of Remembrance in 1934 saw a series of reunions. Ian and Edward arrived from India on leave, Alexander Godley came from Britain, and Richard Howard-Vyse as chief of staff to Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester. In 1937, Chauvel travelled to the United Kingdom as head of the Australian contingent for the coronation of King George VI, where he was welcomed by Chetwode and Howard-Vyse. Chauvel had the contingent dressed as light horsemen, wearing emu plumes, bandoliers and spurs. When the Dominion troops assembled at Buckingham Palace to receive their King George VI Coronation Medals, Chauvel led the parade, with Howard-Vyse as his chief of staff. On the way back, the contingent visited France, where ceremonies were held at the Villers–Bretonneux Australian National Memorial and the Arc de Triomphe. Chauvel frequently led Anzac Day parades through Melbourne but resigned from the leadership of the march in 1938 in protest against a decision by the Returned and Services League of Australia to change the form of service at the Shrine from a Christian to a secular one. Second World War and legacy During the Second World War, Chauvel was recalled to duty as Inspector in Chief of the Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC), the Australian version of the British Home Guard. Following Brudenell White's death in the Canberra air disaster, Prime Minister Robert Menzies turned to Chauvel for advice on a successor as Chief of the General Staff. On Chauvel's recommendation, Menzies appointed Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee to the post. During the war, Chauvel's son Ian served as staff officer in the Italian campaign, while Edward was posted to New Guinea to learn about jungle warfare from the Australian Army. Chauvel's daughter Eve joined the Women's Royal Australian Naval Service and spent a day in a lifeboat in the North Atlantic after her ship was torpedoed by a U-boat. Tom Mitchell was captured by the Japanese in the Battle of Singapore. Chauvel remained with the VDC, based at Victoria Barracks, Melbourne but constantly travelling on inspections until his death on 4 March 1945. Chauvel was given a state funeral service at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne officiated by the Anglican Archbishop of Melbourne, Joseph John Booth, after which he was cremated at Springvale Crematorium with full military honours. Eight generals acted as pallbearers: Lieutenant General John Northcott, Chief of the General Staff; Lieutenant General John Whitham, Corps Commander, VDC; Major General James Cannan, Quartermaster General; Major General Charles Brand; Major General Cyril Clowes, GOC, Victoria Line of Communications Area; Major General John Austin Chapman, Deputy Chief of General Staff; Major General Charles Lloyd, Adjutant General; and Major General Clive Steele, Engineer in Chief. Portraits of Chauvel are held by the Australian War Memorial in Canberra, the Naval and Military Club in Melbourne, and the Imperial War Museum in London. A portrait by George Washington Lambert is in the possession of the family. Chauvel is commemorated in a bronze plaque in St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne. His sword is in Christ Church, South Yarra, his uniform in the Australian War Memorial, and his saddle is kept by the 1st Armoured Regiment in South Australia. There is also a memorial window in the chapel of the Royal Military College, Duntroon. Chauvel Street in North Ryde, Sydney is named in his honour. Chauvel's daughter Elyne Mitchell wrote a number of non-fiction works about her father and his corps. In his book Seven Pillars of Wisdom, T. E. Lawrence provided a wildly inaccurate version of Chauvel. Charles Bean noted that "this wise, good and considerate commander was far from the stupid martinet that readers of Lawrence's Seven Pillars of Wisdom might infer." Lawrence confessed that "little of his book was strict truth though most of it was based on fact." Chauvel's nephew Charles Chauvel became a well-known film director, whose films included Forty Thousand Horsemen (1940), about the Battle of Beersheba. Harry Chauvel was portrayed in film: by Bill Kerr in The Lighthorsemen (1987), which covered the exploits of an Australian cavalry regiment during the Third Battle of Gaza; by Ray Edwards in A Dangerous Man: Lawrence After Arabia (1990), which took place around the 1919 Paris peace conference; and by Colin Baker in the 1992 Young Indiana Jones TV movie Daredevils of the Desert, another retelling of the Third Battle of Gaza from the director of The Lighthorsemen. See also Jean Chauvel (Ambassadeur de France) Notes Citations References External links His introduction to The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine Chauvel at www.aif.adfa.edu.au Monument Australia – plaque at St Paul's Cathedral, Melbourne Virtual War Memorial Australia |- |- 1865 births 1945 deaths Military personnel from New South Wales Australian generals Australian military personnel of the Second Boer War Australian military personnel of World War I Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath Australian Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George People educated at Sydney Grammar School People educated at Toowoomba Grammar School Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Volunteer Defence Corps officers

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42nd%20%28East%20Lancashire%29%20Infantry%20Division

42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division

The 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army. The division was raised in 1908 as part of the Territorial Force (TF), originally as the East Lancashire Division, and was redesignated as the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division on 25 May 1915. It was the first TF division to be sent overseas during the First World War. The division fought at Gallipoli, in the Sinai desert and on the Western Front in France and Belgium. Disbanded after the war, it was reformed in the Territorial Army (TA), in the Second World War it served as the 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Division with the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and fought in Belgium and France before being evacuated at Dunkirk. The division was later reformed in the United Kingdom and, in November 1941, was converted into the 42nd Armoured Division, which was disbanded in October 1943 without serving overseas. A 2nd Line duplicate formation, the 66th Infantry Division, was created when the Territorials were doubled in both world wars. The division was disbanded during the war but was reformed in the TA in 1947 after the Second World War. Beckett 2008 says that TA units that were in suspended animation were formally reactivated on 1 January 1947, although no personnel were assigned until commanding officers and permanent staff had been appointed in March and April 1947. From December 1955, the division was placed on a lower establishment, for home defence purposes only. On 1 May 1961, the division was merged with North West District to become 42nd Lancashire Division/North West District. Formation The Territorial Force (TF) was formed on 1 April 1908 following the enactment of the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw.7, c.9) which combined and re-organised the old Volunteer Force, the Honourable Artillery Company and the Yeomanry. On formation, the TF contained 14 infantry divisions and 14 mounted yeomanry brigades. One of the divisions was the East Lancashire Division. In peacetime, the divisional headquarters was, from 1910, in the National Buildings at St Mary's Parsonage in Manchester. First World War The division was embodied upon the outbreak of war. The war station was intended to be Ireland; but, due to its pacific state, the intended move did not materialise. After a brief period at their drill halls, the various units proceeded to large tented camps at Turton Bottoms (near Bolton), Chesham (near Bury) and Holingworth Lake, Littleborough (near Rochdale). The personnel were asked to volunteer for overseas service, and the overwhelming majority did so, the deficiencies made up of men from the National Reserve and other re-enlistments. The 'home service' men formed the cadre of duplicate units, intended to train the rush of volunteers at the drill halls. These would form the divisional reserve, and later become the 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division. In 1914, the East Lancashire Division was one of 14 infantry divisions and 55 mounted regiments, called the Yeomanry, that made up the Territorial Force. Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, described these divisions and regiments of mainly white–collar workers as "a town clerk's army". Their junior officers were trained at the Officer Training Corps set up at the universities and large public schools, such as Eton and Harrow. Kitchener sent these forces to the peripheral campaigns; to the Sudan, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Caucasus, to release Regular British Army soldiers for duty on the Western Front because he thought these amateur soldiers 'might not be able to hold their own with the German Army'. Egypt The East Lancashire Division arrived in Egypt on 25 September 1914 and served in the interior, around Cairo (with some elements stationed in Cyprus and the Sudan) together with some Yeomanry units, and the Australian and New Zealand contingents before going to Gallipoli. The division was sent to Egypt to defend the Suez Canal against anticipated Turkish attacks. The 15 pounder gun batteries were deployed at key points on the west bank in support of Indian Army and New Zealand troops manning guardposts. The 20th Battery (Bolton Artillery) fired the division's first artillery rounds of the Great War, and the first of the Territorial Force of the campaign, near El Ferdan on 2 February 1915. The 19th Battery (Bolton Artillery) was in action in support of Indian and New Zealand troops between Tussum and Serapeum on the night and morning of 3–4 February 1915, against the attempted crossing of the canal by the 74th Regiment, Turkish 25th Division. Gallipoli Beginning in early May 1915, the division joined the British Army Corps, from June known as VIII Corps, at Cape Helles following the failure of the Allies to achieve the anticipated swift success at Gallipoli during April. On 26 May 1915 the division received its number, becoming the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, and the brigades were also numbered, becoming 125th (1/1st Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade, 126th (1/1st East Lancashire) Brigade and 127th (1/1st Manchester) Brigade. The 4th (Blackburn) battery, 1 section of the 6th (Burnley) battery, and 19th and 20th (Bolton) batteries did not join the division on Gallipoli until 23/24 September, and the 1st/2nd East Lancs Brigade RFA (Manchester Artillery) arrived in Egypt in May from Britain and remained in Egypt. The 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade landed in time to participate in the Second Battle of Krithia on 6 May and the 126th Brigade arrived on 11 May. The entire division was involved in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June. The division carried out the Helles diversion at the start of the Battle of Sari Bair in what became known as the Battle of Krithia Vineyard. Captain William Thomas Forshaw of the 1/9th Battalion, Manchester Regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions in this battle from 7 to 9 August. 2nd Lieutenant Alfred Victor Smith of the 1/5th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his action at Helles on 23 December. The division remained at Gallipoli until the final evacuation of Helles in January 1916 but was severely depleted by casualties and illness. 42nd Division's casualties at Gallipoli were 395 officers and 8152 other ranks killed, wounded and missing. Egypt and the Sinai Campaign After the evacuation of Gallipoli, the division returned to Egypt, and was renamed the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division. As such it participated in the Battle of Romani and the advance from Romani to Katia. The 42nd Division served at Kantara on the Suez Canal in No. 3 Section of the Suez Canal Defences under General Lawrence until they were entrained for the railhead at Pelusium on the first day of the Battle of Romani on 4 August 1916. On arrival late in the day, the 127th Brigade of the 42nd Division took over outpost duties at 1930 hours while the New Zealand Mounted Rifle and 5th Mounted Yeomanry Brigades, which had been heavily involved in fighting during the day, withdrew to water and rest at Pelusium. On the second day of battle, 5 August 1916, the 42nd Division along with the 52nd (Lowland) Division, which had fought the previous day from their entrenched position, were ordered to move out to support the Australian Light Horse and New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigades in a pursuit of the enemy. The 42nd Division was not prepared for the conditions they found in the Sinai desert. They had not been trained to operate in heavy sand in mid summer heat, and with insufficient water, extreme distress and tragedy followed. The mounted troops alone, were unable to stop the enemy making a disciplined withdrawal to water at Katia and to fall back in good order, the following day. The 127th Brigade, 42nd Division eventually reached Katia the next day, 6 August; 800 men had died in the two-day march from Pelusium Station. The 125th Brigade of the 42nd Division and the 155th, and 157th brigades of the 52nd Division also had many men fall victim to thirst and the blazing sun; the infantry pursuit could not go on. Robert Bethel, Army Service Corps, and McPherson, an officer in the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps, worked to transport provisions and water to the 125th and 127th brigades. They recorded what they saw of these terrible days. Nearly 50 years after serving with the 42nd Division in the Sinai, one veteran, gunner J. Thompson, confessed that the "sight of a leaking tap" made him "squirm". By December 1916, the 42nd Division was furnishing units to protect the lines of communication at Salmana, Abu Tilul and the railway station Maadan and took part in a practice attack on 13 December. On 21 December, 42nd and 52nd Divisions marched from Kilo 128 to Bardawil and continued to move eastwards towards Masaid. On 17 January 1917, the 42nd Division was no longer in the Sinai Campaign, having been among the first of the Territorial Force to receive orders for the Western Front. The division was replaced in Desert Column by another Territorial Division, the 53rd (Welsh) Division commanded by Dallas. The two other Territorial infantry divisions, the 52nd at Rafa and the 54th (East Anglian) Division ordered out to Romani from the Suez Canal, were put directly under General Dobell commander of Eastern Force. The 42nd Division departed Egypt early in February 1917. Western Front The division moved to France and joined 3 Corps in the Fourth Army in March 1917. It relieved 48th (South Midland) Division on 8 May 1917 and held the line at Épehy before relieving 20th (Light) Division and holding the line at Havrincourt, north of Epéhy, from 23 May 1917. Its infantry was relieved by 58th (2/1st London) Division on 8 July 1917 but its divisional artillery remained in the line in support of 58th and then 9th (Scottish) Division at Havrincourt Wood. It moved to the Ytres sector on 9 July 1917. On 23 August 1917, it joined 5 Corps in the Fifth Army, although the infantry in Poperinghe area behind Ypres for training. Its divisional artillery entered line immediately in support of 15th (Scottish) Division near Potijze Chateau. Its infantry relieved 15th Division in the line to the right of Potijze Road near Frezenberg Ridge at Ypres on 1 September 1917 and on 6 September 125 Brigade made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the fortified Iberian, Borry and Beck Farms during the Third Battle of Ypres. The divisional infantry were relieved by the 9th Division and retired to Poperinghe area on 18 September 1917. Its divisional artillery remained in the Line until 29 September, participated in heavy fighting from 20 September and advanced to exposed positions on Frezenberg Ridge on 25 September during the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge. On 26 September it relieved 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division. The divisional artillery rejoined and it held the line at Nieuport. On 29 November 1917 it relieved the 25th Division and held the line at Givenchy on La Bassée sector. It constructed fortifications according to the new British defensive doctrine of "defended localities" in anticipation of major German attack. Private Walter Mills of C Company, the 1/10th Manchesters, was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for actions at Red Dragon Crater, Givenchy on the night of 10 December 1917. It relieved by 55th (West Lancashire) Division on 15 February 1918. It was held in reserve and undertook training at Busnes – Burbure – Fouquieres area, forming part of the 1 Corps reserve and then the GHQ reserve from 1 March 1918. On 23 March 1918 it joined 6 Corps under the command of Lt-General Sir Aylmer Haldane in the Third Army, initially in reserve, and then at Ervillers, to defend the line against the German Seventeenth Army under the command of General Otto von Below on the right (i.e. north) wing of the "Michael 1" German Spring Offensive (Kaiserschlacht) in the First Battle of the Somme and then the First Battle of Bapaume. It counterattacked in the afternoon with 7 tanks and 300 infantry from Logeast Wood to delay the German VI Reserve Corps on 25 March 1918. The 10th Manchesters repelled eight attacks by the German 2nd Guards Reserve Division, at Ervillers. It retired the Ervillers – Bucquoy area on 26 March 1918. Together the 42nd and 62nd (2nd West Riding) Division it held the Rossignol Wood – Bucquoy sector under heavy shelling against six attacks by the German 3rd Guards Infantry Division, the last with assistance of 11 Mk. IV tanks. It then held the line until end of final German assault on 5 April 1918 at Bucquoy and held the line at Bucquoy, Gommecourt, Hébuterne from 6 April 1918. It served with the 4 Corps in Third Army from 21 August 1918 and attacked and advanced Miraumont, across the River Ancre, Pys, Warlencourt during the Second Battle of the Somme including the Battle of Albert. Their opponent was the German 183rd Division. Lance-Sergeant Edward Smith of the 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions in the capture of The Lozenge (Hill 140, a German machine-gun nest) on 21 August and enemy counterattacks on 22 August. The infantry withdrew for two days rest in Miraumont-Pys area on 25 August 1918. The divisional artillery went into action under heavy fire in support of 63rd (Royal Naval) Division on outskirts of Loupart Wood. It then relieved 63rd Division in the line and resumed advance on 28 August 1918. It attacked and advanced to Thilloy, Riencourt-lès-Bapaume, Villers-au-Flos, Ytres, across the Canal du Nord to Metz-en-Couture in the Second Battle of the Somme including the Second Battle of Bapaume. Its infantry relieved by New Zealand Division and moved to rest in Pys-Tholloy area on 6 September 1918. The divisional artillery remained in the line in support of New Zealand Division. On 21 September 1918 it relieved 37th Division east of Havrincourt Wood. On 27 September 1918 it attacked and advanced Havrincourt Wood through the Siegfried Stellung section of the Hindenburg Line via successive planned objectives denoted Black, Red, Brown, Yellow, Blue Lines, to Welsh Ridge. The Hindenburg Line was attacked in enfilade, or diagonally, as can be seen from the map. Many casualties were sustained from machine guns situated in Beaucamps to the right of the division's front during the Battle of the Canal du Nord. Its infantry relieved by New Zealand Division and withdrew to Havrincourt Wood for rest on 29 September 2018. The divisional artillery remained in action in support of the New Zealand Division in the Pursuit to the Selle. On 9 October 1918 its infantry marched up to the front through Lesdain, Esnes, Beauvois and relieved New Zealand Division, who had established a bridgehead across the River Selle at Briastre. It defended Briastre against heavy German counterattacks and shelling from 12 October 1918 and then advanced across the River Selle to Marou, Virtigneul and Belle Vue Farm during the Battle of the Selle. Private Alfred Robert Wilkinson of the 1/5th Manchesters was awarded the Victoria Cross for actions on 20 October 1918 at Marou. The division's opponent in these actions was the German 25th Division. It was relieved by New Zealand Division on 24 October 1918 and withdrew to Beauvois for a rest. It then moved up though Le Quesnoy and Forest of Mormal in support of the advance of 37th and New Zealand Divisions on 3 November 1918. It relieved the New Zealand Division in line of attack on eastern edge of Forest of Mormal and attacked and advanced to Hautmont in the Arrondissement of Avesnes-sur-Helpe on 6 November 1918. It was standing fast on line Maubeuge – Avesnes-sur-Helpe Road when the armistice was signed on 11 November 1918. First World War composition The infantry were equipped with the obsolescent Long Magazine Lee–Enfield (MLE) rifle from embarkation in 1914 until arrival in France in March 1917, when they were re-equipped with the standard modern Short Magazine Lee–Enfield (SMLE). Infantry The division comprised three infantry brigades: 125th (Lancashire Fusiliers) Brigade 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers from Bury, outlying detachments at Radcliffe and Heywood. 1/6th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers from Rochdale, outlying detachments at Middleton and Todmorden. Disbanded February 1918. Men transferred within 42nd Division and to 66th Division. 1/7th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers from Salford 1/8th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers from Salford 126th (East Lancashire) Brigade 1/4th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment from Blackburn Disbanded February 1918. Men transferred within 42nd Division and to 66th Division. 1/5th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment from Burnley 1/9th Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Ashton-under-Lyne Disbanded February 1918. Men transferred within 42nd Division and to 66th Division. 1/10th Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Oldham 1/8th (Ardwick) Battalion, Manchester Regiment Transferred from 127th Brigade February 1918. 127th (Manchester) Brigade 1/5th Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Wigan, outlying detachments at Haydock, Atherton, Patricroft, and Swinton. 1/6th Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Manchester and suburbs including Cheshire 1/7th Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Manchester and suburbs including Cheshire 1/8th (Ardwick) Battalion, Manchester Regiment from Ardwick and East Manchester Transferred to 126th Brigade February 1918. Pioneers and Cavalry 1/7th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers Joined the 42nd Division from 50th (Northumbrian) Division on 12 February 1918 near Bethune after being converted from an infantry battalion. 3 companies A Squadron, 1/1st Duke of Lancaster's Own Yeomanry from Oldham Did not proceed to Gallipoli; remained in Egypt and fought in the Western Desert expedition against the Senussi. Rejoined 42nd Division after it returned to Egypt from Gallipoli. Transferred to 53rd Division January 1917 and fought at Gaza, then served with 60th and 52nd Divisions in Palestine and Syria. Divisional artillery Originally, each of the field gun batteries was equipped with four obsolescent BLC 15-pounder field guns (referred to somewhat inaccurately by Ian Hamilton as "relics of South Africa"). They were replaced on 29 February 1916 with modern QF 18-pounder guns handed over by 29th Division in Egypt. 1st East Lancs Brigade R.F.A. (R.F.A.) Renamed 210 Brigade 6 May 1916 4th Lancashire Battery from Blackburn. Renamed A Battery 6 May 1916. 5th Lancashire Battery from Church. Renamed B Battery 6 May 1916. 6th Lancashire Battery from Burnley. Renamed C Battery 6 May 1916. 2nd East Lancs Brigade R.F.A. (Manchester Artillery)Arrived Egypt May 1915, did not go to Gallipoli.Renamed 211 Brigade 29 May 1916 15th Lancashire Battery from Manchester. Renamed A Battery 29 May 1916. 16th Lancashire Battery from Manchester. Renamed B Battery 29 May 1916. 17th Lancashire Battery from Manchester. Renamed C Battery 29 May 1916. 3rd East Lancs Brigade R.F.A. (Bolton Artillery)Renamed 212 Brigade 29 May 1916 18th Lancashire Battery from Bolton and district. Renamed A Battery 29 May 1916. 19th Lancashire Battery from Bolton and district. Renamed B Battery 29 May 1916. 20th Lancashire Battery from Bolton and district. Renamed C Battery 29 May 1916. 4th East Lancs (Howitzer) Brigade R.F.A. (The Cumberland Artillery)Originally, each of the 2 batteries was equipped with 4 obsolescent BL 5 inch Howitzers ("some of them Omdurman veterans").Joined Division on Gallipoli in July 1915 from Egypt. However, only limited supplies of the new 40 pound 5-inch shells were sent from Mudros (older shells were 50 pounds). No range tables for the lighter and hence longer-range shell were available, and they had a new pattern fuse for which no fuse keys were available. Hence, use of these howitzers at Gallipoli became very limited.Renamed 213 Brigade in May 1916.Re-equipped in June 1916 with modern QF 4.5 inch Howitzers. 1st Cumberland (Howitzer) Battery from Carlisle. Renamed A Battery in May 1916. 2nd Cumberland (Howitzer) Battery from Workington. Renamed B Battery in May 1916. 2nd Lancashire Heavy Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery, from Liverpool. Left in England when division embarked for Egypt. 1917 field artillery reorganization In February 1917, the Cumberland Artillery / 213 Brigade was disbanded and its two howitzer batteries merged into the 18-pounder brigades in accordance with the new artillery brigade philosophy. Existing four-gun, 18-pounder batteries in each of 210, 211 and 212 Brigades were merged into six-gun batteries, and the four brigades replaced by new 210 and 211 Brigades, each with 3 six-gun, 18-pounder batteries and one howitzer battery. Gibbon's divisional history states that the above occurred on paper on Christmas Day 1916, when the division was on manoeuvres at Al Mazar, and the reorganization actually occurred in February 1917 on return to the canal zone. Hence, from February 1917 to 11 November 1918, the divisional artillery consisted of 210 and 211 Brigades, each with 3 six-gun batteries of 18-pounders (A,B,C) and one battery of four 4.5-inch howitzers (D). Trench mortar batteries V/42 Heavy Trench Mortar Battery. Formed in France March 1917Equipped with four 9.45 inch Heavy Mortars. Part of Divisional Artillery until 15 February 1918 when it remained in La Bassée sector under Corps command when the division departed. Medium Trench Mortar Batteries. Formed in France March 1917Initially 3 batteries, each equipped with four Newton 6 inch Mortars, and 2 batteries of 6 from February 1918, following the disbanding of Z Battery. Part of Divisional Artillery X/42 Battery Y/42 Battery Z/42 Battery. Broken up February 1918. Redistributed to X and Y Batteries. Light Trench Mortar Batteries. Formed in France March 1917. Equipped with the 3 inch Stokes Mortar. Attached to the 3 infantry brigades and named after them. 42 Battalion Machine Gun Corps Formed 23 February 1918 from the previous four separate companies. One company was attached to each of the three infantry brigades and one company in Divisional Reserve. 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Engineers 1/1st East Lancashire Field Company renamed 427 Field Company February 1917 1/2nd East Lancashire Field Company renamed 428 Field Company February 1917 1/3rd East Lancashire Field Company joined Division in June 1916 in Egypt. Renamed 429 Field Company February 1917 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Signal Company, Royal Engineers. Combat Service Support Army Service Corps: 3 Companies Transport and Supply Column ASC. Left and joined 53rd (Welsh) Division in March 1917 and served in the operations against Gaza, then joined 74th (Yeomanry) Division. A new Divisional Train was formed in England and joined the 42nd Division in France after previously serving in France with the 3rd (Lahore) Division. 1/1st East Lancashire Field Ambulance attached to 127 Brigade 1/2nd East Lancashire Field Ambulance did not proceed to Gallipoli; attached to 126 Brigade 1/3rd East Lancashire Field Ambulance; attached to 125 Brigade 19th Mobile Veterinary Section 239th Divisional Employment Company Between the wars The division was disbanded after the war, along with the rest of the Territorial Force. However, it was later reformed in the 1920s as the Territorial Army and the 42nd Division was reconstituted. Second World War Shortly after the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the 42nd Division, commanded by Major General William Holmes, was serving under Western Command with its headquarters stationed in Manchester, and was mobilised for war service. The division, still comprising the 125th, 126th, and 127th Infantry Brigades, was understrength, having sent many of its best officers and men to help create a duplicate formation, the 66th Infantry Division, when the possibility of another conflict became obvious. Although war was declared, many of the division's units, widely scattered, were engaged in static defensive duties and guarding vulnerable positions, and so were initially unable to concentrate on training. In late September, the division moved to Northumberland where it came under Northern Command and was able to begin training, which continued into the winter. In January 1940, the division moved to Wiltshire, coming under Southern Command and continued training in order to join the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in France. By late March, training had progressed sufficiently and, in mid-April, the division crossed over to France, coming under the control of General Headquarters (GHQ) BEF, before being assigned to Lieutenant General Ronald Adam's III Corps on 29 April. While there, the division exchanged some of its units for Regular Army units, as part of official BEF policy, which was, in theory, intended to strengthen the inexperienced TA formations with experienced Regular units but this also had the simultaneous effect of weakening the Regular formations with relatively untrained troops. The 42nd Division transferred from Adam's III Corps to Lieutenant General Michael Barker's I Corps on 19 May 1940, nine days after the German Army invaded France, as the division moved into the front line on the River Escaut. On 17 May, Brigadier John Smyth's 127th Brigade was detached to join "Mac Force", under Major General Noel Mason-MacFarlane, temporarily leaving the division with two brigades, returning on 20 May. After the speed of the German advance, the division, along with the rest of the BEF, was forced to retreat to Dunkirk, and was evacuated from Dunkirk on 31 May/1 June, having suffered significant casualties. Around this time the 42nd Division gained its first and only Victoria Cross (VC) of the Second World War, belonging to Captain Marcus Ervine-Andrews of the 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment, of the 126th Brigade. In addition to being one of the first VCs won by the British Army during the Second World War, he was also the first Irishman to be awarded the medal during the war. The next few months for the division were spent in England, being re-equipped and reformed, along with anti-invasion duties in the event of a German invasion. Due to the heavy casualties sustained in France, the division absorbed thousands of conscripts as replacements. The division was stationed initially near Middlesbrough, Yorkshire under Northern Command, and in mid-June Major General Holmes, who had been General Officer Commanding (GOC) for over two years, was given command of X Corps and succeeded as GOC 42nd Division by Major General Henry Willcox. On 4 July, the division came under the command of X Corps and then, on 9 September, moving to East Anglia, IV Corps, commanded by Lieutenant General Francis Nosworthy, under Eastern Command. The corps was intended by General Sir Alan Brooke, the Commander-in-Chief, Home Forces, to be used in a counterattack role if the Germans invaded. On 5 November 1940, the division moved to Gloucestershire upon transferring again, this time to Lieutenant General Hugh Massy's XI Corps, and continued its routine of alternating between beach defence and training for potential future operations overseas. In late April 1941, Major General Eric Miles, who had commanded the 126th Brigade with distinction in France and Belgium the year before, assumed command from Major General Willcox, upon the latter's promotion to command I Corps, and, after further training, which included numerous large-scale exercises, on 23 October, the 42nd Division transferred again to Northern Command and, five days later, Major General Miles Dempsey assumed command from Major General Miles, who was posted to the 56th (London) Infantry Division as its GOC. Soon afterwards the division was, due to a shortage of armoured troops in the British Army to face a German invasion of the country, selected by General Brooke (soon to become Chief of the Imperial General Staff), as the most senior TA division, and, in his opinion, "a good division" (as he wrote in his diary after having spent the day with the division on 1 July), for conversion into an armoured formation. Consequently, on 1 November, the division was redesignated as the 42nd Armoured Division, the 125th and 126th Brigades becoming the 10th and 11th Armoured Brigades and the 127th Brigade becoming the 42nd Support Group, respectively. Thus, the division ceased to be an infantry formation. However, after undergoing numerous changes in organisation and personnel, the 42nd Armoured Division, after an existence of just less than two years, was broken up, many of its units reconverting to infantry or disbanding. Order of battle The 42nd Infantry Division was constituted as follows during the war: 125th Infantry Brigade 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers 1/6th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers 1/8th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers (until 4 May 1940) 125th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 31 January 1940, disbanded 25 January 1941) 1st Battalion, Border Regiment (from 4 May, left 1 December 1940) 9th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers (from 1 December 1940) 126th Infantry Brigade 5th Battalion, King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) 4th Battalion, Border Regiment (until 29 October 1939) 5th Battalion, Border Regiment 126th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 20 January 1940, disbanded 21 February 1941) 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment (from 10 November 1939 until 25 October 1941) 5th Battalion, Manchester Regiment (from 8 September 1941) 127th Infantry Brigade 4th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment (until 22 October 1941) 5th Battalion, Manchester Regiment (until 8 September 1941) 8th Battalion, Manchester Regiment (until 6 May 1940) 127th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company (formed 2 February 1940, disbanded 21 January 1941) 1st Battalion, Highland Light Infantry (from 6 May 1940) 2nd Battalion, Durham Light Infantry (from 6 September until 19 October 1941) 1st Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment (from 25 October 1941) Divisional Troops 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Artillery 51st (Westmorland and Cumberland) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 10 April 1940) 52nd (Manchester) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 20 October 1941) 53rd (Bolton) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 20 October 1941) 111th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 3 July 1940) 147th (Essex Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 20 October 1941) 56th (King's Own) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (until 20 October 1941) 53rd (Worcestershire Yeomanry) Anti-Tank Regiment, Royal Artillery (from 20 October 1941) 42nd (East Lancashire) Divisional Engineers 200th (East Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers (until 18 October 1939, rejoined 27 April 1940) 201st (East Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers 202nd (East Lancashire) Field Company, Royal Engineers (until 11 April 1940) 250th (East Anglian) Field Company, Royal Engineers (from 14 May 1940) 203rd (East Lancashire) Field Park Company, Royal Engineers 42nd (East Lancashire) Infantry Divisional Signals, Royal Corps of Signals Post 1945 In 1947, the 42nd and 55th (West Lancashire) Divisions were amalgamated to form the 42nd (Lancashire) Division as part of the post-war Territorial Army. In 1961 the division became a district headquarters as 42nd (Lancashire) Division/District, and it was disbanded on the reduction of the TA into the Territorial and Army Volunteer Reserve on 1 April 1967, when many individual TA units lost their identities. The district headquarters itself formed the core of the structure for the creation of North West District under HQ UK Land Forces in 1972. In the modern British Army, the 42 North West Brigade has adopted the former 42nd (Lancashire) Division badge. Commanders General Officers Commanding have included: Memorials and monuments The 42nd Division Memorial stands on the north edge of Trescault village on the left of the road to Havrincourt. It was unveiled by Major-General Arthur Solly-Flood on Easter Sunday, 1922. The inscription reads: "In memory of all ranks of the 42nd East Lancashire Territorial Division who gave their lives for King and Country during the Great War and in commemoration of the attack and capture of the Hindenburg line at Trescault by the Division on 28 September 1918". On the north-east side of Trescault, 274 metres to the east of the monument, is Ribecourt Road Cemetery, which the 42nd Division called the Divisional Cemetery, Trescault. Recipients of the Victoria Cross Lance Sergeant Edward Smith, 1/5th Battalion, Lancashire Fusiliers, Great War Lieutenant William Thomas Forshaw, 1/9th Battalion, Manchester Regiment, Great War Private Walter Mills, 1/10th Battalion, Manchester Regiment Private Alfred Robert Wilkinson, 1/5th Battalion, Manchester Regiment 2nd Lieutenant Alfred Victor Smith, 1/5th Battalion, East Lancashire Regiment, Great War Captain Marcus Ervine-Andrews, Second World War See also List of British divisions in World War I List of British divisions in World War II British Army Order of Battle (September 1939) Notes References Bibliography Anon, A History of the East Lancashire Royal Engineers by Members of the Corps, Manchester, 1920/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2003, . Bean, C.E.W., Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, Volume I, Chapter VIII Beckett, Ian F.W., 'Territorials: A Century of Service,' First Published April 2008 by DRA Printing of 14 Mary Seacole Road, The Millfields, Plymouth PL1 3JY on behalf of TA 100, , 102. Bruce, Anthony The Last Crusade The Palestine Campaign in the First World War (London: John Murray Ltd, 2002) Carver, Field Marshal Lord, The National Army Museum Book of The Turkish Front 1914–1918 The Campaigns at Gallipoli, in Mesopotamia and in Palestine (London: Pan Macmillan, 2003) Farndale, General Sir Martin, "History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery. The Forgotten Fronts and the Home Base, 1914–18". London: The Royal Artillery Institution, 1988 Gray, Randal, Kaiserschlacht 1918. The Final German Offensive. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1991, Reprinted 2002. Hill, A.J., Chauvel of the Light Horse A Biography of General Sir Harry Chauvel, GCMG, KCB (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1978) Keogh, E.G., Suez to Aleppo (Melbourne: Directorate of Military Training, 1955) Kinloch, Terry, Devils on Horses in the words of the Anzacs in the Middle East 1916–19 (Auckland, Exisle Publishing, 2007) Powles, C. Guy Lieut.–Colonel. CMG, DSO, The New Zealanders in Sinai and Palestine Volume III Official History New Zealand's Effort in the Great War (Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin and Wellington: Whitcombe & Tombs Ltd, 1922) Woodward, David R., Hell in the Holy Land World War I in the Middle East (Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 2006) External links Chris Baker, The British Army in the Great War: The 42nd (East Lancashire) Division PB Chappell, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division Battles & Units Major I G Kelly, "Go One Better" A History of the 42nd (City of Manchester) Signal Squadron (Volunteers) Museum of The Manchester Regiment. History Territorial Force 1914 – 1919 Linda Corbett, The Ashton Territorials, 9th Battalion of the Manchester Regiment During WWI Captain S. J. Wilson, M.C. The Seventh Manchesters July 1916 to March 1919 Manchester University Press, 1920. Fusiliers' Museum, Lancashire Neil Drum and Roger Dowson, "Hell let loose. The 1/7th (Salford) Territorial Battalion, the Lancashire Fusiliers" published by Neil Richardson, 2005 John Hartley, More than a Name. The stories of the men from the Stockport area who fought and died in the Great War 1914–1918 Rob Palmer 42 (East Lancashire) Division 1930–38 Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War I Infantry divisions of the British Army in World War II D42 Military units and formations established in 1908 Military units and formations disestablished in 1961 1908 establishments in England

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-female%20band

All-female band

An all-female band is a musical group in popular music that is exclusively composed of female musicians. This is distinct from a girl group, in which the female members are solely vocalists, though this terminology is not universally followed. While all-male bands are common in many rock and pop scenes, all-female bands are less common. 1920s–1950s In the Jazz Age and during the 1930s, "all-girl" bands such as the Blue Belles, the Parisian Redheads (later the Bricktops), Lil-Hardin's All-Girl Band, the Ingenues, the Harlem Playgirls led by the likes of Neliska Ann Briscoe and Eddie Crump, the International Sweethearts of Rhythm, Phil Spitalny's Musical Sweethearts, "Helen Lewis and Her All-Girl Jazz Syncopators" as well as "Helen Lewis and her Rhythm Queens were popular. Dozens of early sound films were made of the vaudeville style all-girl groups, especially short subject promotional films for Paramount and Vitaphone. (In 1925, Lee de Forest filmed Lewis and her band in his short-lived Phonofilm process, in a film now in the Maurice Zouary collection at the Library of Congress.) Blanche Calloway, sister of Cab Calloway, led a male band, Blanche Calloway and Her Joy Boys, from 1932 to 1939, and Ina Ray Hutton led an all-girl band, the Melodears, from 1934 to 1939. Eunice Westmoreland, under the name Rita Rio, led an all-girl band appearing on NBC Radio and in short subjects for Vitaphone and RKO before changing her career to acting and her professional name to Dona Drake, appearing in numerous 1940s movies. Ivy Benson's "All Girls Band" was the BBC's resident dance band in 1943 and toured until the 1980s. All-girl bands active in vaudeville, variety shows, and early sound films during the 1920s to the 1950s are documented by Kristin McGee in Some Liked it Hot: Jazz Women in Film and Television. Sally Placksin, Linda Dahl, D. Antoinette Handy, and Frank Driggs along with professor Sherrie Tucker, in her book Swing Shift: "All-Girl" Bands of the 1940s, have also documented this era. A Polish group Filipinki was established in 1959. 1960s Bands composed solely of women began to emerge with the advent of rock and roll. Among the earliest all-female rock bands to be signed to a record label were Goldie and the Gingerbreads, to Atlantic Records in 1964, the Pleasure Seekers with Suzi Quatro to Hideout Records in 1964 and Mercury Records in 1968, the Feminine Complex to Athena Records in 1968, and Fanny (who pioneered the all-female band sound in the early to mid-1970s) in 1969 when Mo Ostin signed them to Warner Bros. Records. There were also others, such as the Liverbirds (1962–1967), the Ace of Cups (1967), the Heart Beats (1968), and Ariel (1968–1970) which included the three members of the Deadly Nightshade. From 1964-1968 the Pandoras was an all-girl band (one of the first) playing a few original tunes and a bunch of popular covers at concerts and dances throughout New England. They started out as a trio, with Simmons College students Kathy Kinsella and Pinky Keehner on rhythm guitar and lead guitar, and Sally Levy on drums. Much later, under the management guidance of Peter Bonfils, the band had some success, including a recording contract and a couple of singles with Liberty Records ("About My Baby", b/w "New Day," and "Games" b/w "Don't Bother"), and gigs that showed all around the U.S. as well as in Newfoundland and Puerto Rico, opening for acts including the Kingsmen, Dionne Warwick, the Byrds, and Gary Lewis & the Playboys. The Shaggs were an all-female family band who earned some regional notoriety during their time as a performing band in the late 1960s; by the time they had disbanded in 1975 their first album Philosophy of the World had caught the attention of Frank Zappa and by 1980, NRBQ arranged for it to have a wide release. The Shaggs, particularly in their early years, were noted for their inability to adhere to basic norms of popular music (their drummer, Helen Wiggin, often found herself detached from the music her sisters Dot and Betty were singing and playing on guitar), which somewhat ironically (and to their bewilderment) made them icons of outsider music. 1970s Roger Ebert, in his audio commentary for Beyond the Valley of the Dolls (1970) gives the film credit for inspiring all-female rock bands, with the fictional band Carrie Nations created for the film, stating that such bands were quite rare at the time, but started to spring up in the film's wake. On November 6, 1971, Fanny became the first all-female band to reach the Hot 100's top 40, with "Charity Ball" peaking at No. 40. In 1975, the Canadian duo of sisters, Kate & Anna McGarrigle, recorded the first of a string of albums, sometimes joined by their sister Jane. The Runaways were an early commercially successful, hard-edged, all-female hard rock band, releasing their first album in 1976; band members Joan Jett, Cherie Currie, and Lita Ford all went on to solo careers. In the United Kingdom, the advent of punk in the late 1970s with its "anyone can do it" ethos lead to the formation of such bands as the Slits, the Raincoats, Mo-dettes, Dolly Mixture, and the Innocents among others, and the formation of other groups where the female members influenced the music and lyrical content (Au Pairs, Delta 5) or were the featured artist within the ensemble, notably The Pretenders, Siouxsie and the Banshees and X-Ray Spex. The expansion of punk into Europe gave rise to Switzerland's die Kleenex/LiLiPUT. In Australia in 1977 all-girl band Sweet Jayne began doing regular gigs with the original lineup: Cris Bonacci, Chris Scheri, Robyn Clark and Sally Zylstra. Labelled "Sweet and Heavy Rock", Sweet Jayne played mostly original material. Winning the Australasian Yamaha Battle of the Bands in 1978, Sweet Jayne went on through various cassette, vinyl and film clip releases and line up changes and played 700 gigs over 6 years. Sweet Jayne split up in 1983 when Chris Scheri (flute and vocals) and Cris Bonacci (guitar) were invited to the UK to work for Mike Oldfield. The all-female heavy metal band Girlschool, from South London, formed in 1978. While somewhat successful in the UK, they became better known in the early 1980s. One of the original members of the band, Kathy Valentine, departed to join the all-female band the Go-Go's, switching from guitar to bass. Among Girlschool's early recordings was an EP titled St. Valentine's Day Massacre which they recorded with Bronze label-mates Motörhead under the name Headgirl. In 1974, the Deadly Nightshade, a rock/country band (Anne Bowen, rhythm guitar/percussion; Pamela Robin Brandt, electric bass; Helen Hooke, lead guitar/violin) was signed by RCA's custom label Phantom. The contract made RCA/Phantom the first mainstream record label to grant a band the right to reject any advertising offensive to feminist sensibilities. The band released two albums, The Deadly Nightshade in 1975 and F&W (Funky & Western) in 1976. Reunited in 2009, the Deadly Nightshade recorded and released a third album Never Never Gonna Stop in 2012 and they continually toured until Brandt's death in 2015, dissolving the band. 1980s and 1990s The 1980s, for the first time, saw long-sought chart success from all-female bands and female-fronted rock bands. On the Billboard Hot 100 year-end chart for 1982 Joan Jett's "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" at No. 3 and the Go-Go's' "We Got the Beat" at No. 2 sent a strong message out to many industry heads that females who could play could bring in money. While Joan Jett played "no-frills, glam-rock anthems, sung with her tough-as-nails snarl and sneer", the Go-Go's were seen as playful girls, an image that even Rolling Stone magazine poked fun at when they put the band on their cover in their underwear along with the caption "Go-Go's Put out!". However musician magazines were starting to show respect to female musicians, putting Bonnie Raitt and Tina Weymouth on their covers. While the Go-Go's and the Bangles, both from the L.A. club scene, were the first all-female rock bands to find sustained success, individual musicians paved the way for the industry to seek out bands that had female musicians and allow them to be part of the recording process. While the 1980s helped pave the way for female musicians to get taken more seriously it was still considered a novelty of sorts for several years, and it was very much a male-dominated world. In 1984, when film maker Dave Markey, along with Jeff and Steve McDonald from Redd Kross, put together the mockumentary Desperate Teenage Lovedolls, a comically punky version of Beyond the Valley of the Dolls, it also spawned a real band. While the Lovedolls could barely play at first, because of the film, and because they were an "all-female band", they received press and gigs. Klymaxx became the first self-produced all-female band in the R&B/pop style of music to play all instruments; several of their singles - including "Meeting in the Ladies Room" and "I Miss You" charted in both R&B and pop countdowns. Leading into the 1990s, the surge of heavy metal in the 1980s helped to shed another light on the role of females in music. Because of the success of the Go-Go's and the Bangles many females were frustrated at not being taken seriously or only thought of as "cute chicks playing music" and either joined rock bands or formed all-female metal bands. One such band that was playing harder music in San Francisco was Rude Girl. Originally signed to CBS Records the band splintered before an album would be released and the remaining members released a 12-inch single in 1987 under the name Malibu Barbi. When Cara Crash and Wanda Day left 4 Non Blondes and joined Malibu Barbi their sound shifted from heavy metal to a sound described as combining a "driving beat with Johnny Rottenesque vocal and post-punk riffs". Around the same time in the Midwest, Madam X was signed to an offshoot of Columbia Records, Jet Records. In 1984, the Rick Derringer-produced album We Reserve the Right was released along with the single "High in High School". the Petrucci sisters were a focal point of the band – Maxine, the lead guitarist, and Roxy, the drummer. However, based on management decisions, it was decided that it would be better if only one of the sisters was in the band and Roxy was placed in another band, the all-female, Los Angeles–based Vixen. Vixen was founded also in the Midwest, but in St. Paul, Minnesota, by Jan Kuehnemund during the mid-1970s. Kuehnemund folded the band a few months later, when her bandmates either dropped out or joined other bands, and she reformed it after moving to L.A. at the start of the 1980s. Vixen was sometimes described as "the female Bon Jovi", eventually becoming commercially successful due largely to the band's signature hit "Edge of a Broken Heart" from their self-titled debut album, making Vixen erroneously a one-hit wonder, although their next hit, a cover of Jeff Paris's "Cryin'", charted even higher in both Britain and the US. The band folded again in the early 1990s following musical differences, but reformed twice more in their history. Maxine Petrucci also joined Vixen, albeit as a touring bass guitarist, after her sister invited her in 1998 until the Petruccis and their fellow band members were forced to disperse when Kuehnemund, feeling left out and her lead in representing Vixen being usurped, successfully sued to keep the rights to her band's name. She reunited Vixen in 2001, with a new bassist in tow, until disagreements with the band's management caused Kuehnemund's bandmates to leave, driving her to search for and hire new members. In 2004, Vixen's line-up from the Vixen and Rev It Up era made a one-time appearance on VH1's Bands Reunited, as its Canadian host has been a fan of the band. The line-up from 2001 recorded a fourth album, Live & Learn, released between 2006 and 2007. Kuehnemund died in 2013 and Vixen was reformed with three-quarters of the "classic" line-up plus Gina Stile, the lead guitarist from the Tangerine period, to honor her legacy. Both Stile and long-time frontwoman/rhythm guitarist Janet Gardner have left the band by the end of the 2010s. With the resurgence of interest in pop-punk bands in the US in the early 1990s, along with the sunset strip "hair metal" scene becoming extremely crowded, bands who combined a "non-image" with loud raw music started were gigging at clubs like Rajis in Hollywood. Bands such as Hole, Super Heroines, the Lovedolls, and L7 became popular, while demonstrating on stage, and in interviews, a self-confident "bad girl" attitude at times, always willing to challenge assumptions about how an all-female band should behave. Courtney Love described the other females in Hole as using a more "lunar viewpoint" in their roles as musicians. In the 1990s, riot grrrl became the genre associated with bands such as Bratmobile and Bikini Kill. Other punk bands, such as Spitboy, have been less comfortable with the childhood-centered issues of much of the riot grrrl aesthetic, but nonetheless also have dealt explicitly with feminist and related issues. All-female Queercore bands, such as Fifth Column, Tribe 8, and Team Dresch, also write songs dealing with matters specific to women and their position in society. A film put together by a San Diego psychiatrist, Dr. Lisa Rose Apramian, along with the former drummer from the Motels and the Droogs, Kyle C. Kyle, the documentary Not Bad for a Girl explored some of these issues with interviews from many of the female musicians on the riot grrrl scene at the time. In contemporary Christian music history, there was the first all-female Christian rock band Rachel Rachel, which existed only during the early 1990s and who performed in an album-oriented rock style. Jennifer York became the first woman to establish a Christian band, specifically an all-female group. Even though Rachel Rachel's success was short lived when they folded due to "creative differences" and too great a geographic distance, future rock bands or non-rock musical groups in the Christian genre that have only women as members followed their lead in the next decades to come. Many female musicians from all-female bands in the 1980s and 1990s have gone on to more high-profile gigs. The Pandoras' former members include members of the Muffs; Leather Leone, the singer from Rude Girl and Malibu Barbi, went on to sing for Chastain; Warbride's founder and lead guitarist, Lori Linstruth joined Arjen Lucassen; Abby Travis from the Lovedolls has played with Beck, Elastica, and Bangles; Meredith Brooks, from the Graces, went on to solo success and Janet Robin, from Precious Metal, was the touring guitarist for Brooks as well as Lindsey Buckingham and Air Supply. Sweet Jayne's Cris Bonacci became Girlschool's lead guitarist in 1985 and stayed with the band for fewer than 10 years. Girlschool, despite numerous line-up changes, have never broke up despite a brief hiatus and celebrated their 40th anniversary in 2018. 2000s and 2010s In Japan, the 2010s brought a boom of all-female heavy metal bands forming and gaining mainstream attention. Although considered pioneers as the first to form in 2007, Destrose never achieved commercial success. Aldious have been cited as the initiators of the movement when their first album Deep Exceed (2010) topped the Oricon Indies Albums Chart and reached number 15 on the main chart. Another notable girls metal band is Cyntia, who are believed to have been the first of the movement to join a major record label when they signed to Victor Entertainment in 2013. Other bands include Mary's Blood, Fate Gear, and Lovebites, the last of which won the 2018 Metal Hammer Golden Gods Award for Best New Band. Another example of all-female band is the Brazilian death metal band Crypta, formed 2019 in São Paulo. They released their first album titled Echoes of The Soul through Napalm Records in 2021. Crypta performed at the Wacken Open Air 2022 festival. Outside pop music All-female bands are not restricted to the mainstream genres. The British/Australian string quartet Bond play classical crossover (first and second violin, viola, and cello) and sing the occasional vocals that accompany some of their tracks. Many bands across many genres are all-female, such as the psychedelic folk group Spires That in the Sunset Rise. See also List of all-female bands Riot grrrl Queercore Women in music Women's music Bibliography References External links GirlBand.org Women in Punk Archive maintained by Nicole Emmenegger (aka Jenny Woolworth) Helen Lewis and Her All-Girl Jazz Syncopators at Silent Era Metaladies.com All-Female Metal Bands Types of musical groups Women in music

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orb-weaver%20spider

Orb-weaver spider

Orb-weaver spiders are members of the spider family Araneidae. They are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields, and forests. The English word "orb" can mean "circular", hence the English name of the group. Araneids have eight similar eyes, hairy or spiny legs, and no stridulating organs. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution, including many well-known large or brightly colored garden spiders. With 3,108 species in 186 genera worldwide, the Araneidae comprise one of the largest family of spiders (with the Salticidae and Linyphiidae). Araneid webs are constructed in a stereotypical fashion, where a framework of nonsticky silk is built up before the spider adds a final spiral of silk covered in sticky droplets. Orb webs are also produced by members of other spider families. The long-jawed orb weavers (Tetragnathidae) were formerly included in the Araneidae; they are closely related, being part of the superfamily Araneoidea. The family Arkyidae has been split off from the Araneidae. The cribellate or hackled orb-weavers (Uloboridae) belong to a different group of spiders. Their webs are strikingly similar, but use a different kind of silk. Description Generally, orb-weaving spiders are three-clawed builders of flat webs with sticky spiral capture silk. The building of a web is an engineering feat, begun when the spider floats a line on the wind to another surface. The spider secures the line and then drops another line from the center, making a "Y". The rest of the scaffolding follows with many radii of nonsticky silk being constructed before a final spiral of sticky capture silk. The third claw is used to walk on the nonsticky part of the web. Characteristically, the prey insect that blunders into the sticky lines is stunned by a quick bite, and then wrapped in silk. If the prey is a venomous insect, such as a wasp, wrapping may precede biting and/or stinging. Much of the orb-spinning spiders' success in capturing insects depends on the web not being visible to the prey, with the stickiness of the web increasing the visibility, thus decreasing the chances of capturing prey. This leads to a trade-off between the visibility of the web and the web's prey-retention ability. Many orb-weavers build a new web each day. Most orb-weavers tend to be active during the evening hours; they hide for most of the day. Generally, towards evening, the spider consumes the old web, rests for about an hour, then spins a new web in the same general location. Thus, the webs of orb-weavers are generally free of the accumulation of detritus common to other species, such as black widow spiders. Some orb-weavers do not build webs at all. Members of the genera Mastophora in the Americas, Cladomelea in Africa, and Ordgarius in Australia produce sticky globules, which contain a pheromone analog. The globule is hung from a silken thread dangled by the spider from its front legs. The pheromone analog attracts male moths of only a few species. These get stuck on the globule and are reeled in to be eaten. Both genera of bolas spiders are highly camouflaged and difficult to locate. In the Araneus diadematus, variables such as wind, web support, temperatures, humidity, and silk supply all proved to be variables in web construction. When studied against the tests of nature, the spiders were able to decide what shape to make their web, how many capture spirals, or the width of their web. Though it could be expected for these spiders to just know these things, it isn't well researched yet as to just how the arachnid knows how to change their web design based on their surroundings. Some scientists suggest that it could be through the spider's spatial learning on their environmental surroundings and the knowing of what will or won't work compared to natural behavioristic rules. The spiny orb-weaving spiders in the genera Gasteracantha and Micrathena look like plant seeds or thorns hanging in their orb-webs. Some species of Gasteracantha have very long, horn-like spines protruding from their abdomens. One feature of the webs of some orb-weavers is the stabilimentum, a crisscross band of silk through the center of the web. It is found in several genera, but Argiope – the yellow and banded garden spiders of North America – is a prime example. As orb-weavers age, they tend to have less production of their silk; many adult orb-weavers can then depend on their coloration to attract more of their prey. The band may be a lure for prey, a marker to warn birds away from the web, and a camouflage for the spider when it sits in the web. The stabilimentum may decrease the visibility of the silk to insects, thus making it harder for prey to avoid the web. The orb-web consists of a frame and supporting radii overlaid with a sticky capture spiral, and the silks used by orb-weaver spiders have exceptional mechanical properties to withstand the impact of flying prey. The orb-weaving spider Zygiella x-notata produces a unique orb-web with a characteristic missing sector, similar to other species of the Zygiella genus in the Araneidae family. During the Cretaceous, a radiation of flowering plants and their insect pollinators occurred. Fossil evidence shows that the orb web was in existence at this time, which permitted a concurrent radiation of the spider predators along with their insect prey. The capacity of orb–webs to absorb the impact of flying prey led orbicularian spiders to become the dominant predators of aerial insects in many ecosystems. Insects and spiders have comparable rates of diversification, suggesting they co-radiated, and the peak of this radiation occurred 100 Mya, before the origin of angiosperms. Vollrath and Selden (2007) make the bold proposition that insect evolution was driven less by flowering plants than by spider predation – particularly through orb webs – as a major selective force. On the other hand some analyses have yielded estimates as high as 265 Mya, with a large number (including Dimitrov et al 2016) intermediate between the two. Most arachnid webs are vertical and the spiders usually hang with their heads downward. A few webs, such as those of orb-weavers in the genus Metepeira, have the orb hidden within a tangled space of web. Some Metepiera species are semisocial and live in communal webs. In Mexico, such communal webs have been cut out of trees or bushes and used for living fly paper. In 2009, workers at a Baltimore wastewater treatment plant called for help to deal with over 100 million orb-weaver spiders, living in a community that managed to spin a phenomenal web that covered some 4 acres of a building, with spider densities in some areas reaching 35,176 spiders per cubic meter. Taxonomy The oldest known true orb-weaver is Mesozygiella dunlopi, from the Lower Cretaceous. Several fossils provide direct evidence that the three major orb-weaving families, namely the Araneidae, Tetragnathidae, and Uloboridae, had evolved by this time, about 140 Mya. They probably originated during the Jurassic (). Based on new molecular evidence in silk genes, all three families are likely to have a common origin. The two superfamilies, Deinopoidea and Araneoidea, have similar behavioral sequences and spinning apparatuses to produce architecturally similar webs. The latter weave true viscid silk with an aqueous glue property, and the former use dry fibrils and sticky silk. The Deinopoidea (including the Uloboridae), have a cribellum – a flat, complex spinning plate from which the cribellate silk is released. They also have a calamistrum – an apparatus of bristles used to comb the cribellate silk from the cribellum. The Araneoidea, or the "ecribellate" spiders, do not have these two structures. The two groups of orb-weaving spiders are morphologically very distinct, yet much similarity exists between their web forms and web construction behaviors. The cribellates retained the ancestral character, yet the cribellum was lost in the escribellates. The lack of a functional cribellum in araneoids is most likely synapomorphic. If the orb-weaver spiders are a monophyletic group, the fact that only some species in the group lost a feature adds to the controversy. The cribellates are split off as a separate taxon that retained the primitive feature, which makes the lineage paraphyletic and not synonymous with any real evolutionary lineage. The morphological and behavioral evidence surrounding orb webs led to the disagreement over a single or a dual origin. While early molecular analysis provided more support for a monophyletic origin, other evidence indicates that orb-weavers evolved earlier phylogenetically than previously thought, and were extinct at least three times during the Cretaceous. Reproduction Araneid species either mate at the central hub of the web, where the male slowly traverses the web, trying not to get eaten, and when reaching the hub, mounts the female; or the male constructs a mating thread inside or outside the web to attract the female via vibratory courtship, and if successful, mating occurs on the thread. In the cannibalistic and polyandrous orb-web spider Argiope bruennichi, the much smaller males are attacked during their first copulation and are cannibalized in up to 80% of the cases. All surviving males die after their second copulation, a pattern observed on other Argiope species. Whether a male survives his first copulation depends on the duration of the genital contact; males that jump off early (before 5 seconds) have a chance of surviving, while males that copulate longer (greater than 10 seconds) invariably die. Prolonged copulation, although associated with cannibalism, enhances sperm transfer and relative paternity. When males mated with a nonsibling female, the duration of their copulation was prolonged, and consequently the males were cannibalized more frequently. When males mated with a sibling female, they copulated briefly, thus were more likely to escape cannibalism. By escaping, their chance of mating again with an unrelated female likely would be increased. These observations suggest that males can adaptively adjust their investment based on the degree of genetic relatedness of the female to avoid inbreeding depression. Sexual size dimorphism Sexual dimorphism refers to physical differences between males and females of the same species. One such difference can be in size. Araneids often exhibit size dimorphism typically known as extreme sexual size dimorphism, due to the extent of differences in size. The size difference among species of Araneidae ranges greatly. Some females, such as those of the Nephila pilipes, can be at least 9 times larger than the male, while others are only slightly larger than the male. The larger size female is typically thought to be selected through fecundity selection, the idea that bigger females can produce more eggs, thus more offspring. Although a great deal of evidence points towards the greatest selection pressure on larger female size, some evidence indicates that selection can favor small male size, as well. Araneids also exhibit a phenomenon called sexual cannibalism, which is commonly found throughout the Araneidae. Evidence suggests a negative correlation between sexual size dimorphism and instances of sexual cannibalism. Other evidence, however, has shown that differences in cannibalistic events among araneids when having smaller or slightly larger males is advantageous. Some evidence has shown that extreme dimorphism may be the result of males avoiding detection by the females. For males of these species, being smaller in size may be advantageous in moving to the central hub of a web so female spiders may be less likely to detect the male, or even if detected as prey to be eaten, the small size may indicate little nutritional value. Larger-bodied male araneids may be advantageous when mating on a mating thread because the thread is constructed from the edge of the web orb to structural threads or to nearby vegetation. Here larger males may be less likely to be cannibalized, as the males are able to copulate while the female is hanging, which may make them safer from cannibalism. In one subfamily of Araneid that uses a mating thread, Gasteracanthinae, sexual cannibalism is apparently absent despite extreme size dimorphism. Genera , the World Spider Catalog accepts the following genera: Acacesia Simon, 1895 — South America, North America Acantharachne Tullgren, 1910 — Congo, Madagascar, Cameroon Acanthepeira Marx, 1883 — North America, Brazil, Cuba Acroaspis Karsch, 1878 — New Zealand, Australia Acrosomoides Simon, 1887 — Madagascar, Cameroon, Congo Actinacantha Simon, 1864 — Indonesia Actinosoma Holmberg, 1883 — Colombia, Argentina Aculepeira Chamberlin & Ivie, 1942 — North America, Central America, South America, Asia, Europe Acusilas Simon, 1895 — Asia Aethriscus Pocock, 1902 — Congo Aethrodiscus Strand, 1913 — Central Africa Aetrocantha Karsch, 1879 — Central Africa Afracantha Dahl, 1914 — Africa Agalenatea Archer, 1951 — Ethiopia, Asia Alenatea Song & Zhu, 1999 — Asia Allocyclosa Levi, 1999 — United States, Panama, Cuba Alpaida O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1889 — Central America, South America, Mexico, Caribbean Amazonepeira Levi, 1989 — South America Anepsion Strand, 1929 — Oceania, Asia Aoaraneus Tanikawa, Yamasaki & Petcharad, 2021 — China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan Arachnura Clerck, 1863 Araneus Clerck, 1757 Araniella Chamberlin & Ivie, 1942 — Asia Aranoethra Butler, 1873 — Africa Argiope Audouin, 1826 — Asia, Oceania, Africa, North America, South America, Costa Rica, Cuba, Portugal Artifex Kallal & Hormiga, 2018 — Australia Artonis Simon, 1895 — Myanmar, Ethiopia Aspidolasius Simon, 1887 — South America Augusta O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1877 — Madagascar Austracantha Dahl, 1914 — Australia Backobourkia Framenau, Dupérré, Blackledge & Vink, 2010 — Australia, New Zealand Bertrana Keyserling, 1884 — South America, Central America Bijoaraneus Tanikawa, Yamasaki & Petcharad, 2021 — Africa, Asia, Oceania Caerostris Thorell, 1868 — Africa, Asia Carepalxis L. Koch, 1872 — Oceania, South America, Mexico, Jamaica Celaenia Thorell, 1868 — Australia, New Zealand Cercidia Thorell, 1869 — Russia, Kazakhstan, India Chorizopes O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1871 — Asia, Madagascar Chorizopesoides Mi & Wang, 2018 — China, Vietnam Cladomelea Simon, 1895 — South Africa, Congo Clitaetra Simon, 1889 — Africa, Sri Lanka Cnodalia Thorell, 1890 — Indonesia, Japan Coelossia Simon, 1895 — Sierra Leone, Mauritius, Madagascar Colaranea Court & Forster, 1988 — New Zealand Collina Urquhart, 1891 — Australia Colphepeira Archer, 1941 — United States, Mexico Courtaraneus Framenau, Vink, McQuillan & Simpson, 2022 — New Zealand Cryptaranea Court & Forster, 1988 — New Zealand Cyclosa Menge, 1866 — Caribbean, Asia, Oceania, South America, North America, Central America, Africa, Europe Cyphalonotus Simon, 1895 — Asia, Africa Cyrtarachne Thorell, 1868 — Asia, Africa, Oceania Cyrtobill Framenau & Scharff, 2009 — Australia Cyrtophora Simon, 1864 — Asia, Oceania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, South America, Africa Deione Thorell, 1898 — Myanmar Deliochus Simon, 1894 — Australia, Papua New Guinea Dolophones Walckenaer, 1837 — Australia, Indonesia Dubiepeira Levi, 1991 — South America Edricus O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1890 — Mexico, Panama, Ecuador Enacrosoma Mello-Leitão, 1932 — South America, Central America, Mexico Encyosaccus Simon, 1895 — South America Epeiroides Keyserling, 1885 — Costa Rica, Brazil Eriophora Simon, 1864 — Oceania, United States, South America, Central America, Africa Eriovixia Archer, 1951 — Asia, Papua New Guinea, Africa Eustacesia Caporiacco, 1954 — French Guiana Eustala Simon, 1895 — South America, North America, Central America, Caribbean Exechocentrus Simon, 1889 — Madagascar Faradja Grasshoff, 1970 — Congo Friula O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897 — Indonesia Galaporella Levi, 2009 — Ecuador Gasteracantha Sundevall, 1833 — Oceania, Asia, United States, Africa, Chile Gastroxya Benoit, 1962 — Africa Gea C. L. Koch, 1843 — Africa, Oceania, Asia, United States, Argentina Gibbaranea Archer, 1951 — Asia, Europe, Algeria Glyptogona Simon, 1884 — Sri Lanka, Italy, Israel Gnolus Simon, 1879 — Chile, Argentina Guizygiella Zhu, Kim & Song, 1997 — Asia Herennia Thorell, 1877 — Asia, Oceania Heterognatha Nicolet, 1849 — Chile Heurodes Keyserling, 1886 — Asia, Australia Hingstepeira Levi, 1995 — South America Hortophora Framenau & Castanheira, 2021 — Oceania Hypognatha Guérin, 1839 — South America, Central America, Mexico, Trinidad Hypsacantha Dahl, 1914 — Africa Hypsosinga Ausserer, 1871 — Asia, North America, Greenland, Africa Ideocaira Simon, 1903 — South Africa Indoetra Kuntner, 2006 — Sri Lanka Isoxya Simon, 1885 — Africa, Yemen Kaira O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1889 — North America, South America, Cuba, Guatemala Kapogea Levi, 1997 — Mexico, South America, Central America Kilima Grasshoff, 1970 — Congo, Seychelles, Yemen Larinia Simon, 1874 — Asia, Africa, South America, Europe, Oceania, North America Lariniaria Grasshoff, 1970 — Asia Larinioides Caporiacco, 1934 — Asia Lariniophora Framenau, 2011 — Australia Leviana Framenau & Kuntner, 2022 — Australia Leviellus Wunderlich, 2004 — Asia, France Lewisepeira Levi, 1993 — Panama, Mexico, Jamaica Lipocrea Thorell, 1878 — Asia, Europe Macracantha Simon, 1864 — India, China, Indonesia Madacantha Emerit, 1970 — Madagascar Mahembea Grasshoff, 1970 — Central and East Africa Mangora O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1889 — Asia, North America, South America, Central America, Caribbean Mangrovia Framenau & Castanheira, 2022 — Australia Manogea Levi, 1997 — South America, Central America, Mexico Mastophora Holmberg, 1876 — South America, North America, Central America, Cuba Mecynogea Simon, 1903 — North America, South America, Cuba Megaraneus Lawrence, 1968 — Africa Melychiopharis Simon, 1895 — Brazil Metazygia F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 — South America, Central America, North America, Caribbean Metepeira F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1903 — North America, Caribbean, South America, Central America Micrathena Sundevall, 1833 — South America, Caribbean, Central America, North America Micrepeira Schenkel, 1953 — South America, Costa Rica Micropoltys Kulczyński, 1911 — Papua New Guinea, Australia Milonia Thorell, 1890 — Singapore, Indonesia, Myanmar Molinaranea Mello-Leitão, 1940 — Chile, Argentina Nemoscolus Simon, 1895 — Africa Nemosinga Caporiacco, 1947 — Tanzania Nemospiza Simon, 1903 — South Africa Neogea Levi, 1983 — Papua New Guinea, India, Indonesia Neoscona Simon, 1864 — Asia, Africa, Europe, Oceania, North America, Cuba, South America Nephila Leach, 1815 — Asia, Oceania, United States, Africa, South America Nephilengys L. Koch, 1872 — Asia, Oceania Nephilingis Kuntner, 2013 — South America, Africa Nicolepeira Levi, 2001 — Chile Novakiella Court & Forster, 1993 — Australia, New Zealand Novaranea Court & Forster, 1988 — Australia, New Zealand Nuctenea Simon, 1864 — Algeria, Asia, Europe Oarces Simon, 1879 — Brazil, Chile, Argentina Ocrepeira Marx, 1883 — South America, Central America, Caribbean, North America Ordgarius Keyserling, 1886 — Asia, Oceania Paralarinia Grasshoff, 1970 — Congo, South Africa Paraplectana Brito Capello, 1867 — Asia, Africa Paraplectanoides Keyserling, 1886 — Australia Pararaneus Caporiacco, 1940 — Madagascar Paraverrucosa Mello-Leitão, 1939 — South America Parawixia F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 — Mexico, South America, Asia, Papua New Guinea, Central America, Trinidad Parmatergus Emerit, 1994 — Madagascar Pasilobus Simon, 1895 — Africa, Asia Perilla Thorell, 1895 — Myanmar, Vietnam, Malaysia Pherenice Thorell, 1899 — Cameroon Phonognatha Simon, 1894 — Australia Pitharatus Simon, 1895 — Malaysia, Indonesia Plebs Joseph & Framenau, 2012 — Oceania, Asia Poecilarcys Simon, 1895 — Tunisia Poecilopachys Simon, 1895 — Oceania Poltys C. L. Koch, 1843 — Asia, Africa, Oceania Popperaneus Cabra-García & Hormiga, 2020 — Brazil, Paraguay Porcataraneus Mi & Peng, 2011 — India, China Pozonia Schenkel, 1953 — Caribbean, Paraguay, Mexico, Panama Prasonica Simon, 1895 — Africa, Asia, Oceania Prasonicella Grasshoff, 1971 — Madagascar, Seychelles Pronoides Schenkel, 1936 — Asia Pronous Keyserling, 1881 — Malaysia, Mexico, Central America, South America, Madagascar Pseudartonis Simon, 1903 — Africa Pseudopsyllo Strand, 1916 — Cameroon Psyllo Thorell, 1899 — Cameroon, Congo Pycnacantha Blackwall, 1865 — Africa Rubrepeira Levi, 1992 — Mexico, Brazil Salsa Framenau & Castanheira, 2022 — Australia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea Scoloderus Simon, 1887 — Belize, North America, Argentina, Caribbean Sedasta Simon, 1894 — West Africa Singa C. L. Koch, 1836 — Africa, Asia, North America, Europe Singafrotypa Benoit, 1962 — Africa Siwa Grasshoff, 1970 — Asia Socca Framenau, Castanheira & Vink, 2022 — Australia Spilasma Simon, 1897 — South America, Honduras Spinepeira Levi, 1995 — Peru Spintharidius Simon, 1893 — South America, Cuba Taczanowskia Keyserling, 1879 — Mexico, South America Talthybia Thorell, 1898 — China, Myanmar Tatepeira Levi, 1995 — South America, Honduras Telaprocera Harmer & Framenau, 2008 — Australia Testudinaria Taczanowski, 1879 — South America, Panama Thelacantha Hasselt, 1882 — Madagascar, Asia, Australia Thorellina Berg, 1899 — Myanmar, Papua New Guinea Togacantha Dahl, 1914 — Africa Trichonephila Dahl, 1911 — Africa, Asia, Oceania, North America, South America Umbonata Grasshoff, 1971 — Tanzania Ursa Simon, 1895 — Asia, South America, South Africa Verrucosa McCook, 1888 — North America, Panama, South America, Australia Wagneriana F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1904 — South America, Central America, Caribbean, North America Witica O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1895 — Cuba, Mexico, Peru Wixia O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882 — Brazil, Guyana, Bolivia Xylethrus Simon, 1895 — South America, Mexico, Jamaica, Panama Yaginumia Archer, 1960 — Asia Zealaranea Court & Forster, 1988 — New Zealand Zilla C. L. Koch, 1834 — Azerbaijan, India, China Zygiella F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1902 — North America, Asia, Ukraine, South America Venomius Rossi, Castanheira, Baptista & Framenau, 2023 See also List of Araneidae species References Further reading External links Spiders of Australia Spiders of northwestern Europe Araneae, Arachnology Home Pages World Spider Catalog Orb weavers of Kentucky, University of Kentucky Pictures of Mangora species Gasteracantha cancriformis, spinybacked orbweaver on the University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures website Neoscona crucifera and N. domiciliorum on the University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures website HOE Spiders

428119

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloian

Caloian

Caloian (also Calian(i), Caloiță, Scaloian, Gherman, or Iene) was a rainmaking and fertility rite in Romania, similar in some ways to Dodola. Its namesake is a clay effigy, whose sculpting, funeral, exhumation, and eventual destruction are centerpieces of the display. The source of this ritual, as is the case with those of many other local popular beliefs and practices, precedes the introduction of Christianity, although it came in time to be associated with Orthodox Easter or with the Feast of the Ascension. In some variants it was performed on a precisely calculated day two to three weeks after Easter, though local communities could also revive it at other times of the year, specifically during drought. The figurine was generally made from clay and most often by girls, though sometimes also by boys or married women; the ceremony itself would draw in the whole village community as spectators, and, in isolated cases, also had active participation from the Romanian Orthodox clergy. The mimicry of Christian funerals was widespread, but absent from the more established forms of the ritual. Before dying out in the 1990s, the Caloian tradition had possibly survived for millennia, and may have originated with Dacian strands of Paleo-Balkan mythology. It evoked memories of human sacrifice for the appeasement of rain deities, with parallel near-sacrifices of girls being still attested in rural Romania during the first half of the 20th century. The Caloian litany, which exists in various arrangements as a sample of primitive Romanian literature, usually refers to the figure being sent off to the skies to unlock rain, and buried so that it may be reborn. The figurine's mother is hinted at in such poems, and in some cases played by one of the girls attending the funeral procession. Caloian events were largely confined to Muntenia, Oltenia and Northern Dobruja (the southern part of Romania), though they have been well attested in specific parts of Western Moldavia. Similar practices, assigning usually female characteristics and names to the clay figurine, are spread throughout other parts of the Romanian-speaking areal. They form a continuum of traditions with both Dodola and Germenchuk, which are staples of Bulgarian folklore. Intermingling with the latter is attested in Caloians primary spread along the Danube, but also in its supposed etymology, which reveals either a Slavonic term for "dirt" or a folkloric nod to Ioannitsa (Ioniță) Kaloyan. The ritual has also been adopted and adapted by ethno-cultural minorities, including the Gagauz and the Csángós. Ritual Spring variant Caloian had a spring version, which often occurred on the "third Tuesday after Easter", and concluded on the following Thursday. Folklorists Ion H. Ciubotaru an Silvia Ciubotaru write that having fixed days for Caloian during Easter was "wholly exceptional" in a Moldavian context; they also indicate one other variant in which Caloian coincided with the first Thursday after Easter. As noted by ethnologist Anca Ceaușescu, this variant was specifically a fertility rite, which was mostly tied to spring and renewal, rather than to the celebration of Easter itself. She records instances where Caloian was performed on the sixth week after Easter, on Thomas Sunday, or "always around May 8". Children up to the age of 12 were preferred for performing the ritual, owing to their "ritual purity", and in some cases only selected to fit into an odd number. Performers are most often described as young girls, and sometimes boys, though folklorist Teodor Burada, who speaks from a Western Moldavian perspective, also records the occasional involvement of married women. According to Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru, a situation idealized in the more traditional forms of the Caloian was that in which the people involved were girls around the age of nine, or adolescent virgins, who were either sisters or first cousins. Men remained strictly prohibited for most of Caloians history. Depending on the communities involved, the Caloian was regarded as an infant, a grown child, or an adult. His effigy was put together from fresh yellow clay, and sometimes also mud, old rags, or wax. The latter two variants are described by the Ciubotarius as modern improvisations. In most versions, the end result would reach in length, though some stood as tall as "a seven-year-old child." As Burada notes, the Caloian makers made sure to present it in a mortuary pose, with hands crossed on the chest; sometimes, a secondary figure, the "female" Caloiță, would be added. Also according to Burada, the clay would be adorned with basil and the red-colored shells of Easter eggs, then placed inside a small coffin. The Easter egg variant remained well attested in the local culture of Niculițel, though other accounts refer to the Caloian being dressed in flowers and made to hold up a candle; a cross was placed near its head. Moldavian variants make ample and "homeopathic" use of plants which grow on or near bodies of water—reeds, but also burdock, dwarf elder, butterbur, and fleaworts. Folklorist Ion I. Drăgoescu reported a form of the ritual as seen in Potlogi, where the Caloian (known here exclusively as Caloiță) is made from dough, and its coffin carved out of a pumpkin shell. The group would then proceed to bury the Caloian "outside the village, either out in the shrubland, or in some secluded area of the woods, or alongside a body of water, if such are located within proximity of the village." In some documented cases, the burial spot was specifically chosen as the line separating two villages or at crossroads, which were also "mythical places, spaces allowing for the communication between two worlds". The choice of such locations "enhances the magic in the act of burial". In the oldest variants, Christian symbolism is scarcely present in the funeral ceremony, and the procession is limited to girls wearing leaves of dwarf elder for clothes. During the ceremony as witnessed by Burada, a girl would act and dress as the officiating priest, while another one would hold up the ceremonial flag (prapur), comprising a tall stick and a white handkerchief. The cortege would include mourners, who perform a mock-litany. The Romanian Academy's treatise on Romanian literature (Istoria literaturii romîne, 1964) describes this as sung to "its own tune, a syllabic one, almost recitative in its rhythm." The spring variant, as recorded in Burada, reads: Some informants and some variants of the rhyme are specific about the burial being done to ensure regeneration. They address the Caloian with reassurances such as "we put you into the ground so that you'll turn green". Other forms include more classical litanies, mourning the Caloians "little girly body" (trupușor de cuconiță). In such variants, girl mourners rubbed onion slices over their eyes, to produce genuine tears. In Burada's account, the Caloian was left buried for the following Wednesday, with the group returning on Thursday for the exhumation. The recovered figurine was either broken up into small pieces that were taken back to the village and thrown into wells, or left intact in its coffin and set down on a river to be carried downstream. In one of the fixed-date Moldavian variants, the figurine was always dug out on the Feast of the Ascension. Another variant of the ritual, attested in Fântâna Doamnei, had it buried in a field of green wheat and exhumed at Saint George's Festival (April 23), which, according to folklorist Mihai Pop, underscores Caloians function as an agrarian fertility rite. The Caloians departure or destruction was followed by a large and joyous feast, attended by all the villagers and known as pomana Caloianului ("alms of the Caloian"). As noted by Burada, this final part of the ceremony lasted into Friday morning, and specifically involved Lăutari performers; in some parts of the country, working the field on Caloian Tuesday afternoon was virtually a taboo. A folk dance, the Caloian hora, was sometimes performed by those attending the feast. Drought ritual The Caloian was also revived in rainmaking rituals that could take place later in the year, specifically "on days that follow several dry weeks, when it's sultry and the earth gets scorched by drought"; ethnologist Mihaela Bucin argues that, even as a spring ritual, the Caloian was implicitly associated with rainmaking. Progressively, the celebration was reduced in scope to a rain ritual, by confusion with other festivals, and sometimes to stop heavy rainfall as well. Ethnographer Ion Ghinoiu also proposes that the exhumation and destruction portion of some rituals may have originated with people angered by the continuation of drought: "Perhaps at an earlier stage the Caloian was only exhumed on the third day only if no rain had followed its burial [...]. These two rites were then contracted as one, and the latter became a mere sequence of the former." Contrarily, the Ciubotarus propose that breaking up the effigy was done to prevent excessive rain, and also that it represented an attenuated human sacrifice. They refer to first-hand accounts from the early 20th century which described adolescent girls, dressed up in funeral attire, being hurled into Moldavian rivers by other youth, and barely surviving the experience. A transition between the human version and the Caloian is attested in Lișna, where young villagers created human-sized dolls, or zâne, which they pretended were real girls that have to be kidnapped and buried in order to end droughts. One informant suggested in 1949 that Caloian (known to her as Iene) was only ever performed in times of drought, usually on weekends, and with no day of rest in-between (though "sometimes, preparation are made throughout the week ahead"). In this version, the body was either directly buried near a well or allowed to float downstream on a river, with the coffin as a raft that also held up lit candles. If the latter, any other children encountered along the route were sprayed with water. This feature was reversed in other villages, where the procession itself could expect to be sprayed with water by onlookers. A variant attested in Călmățui had the figurine buried in grains of wheat or barley, whereas in Tudor Vladimirescu the ceremony closely followed regular church burials, including funeral services provided by a Romanian Orthodox priest, and a dedicated grave in the village cemetery. The custom in mixed Csángó–Romanian communities such as Oituz, which was under Catholic influence, is that the figurine be buried near a wayside cross. With or without the burial, the rainmaking ritual closely mimicked attested practices for Easter-time (including alms which attracted the village in its entirety), with the song performed being a notable exception. It has several "relatively unitary" variants, including one cited by Burada: Other such variants of the litany begin with a mother's search for her Caloian. Sometimes, one of the girls involved in the procession performs this role in front of the public, with the others pointing to her as they chant. As noted by Pop, they resemble in this the folk ballad Miorița, as well as Christmastime colinde—pointing to a recurring theme in "ancient Romanian poetry". As described by Ceaușescu, these are also the oldest rhymes connected to the burial ritual, and are specific in describing the figurine as a "mediator between the people and the sky above". The drought Caloian as performed around Bucharest used one such specific variant, in the southern Muntenian dialect: The exhortation is sometimes addressed not just to Caloian, but also to the community's dead, most often ones who died recently and at a young age. In some cases, the song is extended by lamentations which depict in detail the sufferings of drought-afflicted villagers. One version from Broscăuți, in a divergent Moldavian subdialect, reads: Cultural significance Religious and historical connections The Caloian is one of several burial ceremonies present in Romanian folklore—Pop draws parallels with the chasing out of the Brezaia doll at Christmas and New Years', or with the symbolic burial of a ceremonial leader at Junii Brașoveni feasts. As "one of the most archaic elements covered by the folk Calendar", Caloian itself may be deeply connected to the mythological lore of ancient cultures. Istoria literaturii romîne described Caloian as one of several songs or chants which serve to "mirror forms of [social] life that lead us back to the patriarchal village as it was at the dawn of the feudal era", and more particularly "descriptions of ceremonials or rites." Further: "the Caloian was, at least up to a point, the reification of an old concept regarding the Oriental god of nature, who dies and is resurrected." As early as 1883, pioneer ethnologist Gheorghe Săulescu discussed similarities between Caloian and Dodola, whom he respectively knew as Calian and Papaluga. In Săulescu's reading, both were originally "national gods" of the Romanians. This approach linked Calioan with interest in Paleo-Balkan mythology. More specifically, Burada proposed that Caloian originated with the pre-Christian Dacians in Northern Dobruja (Scythia Minor). Drăgoescu argues for the same reading, reviewing the practice as "pre-Christian, agrarian", and ultimately a remnant of Dacian material culture. Contrarily, other scholars place the Caloians roots in Roman Dacia, with imitations of the Argei cult. Beginning with the writings of Marcu Beza, researchers have focused on the death-and-rebirth component of the practice, drawing connections between the Caloian and various religions of the Ancient Near East—with specific focus on Dumuzid and Attis. Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru describe Caloian as "perhaps Thracian", and note parallels with both Attis and Dumuzid—but also with Baldr, Xipe Totec and Yarilo; the ritual in its details, they note, closely resembles one found among the Shapsugs. Writer Victor Eftimiu argues that Caloians immediate origin is in Slavic paganism, as a localized rendition of the Morena cult; instead, folklorist Mihail Vulpescu highlights parallels with the Adonis cult. Ceaușescu proposes a generic reading of the figurine itself as an "effigy of the rain god". There is also significant overlap between the Romanian Caloian and Germenchuk, present in Bulgarian folklore, with which southern Romanian traditions are fully contiguous. Though Gherman is attested as an alternative for Caloian in Muntenia, some other Romanian iterations of the ritual have no known correspondent in any culture. The name of (S)caloian, whether or not indicative of its origin, is probably a borrowing from Greek onomastics; comparatist Francis Lebrun noted the existence of a Khaloïánnis (Χαλοΐάννης) song in Greek folklore, proposing that it shares traits with the Romanian ritual. Linguist Petre Coman verified the existence of the word loián, used for "rain" in the dialectal Romanian of Măcin. Another linguist, George Giuglea, noted its partial synonymy with the Albanian llohë ("sleet") and the Romanian noian ("deluge"). Giuglea further argued that a once-significant spread of loián would explain (S)caloian, specifically its "idea of rain, of water". The name referring to both figurine and ritual has also attracted attention for its hypothetical connections with the Second Bulgarian Empire, which controlled territories on both sides of the Danube. Philologist Vasile Bogrea sees Caloian as originally a likely reference to a 12th-century Bulgarian Tsar, Ioannitsa (Ioniță) Kaloyan, polemically known in Greek as Skyloioannes (which would explain contexts in which Scaloian is used). However, Bogrea cautions that the origin may prove to be the Romanian noun (s)căluș, which would link Caloian with the Călușari fraternity. Geographer Constantin Brătescu uses Caloian rituals in Northern Dobruja as evidence "that a rather wide area" of Northern Dobruja was inhabited by proto-Romanian Vlachs during Ioannitsa's empire. In 2017, ethnologists Delia-Anamaria Răchișan and Călin-Teodor Morariu indicated the origin of the name in the Slavonic kalŭ (калъ), meaning "dirt", though also noting that "some have correlated the practice with the name of Tsar Ioniță" or derived it from John the Baptist. The Slavonic derivation had also been proposed earlier by Pericle Papahagi and Ion Aurel Candrea, who suggest kale an ("yellow clay"). Spread and transformation Săulescu was the first to record the Caloian as he witnessed it in Western Moldavia. In 1915, Burada was aware of it existing only in "certain villages" of Muntenia—Brăila, Buzău, Ialomița counties—and only one locality of Western Moldavia—namely Hermeziu, Iași County. To these he added Northern Dobruja's Tulcea County—with the figurine, exclusively known here as Scaloian, being disposed off on the Danube. Caloian and its variants were only known in certain parts of Transylvania, and were never popular there, possibly owing to a very specific interdiction being enforced during the Reformation—known to have been applied against the Călușari, by 1675. Ethnologist Pamfil Bilțiu notes that an unnamed rainmaking ritual was nevertheless always practiced in that region, into the late 20th century. According to Bilțiu, it was still recognized by the old women of Leordina and other villages in Maramureș County, who recalled figurines being made out of either cloth or clay. Meanwhile, the custom had spread out to eastern peripheral areas: one 1920 report notes the Caloian being practiced by the Gagauz and Romanians of Vulcănești, in Bessarabia (now Gagauzia, Republic of Moldova). According to Pop, the ritual had a "much larger area" than usually acknowledged, though derivatives such as Muma ploii ("Mother of Rain"), in Oltenia, and Cheloșag at Ferești in Western Moldavia. As he notes, Muma ploii also involves a burial ceremony and litanies which "seem to be only variants of the Scaloian songs." Ciubotaru and Ciubotaru refer to the same issue in noting that Caloian and its most archaic forms appear in southernmost Moldavia, whereas heterodox varieties take precedence in rural areas situated more to the north, including some areas of Bukovina. Examples include Ploița and Ploițica ("Rainy Girl") in Focuri, Păpușa ("Doll") in Horodniceni, and Mama secetei ("Mother of Drought") in Heleșteni and Santa Mare. Late adoption correlates with the usage of common female names, as is the case with Aglăița of Concești and Havârna, Catrina of Lungani, and Maricica of Vorona. Caloian-related customs appearing under various guises were also scrutinized and discussed by other folklorists. They note (as with Adrian Fochi) that Caloian should be seen as one specific incarnation of a ritual which mostly employs feminine figurines under many other names, including Caloiana, Ploaia ("The Rain"), and Maica Călătoarea ("Mother Traveler"). Specifically in Oltenia, the female figurine was asked to ensure plentiful rainfall, whereas a male one, Tatăl Soarelui ("Sun's Father"), was buried next to her to ensure that the rains would also stop. These twin burials could also garner approval from the Orthodox clergy—at Leu, the mock-funeral involved passing through the churchyard. West of Transylvania, the Romanians of Hungary had "no recollection of the Caloian". They marked a festival known as Paștele morțîlor ("Easter of the Dead"), in which they hurled eggshells into rivers, and also had Păpărugă as a localized Dodola; some fashioned Muma ploii on a separate occasion, using only clay that had been used to build a cob oven. Pop argues that Caloian rituals were carefully maintained in certain communities by the more traditional folk, as "customs whose continued practice was of vital interest to the entire community", and "not at all child's play"; despite this, he reports that Caloian had died out by 1999, when his research was published. Similarly, Răchișan and Morariu note that, like both the Dodola and the Caloian stand as "agrarian customs practiced by children to benefit the community, and should not be mistaken for children's games." According to Ceaușescu, the practice only degenerated into "children's folklore" because of advances in agriculture, which rendered its sacred functions socially irrelevant. In 1973, Valeriu Anania published his play Greul Pământului ("Weight of the Earth", or "Pregnancy with the Earth"), which is a mythopoeia of Caloianul as the "Vlach myth". Anania depicts Tsar Ioannitsa as a Vlach hero whose death is necessary for the survival of his kin, and whose burial under the Vlachs' main citadel consolidates their presence in history. The play also fictionalizes the origins of Io, once used as an introductory title by Romanian rulers, suggesting that it is the "seed" of Ioannitsa's name, and a recollection of his sacrifice. Anania's work was followed in 1975 by Ion Lăncrănjan's novel, Caloianul, which alludes to the clay doll as an existential metaphor—the protagonist, Alexandru Ghețea, is shown to be dying a "great" death, like a "creation of smooth clay." Such imagery was invoked by Ion Gheorghe in his 1976 poetry volume, Noimele ("The Meanings"). The ritual's name was also revived by Romanian wine producers, with Crama Oprișor marketing as Caloian its Fetească neagră, rosé and Merlot varieties. Notes References Mihaela Bucin, "Obiceiuri populare dintre Paști și Rusalii", in Ernő Eperjessy, Alexandru Hoțopan (eds.), Din tradițiile populare ale românilor din Ungaria. A magyarországi románok néprajza, Vol. 10, pp. 78–88. Budapest: Magyar Néprajzi Társaság, 1995. Teodor Burada, Istoria teatrului în Moldova. Volumul I. Iași: Institutul de Arte Grafice N. V. Ștefaniu & Comp, 1915. Anca Ceaușescu, "Obiceiuri și practici rituale privind fertilitatea pământului", in Arhivele Olteniei, Issue 34/2020, pp. 305–314. Ion H. Ciubotaru, Silvia Ciubotaru, "Obiceiurile agrare – o dominantă a culturii populare din Moldova", in Anuar de Lingvistică și Istorie Literară, Vol. XXIX, 1983–1984, pp. 107–130. Doina Pologea, "Valeriu Anania: Greul Pământului or the Myth of the Land that Turns into Sky", in Iulian Boldea (ed.), Discourse as a Form of Multiculturalism in Literature and Communication, pp. 1681–1689. Tîrgu-Mureș: Arhipelag XXI Press, 2015. Mihai Pop, Obiceiuri tradiționale românești. Bucharest: Editura Univers, 1999. Delia-Anamaria Răchișan, Călin-Teodor Morariu, "Nume de sărbători între sacru și profan", in Ovidiu Felecan (ed.), Numele și numirea. Actele Conferinței Internaționale de Onomastică. Ediția a IV-a: Sacred and Profane in Onomastics, pp. 1005–1015. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega & Editura Argonaut, 2017. Alexandru Rosetti et al., Istoria literaturii romîne, I. Bucharest: Editura Academiei, 1964. See also Omek Tannou Fertility deities Life-death-rebirth deities Romanian mythology Romanian traditions Romanian folk poetry Romanian children's literature Children's poetry Romanian words and phrases Rainmaking (ritual) Easter traditions Moldovan traditions Clay Figurines Sculptures in Romania Sculptures in Moldova

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern%20Railway%20%28UK%29

Southern Railway (UK)

The Southern Railway (SR), sometimes shortened to 'Southern', was a British railway company established in the 1923 Grouping. It linked London with the Channel ports, South West England, South coast resorts and Kent. The railway was formed by the amalgamation of several smaller railway companies, the largest of which were the London and South Western Railway (LSWR), the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) and the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SE&CR). The construction of what was to become the Southern Railway began in 1838 with the opening of the London and Southampton Railway, which was renamed the London & South Western Railway. The railway was noted for its astute use of public relations and a coherent management structure headed by Sir Herbert Walker. At , the Southern Railway was the smallest of the "Big Four" railway companies and, unlike the others, the majority of its revenue came from passenger traffic rather than freight. It created what was at that time the world's largest electrified railway system. There were two Chief Mechanical Engineers: Richard Maunsell between 1923 and 1937 and Oliver Bulleid from 1937 to 1948, both of whom designed new locomotives and rolling stock to replace much of that which was inherited in 1923. The Southern Railway played a vital role in the Second World War, embarking the British Expeditionary Force, during the Dunkirk operations, and supplying Operation Overlord in 1944; because the railway was primarily a passenger network, its success was an even more remarkable achievement. The Southern Railway operated a number of famous named trains, including the Brighton Belle, the Bournemouth Belle, the Golden Arrow and the Night Ferry (London–Paris and Brussels). The West Country services were dominated by lucrative summer holiday traffic and included named trains such as the Atlantic Coast Express and the Devon Belle. The company's best-known livery was highly distinctive: locomotives and carriages were painted in a bright malachite green above plain black frames, with bold, bright yellow lettering. The Southern Railway was nationalised in 1948, becoming the Southern Region of British Railways. History Constituent companies and formation in 1923 Four important railway companies operated along the south coast of England prior to 1923 – the London & South Western Railway (LSWR), the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR), and the South Eastern Railway (SER) and the London Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR). (The last two had formed a working union known as the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR) in 1899.) These companies were amalgamated, together with several small independently operated lines and non-working companies, to form the Southern Railway in 1923, which operated 2186 route miles (3518 km) of railway. The new railway also partly owned several joint lines, notably the East London Railway, the West London Extension Joint Railway, the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway and the Weymouth and Portland Railway. The first main line railway in southern England was the London and Southampton Railway, (renamed LSWR in 1838), which completed its line in May 1840. It was quickly followed by the London and Brighton Railway (September 1841), and the South Eastern Railway (formerly the South Eastern and Dover Railway) in February 1844. The LSWR branched out to destinations including Portsmouth, Salisbury and later Exeter and Plymouth. It grew to be the largest of the four constituent companies. The LBSCR was a smaller railway than its LSWR neighbour, serving the port of Newhaven and several popular holiday resorts on the south coast and operating much of the south London suburban network. It had been almost bankrupt in 1867, but, during the last twenty-five years of its existence, it had been well-managed and profitable. It had begun to electrify routes around London (using an overhead line system) from 1909 to compete with the new electric trams that were taking away some of its traffic. Finally, the SECR had been created after years of wasteful and damaging competition between the two companies involved, with duplication of routes and services. Both companies had been unpopular with the travelling public and operated poorly-maintained vehicles and infrastructure. Nevertheless, real progress had been made in rectifying this during the period 1899–1922. The formation of the Southern Railway was rooted in the outbreak of the First World War, when all British railway companies were taken into government control. Many members of staff joined the armed forces and it was not possible to build and maintain equipment at peacetime levels. After the war. the government considered permanent nationalisation, but instead decided on a compulsory amalgamation of the railways into four large groups through the 1921 Railways Act, known as the Grouping. The resultant amalgamation of the four south coast railways to form the Southern Railway meant that several duplicate routes and management structures were inherited. The LSWR had most influence on the new company, although genuine attempts were made to integrate the services and staff after 1923. The rationalisation of the system led to the downgrading of some routes in favour of more direct lines to the channel ports, and the creation of a co-ordinated, but not necessarily centralised form of management, based at the former LSWR headquarters in Waterloo station. In addition to its railway operations, the Southern Railway inherited several important ports and harbours on the south coast, including Southampton, Newhaven and Folkestone. It also ran services to the harbours at Portsmouth, Dover and Plymouth. These handled ocean-going and cross-channel passenger traffic and the size of the railway-owned installations reflected the prosperity that the industry generated. This source of traffic, together with the density of population served in the London suburbs, ensured that the Southern would be a predominantly passenger-orientated railway. Electrification In 1923, the Southern Railway took over route miles () of railway electrified with overhead line at 6.7 kV, 57 route miles () of railway electrified with a third rail at 660 V DC, and the long underground Waterloo & City Railway. The route mileage of third rail electrification was to more than double in 1925 when the current was switched on on the routes to Guildford, and Effingham and the route from Victoria and to via and the Catford Loop. In 1926, electric trains started to run on the South Eastern Main Line route to Orpington and the three lines to using the 3rd rail system. On 9 August 1926, the Southern announced that the DC system was to replace the AC system and the last AC train ran on 29 September 1929. Including the London Bridge to East Croydon route, electrified in 1928, by the end of 1929, the Southern operated over route miles () of third rail electrified track and in that year ran 17.8 million electric train miles. One new electrified line was built, the Wimbledon and Sutton Railway, being opened in 1929/1930. Most of the area immediately south of London was converted, together with the long-distance lines to Brighton, Eastbourne, Hastings (via the LBSCR line), Guildford, Portsmouth and Reading, between 1931 and 1939. On the former SECR routes, the lines to Sevenoaks and Maidstone were electrified by 1939. The routes to the Kent Coast were next in line for electrification and would have been followed by the electrification of the Southampton/Bournemouth route. The Second World War delayed these plans until the late 1950s and 1967 respectively. Although not in the Southern's original plans, electrification was extended from Bournemouth to Weymouth in 1988. Economic crisis of the 1930s The post-Wall Street Crash affected South Eastern England far less than other areas. The investment the company had already made in modernising the commuter network ensured that the Southern Railway remained in good financial health relative to the other railway companies despite the Depression. However, any available funds were devoted to electrification programme, and this marked the end of the first period under Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) Richard Maunsell when the Southern Railway led the field in steam locomotive design. The lack of funds affected the development of new, standardised motive power, and it would take until the Second World War for the Southern Railway to take the initiative in steam locomotive design once again. Second World War During the Second World War, the Southern Railway's proximity to the Channel ports meant that it became vital to the Allied war effort. Holidaymakers using the lines to the Channel ports and the West Country were replaced by troops and military supplies, especially with the threat of a German invasion of the south coast in 1940. Before hostilities, 75% of traffic was passenger, compared with 25% freight; during the war roughly the same number of passengers was carried, but freight grew to 60% of total traffic. A desperate shortage of freight locomotives was remedied by CME Oliver Bulleid, who designed a fleet of 40 Q1 class locomotives to handle the high volumes of military traffic. The volume of military freight and soldiers moved by a primarily commuter and holidaymaker carrying railway was a breathtaking feat. When the threat of invasion receded, the Southern Railway again became vital for the movement of troops and supplies preparing for the invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord. This came at a cost, as the Southern Railway's location around London and the Channel ports meant that it was subjected to heavy bombing, whilst permanent way, locomotive, carriage and wagon maintenance was deferred until peacetime. Nationalisation After a period of slow recovery in the late 1940s, the war-devastated company was nationalised along with the rest of the railway network in 1948 and incorporated into British Railways. The Southern Railway retained a separate identity as the Southern Region of British Railways. The Southern Railway Company continued to exist as a legal entity until it went into voluntary liquidation on 10 June 1949, having satisfied the requirements of Sections 12, 13 and 24 of the Transport Act 1947 to ensure that all assets had been transferred to the British Transport Commission or otherwise properly distributed. Many lines in London and Kent had been damaged during the war and much rolling stock was either damaged or in need of replacement. Just prior to nationalisation, the Southern Railway had started a vigorous renewal programme, and this was continued throughout the early 1950s. Revival in the privatised network See: Southern (Govia Thameslink Railway) The former LBSCR routes to South London, Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire, from Victoria and London Bridge are now served by the current Southern. It was branded Southern on 30 May 2004, recalling the pre-nationalisation Southern Railway, with a green roundel logo with "Southern" written in yellow on a green bar. Southern is a subsidiary of Govia Thameslink Railway(GTR). GTR is a subsidiary of Govia, which is a joint venture between the British Go-Ahead Group (65%) and French company Keolis (35%). Accidents and incidents On 5 November 1926, a milk tank train became divided near Bramshott Halt, Hampshire. The train crew failed to inform the signalman or protect its rear in the belief that the issue could be resolved quickly. A passenger train was in a rear-end collision with it. One person was killed. In March 1927, a train was derailed at Wrotham, Kent. In August 1927, a passenger train was derailed at Bearsted, Kent. On 24 August 1927, a passenger train was derailed at Sevenoaks, Kent due to a combination of the locomotive's design and the condition of the track. Thirteen people were killed and 21 were injured. On 4 September 1934, two freight trains collided at Hither Green, London. On 25 May 1933, a passenger train was derailed at , London, coming to rest foul of an adjacent line. Another passenger train was in a sidelong collision with it. Five people were killed and 35 were injured. The accident was caused by a failure to implement a speed restriction on a section of track that was under maintenance. On 2 April 1937, an electric multiple unit crashed into the rear of another at , London due to a signalman's error. Ten people were killed and eighty were injured, seven seriously. On 28 June 1937, a passenger train overran signals at , Kent and was diverted into a siding where it crashed into an electricity substation. Four people were killed. The train was not booked to stop at Swanley, but arrangements had been made for it to do so. However, the driver of the train had not been informed of these arrangements. In 1937, a boat train caught fire at , Hampshire due to an electrical fault in one of the carriages. Four carriages were destroyed. On 14 August 1940, a passenger train was derailed at , Hampshire due to enemy action. A bomb fell on the line in front of the train, which was unable to stop in time. On 11 May 1941, Cannon Street station was bombed in a Luftwaffe air raid. At least one locomotive was severely damaged. On 17 July 1946, a light engine collided with a passenger train at London Victoria station. Several people were injured. In the summer of 1946, a freight train overran signals and was derailed by trap points at Wallers Ash, Hampshire. On 21 January 1947, an empty stock train was in a rear-end collision with an electric multiple unit at , London. On 24 October 1947, an electric multiple unit train was in collision with another at South Croydon Junction, Surrey due to a signalman's error. In the deadliest accident to occur on the Southern Railway, 32 people were killed and 183 were injured. On 26 November 1947, a passenger train was in a rear-end collision with another at , Hampshire due to a signalman's error. Two people were killed. Geography The Southern railway covered a large territory in south-west England including Weymouth, Plymouth, Salisbury and Exeter, where it was in competition with the Great Western Railway (GWR). To the east of this area it held a monopoly of rail services in the counties of Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex and Kent. Above all, it had a monopoly of the London suburbs south of the River Thames, where it provided a complex network of secondary routes that intertwined between main lines. Unlike the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway and the GWR, the Southern Railway was predominantly a passenger railway. Despite its small size it carried more than a quarter of Britain's passenger traffic because of its network of commuter lines around London, serving some of the most densely populated parts of the country. In addition, South London's geology was largely unsuitable for underground railways, meaning that the Southern Railway faced little competition from underground lines, encouraging a denser network stretching from stations located in close proximity to central London. Key locations The headquarters of the Southern was in the former LSWR offices at Waterloo station and there were six other London termini at Blackfriars, Cannon Street, Charing Cross, Holborn Viaduct, Victoria and London Bridge. The last of these also held the headquarters of the Eastern and Central Divisions. Other major terminal stations were at Dover, Brighton and Southampton. The railway also had one of Europe's busiest stations at Clapham Junction. Locomotives were constructed and maintained at works inherited from constituent companies at Eastleigh, Ashford and Brighton. The largest was Eastleigh, which was built by the LSWR in 1909 to replace the cramped Nine Elms Locomotive Works in South London. Brighton had been constructing locomotives since 1852 for the LBSCR, and built 104 of 110 Bulleid Light Pacifics between 1945 and 1951. Ashford was inherited from the SECR, and had been built in 1847, and was the works that constructed half of the SR Q1 class. Ashford completed its final locomotive in March 1944, a War Department Stanier 8F 2-8-0 number 8764. Carriage works had also been inherited at Eastleigh, and Lancing (which had been built in 1912 for the LBSCR). During the Second World War, both were turned over to wartime production such as Horsa and Hamilcar gliders. Wagon workshops were situated at Ashford and Eastleigh. A concrete works near Exmouth Junction locomotive shed made platform seats, fencing and station lamp posts. A power station was at Durnsford Road Wimbledon. Engineering The South West Main Line of the former LSWR between London and Southampton was completed by Joseph Locke with easy gradients, leading to several cuttings, tunnels and embankments across the Loddon, Test and Itchen Valleys, with brick arches constructed across South London to the site of Waterloo station. Such was the emphasis on minimising gradients that the stretch between Micheldever and Winchester has the longest constant gradient of any British main line. The remainder of its area was traversed by three significant rows of hills: the North Downs, the Wealden Ridge and the South Downs. Thus Rastrick's Brighton Main Line of 1841, included one of the largest cuttings in the country at Merstham, significant tunnels at Merstham, Balcombe, Clayton and Patcham as well as the famous Ouse Valley Viaduct. The major tunnels on the SECR network were at Merstham, Sevenoaks and Shakespeare Cliff. Operations The running of the Southern was undertaken by the Board of Directors, the first Chairman of which was Sir Hugh Drummond, appointed to the post in 1923. There were originally three general managers representing the interests of the three pre-Grouping railway companies: Sir Herbert Walker, Percy Tempest and William Forbes, although Walker was the sole occupant in the post within a year. The position of Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern Railway was given to a former employee of the SECR, Richard Maunsell. For ease of administration, the lines inherited in 1923 were divided into three geographical sections with a Traffic Department for each, loosely based upon the areas covered by the amalgamated companies: The Western Section (former LSWR routes) included the South West Main Line, the Portsmouth Direct Line one quarter of the West Coastway Line (between Portsmouth and Southampton), and the West of England Main Line, both serving destinations popular with holidaymakers. It stretched into Devon and Cornwall as the line ran via Exeter, Okehampton and Plymouth, and this circuitous route was known derisively as the Southern Railway's "Withered Arm" because the GWR had a stronger presence in this region. The Central Section (former LB&SCR routes) included the Brighton Main Line (the most profitable and heavily used main line), the East Coastway Line, three-quarters of the West Coastway Line, the Arun Valley Line and the Sutton & Mole Valley Lines. The Eastern Section (former SECR routes) included the South Eastern Main Line, the Chatham Main Line, the Hastings Line, the Kent Coast Line and the North Downs Line. Operational and Commercial aspects of railway operation were brought under the control of Traffic Managers, relieving the General Manager of many tasks, allowing him to make policy decisions. Specialised Superintendents served under the Traffic Manager, breaking down the task of operating their respective sections. As such, the Southern Railway operated a hybrid system of centralised and decentralised management. Passenger operations See also Named trains: UK Passenger services, especially the intensive London suburban services, constituted the key breadwinner of the Southern Railway. The railway also served Channel ports and a number of attractive coastal destinations which provided the focus for media attention. This meant that the railway operated a number of famous named trains, providing another source of publicity for John Elliot. The Eastern and Central Sections of the network served popular seaside resorts such as Brighton, Eastbourne, Hastings and the Channel ports, whilst the Western Section catered for the heavy summer holiday traffic to the West Country resorts. Passenger services on the Southern Railway consisted of luxury Pullman dining trains and normal passenger services, which gave the railway a high total number of carriages at 10,800. Pullman services Pullman services were the premier trains of the Southern, reflecting the pride felt towards the railway. These luxury services included several boat trains such as the Golden Arrow (London-Paris, translated as Flèche d'Or for the French part of its route), The Cunarder (London - Southampton Ocean Liner service) and the Night Ferry (London - Paris and Brussels), the Brighton Belle on the Central Section, and the Bournemouth Belle and Devon Belle on the Western Section. The Golden Arrow was the best-known train of the Southern Railway, and was introduced on 15 May 1929. The train consisted of Pullmans and luggage vans, linking London Victoria to Dover, with transfer to the French equivalent at Calais. The Brighton Belle, which had its origins in 1881 with the 'Pullman Limited' of the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, which renamed the service the 'Southern Belle' in 1908. The train was steam-hauled until 1933 when electric units were introduced after the electrification of the London-Brighton Main Line. On 29 June 1934 the train was renamed the Brighton Belle and continued until withdrawal in 1972. The SECR had introduced a Pullman train called the "Thanet Pullman Limited" from Victoria to Margate in 1921. The service was not a success and ceased to run in 1928. The service was however re-introduced by British Railways as the Thanet Belle in 1948. Titled trains Amongst the ordinary services, the Southern Railway also operated famous titled express trains such as the Atlantic Coast Express ("ACE"). With a large variety of holiday destinations including Bude, Exmouth, , Padstow, Plymouth, Seaton, Sidmouth and Torrington, the 11 am "ACE" from Waterloo, as the Atlantic Coast Express became known, was the most multi-portioned train in the UK from its introduction in 1926. This was due to sections of the train splitting at selected junctions for onward journey to their final destinations in the West Country. Padstow railway station in Cornwall was the westernmost point of the Southern Railway, and marked the end or beginning of the "ACE", which was the longest timetabled journey on the network. The importance of the destination dictated the motive power selected to haul each portion to their final destinations. Through carriages to East Devon and North Cornwall were invariably hauled by diminutive Drummond M7 tank locomotives, and from 1952, BR Standard Class 3 2-6-2T's; the rest of the train continued behind a Bulleid Light Pacific to Plymouth. The final "ACE" was hauled on 5 September 1964 when the Western Section of the former Southern Railway network was absorbed into the Western Region of British Railways. Commuter services Inner London suburban services were fully electrified by 1929 and worked by electric multiple units of varying lengths according to demand, which had the advantage of rapid acceleration and braking. The railway then began a successful programme to electrify its most heavily used main lines, building up a substantial commuter traffic from towns such as Guildford, Brighton and Eastbourne. Other passenger services The remainder of passenger operations were non-Pullman, reflecting the ordinary business of running a passenger railway. West Country services were dominated by lucrative summer holiday traffic and passengers wishing to travel to the Isle of Wight and further afield. In winter months, the western extremity of the Southern Railway network saw very little local use, as the railway served sparsely populated communities. Competition with the GWR also diluted passenger traffic within this area, as this carried the bulk of passengers to the major urban centres of the West Country. Steam-hauled passenger services in the east of the network were gradually replaced with electric traction, especially around London's suburbs. Passenger services on secondary routes were given motive power that befitted the lacklustre nature of the duty, with elderly locomotives used to provide a local service that fed into the major mainline stations such as Basingstoke. The use of elderly locomotives and stock was invariably a financial consideration, intended to prolong the life of locomotives that would otherwise be scrapped. In some cases, the route was such that some of the newer classes were precluded from operating because of restrictions in loading gauge, the Lyme Regis branch from Axminster providing an example. The Southern Railway also operated push-pull trains of up to two carriages in commuter areas. Push-pull operations did not need the time-consuming use of a turntable or run-around at the end of a suburban branch line, and enabled the driver to use a cab in the end coach to drive the locomotive in reverse. Such operations were similar to the autotrains, with a Drummond M7 providing the motive power. Freight operations Passenger traffic was the main source of revenue for the Southern Railway throughout its existence, although goods were also carried in separate trains. Goods such as milk and cattle from the agricultural areas of the West Country provided a regular source of freight traffic, whilst imports from the south coast ports also required carriage by rail to freight terminals such as the large Bricklayers Arms facility. The railway operated three large marshalling yards for freight on the outskirts of South London, at Feltham, Norwood and Hither Green, where freight could be sorted for onward travel to their final destinations. It also handled a large volume of cross-London freight from these to other yards north of the river via the West London and East London Lines which were jointly owned by the Southern Railway. As locomotives increased in size so did the length of goods trains, from 40 to as many as 100 four-wheeled wagons, although the gradient of the line and the braking capabilities of the locomotive often limited this. The vacuum brake, which was standard equipment on passenger trains, was gradually fitted to a number of ordinary goods wagons, allowing a number of vacuum "fitted" trains to run faster than 40 mph (64 km/h). While typical goods wagons could carry 8, 10 or (later) 12 tons, the load placed into a wagon could be as little as 1 ton, as the railway was designated as a common carrier that could not choose what goods it could carry. Ancillary operations The Southern Railway inherited a range of railway-related activities from its constituent companies, which it continued to develop until nationalisation in 1948. These activities included several ports, a fleet of ships, road services (both freight and passenger) and several hotels. These ancillary operations provided extra revenue for the railway at a time when railways were classified as a common carrier by the Railways Act of 1844, and could not compete with road with regards to pricing. This was because railways were obliged to advertise their rates of carriage at railway stations, which could subsequently be undercut by road haulage companies. The Southern Railway also invested in an air service during the 1930s, which supplemented the popular sea crossings to the Isle of Wight and the Channel Islands. Shipping The Southern inherited docks at Southampton, Newhaven, Plymouth, Folkestone, Dover, Littlehampton, Whitstable, Strood, Rye, Queenborough, Port Victoria and Padstow. The Southern continued to invest heavily in these facilities, and Southampton overtook Liverpool as Britain's main port for Trans-Atlantic liners. The Southern inherited 38 large turbine or other steamers and a number of other vessels branded under Channel Packet, the maritime arm of the railway, all of which passed to British Railways control after nationalisation in 1948. Ships The Southern inherited a number of ships from its constituent companies, some of which were converted to car ferries when this mode of transport became more common. Such conversions were needed on the French routes, where holidays by car were beginning to become popular. Services to the Channel Islands began in 1924, along with services to Brittany in 1933 and finally Normandy commencing just prior to nationalisation in 1947. ex-LSWR ships , , , , , , , , , , . ex-LBSC ships , , , , , , , . ex-SECR ships , SS Canterbury, ,, , , , SS Victoria. ex-LBSC/LSWR joint ships , , , , . Ships built for the SR , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , SS Worthing, , . Ships managed by SR During the Second World War and afterwards, Southern managed a number of ships for the Ministry of War Transport. Empire Alde. Hotels, road transport and air transport Ten large hotels were owned by the company, at the London termini and at the coast. The Charing Cross Hotel, designed by Edward Middleton Barry, opened on 15 May 1865 and gave the station an ornate frontage in the French Renaissance style. At Cannon Street station in London, an Italianate style hotel was constructed in 1867, designed by Barry. This provided much of the station's passenger facilities as well as an impressive architectural frontispiece to the street prior to demolition in 1960. London Bridge station boasted The Terminus hotel of 1861, which was turned into offices for the LBSCR in 1892, and destroyed by bombing in 1941. Victoria station had the 300-bedroom Grosvenor hotel, which was rebuilt in 1908. Other hotels were to be found at Southampton and other port locations connected to the railway. From 1929, the Southern Railway invested in bus companies providing feeder services to its trains. The brand names Southern National (a joint venture with the National Omnibus & Transport Co. Ltd.) and Southern Vectis have long outlived the railway company they originally served. The Southern Railway also undertook freight transfer by road, owning a fleet of goods vehicles providing a door-to-door delivery service. This was especially useful for bulky items that required delivery to areas not immediately served by a railway. Conflat-type wagons were used to carry containers by rail to a destination close to the delivery address, where they would be transferred by crane onto the trailer of a vehicle for onward travel by road. In conjunction with other Big Four companies the Southern Railway also invested in providing air services for passengers, notably to the Channel Islands and Isle of Wight, which complemented the shipping operations. Such operations provided the chance to take revenue from non-railway passengers, and enabled fast air-freight services between the islands and the mainland. However, this operation was disrupted during the Second World War due to the occupation of the Channel Islands, and the rationing of aviation fuel. In 1937, the Southern Railway was involved in a scheme to build a new airport at Lullingstone, Kent, holding an option to purchase the land that the airport was to be built on. Parliamentary approval was obtained to construct a short branch line from station to the airport. At their 1938 Annual General Meeting, it was stated that the opinion of the company was that the cost of building the airport meant that there would not be sufficient return to justify the expenditure. The option to purchase the land subsequently lapsed. Livery, traction and rolling stock Livery and numbering system For most of its existence the Southern Railway painted its 2,390 locomotives in a rich yellow/brown olive green, with plain black frames and wheels, and fittings were lined in black with thin white edges. From 1937, the basic livery was changed by Bulleid to a matt blue/green malachite green that was similar in appearance to copper carbonate. This was complemented with black wheels and frames with bright yellow lettering and lining-out of the various locomotive fixtures. Some of Bulleid's locomotives had their wheels painted in malachite green with yellow rims, though this combination was scarcely used. Pre-grouping and Maunsell locomotives were given yellow and black lining to complement the malachite green livery. During the Second World War, engines that went for overhaul were painted in an overall matt black due to the scarcity of paint and labour. The yellow lettering remained, highlighted with malachite green. The period leading up to nationalisation in 1948 saw a reversion to malachite green, albeit in gloss form. Below are examples of Southern Railway livery, including the approximate dates of first application: Gloss black (common to most freight designs at grouping, adopted by Maunsell as standard in 1923) LBSCR dark umber (1905–1923) LSWR Urie sage green (1912–1924; this became the standard passenger locomotive livery immediately after grouping) LSWR holly green (1912–1923; freight livery inherited from the LSWR at grouping) SECR grey (until 1923; inherited from the SECR at grouping) SR Maunsell olive green (1924–1939; introduced as the first standard passenger livery for the Southern Railway) Wartime matt black (1940–1950; a wartime labour-saving livery) SR Bulleid light green (1938–1940; first applied to N15 and H15 classes, dropped in favour of malachite green) SR Bulleid malachite green (1939–1950; became standard livery for all Southern passenger locomotives) Maunsell locomotives featured name and number plates of polished brass with a red or black background in 1924. Bulleid nameplates were generally gunmetal with polished brass lettering, and featured crests depicting aspects of the class theme (Merchant Navy, West Country or Battle of Britain). Until 1931 the Southern Railway initially maintained the locomotive numbers from its constituents, and solved the problem of more than one locomotive having the same number by letter prefixes denoting the main works of the former owning company. All ex-SECR locos were prefixed by "A" (for Ashford), ex-LBSCR by "B" (for Brighton) and ex-LSWR engines by "E" (for Eastleigh). Isle of Wight locomotive numbers were prefixed by "W" (for Wight). New locomotives were prefixed by the letter of the works where they were built. In 1931 the fleet was re-numbered by dropping all prefixes, leaving E-prefixed numbers unchanged, adding 1000 to A-prefixed numbers and 2000 to B-prefixed ones, an exception being the Z-class 0-8-0 shunters whose numbers A950-A957 only lost the prefix, with no addition. (Some non-revenue-earning locos were exempt from this scheme). Under Bulleid, a new continental system of numbering was introduced for his own locomotives, based upon his experiences at the French branch of Westinghouse Electric before the First World War, and his tenure in the rail operating department during that conflict. The Southern Railway number adapted a modified UIC classification system where "2" and "1" refer to the number of un-powered leading and trailing axles respectively, and "C" refers to three driving axles (the system was only applied to new 6-coupled locos and one Co-Co electric loco before nationalisation). As an example, the first Merchant Navy class locomotive was numbered 21C1. Motive power The Southern Railway inherited in the region of 2,281 steam locomotives from its constituent companies at grouping From the major constituents, excluding the Isle of Wight and some minor railways, this was composed of: One of Holcroft's first tasks on joining the SR from his post with the SE&CR at Ashford was to produce an overall stock list and diagram book so that the capacity and route availability of unfamiliar loco classes could be understood across the railway, allowing locos to operate outside of their former areas. He produced a grading system so that an express passenger class such as the LSWR N15 King Arthurs might be graded as P5/8/3 for Passenger, Grade, Power and Range (route availability). The railway handed over in the region 1,789 locomotives to British Railways in 1948. Similarly, it inherited 84 DC multiple units (later designated 3-SUB) from the LSWR and 38 AC units (later designated CP and SL classes) from the LBSCR, and handed over in the region of 1480 DC units. Steam locomotives From 1924, Maunsell began standardising the fleet of locomotives for ease of maintenance. Later Bulleid undertook sweeping changes that propelled the Southern Railway into the forefront of locomotive design. The first locomotives constructed for the Southern Railway were to designs inherited from the pre-Grouping railway companies, such as the N15 class and H15 class, though both were modified by Maunsell from the original design. These were intended as interim solutions to motive power problems, since several designs in operation on the Southern Railway were obsolete. The 1920s was the era of standardisation, with ease of maintenance and repair key considerations in a successful locomotive design. In 1926, the first new Southern Railway-designed and -built locomotives emerged from Eastleigh works: the Maunsell Lord Nelson class, reputedly the most powerful 4-6-0 in Britain at the time. So successful was the Lord Nelson class that the Royal Scot class had its origins in the Maunsell design. However, the Depression of 1929 precluded further improvements in Southern Railway locomotive technology, apart from the V "Schools" class 4-4-0 and various electric designs. Maunsell also designed locomotives for use in freight yards such as that at Feltham in south west London, the final example of which was the Q class. The design of the Q class coincided with Maunsell's ill health, resulting in a conservative approach to design. The first examples were completed in 1937, the year in which Maunsell retired from the CME's position. Maunsell was succeeded in 1937 by Oliver Bulleid, who brought experience gained under Sir Nigel Gresley at the LNER. He designed the Bulleid chain-driven valve gear that was compact enough to fit within the restrictions of his Pacific designs, the Merchant Navy class of 1941 and the Light Pacific design of 1945. Ever the innovator, Bulleid introduced welded steel boilers and steel fireboxes which were easier to repair than the copper variety, whilst a new emphasis on cab ergonomics was followed. Established locomotive design practices were altered in his designs, with the wheels changed from the traditional spoked to his BFB disc wheel design, giving better all-round support to the tyre. Visually, the most distinctive of his designs was a small, heavy freight locomotive, the most powerful and last non-derivative 0-6-0 design to operate in Britain. This Q1 class eliminated anything that might be considered unnecessary in locomotive design, including the traditional wheel splashers. With innovative lagging material that dictated the shape of the boiler cladding, the Q1 was regarded by many as one of the ugliest locomotives ever constructed. The 40 engines produced required the same amount of material needed for 38 more conventional machines, justifying the economies and design. Bulleid's innovation stemmed from a belief in the continued development of steam traction, and culminated in the Leader class of 1946, an 0-6-6-0 design that had two cabs, negating the use of a turntable. The entire locomotive was placed on two bogies, enabling negotiation around tight curves, while the slab-sided body could be cleaned by a labour-saving carriage washer. Despite the successes of the Pacifics and the unconventional Q1 freight locomotives, the Pacifics were difficult to maintain and featured enough eccentricities to justify rebuilding in the mid-1950s. The innovations ensured that the Southern was once again leading the field in locomotive design, and earned Bulleid the title "last giant of steam" in Britain. Diesel locomotives Maunsell began experimenting with the use of diesel locomotives for yard shunting in 1937. He ordered three locomotives, which proved to be successful, but his retirement and the onset of the Second World War prevented further development. Bulleid adapted and improved the design but his class did not appear until 1949, after nationalisation. Bulleid also designed a class of main line diesel-electric locomotives, continuing to push back the boundaries of contemporary locomotive design and established practice, but this was built by British Railways. Electric locomotives The Southern Railway also built two mixed-traffic electric locomotives, numbered CC1 and CC2 under Bulleid's numbering system. They were designed by Bulleid and Alfred Raworth, and were renumbered 20001 and 20002 after nationalisation. At this time a third locomotive was under construction, and was numbered 20003 in 1948. The locomotives were later classified as British Rail Class 70. These incorporated a cab design similar to that of the 2HAL (2-car Half Lavatory electric stock) design constructed from 1938. This was due to ease of construction by welding, which allowed both cheap and speedy construction. With the outbreak of war in 1939, most new locomotive construction projects were put on hold in favour of the war effort, although construction of CC1 and CC2 was exempted from this because of promised savings in labour and fuel over steam locomotives. Electric Multiple Units (EMUs) The early LBSCR AC overhead Electric multiple units (EMU) were phased-out by September 1929 and converted into DC types. All further electrification was at 660 V DC, and investment was made in modernising the fleet inherited from the pre-Grouping companies, and building new stock often by converting existing steam hauled carriages. The Southern Railway's EMU classification meant the unit type was given a three-letter code (sometimes two letters), prefixed by the number of carriages within each unit. These early suburban units, constructed between 1925 and 1937 were therefore designated 3-SUB, or later 4-SUB, depending on the number of coaches. The EMUs consisted of a fixed formation of two driving units at both ends of the train, and could have varying numbers of carriages in between (as indicated in the classification). Newly built units of 4-LAV 6PUL and 5BEL (Brighton Belle) types were introduced in 1932 for the electrification of the Brighton Main Line. Further types were introduced as electrification spread further. Thus the 2-BIL units were constructed between 1935 and 1938 to work long-distance semi-fast services to Eastbourne, Portsmouth and Reading, or the 2-HAL for those to Maidstone and Gillingham. 4-COR units, handled fast trains on the London Waterloo railway station to Portsmouth Harbour railway station from April 1937. A total of 460 electric vehicles were to be built by the Southern Railway before nationalisation. Variants of the Southern Railway's electric stock included Pullman carriages or wagons for the carriage of parcels and newspapers, allowing flexibility of use on the London suburban lines and the Eastern Section of the network. Other forms of traction The railway also experimented with other forms of traction. It bought a 50 hp petrol-driven Drewry Railcar in 1927 to test its operating cost and reliability on lightly used branch lines. It was not successful and was sold to the Weston, Clevedon and Portishead Railway in 1934. Similarly, a Sentinel steam railcar was purchased in 1933 for use on the Devil's Dyke branch. It was transferred from that line in March 1936 and tried in other areas, but was withdrawn in 1940. Carriages The Southern inherited many wooden-bodied carriage designs from its constituent companies. However, there was an emphasis on standardising the coaching stock, which led to Maunsell designing new carriages. These were classified between 0 and 4, so that an -wide carriage was "Restriction 0". The restrictions related to the Southern's composite loading gauge, so that some more restricted routes could be catered for. The new carriages were based upon the former LSWR "Ironclad" carriage designs, and comprised First and Third Class compartments, each of which contained a corridor and doors for each compartment, enabling quick egress on commuter services. Similar principles were applied to the electric train sets, where quick passenger egress promoted a punctual service. The Southern Railway was one of the few railways to marshal its carriages into fixed numbered sets. This made maintenance easier, as the location of a particular set would always be known through its number, which was painted on the ends of the set. A pool of "loose" carriages was kept for train strengthening on summer Saturdays and to replace faulty stock. The second phase of carriage construction began towards the end of the Southern Railway's existence. Bulleid had vast experience in carriage design from his time with the LNER, and he applied this acquired knowledge to a new fleet of well-regarded carriages (see picture). One of his more unusual projects was his "Tavern Car" design, carriages that were to represent a typical country tavern, with a bar and seating space provided within the carriage. The outside of the "Tavern Cars" were partially painted in a mock-Tudor style of architecture, and were given typical public house names. Poor ventilation from small windows made the "Tavern Cars" unpopular amongst the travelling public, with several being converted to ordinary use during the 1950s. The Southern Railway was the only one of the "Big Four" British railway companies that did not operate sleeping cars other than those brought in from the continent on the 'Night Ferry'. This was because the short distances meant that such provision was not financially viable. The Southern Railway also undertook the practice of converting inherited carriages into electric stock, a cheaper alternative to constructing brand new EMUs. Bulleid initiated an unusual project that attempted to address the problem of overcrowding on suburban services. The answer to the problem was Britain's first double-deck carriages, which were eventually built in 1949. Two sets of four cars were completed and saw use until the 1970s, powered by electric in the same way as the EMUS. However, further orders for these trains were not placed due to cramped conditions inside which were dictated by the restrictions of the loading gauge. Wagons The Southern Railway painted its freight wagons dark brown. Most wagons were four-wheeled with the letters "SR" in white, and there were also some six-wheeled milk tankers on the South West Main Line which supplied United Dairies in London. As the railway was primarily passenger-orientated, there was little investment in freight wagons except for general utility vans, which could be used for both freight and luggage. These consisted of bogie and four-wheel designs, and were frequently used on boat trains. At its peak the Southern Railway owned 37,500 freight wagons; in contrast, the Railway Executive Committee controlled 500,000 privately owned colliery wagons during the Second World War. Cultural impact The Southern Railway was particularly successful at promoting itself to the public. The downgrading of the Mid-Sussex line via Horsham that served Portsmouth was met with hostility by the general public, causing a public relations disaster. This stimulated the creation of the first "modern" public relations department with the appointment of John Elliot (later Sir John Elliot) in 1925. Elliot was instrumental in creating the positive image that the Southern enjoyed prior to the Second World War, building a publicity campaign for its electrification project that marketed the "World's Greatest Suburban Electric". Tourism The positive image of progress was enhanced by the promotion of the south and south-west as holiday destinations. "Sunny South Sam" became a character that embodied the railway, whilst slogans such as "Live in Kent and be content" encouraged commuters to move out from London and patronise the Southern Railway's services. Posters also advertised ocean services from Ocean Terminal in Southampton and the docks at Dover. These also incorporated the corresponding rail connections with London, such as "The Cunarder" and the "Golden Arrow". Heritage The Southern Railway's memory lives on at several preserved railways in the south of England, including the Watercress Line, the Swanage Railway, the Spa Valley Railway, the Bluebell Railway, the Isle of Wight Steam Railway and the Dartmoor Railway. Other remnants of the railway include Eastleigh works and the London termini, including Waterloo (the largest London railway station), Victoria, Charing Cross, Cannon Street and London Bridge (the oldest London terminus). Several societies promote continued interest in the SR, such as the Southern Railways Group and the Southern Electric Group. Notable people Chairmen of the board of directors Sir Hugh Drummond (1923–1 August 1924). Drummond had been chairman of the London and South Western Railway since 1911. He died in office. The Honourable Everard Baring (1924–7 May 1932). Died in office. Gerald Loder (1932–December 1934). Became Lord Wakehurst in June 1934, and resigned at the end of the year. Robert Holland-Martin (1935–26 January 1944). Died in office. Colonel Eric Gore-Brown (February 1944–nationalisation). General managers Sir Herbert Ashcombe Walker, KCB, (1923–1937). Walker was an astute administrator of railways, having gained experience as General Manager of the LSWR from 1912. After retiring in 1937 he was a director of the Southern until the end of its existence in 1947. Two significant events occurred under Walker's tenure as General Manager: electrification in the mid-1920s and the appointment of Bulleid as CME in 1937. Gilbert S. Szlumper, TD, CBE, (1937–1939). Trained as a civil engineer and became Docks and Marine Manager at Southampton, before becoming Assistant General Manager in 1925. In 1939 the War Office recalled him as a Major-General to sort out the military movements at Southampton Docks. He was ousted from the General Managership after the Traffic Manager, Eustace Missenden, refused to become Acting General Manager, and threatened to resign if not confirmed as GM proper. Sir Eustace Missenden(1939–Nationalisation); Chairman, Railway Executive (1947–1951). Missenden was traffic manager before becoming General Manager 1939. From the latter half of 1947, he was largely absent from the Southern Railway as Chairman of the Railway Executive. Sir John Elliot Acting General Manager (1947); Assistant General Manager (1933 to nationalisation); Public Relations Assistant (1925–1933). Noted for being Britain's first expert in public relations, Elliot was brought in by Sir Herbert Walker after bad press was received following service delays and consolidation of the newly created company. Elliot suggested that the Southern's express passenger locomotives should be named, representing positive publicity for the railway, while distinctive locomotive liveries and well-known posters were created under his direction. He continued to serve the railways after nationalisation in 1948, and became Chairman of London Transport in 1953. Chief mechanical engineers R. E. L. Maunsell, the Southern's first chief mechanical engineer (1922 to 1937). Maunsell was responsible for initial attempts at locomotive standardisation on the Southern, as well as overseeing the introduction of electric traction. Among his many achievements was the introduction of the 4-6-0 SR Lord Nelson Class locomotives and also the SR Class V or "Schools" class, which were the ultimate and very successful development of the British 4-4-0 express passenger type. He also introduced new, standardised rolling stock designs for use on the Southern network, which were based upon the railway's composite loading gauge. O. V. S. Bulleid, CBE (CME 1937 to nationalisation). Bulleid moved to the Southern from the LNER, bringing several ideas for improving the efficiency of steam locomotives. Such innovations were used on the Merchant Navy class, West Country and Battle of Britain classes ("Bulleid Light Pacifics"), Q1 and experimental Leader designs. He also developed innovative electric units and locomotives. Other engineers Alfred Raworth (1882–1967) was chief electrical engineer to the Southern Railway from 1938 until 1946. He had joined the London and South Western Railway in 1912. After retirement he became a consulting engineer to the English Electric Company. Alfred Szlumper (1858-1934) was Chief Engineer to the Southern Railway from 1924 to 1927, when he retired. He was the father of Gilbert Szlumper who was later the General Manager of the Southern Railway. Footnotes Bibliography Bulleids in Retrospect, Transport Video Publishing, Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire Harvey, R. J.: Bulleid 4-6-2 Merchant Navy Class (Locomotives in Detail series volume 1) (Hinckley: Ian Allan Publishing, 2004) Haresnape, B.: Maunsell locomotives (Ian Allan Publishing, 1978) Herring, Peter: Classic British Steam Locomotives (London: Abbeydale, 2000) Section "WC/BB Class" Ian Allan ABC of British Railways Locomotives. Part 2, 1949 edition. Ian Allan ABC of British Railways Locomotives, winter 1958–59 edition Dendy Marshall, C.F.: History of the Southern Railway, (revised by R.W. Kidner), (London: Ian Allan, 1963) . The Railway Magazine (November 2008), Southern Railway souvenir issue Turner, J.T. Howard: The London Brighton and South Coast Railway. 3 Completion and Maturity (London: Batsford, 1979). . Whitehouse, Patrick & Thomas, David St.John: SR 150: A Century and a Half of the Southern Railway (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 2002). See also Locomotives of the Southern Railway SR locomotive numbering and classification SR multiple unit numbering and classification Southern Railway routes west of Salisbury External links Southern Railways Group – specialist society for the railways of Southern England, especially The Southern Railway, its predecessors and successors, publishers of a quarterly journal and bi-monthly newsletter, centre of excellence for research Southern Railway E-mail Group – extensive source of information concerning the Southern Railway, its predecessors and successors Southern Electric Group Southern Posters – collection of Southern Railway promotional material George Keen GM – First railway worker to be awarded the George Medal, 1940 Big four British railway companies Railway companies established in 1923 Railway companies disestablished in 1948 British companies disestablished in 1948 British companies established in 1923

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q%20%28New%20York%20City%20Subway%20service%29

Q (New York City Subway service)

The Q Second Avenue/Broadway Express/Brighton Local is a rapid transit service in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or "bullet", is colored since it uses the BMT Broadway Line in Manhattan. The Q operates at all times between 96th Street in the Upper East Side of Manhattan and Stillwell Avenue in Coney Island, Brooklyn, via the BMT Broadway Line, the Manhattan Bridge and the BMT Brighton Line. Daytime service makes express stops in Manhattan and local stops in Brooklyn; late night service makes local stops along its entire route. Limited rush hour service operates locally in Brooklyn via the BMT Sea Beach Line and express via the BMT Fourth Avenue Line, but only in the northbound direction. The Q was originally the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT)'s 1 service; beginning in 1920, it ran along the Brighton Line in Brooklyn and Broadway Line in Manhattan. In the past, the Q has run many different service patterns in Brooklyn, Manhattan and Queens, both local and express, including QB service on the Manhattan Bridge and QT service via the Montague Street Tunnel. From 1988 to 2001, Q service ran along the IND Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan, with a bullet colored orange. The Q also ran in Queens at various points, including along the BMT Astoria Line to Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard on weekdays from 2010 to 2016, along the IND Queens Boulevard Line to Forest Hills–71st Avenue during temporary post-9/11 service reroutes, and along the IND 63rd Street Line to 21st Street–Queensbridge until 2001. There was also a <Q> variant from 2001 to 2004, which ran express on the Brighton Line and terminated at Brighton Beach. On January 1, 2017, the Q was rerouted along the Second Avenue Subway. History 1878–1920: Original railroad The predecessor to the subway service known as the Q today was the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway. On July 2, 1878, this steam railroad began operations on what would become the BMT Brighton Line, from Prospect Park to the Brighton Beach Hotel in Brighton Beach, which opened at the same time. The Brighton Beach Hotel was located on Coney Island by the Atlantic Ocean at the foot of modern-day Coney Island Avenue. Passengers could make connections with the horsecars of the Brooklyn City Railroad at the Prospect Park terminal. On August 19, 1878, service was extended north from Prospect Park along what is today the BMT Franklin Avenue Line used by the Franklin Avenue Shuttle, to Atlantic Avenue west of Franklin Avenue, a location known as Bedford station on what is today the Atlantic Branch of the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR). A physical connection existed between the Brighton, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway and the LIRR. By mutual agreement trains of the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway ran on LIRR trackage west to its terminal at Flatbush Avenue and Atlantic Avenue, providing a connection to Downtown Brooklyn and ferries to Manhattan. LIRR trains also operated to Brighton Beach from Flatbush Avenue and from its own terminal in Long Island City, with ferry access to Midtown Manhattan. Initially, service operated during the summer season only. At the end of the 1882 summer season, the LIRR abrogated its agreement allowing Brighton Line trains to access its Flatbush Avenue terminal and beginning with the 1883 summer season, only Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island trains operated between Bedford Terminal and Brighton Beach. In 1896, a short elevated extension of the Brighton Beach Line (since reorganized as the Brooklyn & Brighton Beach Railroad) opened to the corner of Franklin Avenue and Fulton Street in the north. This extension connected to the Fulton Street Line of the Kings County Elevated Railroad, allowing rapid transit trains on Fulton Street to operate along the Brighton Line. These trains ran from Brighton Beach, up the Franklin Avenue and Fulton Street lines to the Brooklyn side of the Brooklyn Bridge, where walking or transferring to a cable car service connection over the bridge allowed access to New York City Hall at Park Row in Manhattan. In 1900, elevated trains were through-routed to Park Row without need to change trains. By 1903, a surface extension of the Brighton Beach Line on what is now Brighton Beach Avenue permitted through service from Park Row, Manhattan west to Culver Depot at Surf Avenue near West 8th Street, much nearer to the growing amusement center known then as West Brighton and now simply as Coney Island. In 1908, a massive grade crossing elimination project was completed with a 4-track line from south of Church Avenue station to Neptune Avenue near the Coney Island Creek, permitting true local and express service, as pioneered on the New York City Subway that opened in 1904. The Brighton Beach line was also converted to electrified third rail. Brighton Beach local and express service was extended to a new West End terminal at Stillwell and Surf Avenues, the location of the Coney Island terminal for the BMT Southern Division, in May 1919. 1920–1950: Subway service begins On August 1, 1920, subway service on the BMT Brighton Line, then owned by the Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT), officially began with the openings of a two-track underground subway between Prospect Park and DeKalb Avenue and the Montague Street Tunnel between Brooklyn and Manhattan. In 1921, PM rush hour express service was extended from Kings Highway to Brighton Beach. In 1923, Brighton express service operated via the Montague Tunnel and ran local on the Broadway Line. The BMT held a vote to see which route riders preferred on August 30, 1923. Passengers voted to have Brighton expresses run from Brighton Beach to Times Square via the Manhattan Bridge and the express tracks on the Broadway Line. This change took effect on about October 1, 1923. This subway service was labeled 1 by the BMT starting in 1924, with the remnant service to Franklin Avenue becoming the 7. 1 Brighton Express service operated during rush hours and Saturday afternoons. During the evening rush hour and on Saturday afternoons, trains skipped Canal Street. The span of express service was extended by 90 minutes until 8:27 p.m. leaving Times Square in 1929. Express service began operating between the AM rush hour and noon on Saturday mornings in April 1930. Express service began operating middays on May 30, 1931, replacing short-line local service. In September 1937, Brighton express service ran between Brighton Beach and Times Square rush hours, middays, and early evenings weekdays and Saturdays. During the 1930s, limited morning rush hour service ran via the south side tracks of the Manhattan Bridge and the Nassau Street Loop to Chambers Street on the BMT Nassau Street Line. On June 29, 1950, trains began running there during the evening rush as well. On October 17, 1949, the IRT Astoria Line in Queens, up to this point operated by the Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT), was converted to BMT operation. 1 Local trains were extended via the 60th Street Tunnel and the BMT Astoria Line to Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard during weekday rush hours, and on Saturday mornings and early afternoons. Number 2 Fourth Avenue Local trains also ran here at all times. 1950s On April 27, 1950, 1 Local trains were extended to Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard during middays. On June 26, 1952, 1 Express trains were extended from Times Square to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue on weekdays after the morning rush hour, running local north of 34th Street. On June 28, 1952, special service from Brighton Beach to the Nassau Street Line was discontinued on Saturdays, and Saturday express service was extended to 57th Street. The 60th Street Tunnel Connection opened on December 1, 1955, connecting the Broadway Line to the IND Queens Boulevard Line. 1 Local trains were rerouted to this new connector to Forest Hills–71st Avenue in Forest Hills, Queens between 6:30 a.m. and 8:20 p.m. They were replaced on the BMT Astoria Line by 1 Express trains on weekdays. On May 4, 1957, 1 Express trains running started running to Ditmars Boulevard on Saturdays as well, but made local stops in Manhattan as the local trains in Brooklyn now ran to Chambers Street via the BMT Nassau Street Line. The final portion of the Broadway Line's express tracks, between Times Square–42nd Street and 57th Street–Seventh Avenue, was placed in service on May 2, 1957. 1 Brighton Express trains ran local in Manhattan on Saturdays while Brighton Locals ran express here during evenings and on Sundays. This lasted only until the next service change. On October 24, 1957, Brighton Local trains ran via the Manhattan Bridge and local in Manhattan, all day on Sundays as well as evenings and midnight hours. Brighton Express 1 service on weekdays began using the express tracks between Times Square–42nd Street and 57th Street–Seventh Avenue. A December 1957 strike shut down much of the BMT Division. Brighton Local 1 trains ran in two sections, from Coney Island via tunnel to 57th Street-Seventh Avenue and from Whitehall Street to Jamaica–179th Street on the IND Queens Boulevard Line. Due to the differing unions predominating on the various divisions, the IND was completely knocked out of service, while the IRT ran virtually normal service. The BMT was about half affected, with makeshift service patterns being set up for the duration of the strike. On May 28, 1959, 1 Brighton Express trains midday on weekdays were cut back to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue and made local stops in Brooklyn midday. Multiple trains entered service at Queensboro Plaza in the evening rush hour. Nassau Specials returned, running via the Montague Street tunnel during the morning rush and via the Manhattan Bridge during the evening rush. As part of the same service change, Brighton Local trains, beginning on June 6, ran to Franklin Avenue via the route of the 7 Shuttle on Saturdays. This was not seasonal and ran the entire day, being quite distinct from the Sunday service which still operated. 1960–1987: Lettered variants and Chrystie Street Connection || R27/R32 rollsigns for the Q, QB and QT On November 15, 1960, with the arrival of the R27 subway cars, 1 service on the Brighton Line was relabeled. Brighton Express service was designated as Q, Brighton Local via the Montague St Tunnel as QT, and Brighton Local via the Manhattan Bridge as QB. Single letters were used to refer to express lines and double letters for local lines, a practice that began thirty years earlier with the Independent Subway System (IND), however, no QQ designation was ever used. Despite these new designations, subway communications continued to refer to the services as "Brighton Local" and "Brighton Express". Effective January 1, 1961, Q Brighton Express service was cut back from Ditmars Boulevard to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue on weekdays, with trains skipping 49th Street. Saturday daytime service continued to run to Ditmars Boulevard. QT service ran to Ditmars Boulevard on weekdays; on Saturdays, it ran via the Franklin Avenue Line to Franklin Avenue in Brooklyn instead. The QB provided off-peak service between Coney Island and Astoria, via Brighton Local and the Manhattan Bridge. Sunday service between Franklin Avenue and Brighton Beach was discontinued on this date, with Sunday service now provided solely by the Franklin Avenue Shuttle (SS, formerly 7) between Prospect Park and Fulton Street. Service between Brighton Beach and Franklin Avenue was merged into the Franklin Avenue Shuttle service on October 14, 1961, and all non-shuttle service between was discontinued in February 1963. The Fourth Avenue Local (RR) now provided Broadway Line service along the Queens Boulevard line on weekdays, and the West End Express (T) was extended from 57th Street to Ditmars Boulevard during rush hours. This service change essentially swapped the northern terminals of the Brighton Local and RR, and between the Brighton Express and T. Prior to this both Brighton Line–Broadway services had operated via the 60th Street Tunnel to Queens. By having the Brighton Express Q terminate at 57th Street, this change served to keep one Brighton Line service unaffected in the event of a massive delay in the 60th Street Tunnel. On April 21, 1962, Saturday express Q service was discontinued, and replaced by QB service. All Saturday trains on the Brighton Line began running local, doubling the frequency of service and providing a one-seat ride to Manhattan for riders at local stations. With the arrival of new subway cars to the line, which provided improved running times, trains making local stops between Brighton Beach and Prospect Park did so in only minutes longer than existing express service. From February 10 to November 2, 1964, the Brighton Express tracks were closed to permit platform extension work at Newkirk Avenue. Skip-stop service was instituted along the Brighton Line. Brighton Express service, which made A stops, ran express from Brighton Beach to Kings Highway, and then stopped at Avenue J, Newkirk Avenue, Cortelyou Road, Beverley Road, Church Avenue, Parkside Avenue, and Prospect Park. On November 26, 1967, the Chrystie Street Connection opened, connecting the Brighton Line in Brooklyn to the IND Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan via the Manhattan Bridge. The bridge's south side tracks, which formerly connected to the BMT Nassau Street Line, were now connected to the Broadway Line express tracks, severing the Nassau Street Loop. The bridge's north side tracks, which formerly connected to the Broadway Line, now connected to the Sixth Avenue Line express tracks. Originally, the running via Sixth Avenue Express, and the running via Nassau Street and the Montague Street Tunnel, were to replace all three Q services on the Brighton Line. The Q and QT went out of existence completely, but due to riders' opposition to the expected loss of all Broadway Line service, some QB trains were retained, now running rush hours only in the peak direction between Coney Island and 57th Street via Brighton Local, the Manhattan Bridge, and Broadway Express in Manhattan. The color scheme introduced for subway lines that day included a red QB bullet. A short-lived NX service also provided rush-hour service between Brighton Beach and Coney Island and the Broadway Line, running via the BMT Sea Beach Line to Manhattan. This service was discontinued on April 15, 1968, after less than five months. The RR replaced Q, QB and QT service to Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard. On August 19, 1968, one AM rush hour QB train began running to Ditmars Boulevard. From January 2, 1973, no QB trains ran in service to Ditmars Boulevard, though two trains ran light to Ditmars Boulevard from 57th Street in the AM rush, and one train ran light to 57th Street in the PM rush. On January 19, 1976, morning rush hour QB trains began running in service to Ditmars Boulevard, and most evening rush hour trains entered service at Queensboro Plaza, with only one evening rush hour train running from Coney Island to 57th Street. All but the first QB morning QB trip, which entered RR service, were cut back from Ditmars Boulevard to 57th Street on August 30, 1976. Evening rush hour trains only ran in service between Coney Island and 57th Street. The last PM rush hour QB train started at Ditmars Boulevard, having previously made a trip in RR service. The first two morning rush hour QB trains ran to Ditmars Boulevard as of May 7, 1978, returning in service as RR trains to 36th Street. The last two evening rush hour QB trains entered service at Ditmars Boulevard, with the final trip having previously made an RR trip from 36th Street. In 1979, the MTA released a revised coloring scheme for subway routes based on trunk line; the QB service was assigned the color sunflower yellow, with black text, because it used the BMT Broadway Line in Manhattan. It now used a diamond-shaped bullet because it ran rush hours only. On May 5, 1985, the double-letter naming scheme for local services was dropped; the QB was renamed the Q the next day. Starting on April 26, 1986, the Brighton Line's local tracks underwent reconstruction between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue, requiring the suspension of express service; at the same time, reconstruction of the Manhattan Bridge started, which would disrupt subway service until 2004. QB service was discontinued. The bridge's north side tracks (leading to the Sixth Avenue Line) closed. The Q now ran rush hours between 57th Street–Seventh Avenue and Brighton Beach, using a yellow diamond bullet. Because the Manhattan Bridge's north side tracks closed, the D and Q ran on the bridge's south side tracks, both running via Broadway Express to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue. To substitute for the suspended Brighton Line express service, the Q ran skip-stop service with the D between Newkirk Avenue and Sheepshead Bay. D trains served Neck Road, Avenue M and Avenue H; the Q skipped those stops, serving Avenue U and Avenue J, while both lines served Kings Highway. By 1987, as reconstruction on the Brighton Line progressed, the weekday skip-stop pattern expanded to Prospect Park, with D trains serving Beverley Road while Q trains served Cortelyou Road and Parkside Avenue, with Church Avenue as a mutual station. 1988–2004: Manhattan Bridge reconstruction 1988–2001: Sixth Avenue service On December 11, 1988, the Bridge's north side tracks reopened and the south side tracks closed, and the reconstruction project on the Brighton Line ended. The Q became the weekday Brighton Express to Brighton Beach and was rerouted via the north side of the bridge and the IND Sixth Avenue Line to 57th Street–Sixth Avenue, Midtown Manhattan. Because it ran on the Sixth Avenue Line in Manhattan, the route now used an orange bullet on maps. The 8:23 AM train from Brighton Beach ran to 168th Street. On October 29, 1989, the IND 63rd Street Line opened and the B, Q, and JFK Express were extended to 21st Street–Queensbridge in Long Island City. Weekday evening service terminated at Broadway–Lafayette Street in Manhattan instead of Brooklyn; these trains relayed at Second Avenue in order to change direction. A special combined –Q service ran during late nights; in the northbound direction, F trains would operate along its normal route from Coney Island to 47th–50th Streets–Rockefeller Center, then turn into a Q and operate to 21st Street–Queensbridge; in the southbound direction, Q trains would operate from 21st Street to 47th–50th Streets, then turn into an F train and operate along its normal route to Coney Island. The weekday evening shuttle was replaced by the B on September 30, 1990. On October 1, 1990, the Q trip to 168th Street was discontinued. The replaced the late night shuttle in April 1993. On February 6, 1995, Q trains began running local south of Kings Highway due to rehabilitation work on the Brighton Line. On April 30, 1995, the north side of the Manhattan Bridge closed during middays and weekends, in addition to the already-closed south side. During these hours, D service was cut below 34th Street–Herald Square. In its place, the Q ran between Coney Island and 21st Street–Queensbridge, via Brighton Local, the Montague Street Tunnel, Broadway Express (switching between the local and express tracks at Canal Street) and the BMT 63rd Street Line. Rush hour and evening service was unchanged. On May 1, Q expresses only operated during rush hours and early evening. Normal service resumed on November 12, 1995, including the restoration of Q express service between Kings Highway and Brighton Beach. On February 22, 1998, construction on the IND 63rd Street Line cut and Q service back to 57th Street–Sixth Avenue. Service on the 63rd Street Line was replaced by a shuttle to the BMT Broadway Line at 57th Street–Seventh Avenue. Normal service resumed on May 22, 1999. 2001–2004: Brighton express variant On July 22, 2001, the Manhattan Bridge's north side tracks closed and the south side tracks reopened. There were now two Q services, colored yellow as they now ran via Broadway. In Brooklyn, the circle Q (Q local) replaced the as the full-time Brighton Local to Stillwell Avenue while the <Q> (Q express or Q diamond) replaced the Sixth Avenue Q as the weekday-only Brighton Express to Brighton Beach. Both Qs used the south side of the Manhattan Bridge to travel into Manhattan and then ran to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue via Broadway Express. Service on the IND 63rd Street Line was replaced by a shuttle, which would be permanently replaced by the in December 2001 once the 63rd Street's connection to the IND Queens Boulevard Line opened. After the September 11 attacks, Broadway Line service through Lower Manhattan, and service were suspended. The Q local replaced the R between Canal Street and Forest Hills–71st Avenue, making local stops in Manhattan and Queens at all times except late nights, when it terminated at 57th Street–Seventh Avenue. This was the predecessor to the Astoria extension (see below). Both services returned to normal on October 28, 2001. On September 8, 2002, Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue (the Q southern terminal) was closed for reconstruction and the Q local terminated at Brighton Beach. During this time, service at stations between Brighton Beach and Stillwell Avenue was replaced by an extension of the B68 bus. Q service to Stillwell Avenue resumed on May 23, 2004. From April 27 to November 2, 2003, the south side of the Manhattan Bridge was closed on weekends and Q service was rerouted via the Montague Street Tunnel. On February 22, 2004, reconstruction of the Manhattan Bridge was completed and the north side tracks reopened. The <Q> express was discontinued and replaced with the in Brooklyn and in Manhattan to combine two weekday-only lines. The Q local remained unchanged. 2005–present: Extensions to Astoria and Second Avenue On June 28, 2010, the Q was extended from 57th Street–Seventh Avenue to Astoria–Ditmars Boulevard via the 60th Street Tunnel and BMT Astoria Line on weekdays, stopping at 49th Street. The extended Q replaced the , which was discontinued due to budget shortfalls. On December 7, 2014, late night Q service began operating local in Manhattan between 57th Street and Canal Street in order to decrease waiting time at the local stations. On November 7, 2016, weekday Q service was cut back from Astoria to 57th Street–Seventh Avenue, skipping 49th Street, to provide a seamless transition for the opening of the Second Avenue Subway. Service to Astoria and the 49th Street station was replaced by the restored W service. On January 1, 2017, the first phase of the Second Avenue Subway opened; the Q was extended from 57th Street–Seventh Avenue to 96th Street via the BMT 63rd Street Line and the IND Second Avenue Line. This extension serves Lexington Avenue–63rd Street station with a cross-platform transfer to the IND 63rd Street Line (served by the ) before serving new stations under Second Avenue at 72nd Street, 86th Street, and 96th Street, where it originates/terminates. The inaugural train on the Second Avenue Line ran on December 31, 2016, with passenger service beginning the next day. From January 1 to 9, 2017, service between 57th Street and 96th Street ran only from 6 a.m. to 10 p.m., with late-night service terminating at 57th Street; late night service to 96th Street began on January 9. Future The second phase of the Second Avenue Line will extend the Q to a new northern terminal at Harlem–125th Street, with planned stops at 116th Street and 106th Street. At the Harlem–125th Street terminus, there will be a transfer to the existing 125th Street station on the IRT Lexington Avenue Line and a connection to Harlem–125th Street station on Metro-North Railroad. This will provide residents of East Harlem with direct subway service via Second Avenue and Broadway to the Upper East Side, western Midtown, Lower Manhattan and Brooklyn, and offer connections to and Metro-North from the Bronx, the northern suburbs of New York City, and southern Connecticut. Route Service pattern The following table shows the lines used by the Q, with shaded boxes indicating the route at the specified times: Stations For a more detailed station listing, see the articles on the lines listed above. References External links MTA NYC Transit – Q Broadway Express New York City Subway services

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tories%20%28British%20political%20party%29

Tories (British political party)

The Tories were a loosely organised political faction and later a political party, in the Parliaments of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. They first emerged during the 1679 Exclusion Crisis, when they opposed Whig efforts to exclude James, Duke of York from the succession on the grounds of his Catholicism. Despite their fervent opposition to state-sponsored Catholicism, Tories opposed exclusion in the belief inheritance based on birth was the foundation of a stable society. After the succession of George I in 1714, the Tories were excluded from government for nearly 50 years and ceased to exist as an organised political entity in the early 1760s, although it was used as a term of self-description by some political writers. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. The Whigs won control of Parliament in the 1831 election, which was fought largely on the issue of electoral reform. The Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, many of which were controlled by Tories and they were reduced to 175 MPs in the 1832 elections. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, who issued a policy document known as the Tamworth Manifesto, the Tories began to transform into the Conservative Party. However, his repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 caused the party to break apart; the faction led by Derby and Benjamin Disraeli became the modern Conservative Party, whose members are still commonly referred to as Tories. Name The Tories were originally known as the Court Party. As a political term, Tory was an insult (derived from the Middle Irish word , modern Irish , meaning "outlaw", "robber", from the Irish word , meaning "pursuit" since outlaws were "pursued men") that entered English politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678–1681. Whig (from whiggamore, a "cattle driver") was initially a Scottish insult for the Covenanter faction in Scotland who opposed the Engagers (a faction who supported Charles I during the Second English Civil War) and supported the Whiggamore Raid that took place in September 1648. While the Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of James, the Duke of York from the succession to thrones of Scotland, England and Ireland (the Petitioners), the Tories were those who opposed the Exclusion Bill (the Abhorrers). In 1757, David Hume wrote: History English Civil War The first Tory party traces its principles and politics to the English Civil War which divided England between the Cavalier (supporters of King Charles I) or Roundhead (the supporters of the Long Parliament upon which the King had declared war). This action resulted from the Parliament not allowing him to levy taxes without yielding to its terms. At the beginning of the Long Parliament (1641), the King's supporters pursued a course of reform of previous abuses. The increasing radicalism of the Parliamentary majority, however, estranged many reformers even in the Parliament itself and drove them to make common cause with the King. The King's party was thus a mixture of supporters of royal autocracy and of those Parliamentarians who felt that the Long Parliament had gone too far in attempting to gain executive power for itself and, more specifically, in undermining the episcopalian government of the Church of England, which was felt to be a primary support of royal government. By the end of the 1640s, the radical Parliamentary programme had become clear: reduction of the King to a powerless figurehead and replacement of Anglican episcopacy with a form of Presbyterianism. This prospective form of settlement was prevented by a coup d'état which shifted power from Parliament itself to the Parliamentary New Model Army, controlled by Oliver Cromwell. The Army had King Charles I executed and for the next 11 years the British kingdoms operated under military dictatorship. The Restoration of King Charles II produced a reaction in which the King regained a large part of the power held by his father. However, Charles' ministers and supporters in England accepted a substantial role for Parliament in the government of the kingdoms. No subsequent British monarch would attempt to rule without Parliament, and after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, political disputes would be resolved through elections and parliamentary manoeuvring, rather than by an appeal to force. Charles II also restored episcopacy in the Church of England. His first Cavalier Parliament began as a strongly royalist body, and passed a series of acts re-establishing the Church by law and strongly punishing dissent by both Roman Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants. These acts did not reflect the King's personal views and demonstrated the existence of a Royalist ideology beyond mere subservience to the Court. A series of disasters in the late 1660s and 1670s discredited Charles II's governments, and powerful political interests (including some who had been identified with the Parliamentary side in the Civil War) began to agitate for a greater role of Parliament in government, coupled with more tolerance for Protestant dissenters. These interests would soon coalesce as the Whigs. As direct attacks on the King were politically impossible and could lead to execution for treason, opponents of the power of the Court framed their challenges as exposés of subversive and sinister Catholic plots. Although the matter of these plots was fictitious, they reflected two uncomfortable political realities: first, that Charles II had (somewhat insincerely) undertaken measures to convert the kingdom to Catholicism (in a 1670 treaty with Louis XIV of France); second, that his younger brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, had in fact converted to Catholicism, an act that many Protestant Englishmen in the 1670s saw as only one step below high treason. The Whigs tried to link the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of Ormonde, with the foremost Irish Tory, Redmond O'Hanlon, in a supposed plot to murder Titus Oates. The Whig Bishop of Meath, Henry Jones, offered O'Hanlon a pardon and a bribe if he would testify to Parliament that Ormonde was plotting a French invasion. In December 1680, the government seized these letters and the plan collapsed. In January 1681, the Whigs first began calling the supposed Irish plotters Tories, and on 15 February 1681 is recorded the first complaint from an English Royalist about the epithet Tory by the anti-Exclusion newspaper Heraclitus Ridens: "[T]hey call me scurvy names, Jesuit, Papish, Tory; and flap me over the mouth with their being the only True Protestants". Within a few months, anti-Exclusionists were calling themselves Tories and a northern Dissenter called Oliver Heywood recorded in October: "Ms. H. of Chesterfield told me a gentleman was at their house and had a red Ribband in his hat, she askt him what it meant, he said it signifyed that he was a Tory, whats that sd she, he ans. an Irish Rebel, — oh dreadful that any in England dare espouse that interest. I hear further since that this is the distinction they make instead of Cavalier and Roundhead, now they are called Torys and Wiggs". The Exclusion Crisis and the Glorious Revolution In a more general sense, the Tories (also known as the Court Party) represented the more conservative royalist supporters of Charles II, who endorsed a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the power of Parliament, and who saw in the Whig opponents of the Court a quasi-Republican tendency (similar to that seen in the Long Parliament) to strip the monarchy of its essential prerogative powers and leave the Crown as a puppet entirely dependent upon Parliament. That the Exclusion Bill was the central question upon which parties diverged, did not hinge upon an assessment of the personal character of the Duke of York (though his conversion to Catholicism was the key factor that made the Bill possible), but rather upon the power of Parliament to elect a monarch of its own choosing, contrary to the established laws of succession. That the Parliament, with the consent of the King, had such power was not at issue; rather, it was the wisdom of a policy of creating a King whose sole title to the Crown was the will of Parliament and who was essentially a Parliamentary appointee. On this original question, the Tories were in the short run entirely successful as the Parliaments that brought in the Exclusion Bill were dissolved, Charles II was enabled to manage the administration autocratically and upon his death the Duke of York succeeded without difficulty. The rebellion of Monmouth, the candidate of the radical Whigs to succeed Charles II, was easily crushed and Monmouth himself executed. However, in the long run Tory principles were to be severely compromised. Besides the support of a strong monarchy, the Tories also stood for the Church of England, as established in Acts of Parliament following the restoration of Charles II, both as a body governed by bishops, using the Book of Common Prayer whilst subscribing to a specific doctrine and also as an exclusive body established by law, from which both Roman Catholics and Nonconformists were excluded. During his reign, James II fought for a broadly tolerant religious settlement under which his co-religionists could prosper—a position anathema to conservative Anglicans. James' attempts to use the government-controlled church to promote policies that undermined the church's own unique status in the state led some Tories to support the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The result was a King established solely by parliamentary title and subject to legal controls established by Parliament, the principles that the Tories had originally abhorred. The Tories' sole consolation was that the monarchs chosen were close to the main line of succession as William III was James II's nephew and William's wife Mary was James's elder daughter. The Act of Toleration 1689 also gave rights to Protestant dissenters that were hitherto unknown, while the elimination of a large number of bishops who refused to swear allegiance to the new monarchs allowed the government to pack the episcopate with bishops with decidedly Whiggish leanings. In both these respects the Tory platform had failed, but the institutions of monarchy and of a state Church survived. Balanced ministries and opposition Despite the failure of their founding principles, the Tories remained a powerful political party during the reigns of the next two monarchs, particularly that of Queen Anne. During this time, the Tories fiercely competed with the Whigs for power, and there were frequent Parliamentary elections in which the two parties measured their strength. William III saw that the Tories were generally more friendly to royal authority than the Whigs, and he employed both groups in his government. His early ministry was largely Tory, but the government gradually came to be dominated by the so-called Junto Whigs. This tight-knit political grouping was opposed by the Country Whigs led by Robert Harley, who gradually merged with the Tory opposition in the later 1690s. Although William's successor Anne had considerable Tory sympathies and excluded the Junto Whigs from power, after a brief and unsuccessful experiment with an exclusively Tory government she generally continued William's policy of balancing the parties, supported by her moderate Tory ministers, the Duke of Marlborough and Lord Godolphin. The stresses of the War of the Spanish Succession which begun in 1701 led most of the Tories to withdraw into opposition by 1708, so that Marlborough and Godolphin were heading an administration dominated by the Junto Whigs. Anne herself grew increasingly uncomfortable with this dependence on the Whigs, especially as her personal relationship with the Duchess of Marlborough deteriorated. This situation also became increasingly uncomfortable to many of the non-Junto Whigs, led by the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Shrewsbury, who began to intrigue with Robert Harley's Tories. In early 1710, the prosecution by the Whig government of the ultra-Tory preacher Henry Sacheverell for sermons delivered the previous year, led to the Sacheverell riots and brought the ministry into popular discredit. In the spring of 1710, Anne dismissed Godolphin and the Junto ministers, replacing them with Tories. The new Tory ministry was dominated by Harley, Chancellor of the Exchequer (later Lord Treasurer) and Viscount Bolingbroke, Secretary of State. They were backed by a strong majority in the Parliament elected in 1710, rallying under the banner of "Church in Danger". This Tory government negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which pulled Great Britain out of the War of the Spanish Succession (to the dismay of Britain's allies, including Anne's eventual successor, George, Elector of Hanover); the peace was enacted despite a Whig majority in the House of Lords, which Anne defeated by creating new Tory peers. Following a long disagreement between the ministers, Anne dismissed Harley in 1714. The arch-Tory Bolingbroke became in effect Anne's chief minister and Tory power seemed to be at its zenith. However, Anne was extremely ill and died within a few days. Bolingbroke had not been able to formulate any coherent plans for dealing with the succession, for if he thought of proclaiming the son of James II (the Pretender) king, he made no moves to do so. The Elector George succeeded to the throne entirely peacefully, supported by the Hanoverian Tory grouping. Proscription and the Whig supremacy In accordance with Succession to the Crown Act 1707, the Queen's government was replaced by a Council of Regency until the new King should arrive from Hanover. Bolingbroke offered his services to the King but was coldly rejected; George I brought in a government composed entirely of Whigs, and the new Parliament, elected from January to May 1715, had a large Whig majority. In December 1714 Lord Carnarvon wrote that "hardly one Tory is left in any place, though never so mean a one". The historian Eveline Cruickshanks stated that "[w]hat took place in 1715 was not a change to an all-Whig ministry, it was a whole social revolution". For the first time, Tory gentlemen could no longer employ their sons, as they traditionally had done, in public offices such as the Army, Navy, civil service and the Church. Tory officers in the Army had their commissions taken away, Tory lawyers could not now become judges or K.C.s. The predominantly Tory lower Anglican clergy could no longer become bishops and Tory merchants were refused government contracts or directorships in any major company. This proscription lasted for forty-five years. George Lyttelton wrote in his Letter to the Tories (1747): We are kept out of all public employments of power and profit, and live like aliens and pilgrims in the land of our nativity; [...] no quality, no fortune, no eloquence, no learning, no wisdom, no probity is of any use to any man of our unfortunate denomination, ecclesiastic or layman, lawyer or soldier, peer or commoner, for obtaining the most deserved advancement in his profession, or any favour of the Crown; whilst, to our additional and insupportable vexation, the bare merit of hating us, and everything we love and hold sacred, daily advances dunces in the law and church, cowards in our fleets and armies, republicans in the King's house, and idiots everywhere! The Whig government, backed by royal favour and controlling the levers of power, was able to maintain a series of majorities through the infrequent elections of the next several decades (only 7 in the 46 years of the first two Georges, as opposed to 11 in the 26 years from the Revolution to the death of Queen Anne). For much of the period, the Tories commanded a broad base of support in rural England, but the relatively undemocratic nature of the franchise and the maldistribution of the borough seats ensured that this popular appeal was never translated into a Tory majority in Parliament. The Tories would have won every general election between 1715 and 1747 had the number of seats obtained corresponded to the number of votes cast. The Tories were, therefore, an effectively null factor in practical politics, a permanent minority in Parliament and entirely excluded from government. The latter exclusion, and the rigid party politics played by the Whigs, played a significant role in the cohesion of the Tories; the Whigs offered few opportunities for Tories who switched sides, and as a party the Tories found no possibilities for compromise with the Whigs. The proscription of the Tories alienated them from the Hanoverian regime and converted many of them to Jacobitism. Bolingbroke later wrote: "If milder measures had been pursued, certain it is that the Tories had never universally embraced Jacobitism. The violence of the Whigs forced them into the arms of the Pretender". In October 1714, the French ambassador Charles-François d'Iberville noted that the number of Jacobites in the Tory party was increasing and in early 1715 he wrote that the Tories seemed to be "heading for civil war which they regard as their only resort". The former Tory chief minister, Lord Oxford, was impeached and sent to the Tower, with Bolingbroke and the Tory peer the Duke of Ormonde fleeing to France to join the Pretender. A series of riots against the coronation of George I and the new Hanoverian-Whig regime (in which the mob voiced their support for Jacobitism and local Tory parliamentary candidates) led to the Whig government strengthening their power by passing the Riot Act, suspending habeas corpus and increasing the army (including by importing 6,000 Dutch troops). Louis XIV had promised them arms but no troops, as France was exhausted by war, despite Bolingbroke's claim that just one-tenth of the number of troops William of Orange brought with him in 1688 would have sufficed. However, this promise of arms disappeared when Louis died in September 1715. The conspirators intended to abandon the rising they had planned for the West Country, but the Scots forced their hand by unilaterally raising the Pretender's standard. One of Ormonde's agents betrayed the plans for an English rising and subsequently the government arrested many Tory MPs, ex MPs and peers. The subsequent Jacobite rebellion of 1715–16 resulted in failure. However, Charles XII of Sweden was willing to aid the English Tories by sending troops to put the Pretender on the throne, in conjunction with an English rising. Lord Oxford, who had already in 1716 offered the Pretender his services, directed the Swedish Plot from the Tower. In January 1717, the government discovered this plot and won a vote of credit for defence measures against the projected invasion in the Commons against Tory opposition. Charles' death in 1718 ended hopes from that quarter and Ormonde's planned Spanish invasion was destroyed by a storm at sea. During the Whig Split of 1717, the Tories refused to back either side and adopted the same stance to Lord Sunderland's overtures in 1720. Nonetheless, their combined efforts helped the opposition win some victories, such as the defeat of the Peerage Bill in 1719. In 1722, Sunderland advised the King to admit leading Tories into government, thereby dividing them and ending their hopes for revenge by looking for support from abroad. He also advised the King in Cabinet that elections to Parliament should be free from government bribery, an idea Sir Robert Walpole opposed due to the possibility of the election of a Tory Parliament. The King was also opposed: "King George stared the Earl of Sunderland in the face at the name of a Tory Parliament, for it seems nothing is so hideous and frightful to him as a Tory". The public outcry over the South Sea Bubble led the Tories to believe that it would not be worthwhile raising funds for the general election, as they considered a Jacobite rising would be successful considering the state of public opinion. Sunderland joined the Tories in the Atterbury Plot, in which the Pretender was to be put on the throne. A rising was planned for each county, assisted by Irish and Spanish troops. However, Sunderland's death in April 1722 led to the government discovering the plot and it subsequently collapsed. When the Commons voted on the bill of pains and penalties against Atterbury, nearly ninety per cent of Tory MPs voted against it. Although the Whig Prime Minister Robert Walpole decided not to prosecute those Tories that he knew were involved in the plot, the Tories were demoralised and largely absented themselves from Parliament for a time. Upon the accession of George II in 1727 and the ensuing general election, the Tories were reduced to 128 MPs, their lowest total up to this point. The Tories were divided over whether to cooperate with the opposition Whigs against Walpole, with those in favour consisting of the Hanoverian faction led by Sir William Wyndham and with those opposed making up the Jacobite faction headed by William Shippen. Most Tories opposed voting with the opposition Whigs, only reversing this stance when the Pretender sent a letter to the Tories in 1730, ordering them to "unite in the measures against the Government and even with those who oppose it for different views than theirs". For the next decade, the Tories cooperated with the opposition Whigs against Walpole. Public admission of Jacobitism was treason, so the Tories challenged the Hanoverian-Whig regime without specifically addressing it by developing a rhetoric borrowed from the Whigs of the Exclusion Crisis; they denounced government corruption and the high taxation needed to spend on foreign entanglements, opposed the growth of the Army and denounced "tyranny" and "arbitrary power". In a speech on the Army estimates, Walpole claimed that "No man of common prudence will profess himself openly a Jacobite; by so doing he not only may injure his private fortune, but he must render himself less able to do any effectual service to the cause he has embraced...Your right Jacobite, Sir, disguises his true sentiments, he roars out for revolution principles; he pretends to be a great friend to liberty". He further claimed that a large Army was needed to defeat any possible Jacobite invasion. In 1737, Frederick, Prince of Wales applied to Parliament for an increased allowance. This split the Tories, with 45 abstaining, leading to the motion being defeated by 30 votes. Bolingbroke, who wanted to dissociate the Tories from Jacobitism, denounced this as "the absurd behaviour of the Tories, which no experience can cure". In 1738 Frederick's attempts to reconcile with the Tories broke down on Wyndham's insistence that he join the Tories in favouring a reduced Army. With the outbreak of war against Spain in 1739, there was renewed plotting amongst Tories for a Jacobite rising. Wyndham's death in 1740 led to the breakdown of the coalition between the Tories and opposition Whigs. An opposition Whig motion for Walpole's dismissal was defeated by 290 to 106, with many Tories abstaining. At the general election of 1741, there were 136 Tories elected. The Tories resumed their cooperation with the opposition Whigs after receiving another letter from the Pretender in September 1741, ordering them to "pursue vigorous and unanimous measures in the next session of Parliament. [...] They will probably have many occasions of greatly distressing the present Government and ministry and perhaps find some who will concur with them in that, though not out of goodwill to my cause. [...] In such cases I hope my friends will make no scruples in joining heartily with them for whatever their particular motives may be anything that tends to the disadvantage of the present Government and to the bringing it into confusion cannot be but of advantage to my cause". As a result, 127 Tories joined the opposition Whigs in successfully voting against Walpole's nominated chairman of the elections committee in December 1741. The Tories continued to vote against Walpole with the opposition Whigs in subsequent divisions until Walpole was forced to resign in February 1742. The Pretender wrote to the Tories afterwards, declaring: "I cannot delay any longer expressing to you my satisfaction at the late behaviour of my friends in Parliament, and I take it as a great mark of their singular regard for what I wrote to you some months ago". In 1743, war broke out between Britain and France, as part of the larger War of the Austrian Succession. Later that year Francis Sempill, the Pretender's representative at the French court, carried a message from English Tories to the French Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (Jean-Jacques Amelot de Chaillou) requesting French help for a Stuart restoration (including 10,000 French soldiers). It was signed by the Duke of Beaufort (one of the four richest people in Britain), Lord Barrymore, Lord Orrery, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, Sir John Hynde Cotton and Sir Robert Abdy. Amelot replied that the French government would need considerable proof of English support for Jacobitism before it could act. James Butler, Louis XV's Master of Horse, toured England ostensibly for purchasing bloodstock but in reality to gauge the health of Jacobitism in England, visiting leading Tories. Before he left for England. the French king briefed him personally to assure Tory leaders that all of their demands would be met. In November 1743 Amelot told Sempill officially that Louis XV was resolved to restore the House of Stuart and that he was planning a French invasion headed by the Pretender's son, Charles Edward Stuart. The "Declaration of King James" (written by Tory leaders) was signed by the Pretender on 23 December. This was to be published in the event of a successful French landing. However, the Whig government was informed by a spy of the intended French invasion and King George told Parliament on 15 February 1744 that a French invasion was planned, assisted by "disaffected persons from this country". The House of Commons passed a loyal address by 287 to 123. The Tories' insistence for the House to divide on this occasion seemed to the government a design by the Tories "to show the French what numbers in the House they might depend on". The Tories also opposed increasing the armed forces, it being noted "that none of the leaders amongst the Tories, either on this occasion or that of the King's first message, showed the least sign of zeal or affection to the Government". On 24 February, a storm scattered the French invasion fleet and suspected Jacobites were arrested, leading to the French government cancelling their planned invasion. Charles Stuart, who was still in France and determined to start a Jacobite rising, looked to Scotland. However, the English Tories would only support a rising in Scotland if accompanied by a French invasion near London to aid the English Tories in their own rising. The English Tories repeatedly told the Jacobite court that only regular soldiers invading at the same time as their rising could achieve a Stuart restoration. In December 1744, the Broadbottom Administration was formed, which included a handful of Tories in minor offices. Some other Tories were offered places, but that serving for Jacobite counties "could not hazard a new election and therefore decline[d] the acceptance of them". One of the Tories who accepted office, Sir John Cotton, did not swear the oath of loyalty to King George and informed the French King that he still favoured a Jacobite French invasion; he added that the Tories in office would try to ensure that more British soldiers were sent to Flanders from England in order to help a French invasion. After Lord Gower took office in this government, the Tories no longer looked to him as their leader as Lyttleton wrote that "when it was discovered that Gower was really a friend to the Hanover succession, the Tories discarded him for being their leader, and adopted a determined Jacobite the Duke of Beaufort in his stead". In June 1745, the Tory leaders in the Commons, Wynn and Cotton (together with Beaufort), informed the Jacobite court that "if the Prince [Charles] lands in present circumstances with ten battalions or even smaller body of troops there will be no opposition". Tory leaders sent Robert MacCarty to France with a request for 10,000 troops and 30,000 arms to be landed in England, where they would join them upon arrival. Charles travelled to Scotland in July without consulting the Tories or the French and without a sizeable body of troops. After his landing, Sempill wrote: "The City of London, Sir John Hynde Cotton, Lord Barrymore, the Duke of Beaufort, and all the English cry loudly and vehemently for a body of troops to be landed near London, as the most effectual means to support the Prince". They could not rise for the Prince without "a body of troops to support them", but they "would join the Prince if His Highness could force his way to them". Throughout the Jacobite rising of 1745, Charles could not establish contact with the English Tories. Captain Nagle, who had visited a peer in London, reported in December that they were all being monitored by the government, but that they would declare for Charles if he made his way to London or if the French invaded. However, Charles retreated from England and the French never landed, so the English Tories did not feel safe in coming out for the Pretender. After the collapse of the rising, Charles' captured secretary, John Murray of Broughton, informed the government of the Tories' conspiracy with the Pretender. The government decided not to prosecute them. The trial of the Scottish rebel lords in London was boycotted by most Tory peers. After the Duke of Cumberland's brutal suppression of the Scots, English Tories adopted the plaid as their symbol. Eveline Cruickshanks in her study of the 1715-1754 Tory party for The History of Parliament, claimed that "the available evidence leaves no doubt that up to 1745 the Tories were a predominantly Jacobite party, engaged in attempts to restore the Stuarts by a rising with foreign assistance". Sir Lewis Namier noticed that for the reigns of George I and George II, Tory family papers are non-existent. As papers from before 1715 and after 1760 survive, Cruickshanks contends that these families were hiding their Jacobite leanings by destroying incriminating papers. A nineteenth-century historian who had examined many collections such as these, claimed that it was "the custom in Jacobite days to destroy all letters with any hint of political or religious feeling in them". However, some historians (such as Linda Colley) have questioned the Tories' commitment to Jacobitism. In 2016, Frank O'Gorman noted that given the nature of the evidence, it is unlikely that the question will ever be answered, but added that "judged by the acid test of how they behaved in the '15 and '45 most Tories showed themselves to be Hanoverian and not Jacobite". In 1747, Prince Frederick invited the Tories "to unite and coalesce with him" and declared his intention that when he became King, he would "abolish...all distinction of the party" and put an end to the proscription of the Tories. A meeting of leading Tories (including Beaufort, Wynn and Cotton) accepted the Prince's offer and replied assuring him of their support for his "wise and salutary purposes". However, they refused to pledge themselves to a coalition with Whigs. The 1747 general election resulted in only 115 Tory MPs being elected, their lowest figure up until this point. After Jacobite riots in Oxford in 1748, the government wanted to give the King the power to nominate the Chancellor of the University of Oxford, which was considered a hotbed of Jacobitism and Toryism. Thomas Carte wrote to the Pretender that "the attempt against the university of Oxford brought them all up at once to town, which nothing else would, and in their zeal on that account, they entered into a sort of coalition with Prince Frederick's party to stand by the university of Oxford, to join in opposing all unconstitutional points, but to be under no obligation to visit Prince Frederick's court, nor unite in other points". After Wynn's death in 1749, a Jacobite agent reported to the Pretender that the Tory party was "without a head", dispirited and frightened. In 1751 Frederick died, followed in 1752 by Cotton. This effectively ended opposition in Parliament for the rest of the session. Horace Walpole, in his memoirs for 1764, wrote of the decline of the Tory party: Hitherto it might be said that the two parties of Whig and Tory still subsisted; though Jacobitism, the concealed mother of the latter, was extinct...The subsequent contests were rather a struggle for power than the settled animosity of two parties, though the body of Opposition still called itself Whig, an appellation rather dropped than disclaimed by the Court; and though the real Tories still adhered to their own distinctions while they secretly favoured, sometimes opposed, the Court, and fluctuated accordingly as they esteemed particular chiefs not of their connection or had the more agreeable opportunity of distressing those who supported the cause of freedom. As their whole conduct was comprised in silent votes, and never was considerable enough to turn a single scale in the political changes, I shall seldom mention them anymore. Friends of Mr Pitt Dickinson reports the following: All historians are agreed that the Tory party declined sharply in the late 1740s and 1750s and that it ceased to be an organized party by 1760. The research of Sir Lewis Namier and his disciples [...] has convinced all historians that there were no organized political parties in Parliament between the late 1750s and the early 1780s. Even the Whigs ceased to be an identifiable party, and Parliament was dominated by competing political connections, which all proclaimed Whiggish political views, or by independent backbenchers unattached to any particular group. Upon the accession of George III, the old political distinctions dissolved. The Whig factions became in effect distinct parties (such as the Grenvillites and the Bedfordites), all of whom claimed the Whig mantle, while the material distinction in politics was between the "King's Friends" who supported the newly activist role of George III in government, and those who opposed the king. The proscription on the employment of Tories in government offices ended, which resulted in the Tories dividing into several factions and ceasing to function as a coherent political party. Sentimental Toryism remained, as in the writings of Samuel Johnson, but in politics "Tory" was little more than an unfriendly epithet for politicians closely identified with George III. The label "Tory" was in this sense applied to the Prime Ministers Lord Bute (1762–1763) and Lord North (1770–1782), but these politicians considered themselves Whigs. In his study of the debates in Parliament for 1768–1774, PDG Thomas discovered that not a single politician labelled themselves a Tory. JCD Clark similarly argues: "The history of the Tory party in parliament between the early 1760s and the late 1820s may be simply written: it did not exist". Applied by their opponents to parliamentary supporters of the younger William Pitt (1783–1801, 1804–1806), the term Tories came to represent the political current opposed to the Old Whigs and the radicalism unleashed by the American and French Revolutions. This was reinforced by the breakup of the Whig party in 1794 when the conservative group led by the Duke of Portland joined Pitt's ministry, leaving an opposition rump led by Charles James Fox. The historian JCD Clark has written of the 1790s: "It cannot be too clearly stressed that no public figure at that date accepted the title 'Tory', and that they had the best reasons for denying its appropriateness". Pitt rejected the Tory label, preferring to refer to himself as an independent Whig, for he believed in the current constitutional arrangement as being well balanced, without particular favour towards the royal prerogative, unlike the Tories of the first half of the 18th century. The group surrounding Pitt the Younger came to be the dominant force in British politics from 1783 until 1830 and, after Pitt's death (1806), the ministers in the Portland ministry (1807–1809) called themselves the "Friends of Mr Pitt" rather than Tories. Portland's successor, Spencer Perceval (Prime Minister, 1809–1812), never adopted the label of Tory and, after his assassination in 1812, the members of the government of Lord Liverpool (1812–1827) firmly rejected it in a ministerial memorandum to the Prince Regent: It is almost unnecessary to observe that the British Government had for more than a century been and could only be a Whig Government; and that the present administration is, as every administration in this country must necessarily be, a Whig administration. For a Whig Government means now, as it has all along meant, nothing else than a Government established by laws equally binding upon the King and the subject. Generally, the Tories were associated with lesser gentry, the Church of England and the Episcopal Church in Scotland while Whigs were more associated with trade, money, larger land holders or land magnates and the Nonconformist Protestant churches. Both were still committed to the political system in place at that time. The new Tory party was distinct both in composition and ideological orientation from the old. It consisted largely of former Whigs, alienated from the party that now bore that name. While it maintained a sentimental and conservative respect for the symbolic institutions of the British monarchy, in practice Tory ministries allowed the King no more freedom than Whig ones. The incompetence of George III's personal interventions in policy had been sufficiently shown in the American War (1775–1783), henceforward his active role was limited to negations of government policies such as the Catholic emancipation. In foreign policy, the differences were even more marked as the old Tory party had been pacific and isolationist whereas the new one was bellicose and imperialistic. Conservative Party The Tories became associated with repression of popular discontent after 1815, but the Tories later underwent a fundamental transformation under the influence of Robert Peel, who was an industrialist rather than a landowner. Peel in his 1834 Tamworth Manifesto outlined a new conservative philosophy of reforming ills while conserving the good. The subsequent Peel administrations have been labelled Conservative rather than Tory, but the older term remains in use. When the Conservative Party split in 1846 on the issue of free trade, the protectionist wing of the party rejected the Conservative label. They preferred to be known as Protectionists or even to revive the older Tory as an official name. By 1859 the Peelites (Peel's Conservative supporters) joined the Whigs and Radicals to form the Liberal Party. The remaining Tories, under the leadership of the Earl of Derby (a former Whig) and Disraeli (once a Radical candidate for Parliament), adopted the Conservative label as the official name of their party. Electoral performance Note that the results for 1661–1708 are England only. References Citations Works cited Further reading Black, Jeremy (1984). Britain in the Age of Walpole. Bulmer-Thomas, Ivor (1967). The Growth of the British Party System: 1640-1923. Vol. 1. John Baker. Colley, Linda (1985). In Defiance of Oligarchy: The Tory Party 1714-60. (Cambridge University Press. Feiling, Keith (1938). The Second Tory Party, 1714-1832. London: Macmillan. Feiling, Keith (1950). A History of the Tory Party, 1640-1714. Clarendon Press. O'Gorman, Frank (1989). Voters, Patrons, and Parties: The Unreformed Electoral System of Hanoverian England 1734-1832. (Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links 1678 establishments in England 1678 in politics 1834 disestablishments in England Centre-right parties in the United Kingdom Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom Jacobitism Politics of the Kingdom of Great Britain Political parties established in 1678 Political parties disestablished in 1834 Right-wing parties in the United Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMT%20Brighton%20Line

BMT Brighton Line

The BMT Brighton Line, also known as the Brighton Beach Line, is a rapid transit line in the B Division of the New York City Subway in Brooklyn, New York City, United States. Local service is provided at all times by the Q train, but is joined by the B express train on weekdays. The Q train runs the length of the entire line from Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue to the Manhattan Bridge south tracks. The B begins at Brighton Beach and runs via the bridge's north tracks. The line first opened in 1878 as a two-track surface-level excursion railroad called the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway, transporting riders from Downtown Brooklyn via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) to the seaside resorts at Coney Island. When its connection with the LIRR was severed in 1883, the line became the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad, which was eventually acquired by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT, later Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation [BMT]). From 1903 to 1908, all of the original line's grade crossings were eliminated; This project also widened the line from two to four tracks from Church Avenue to Sheepshead Bay; From 1918 to 1920 the portion of original open-cut right-of-way from Church Avenue to Prospect Park station was widened to four tracks and a new subway alignment was built north of the Prospect Park station. The northern part of the original line became the modern-day BMT Franklin Avenue Line, which still runs today. In subsequent years, numerous improvements were made to the Brighton Line. History Origins The Brighton Line opened from the Willink Plaza entrance of Prospect Park (modern intersection of Flatbush and Ocean Avenues and Empire Boulevard, now the Prospect Park station on both the renamed Brighton and the Franklin Avenue Shuttle lines) to Brighton Beach (modern Coney Island Avenue at the shoreline) on July 2, 1878, and the full original line on August 18. It was an excursion railroad — the Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railway — to bring beachgoers from downtown Brooklyn (via a connection with the Long Island Rail Road) to the seashore at Coney Island on the Atlantic Ocean, at a location named Brighton Beach at the same time the railroad arrived. It has been known since its opening as the Brighton Beach Line but is now described as the Brighton Line in MTA literature and in public usage. After losing its connection with the Long Island Rail Road in 1883, the railroad fell on hard times, reorganizing as the Brooklyn and Brighton Beach Railroad. Seeking a new route for its excursion business and its local trade in communities along the way, it formed an agreement with the Kings County Elevated Railway to connect to its Fulton Street Line, which gave access to the new Brooklyn Bridge and Manhattan passengers. This was accomplished in 1896. A series of mergers and leases put the Brighton Beach Line in the hands of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company (BRT), a holding company which eventually controlled most of the rapid transit, streetcar, and bus lines in Brooklyn and part of Queens. The line was electrified with trolley wire and, for a time, trolleys from several surface routes and elevated trains operated together on the line. The BRT was reorganized as the Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation (BMT) in 1923. In 1940, the BMT was purchased by the City of New York, and operation passed to the city's Board of Transportation, which already operated the city-built Independent Subway System (IND). The original line was a two-tracked high-speed surface steam railroad operating from Bedford Station, at Atlantic Avenue near Franklin Avenue in the City of Brooklyn, at which point it made a physical connection to the Long Island Rail Road's Atlantic Branch. From Bedford the line ran on a surface private right-of-way several blocks south to Park Place, which it crossed at grade, and then in an open cut with street overpasses through what is now Crown Heights and Flatbush, as far as Church Lane (now Church Avenue) in the Town and Village of Flatbush. From that point the line continued on the surface to a point at current Beverley Road between Marlborough Road (East 15th Street) and East 16th Street, curving southeast and running on the surface between the lines of the latter streets through the Towns of Flatbush and Gravesend to Sheepshead Bay, then turning southerly to reach the beach at Brighton Beach on Coney Island in the Town of Gravesend. The line was extended westward from Brighton Beach in 1903, so that it could terminate with the former Prospect Park and Coney Island Railroad at Culver Depot in Coney Island. Passengers, with this short extension, were given access to the developing area of Coney Island. The Culver Depot became the center of operations for the Culver Line and the Brighton Beach Line. Grade crossing eliminations, 1903–1908 and 1918–1920 In 1903, the New York State Legislature created the Brooklyn Grade Crossing Elimination Commission (BGCEC) to eliminate all grade crossings on the Brighton Beach Line and the Bay Ridge Line of the Long Island Rail Road. The city was supposed to cover half of the costs, not exceeding $1 million, while the railroads were to cover the other half of the costs. The work started on December 30, 1905, and was completed in 1908. A short piece of two-tracked elevated railroad was built from the ramp connecting to the Fulton Street Elevated as far as Park Place, where the original 1878 open cut began. From the end of that original cut south of Church Avenue, the line was wholly rebuilt as a four-track railroad with express and local stations to a point south of Neptune Avenue at the border of Coney Island, continuing along its original right-of-way to Brighton Beach station. The portion from Church Avenue to Avenue H was placed in a depressed open cut, while the portion from Avenue H to south of Sheepshead Bay was raised onto an earthen embankment, primarily with earth excavated from the open-cut portion and from the Bay Ridge Improvement of the Long Island Rail Road. The separation of the railroad grade allowed the line's trolley wire north of Sheepshead Bay to be replaced with ground-level third rail. The work by the BGCEC left the line between Park Place and Church Avenue in substantially its original condition from steam railroad days. Between 1918 and 1920, however, further work rebuilt the portion between Prospect Park and Church Avenue as a four-track line. At the same time, the remaining portion of the line south of Neptune Avenue was replaced with a four-track elevated structure, including a four- to six-track elevated line extension, connecting the Brighton Line to the new Coney Island terminal at Surf and Stillwell Avenues. This same work rerouted mainline Brighton Beach trains from the Fulton Street elevated line via a new deep tunnel under Flatbush Avenue to connect to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line at DeKalb Avenue station, where trains could access the new BMT Broadway subway. This work was done as a part of the Dual Contracts. A spur south of Neck Road, which split to Sheepshead Bay Race Track, was in use from 1909 to around 1929. The single-track spur was part of the Long Island Rail Road's Manhattan Beach Branch, and it ran at street level to Ocean Avenue between Avenues X and Y, where it terminated at a six-track terminal. Brighton–Franklin Line The St. Felix Street and Flatbush Avenue Connection opened on August 1, 1920, providing direct service between the Brighton Line and midtown Manhattan. With the opening of the connection, the original portion of the line between the Fulton Street Elevated and the link to the new subway at Prospect Park became a secondary line, known as Brighton–Franklin, and now known as the BMT Franklin Avenue Line. At times through services (including expresses) operated on mainline Brighton tracks to Coney Island. Some special weekend trains even operated beyond Coney Island back to Manhattan via the BMT Sea Beach Line express tracks and the BMT Fourth Avenue Subway. This service was variously known as Franklin–Nassau and as the Coney Island Express, but its popular name was the "Sunny Sunday Summer Special," because it was only supposed to operate as needed on the hottest beach-going days. In Fiscal Year 1930, an additional control area with staircases to the platforms at Kings Highway were constructed, and additional stairs were added at Avenue M, Avenue U, and Avenue J. Through services gradually diminished on the Brighton–Franklin, and after 1963 it became a pure shuttle, operating between Franklin Avenue station at Fulton Street and Prospect Park station, where it connects with mainline Brighton Beach trains. During the era of route contraction from 1940 to about 1975, the Franklin Avenue Shuttle seemed a prime candidate for abandonment; its physical structure had been allowed to deteriorate and its service steadily curtailed. The New York City fiscal crisis of the '70s and the recession in 1990 contributed to plans to discontinue the line. By the 1990s the Franklin Avenue Shuttle was known as the "ghost train". It was shrunk in size to only two cars and the Dean Street station was closed. The entire line was under consideration for abandonment, but community pressure forced the MTA to rebuild rather than abandon the line, and as a result, most of the supporting infrastructure and stations were completely rehabilitated in 1998–1999 at a cost of $74 million and reopened in 1999. Platform extensions, track repairs, and Stillwell Avenue reconstruction On June 16, 1964, Mayor Robert F. Wagner Jr. approved the award of a $2,283,933 contract for the second phase of work to extend platforms along the Brighton Line. The platforms were to be lengthened to feet to accommodate a ten-car train of long IND cars, or a nine-car train of long BMT cars, instead of the existing 8-cars. The contract for the first phase of work had been let the previous year for the seven stations between Atlantic Avenue and Newkirk Avenue. The platform extensions at these stations were completed during the 1964–1965 fiscal year. The contract for the second phase called for the extension of platforms at the ten remaining stations on the line from Avenue H to Stillwell Avenue. Work on the second contract was still ongoing in 1965. Between April 26, 1986, and October 26, 1986, service was disrupted due to track repairs and other construction work along the line. The two local tracks were completely rebuilt between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue, in two phases, with the Manhattan-bound track rebuilt first between April and July, and the Brooklyn-bound track rebuilt between July and October. A temporary platform was built at Cortelyou Road while Beverley Road and Parkside Avenue were closed in one direction because temporary platforms could not be built at these locations. To reduce congestion, skip-stop service was implemented on weekdays, which lasted until 1988. From September 8, 2002, to May 23, 2004, service was suspended west of Brighton Beach due to allow rebuilding of the Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue terminal station, which had deteriorated due to the effects of salt water corrosion and deferred maintenance. Brighton Line Station Reconstruction Project In 2007, the MTA announced that it would reconstruct seven stations between Newkirk Avenue and Neck Road, inclusive. On December 8, 2008, the first phase of the Brighton Line Station Reconstruction Project began. The Coney Island-bound platforms at Avenue U and Neck Road were closed for rebuilding and all southbound trains ran on the express track from Kings Highway to Sheepshead Bay. On September 14, 2009, the second phase of the project involving all stations from Newkirk Plaza to Kings Highway began. Express B train service was suspended and all trains ran local in both directions for the next two years. Over the next two weeks, temporary platforms were placed on the Manhattan-bound express track at Kings Highway and Avenue J for southbound service. On September 28, the southbound platforms of Avenue H, Avenue J, Avenue M, and Kings Highway began rebuilding. South of Cortelyou Road, a single crossover connected the southbound local track with the express one and all southbound trains skipped Avenue H and Avenue M. On January 18, 2010, Coney Island-bound service was restored at Avenue U and Neck Road. The Manhattan-bound platforms were closed for rebuilding until October 25 and all northbound trains operated on the express track from Sheepshead Bay to Kings Highway. On September 13, Coney Island-bound service to Avenue H and Avenue M was restored and the two southbound tracks south of Cortelyou Road were separated. Over the next two weeks, the temporary platforms at Avenue J and Kings Highway were moved to the southbound express track and the two northbound tracks were connected to each other north of Newkirk Plaza. On September 27, the Manhattan-bound platforms of those three stations as well as Avenues H and M, which were then being bypassed, began rehabilitation and all northbound service was directed to the express track until Cortelyou Road. The platforms of all stations reopened on September 12, 2011, and B express service was restored on October 3. However, rehabilitation work that did not affect service continued until the end of the year. As part of the project, station platforms were replaced and widened, windscreens and canopies were replaced, station lighting was upgraded, new public address systems were installed, and new station agent booths were put into place. In addition, ADA-compliant elevators were installed at Kings Highway, the historic station house at Avenue H was restored, an additional southbound entrance was installed at Avenue H, and additional fare entrances were created to the northbound platform sections of the Avenue M and Avenue J stations. Service patterns The following services use part or all of the Brighton Line: Since 1920, the primary service on the line has been through to Manhattan rather than over the tracks now used by the Franklin Avenue Shuttle. Local service has run all the time, while express service has generally been provided during weekday rush hours and later middays. Until the 1960s, all service on the line north of Prospect Park was labeled 1. Standard local service ran through the Montague Street Tunnel and along the BMT Broadway Line local tracks; service instead crossed the Manhattan Bridge north tracks and ran express under Broadway during Broadway theatre hours (7:30 pm to midnight). Over the years, the local bridge service was expanded, and the local tunnel service ended up only from 6 am to 7 pm. Express service over the bridge to the Broadway express tracks, initially during rush hours, was also expanded to 6 am to 7 pm. The three patterns were assigned latter designations in the early 1960s: Q express via bridge, QT local via tunnel, and QB local via bridge. The Chrystie Street Connection opened in late 1967, and almost all Brighton Line trains were removed from Broadway. The Q and QB were both combined with the D on the IND Sixth Avenue Line, running express during the day and local at other times. The daytime QT local was combined with the Jamaica local and express (then #15) to form the QJ, running through the tunnel to the BMT Nassau Street Line, which also replaced the limited rush hour Brighton “Bankers’ Specials” to Nassau Street. The only Brighton-Broadway service was a new QB, with a limited number of runs in the peak direction at rush hours on the local Brighton and express Broadway tracks. There were also a limited number of NX trains from Brighton Beach via Coney Island and the Sea Beach express tracks, then up Broadway, a short-lived service that also attempted to compensate for the elimination of major Brighton/Broadway service. (The two QB services were distinct; the old QB had run at non-peak times; this new QB had the same name and almost the same route but was a different service.) The QJs Brighton section was replaced with an extension of the M in 1973. In 1985, the QB was renamed Q as the subway eliminated the double letter naming system for local routes. Reconstruction of the Manhattan Bridge subway tracks began, which would continue until 2004. Though the same general service patterns remained on the Brighton Line, all trains were sent over the bridge and onto the Broadway or Sixth Avenue Line, depending on which set of tracks was open. From 1986 to 1988, the south side (Broadway) was in service, and the D continued to serve the line at all times, the M was rerouted onto the BMT Fourth Avenue Line and Q service now also ran during middays. Because of the concurrent track and infrastructure repairs on the Brighton Line, express service was suspended for two years. As tracks between Prospect Park and Newkirk Avenue were rebuilt, the D and Q provided skip-stop service between Newkirk Avenue and Sheepshead Bay on weekdays. D trains served Neck Road, Avenue M and Avenue H; the Q skipped those stops, serving Avenue U and Avenue J, while both trains served Kings Highway. By 1987, as the line's reconstruction progressed, the weekday skip-stop pattern expanded to Prospect Park, with D trains serving Beverley Road while Q trains served Cortelyou Road and Parkside Avenue, with Church Avenue as a mutual station. On December 11, 1988, the Bridge's north (Sixth Avenue) tracks reopened; at this time, the skip-stop pattern was eliminated, and the D became a full-time local service to Stillwell Avenue, while the Q ran express on weekdays to Brighton Beach. Both trains ran via Sixth Avenue Express. From April 30 to November 12, 1995, the Manhattan Bridge fully closed during middays and weekends. D service in Brooklyn was suspended during these hours; the Q replaced it, running local to Stillwell Avenue and via the Montague Street Tunnel and Broadway Express. The 2001 shifting of trains back to the south side (Broadway) led to the D only running north of Midtown Manhattan; the Q replaced the D as the full-time Brighton Local while the Brighton express portion of the Q became the diamond <Q>. When both sides of the bridge reopened in 2004, the <Q> was discontinued and replaced by the B in Brooklyn. The B was moved to the Brighton rather than the West End Line, where it ran from 1967 to 2001, to combine two weekday-only services and because Brighton Line residents preferred Broadway Service, the Q was kept as the full-time local. In effect, this flipped the B and D services, as the D was transferred to the West End Line following the bridge's reopening. Description The modern-day line shows a mix of its various re-buildings. DeKalb Avenue to Prospect Park The underground portion from the DeKalb Avenue connection to the BMT Fourth Avenue Line was built in 1920 as part of the Dual Contracts. This section contains two additional stations: the Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center and Seventh Avenue. Between Atlantic Avenue and Grand Army Plaza, the Brighton Line tunnel runs beside, under, and between the tracks of the Interborough Rapid Transit Company (IRT)'s Eastern Parkway Line. The Eastern Parkway Line was built simultaneously with this part of the Brighton Line, and also opened in 1920. At Prospect Park, the Brighton subway tunnel emerges into an open cut. The Prospect Park station contains a cross-platform interchange with the BMT Franklin Avenue Line, which is used by the . Franklin Avenue Line trains use the northbound local track, while the express tracks in both directions are used by the Brighton Line trains; the southbound local track is not in service. The former alignment of the Brighton Line ran along what is now the Franklin Avenue Line, which had been built as a surface railway in 1878 and rebuilt as a grade-separated open-cut and embankment line in 1905. Prospect Park to Brighton Beach South of Prospect Park, the Brighton Line widens to a four-track line for much of the rest of the route. The continues on the inner tracks and runs to Brighton Beach, serving only express stations, while the splits to the outer tracks, serving all stops until the end of the line at Coney Island–Stillwell Avenue. The original line built in 1878 ran in a two-track open cut. This segment was rebuilt in 1918 to 1920 to a four track line with an express station at Prospect Park, a local station at Parkside Avenue (replacing the original station at Woodruff Avenue) and another express station at Church Avenue. The line features slightly sloped and capped reinforced concrete walls, as well as cut-and-cover tunnels underneath cross-streets. The segment between Church Avenue to Avenue H is a result of the BGCEC rebuilding program of 1903–1907. Just south of the tunnel under Church Avenue, the construction of the cut wall visibly changes. Steel trestles carry the streets above the line, giving it a more open appearance. Cottage-style station houses are suspended over the line at local stations at Beverley and Cortelyou Roads, and at the express station at Newkirk Plaza. Past Newkirk Plaza the line continues in an open cut, then begins to rise to street level at the north end of Avenue H station. The station house at Avenue H is a wooden structure built in 1905 and originally housed a real estate office for the sale of homes in the new Fiske Terrace community surrounding the station. The building was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 2004. At this point the line now runs on an earthen embankment with local stations at Avenue H, Avenue J and Avenue M, an express station at Kings Highway, local stops at Avenue U and (Gravesend) Neck Road, and an express station at Sheepshead Bay (formerly Shore Road). All of the station houses for these stops are located beneath the tracks at street level. The line continues south on the 1907 embankment to a bridge over Neptune Avenue. At this point the BGCEC roadbed ends. Prior to the Dual Contracts rebuild in the late 1910s, the line descended to the surface on two single track concrete and steel ramps to operate on the surface to Brighton Beach. As part of the 1918–1920 Dual Contracts work, all four tracks now continue on a steel elevated structure to the junction of Coney Island and Brighton Beach Avenues, where the line turns west onto Brighton Beach Avenue and enters the Brighton Beach station. Brighton Beach to Coney Island Traveling west from Brighton Beach station, the line operates on a six track elevated structure over Brighton Beach Avenue. One track splits from each pair of local and express tracks in each direction. Only the outer two tracks are currently used for revenue service, carrying Q trains. The inner four are layup tracks used to store B trains that terminate at Brighton Beach; the innermost two tracks are the former right-of-way of the Sea View Railway, which originally provided service west of Brighton Beach. Each of the two layup tracks between the local and express tracks ends before Ocean Parkway station, while the innermost and outermost tracks stop at the station. The outer tracks merge with the inner tracks, and the inner tracks climb to an upper level. The outer trackways remain at the same elevation, and shortly afterward merge with the two tracks of the IND Culver Line (), which merge into the structure from the north. Both lines then stop at the West Eighth Street–New York Aquarium station, a double-level steel structure with two tracks on each level. The Brighton trains occupy the upper level and the Culver Line trains the lower. Both lines then enter the 8-track Stillwell Avenue terminal, which was built in 1917–1920 and renovated in 2001–2004. The Brighton trains occupy tracks 3 and 4. Station listing See also Transportation to Coney Island References External links Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation New York City Subway lines Railway lines opened in 1878 1878 establishments in New York (state)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azar%20Nafisi

Azar Nafisi

Azar Nafisi (; born 1948) is an Iranian-American writer and professor of English literature. Born in Tehran, Iran, she has resided in the United States since 1997 and became a U.S. citizen in 2008. Nafisi has held several academic leadership roles, including director of the Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) Dialogue Project and Cultural Conversations, a Georgetown Walsh School of Foreign Service, Centennial Fellow, and a fellow at Oxford University. She is the niece of a famous Iranian scholar, fiction writer and poet Saeed Nafisi. Azar Nafisi is best known for her 2003 book Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books, which remained on The New York Times Best Seller list for 117 weeks, and has won several literary awards, including the 2004 Non-fiction Book of the Year Award from Booksense. In addition to Reading Lolita in Tehran, Nafisi has authored, Things I've Been Silent About: Memories of a Prodigal Daughter, The Republic of Imagination: America in Three Books and That Other World: Nabokov and the Puzzle of Exile. Her newest book, Read Dangerously: The Subversive Power of Literature in Troubled Times will be published in March 2022. Early life and education Nafisi was born in Tehran, Iran. She is the daughter of Nezhat and Ahmad Nafisi, the former mayor of Tehran from 1961 to 1963. He was the youngest man ever appointed to the post at that time. In 1963, her mother was a member of the first group of women elected to the National Consultative Assembly. Nafisi was raised in Tehran, but when she was thirteen, she moved to Lancaster, England, to finish her studies. She then moved to Switzerland before returning to Iran briefly in 1963. She completed her degree in English and American literature and received her Ph.D. from the University of Oklahoma. Nafisi returned to Iran in 1979, after the Iranian Revolution and taught English literature at the University of Tehran. In 1981, she was expelled from the university for refusing to wear the mandatory Islamic veil. Years later, during a period of liberalization, she began teaching at Allameh Tabataba'I University. In 1995, Nafisi sought to resign from her position, but the university did not accept her resignation. After repeatedly not going to work, they eventually expelled her, but refused her ability to resign. From 1995 to 1997, Nafisi invited several female students to attend regular meetings at her house every Thursday morning. They discussed their place as women within post-revolutionary Iranian society. They studied literary works, including some considered "controversial" by the regime, such as Lolita alongside other works such as Madame Bovary. She also taught novels by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Henry James and Jane Austen, attempting to understand and interpret them from a modern Iranian perspective. After staying in Iran for 18 years after the Revolution, Nafisi returned to the United States of America on June 24, 1997, and continues to reside there today. Literary and academic work In addition to her books, Nafisi has written for The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Guardian, and The Wall Street Journal. Her cover story, "The Veiled Threat: The Iranian Revolution's Woman Problem," published in The New Republic (February 22, 1999) has been reprinted in several languages. She also wrote the new introduction to the Modern Library Classics edition of Tolstoy's Hadji Murad, as well as the introduction to Iraj Pezeshkzad's My Uncle Napoleon, published by Modern Library (April 2006). She has published a children's book (with illustrator Sophie Benini Pietromarchi) BiBi and the Green Voice (translated into Italian, as BiBi e la voce verde, and Hebrew). She served as director of the Johns Hopkins University's School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) Dialogue Project and Cultural Conversations, a Georgetown Walsh School of Foreign Service Centennial Fellow, and a fellow at Oxford University. In 2003, Nafisi published Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books. The book describes her experiences as a secular woman living and working in the Islamic Republic of Iran right after the Revolution. In 2008, Nafisi authored a memoir about her mother titled Things I've Been Silent About: Memories of a Prodigal Daughter. On October 21, 2014, Nafisi authored The Republic of Imagination: America in Three Books, in which using The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Babbitt, and The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter, as well as the writings of James Baldwin and many others, Nafisi responds to an Iranian reader that questioned whether Americans care about or need their literature. In 2019, the English translation of That Other World: Nabokov and the Puzzle of Exile was published by Yale University Press. Nafisi's forthcoming book, Read Dangerously: The Subversive Power of Literature in Troubled Times will be published on March 8, 2022. Nafisi has lectured and written extensively in English and Persian on the political implications of literature and culture, the human rights of Iranian women and girls and the important role they play in the change process for pluralism and open society in Iran. She has been consulted on issues related to Iran and human rights by policy makers and various human rights organizations in the U.S. and elsewhere. She is also involved in promoting not just literacy but of reading books with universal literary value. In 2011, she was awarded the Cristóbal Gabarrón Foundation International Thought and Humanities Award for her "determined and courageous defense of human values in Iran and her efforts to create awareness through literature about the situation women face in Islamic society". She also received the 2015 Benjamin Franklin Creativity Laureate Award. She has been awarded honorary doctorates from Susquehanna University (2019), Pomona College (2015), Mt. Holyoke College (2012), Seton Hill University (2010), Goucher College (2009), Bard College (2007), Rochester University (2005) and Nazareth College. In 2018, she was named a Georgetown University/Walsh School of Foreign Service, Centennial Fellow. Critical acclaim Nafisi's books have received critical acclaim from authors, publishing houses, and newspapers. Reading Lolita in Tehran (2003) Michiko Kakutani described Reading Lolita in Tehran in The New York Times Book Review as "resonant and deeply affecting… an eloquent brief on the transformative powers of fiction-- on the refuge from ideology that art can offer to those living under tyranny, and art's affirmative and subversive faith in the voice of the individual". Stephen Lyons for USA Today called the book "an inspiring account of an insatiable desire for intellectual freedom in Iran", and Publishers Weekly said of Reading Lolita, "This book transcends categorization as memoir, literary criticism or social history, though it is superb as all three." Kirkus Reviews called Reading Lolita, "A spirited tribute both to the classics of world literature and to resistance against oppression." Margaret Atwood, renowned author of The Handmaids Tale, reviewed Nafisi's book for the Literary Review of Canada, stating that, "Reading Lolita in Tehran is both a fascinating account of how she arrived at this belief and a stunning dismissal of it. All readers should read it. As for writers, it reminds us, with great eloquence, that our words may travel farther and say more than we could ever guess when we wrote them." Things I've Been Silent About (2008) After reviewing Things I've Been Silent About, The New York Times Book Review called Nafisi "a gifted storyteller with a mastery of Western literature, Nafisi knows how to use the language both to settle scores and to seduce". Kirkus Reviews called the book "an immensely rewarding and beautifully written act of courage, by turns amusing, tender and obsessively dogged". The Republic of Imagination: America in Three Books (2014) Iranian French novelist Marjane Satrapi's review of The Republic of Imagination, says, "We are all citizens of Azar Nafisi's Republic of Imagination. Without imagination, there are no dreams; without dreams, there is no art; without art, there is nothing. Her words are essential." Kirkus Reviews said the book is "a passionate argument for returning to key American novels to foster creativity and engagement… Literature writes Nafisi, is deliciously subversive because it fires the imagination and challenges the status quo… Her literary exegesis lightly moves through her experience as a student, teacher, friend, and new citizen. Touching on myriad examples, from L. Frank Baum to James Baldwin, her work is poignant and informative." Jane Smiley wrote in The Washington Post that Nafisi "finds the essence of the American experience, filtered through narratives not about exceptionalism or fabulous success, but alienation, solitude and landscape". Laura Miller of Salon wrote that "No one writes better or more stirringly about the way books shape a reader's identity, and about the way that talking books with good friends becomes integral to how we understand the books, our friends and ourselves. She appeared on Late Night with Seth Meyers, and PBS NewsHour to promote the book. That Other World: Nabokov and the Puzzle of Exile (2019) American literary critic Gary Saul Morson described That Other World as "somewhere between a first-person encounter with literature and a critical study; this book reminds us of how meaningful literature can be". Read Dangerously: The Subversive Power of Literature in Troubled Times (2022) Publishers Weekly authored a starred review of Nafisi's forthcoming Read Dangerously, calling it a "stunning look at the power of reading" and characterizing Nafisi's prose as "razor-sharp". The Progressive Magazine printed that Read Dangerously lives up to its audacious title, demonstrating the subversive and transformative power of literature. It should start many a book-based conversation among the living and the dead." Criticism In a 2003 article for The Guardian, Brian Whitaker criticized Nafisi for working for the public relations firm Benador Associates which he argued promoted the neo-conservative ideas of "creative destruction" and "total war". In 2004, Christopher Hitchens wrote that Nafisi had dedicated Reading Lolita in Tehran to Paul Wolfowitz, the United States Deputy Secretary of Defense under George W. Bush and a principal architect of the Bush Doctrine. Hitchens had stated that Nafisi was good friends with Wolfowitz and several other key figures in the Bush administration. Nafisi later responded to Hitchen's comments, neither confirming nor denying the claim. In a critical article in the academic journal Comparative American Studies, titled "Reading Azar Nafisi in Tehran", University of Tehran literature professor Seyed Mohammad Marandi states that "Nafisi constantly confirms what orientalist representations have regularly claimed". He also claimed that she "has produced gross misrepresentations of Iranian society and Islam and that she uses quotes and references which are inaccurate, misleading, or even wholly invented." John Carlos Rowe, Professor of the Humanities at the University of Southern California, states that: "Azar Nafisi's Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books (2003) is an excellent example of how neo-liberal rhetoric is now being deployed by neo-conservatives and the importance they have placed on cultural issues." He also states that Nafisi is "amenable.. to serving as a non-Western representative of a renewed defense of Western civilization and its liberal promise, regardless of its historical failures to realize those ends." Hamid Dabashi: criticisms and counter-criticisms In 2006, Columbia University professor Hamid Dabashi, in an essay published in the Cairo-based, English-language paper Al-Ahram (Dabashi's criticism of Nafisi became a cover story for an edition of the Chronicle of Higher Education) compared Reading Lolita in Tehran to "the most pestiferous colonial projects of the British in India", and asserted that Nafisi functions as a "native informer and colonial agent" whose writing has cleared the way for an upcoming exercise of military intervention on the Middle East. He also labeled Nafisi as a "comprador intellectual," a comparison to the "treasonous" Chinese employees of mainland British firms, who sold out their country for commercial gain and imperial grace. In an interview Z magazine, he classed Nafisi with the U.S. soldier convicted of mistreating prisoners at Abu Ghraib: "To me, there is no difference between Lynndie England and Azar Nafisi." Finally, Dabashi stated that the book's cover image (which appears to be two veiled teenage women reading Lolita in Tehran) is in fact, in a reference to the September 11 attacks, "Orientalised pedophilia" designed to appeal to "the most deranged Oriental fantasies of a nation already petrified out of its wits by a ferocious war waged against the phantasmagoric Arab/Muslim male potency that has just castrated the two totem poles of U.S. empire in New York." Critics like Dabashi have accused Nafisi of having close relations with neoconservatives. Nafisi responded to Dabashi's criticism by stating that she is not, as Dabashi claims, a neoconservative, that she opposed the Iraq war, and that she is more interested in literature than politics. In an interview, Nafisi stated that she has never argued for an attack on Iran and that democracy, when it comes, should come from the Iranian people (and not from US military or political intervention). She added that while she is willing to engage in "serious argument...The polarized debate isn't worth my time." She said she did not respond directly to Dabashi because "You don't want to debase yourself and start calling names." In the acknowledgements she makes in Reading Lolita in Tehran, Nafisi writes of Princeton University historian Bernard Lewis as "one who opened the door". Nafisi, who opposed the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, rejects such accusations as "guilt by association", noting that she has both "radical friends" and "conservative friends." Ali Banuazizi, the co-director of Boston College’s Middle East studies program, the co-director of Boston College's Middle East studies program, stated that Dabashi's article was very "intemperate" and that it was "not worth the attention" it had received. Christopher Shea of The Boston Globe argued that while Dabashi spent "several thousand words... eviscerating the book," his main point was not about the specific text but the book's black-and-white portrayal of Iran. Writing in The New Republic, Marty Peretz sharply criticized Dabashi, and rhetorically asked, "Over what kind of faculty does [Columbia University president] Lee Bollinger preside?" In an article posted on Slate.com, author Gideon Lewis-Kraus described Dabashi's article as "a less-than-coherent pastiche of stock anti-war sentiment, strategic misreading, and childish calumny" and that Dabashi "insists on seeing [the book] as political perfidy" which allows him "to preserve his fantasy that criticizing Nafisi makes him a usefully engaged intellectual." Robert Fulford sharply criticized Dabashi's comments in the National Post, arguing that "Dabashi's frame of reference veers from Joseph Stalin to Edward Said. Like a Stalinist, he tries to convert culture into politics, the first step toward totalitarianism. Like the late Edward Said, he brands every thought he dislikes as an example of imperialism, expressing the West's desire for hegemony over the oppressed (even when oil-rich) nations of the Third World." Fulford added that "While imitating the attitudes of Said, Dabashi deploys painful clichés." Firoozeh Papan-Matin, the Director of Persian and Iranian Studies at the University of Washington in Seattle, stated that Dabashi's accusation that Nafisi is promoting a "'kaffeeklatsch' worldview... callously ignores the extreme social and political conditions that forced Nafisi underground." Papan Matin also argued that "Dabashi's attack is that whether Nafisi is a collaborator with the [United States]" was not relevant to the legitimate questions outlined in her book. Works Nafisi, Azar. "Images of Women in Classical Persian Literature and the Contemporary Iranian Novel." The Eye of the Storm: Women in Post-Revolutionary Iran. Ed. Mahnaz Afkhami and Erika Friedl. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1994. 115–30. Anti-Terra: A Critical Study of Vladimir Nabokov’s Novels (1994). Nafisi, Azar. "Imagination as Subversion: Narrative as a Tool of Civic Awareness." Muslim Women and the Politics of Participation. Ed. Mahnaz Afkhami and Erika Friedl. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1997. 58–71. "Tales of Subversion: Women Challenging Fundamentalism in the Islamic Republic of Iran." Religious Fundamentalisms and the Human Rights of Women (1999). Reading Lolita in Tehran (2003). Things I've Been Silent About (Random House, 2008). The Republic of Imagination (Random House, 2014). "Foreword," Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (Penguin Classics, 2014). "That Other World: Nabokov and the Puzzle of Exile" (Yale University Press, 2019). Translated from Persian by Lotfali Khonji. "Foreword", Shahnameh (Penguin Random House, Dick Davis, 2016) Read Dangerously: The Subversive Power of Literature in Troubled Times (Dey Street Books, 2022) Afterword to Sinclair Lewis's Babbitt (Signet Classics, 2015) Notes References Bibliography Nafisi, Azar. 2010 (2008). Things I've been silent about. Random House Trade Paperbacks. (Originally published 2008) External links Official Website Azar Nafisi on The Forum Random House author biography at LIVE from the New York Public Library, February 21, 2008 Lust for life by Azar Nafisi, The Guardian, July 1, 2006. Azar Nafisi speaks at the National Book Festival in 2004 Breaking barriers in books Azar Nafisi speaks on Crossing the Borders: Western Fictions and Iranian Realities Nafisi's Dialogue Project Azar Nafisi by Robert Birnbaum, Identity Theory, February 5, 2004. Sorry, Wrong Chador by Karl Vick, The Washington Post'', July 19, 2004; Page C01. Transcript of Nafisi's interview with David Brancaccio on PBS's Now DW-WORLD.DE on Azar Nafisi Nafasi on how the world misperceives Muslim women, in conversation with Big Think. Audio: Azar Nafisi in conversation on the BBC World Service discussion show The Forum "Native Informer" – Jacobin interview REVIEW : The Republic of Imagination 1955 births Living people Iranian expatriate academics Iranian women writers Iranian literary critics Iranian emigrants to the United States Literary critics of English Johns Hopkins University faculty Academic staff of the University of Tehran University of Oklahoma alumni American writers of Iranian descent Iranian women literary critics American women literary critics Academics from Tehran

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20North%20Dakota

University of North Dakota

The University of North Dakota (also known as UND or North Dakota) is a public research university in Grand Forks, North Dakota. It was established by the Dakota Territorial Assembly in 1883, six years before the establishment of the state of North Dakota. The university has the only schools of law and medicine in the state of North Dakota. The John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences was the first in the country to offer a degree in unmanned aircraft systems operation. Several national research institutions are on the university's campus including the Energy and Environmental Research Center, the School of Medicine and Health Sciences, and the USDA Human Nutrition Research Center. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". History Founding UND was founded in 1883, six years before North Dakota became a state. UND was founded with a liberal arts foundation and expanded to include scientific research. Grand Forks native George H. Walsh submitted the bill to the Territorial Legislature of Dakota Territory that called for the new state of North Dakota's university to be in Grand Forks. The first classes were held on September 8, 1884. The first building at UND, Old Main, housed all classrooms, offices, dorm rooms, and a library. In the 1880s, UND consisted of only a few acres of property, surrounded by farms and fields, nearly two miles west of the city of Grand Forks. Students living off campus had to take a train or a horse and carriage bus, dubbed the "Black Maria", from downtown to the campus. 20th century As the university grew, more buildings were constructed on campus and a trolley system was built to connect the growing university to downtown Grand Forks. However, there were several major interruptions in the life of the university. In 1918, UND was the country's hardest-hit single institution by the flu epidemic that killed 1,400 people in North Dakota alone. Later that year, classes were suspended so the campus could become an army base for soldiers during World War I. During the Great Depression, UND provided free housing to students willing to do manual labor on campus. "Camp Depression," as it was called, consisted of railroad cabooses that each housed eight male students. "Camp Depression" students did not get regular meals from the cafeteria and had to be satisfied with free leftovers. However, Grand Forks citizens often opened their homes and kitchen tables to many of these young men. After World War II, enrollment quickly grew to more than 3,000. A large amount of housing and several academic buildings had to be built on campus. The 1950s saw the rise of the Fighting Sioux hockey tradition. In the 1960s and 1970s, many student protests occurred at UND. The largest was in May 1970 when over 1,500 students protested the Kent State shootings. In 1975, enrollment swelled to a record 8,500. The 1970s also saw the establishment of the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences at UND. During the 1980s and 1990s the university continued to grow. However, the devastating 1997 Red River flood inundated numerous buildings on campus and forced the cancellation of the remainder of the school year. 21st century The start of the 21st century was marked by the opening of two major venues for UND athletics. The Ralph Engelstad Arena, home of men's and women's hockey, and the Alerus Center, home of UND football, both opened in 2001. The Betty Engelstad Sioux Center opened in August 2004, and serves as home to UND volleyball and men's and women's basketball. Millions of dollars worth of construction and renovation projects have dotted the campus landscape. As part of a plan to improve student facilities on campus, UND constructed a Wellness Center, a parking garage, new Memorial Union, renovated library, renovated Gershman Center for graduate students, and an apartment-style housing complex. Other construction projects around campus have included a new LEED Platinum-certified alumni center, a renovated and expanded College of Education and Human Development, and an expanded Energy and Environmental Research Center. In 2016, a $124-million Medicine and Health Services building was built on the north end of campus. In 2015, UND's economic impact on the state and region was estimated to be more than $1.4 billion a year according to the NDUS Systemwide Economic Study by the School of Economics at North Dakota State University. It was the fourth-largest employer in the state of North Dakota, after the Air Force. In August 2021, UND became the first participant in the United States Space Force’s University Partnership program. Campus The University of North Dakota's main campus sits in the middle of Grand Forks on University Avenue. The campus is made up of 240 buildings (6.4 million square feet) on . The campus stretches roughly one and half miles from east to west and is divided by the meandering English Coulee. The western edge is bordered by Interstate 29, the eastern edge is bordered with University Park, the Grand Forks railyards sit on the south side, and the north side is marked by U.S. Highway 2 which is called Gateway Drive in Grand Forks. Central campus and eastern campus The central campus area, the oldest part of UND, has many historic buildings. This area is home to most academic buildings on campus. At the heart of campus sits the Chester Fritz Library, the largest library in North Dakota. The tower of the library is a familiar landmark on University Avenue. Behind the library is the park-like setting of the central campus mall. The mall includes several statues and is a popular place for students to study. The mall is lined with historic buildings including Merrifield Hall, Twamley Hall, Babcock Hall, Montgomery Hall, and the old Carnegie Library. Old Main Memorial Plaza and the eternal flame of the Old Main Memorial Sphere mark the location of Old Main, the first building on campus. Other buildings in the central part of campus include the School of Law, the North Dakota Museum of Art, Memorial Union, Gamble Hall, and Burtness Theatre. The English Coulee flows along the western edge of the central campus area and on the western bank of the Coulee sits the Chester Fritz Auditorium and the Hughes Fine Arts Center. The historic 1907 Adelphi Fountain is next to the Coulee as is the on-campus Spiritual Center. On the eastern edge of the central campus is the Frederick "Fritz" D. Pollard Jr. Athletic Center and the Hyslop Auditorium. The eastern part of campus is also the home of the Energy and Environmental Research Center complex which includes the National Center for Hydrogen Technology. The Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, which is operated by the United States Department of Agriculture, is also in this part of campus. A five-story parking garage sits at the corner of University Avenue and Columbia Road. At the extreme eastern portion of campus sits University Park which is operated by the Grand Forks Park District. Northern campus and western campus To the north of the central campus area, along Columbia Road, sits Columbia Hall, home to the College of Arts & Sciences. A new School of Medicine and Health Sciences building opened in 2016. Other buildings located along Columbia Road include the Biomedical Research Center and the Neuroscience Research Facility. Also north of the main campus is an area called University Village. This land sat virtually empty for decades, but has recently been developed for UND, commercial, and residential purposes. University Village is anchored by the $100 million Ralph Engelstad Arena, which is used by the men's hockey team. University Village is also home to the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center, the Student Wellness Center, university apartments, the UND bookstore, a medical clinic, and several residential and commercial properties. The western part of the UND campus has modern styles of architecture. This area is home to the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences, which includes Odegard Hall, Streibel Hall, Clifford Hall, Ryan Hall, and Robin Hall. Directly adjacent to the Aerospace Complex sits the Skalicky Business Incubator, the Ina Mae Rude Entrepreneur Center, the Tech Accelerator, which houses the University of North Dakota's Center of Excellence in Life Sciences and Advanced Technologies (COELSAT), and a Hilton Garden Inn. The western part of campus is also the location of most residence halls and student apartments. Other facilities UND operates a satellite campus consisting of several buildings at Grand Forks International Airport where aviation students train. UND Aerospace also operates flight training centers in Crookston, Minnesota, and Phoenix, Arizona. UND owns and operates Ray Richards nine hole golf course south of the main UND campus. The School of Medicine and Health Sciences operates several clinics throughout North Dakota. The UND football team is a major tenant of the city of Grand Forks-owned Alerus Center. Sustainability The Council on Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability, made up of representatives from various departments, is exploring ways to improve sustainability. The campus's recycling system reduces UND's overall waste stream by 20 percent. UND has conducted lighting retrofits and installed heat recovery systems and power management technology for peak and off-peak use adjustment. Students are involved in promoting sustainability via recycling and other initiatives. The Gorecki Alumni Center on campus is North Dakota's first LEED Platinum building. The building uses a combination of geothermal and solar panels to power the building. Academics UND offers more than 225 fields of study, including 108 undergraduate majors, 69 minors, 81 master's programs, 37 doctoral programs, and two professional programs (medicine and law). UND also has an interdisciplinary program that allows students to obtain a degree in virtually any course of study. A collection of online classes and degree programs are offered for students around the nation and world. This online program has been highly ranked by US News and other leading online college rankings. On campus, academic classrooms range from smaller rooms capable of seating around twenty students to large lecture bowls capable of seating hundreds at a time. All areas have wireless access for laptops and technologically equipped classrooms enable professors to offer interactive lectures. The university has ten academic divisions: John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences College of Arts & Sciences Nistler College of Business & Public Administration College of Education & Human Development College of Engineering & Mines School of Graduate Studies School of Law School of Medicine & Health Sciences College of Nursing & Professional Disciplines Libraries UND has three major libraries which, together, form the largest system of research libraries in the state of North Dakota. The Chester Fritz Library is the largest library in the state. It houses 1.6 million volumes, provides access to approximately 28,000 electronic journal subscriptions, and owns over 20,000 electronic books. It also serves as a U.S. patent and trademark depository and a government document depository. UND's special collections department is known for its genealogical resources, including Norwegian Bygdeboker, or Norwegian farm and town records. Branches of the Chester Fritz Library include the Energy and Environmental Research Library, the F.D. Holland Geology Library, and the Gordon Erickson Music Library. The School of Law operates the Thormodsgard Law Library and the School of Medicine operates the Harley E. French Library of the Health Sciences. Research UND is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity". This level of research activity is shown in UND's research statistics which, in fiscal year 2006, included program awards that reached $94.3 million, sponsored program expenditures that reached $81.2 million, and an overall research portfolio that included $315 million in total ongoing and committed accounts. Research activity at UND focuses on health sciences, nutrition, energy and environmental protection, aerospace, and engineering. As a major component of the Red River Valley Research Corridor, UND operates many research units including the Energy and Environmental Research Center, the School of Medicine, the Institute for Energy Studies, the Center for Rural Health, the Center for Innovation, the Upper Midwest Aerospace Consortium, the Bureau of Governmental Affairs, the Bureau of Educational Services and Applied Research, and the Social Science Research Institute. The Energy and Environmental Research Center (EERC), on the eastern fringes of the UND campus, has been recognized as a leader in researching cleaner, more efficient forms of energy. The EERC operates a number of research units at UND including the National Center for Hydrogen Technology. Athletics North Dakota's 17 athletic teams compete in the NCAA's Division I. Teams compete in the Summit League except men's hockey which is in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference and the football team is in the Missouri Valley Football Conference. The men's ice hockey team has won eight national championships, has been runner-up five times and play in the Ralph Engelstad Arena. The football team won the Division II national championship in 2001 and was the runner-up in 2003, and play at the Alerus Center. The basketball and volleyball teams play in the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center. The women's basketball team has won three national championships in 1997, 1998, and 1999 and was runner-up in 2001. The colors of UND athletics are green and white, which were adopted in the 1920s. The university's official school colors are green and pink, representative of North Dakota's state flower, the Wild Prairie Rose; however, this combination is rarely employed outside of official or ceremonial applications. UND's athletic teams bore the name of the Fighting Sioux, but were without a nickname and mascot from 2012 to 2015, in compliance with the NCAA's policy against the use of Native American nicknames. On November 18, 2015, it was announced the new nickname would be "Fighting Hawks", effective immediately. A notable UND athletic alumnus is National Basketball Association (NBA) coach and former player Phil Jackson, widely considered one of the greatest coaches in NBA history. In addition, many UND alumni have played in the National Hockey League (NHL), including: Minnesota Wild wing Zach Parise, New Jersey Devils center Travis Zajac, Los Angeles Kings defensemen Matt Greene and Mike Commodore, Chicago Blackhawks forward and captain Jonathan Toews, Vancouver Canucks wing Brock Boeser, former NHL goalie Ed Belfour, and Washington Capitals forward T. J. Oshie. Athletics nicknames Flickertails, October 1904 – September 1930 Fighting Sioux, September 1930 – June 2012 Fighting Hawks, November 2015 – present Fight song The school's primary fight song is "Stand Up and Cheer". Two other fight songs are "UND" and It's for You, North Dakota U (or North Dakota U), composed by Franz Rickaby in 1921. Student life Student body Over 13,000 students attend classes on the UND campus each year. About 34 percent of the student body is from North Dakota and the other 56 percent is made up of students from other states and 99 nations. Students can live on or off campus. On campus, there are 14 residence halls and 700 student apartment units, as well as thirteen fraternities and seven sororities. There are over 275 student organizations at UND as well as an intramural sports program. Greek life The fraternity and sorority community has a rich history at the University of North Dakota. There are 13 active fraternities and 7 active sororities currently on campus. Fraternities Sororities Notable Greek alumni Allen I. Olson: 28th Governor of North Dakota, (Lambda Chi Alpha) Dick Armey: House Majority Leader, (Pi Kappa Alpha) Ed Schafer: 30th Governor of North Dakota, (Sigma Nu) Gerald W. VandeWalle: Chief Justice of North Dakota Supreme Court, (Lambda Chi Alpha) Gregory R. Page: CEO of Cargill, (Alpha Tau Omega) John H. Disher: leading NASA manager, (Sigma Nu) Phil Jackson: former American professional basketball player, coach, and executive in the NBA, (Sigma Alpha Epsilon) William C. Marcil: Forum Communications Chairman, (Lambda Chi Alpha) Culture The North Dakota Museum of Art, the official art museum of the state of North Dakota, is in the heart of campus and offers exhibits throughout the year. The Burtness Theater and the Chester Fritz Auditorium regularly feature theater and concert events. The Ralph Engelstad Arena also features non-athletic events including concerts. The nearby city-owned Alerus Center hosts several concerts each year as well as other events. Each year, UND hosts the University of North Dakota Writers Conference. This is a week-long event that brings together prominent American and foreign writers. Participants have included Truman Capote, Tennessee Williams, Eudora Welty, Tom Wolfe, Allen Ginsberg, Louise Erdrich, Chuck Klosterman, and Gary Snyder. Media Print The Dakota Student is UND's student newspaper. North Dakota Quarterly, a literary journal, is edited at UND. The North Dakota Law Review, published by the School of Law since 1924, serves as the journal of the State Bar Association of North Dakota. The Alumni Review is published by the UND Alumni Association and Foundation. Notable people and alumni Alumni of the University of North Dakota have become notable in a variety of different fields including politics and government, business, science, literature, arts and entertainment, and athletics. Eight Governors of North Dakota were educated at UND, including Fred G. Aandahl, Louis B. Hanna, Lynn Frazier, William Langer, John Moses, Ragnvald A. Nestos, Allen I. Olson, and Ed Schafer, who was also the US Secretary of Agriculture from 2008 to 2009. Former Deputy National Security Advisor at the White House, Mark Pfeifle is a 1997 graduate in the School of Communications. Many U.S. Senators and Representatives of North Dakota were also graduates of UND, including former Senator Byron Dorgan and former Representative Earl Pomeroy. Former House Majority Leader Dick Armey is a UND graduate. Ronald Davies, a UND graduate and former federal judge, became a part of history when he ordered the integration of Little Rock Central High School during the Civil Rights Movement. Leigh Gerdine who was president of Webster University and was awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1989. UND alumni who went on to notable careers in the business world include chairman of TNSE & president of the Winnipeg Jets hockey club Mark Chipman, current president and former CEO of Cargill Gregory R. Page, current president and CEO of the Buffalo Wild Wings restaurant chain Sally J. Smith, current CEO of Forum Communications William C. Marcil, former Las Vegas casino owner and UND philanthropist Ralph Engelstad, and former CEO of American Skandia and founder of WealthVest Marketing Wade Dokken. Former Canadian Football League player and founder of Golden Star Resources, Dave Fennell. Founder and chairman of Nygård International, Peter Nygård. In the realm of science, notable UND alumni include important contributor to information theory Harry Nyquist, pioneer aviator Carl Ben Eielson, Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson, engineer and NASA astronaut Karen L. Nyberg, and leading NASA manager John H. Disher. Pearl I. Young, a UND graduate in 1919, became the first female technical employee at NASA (then NACA) in 1922, her contributions to the agency resulted in a theater at NASA Langley in 1995. Alumni who have become notable through literature include the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright and author Maxwell Anderson, Rhodes scholar and poet Thomas McGrath, essayist and journalist Chuck Klosterman, and novelist Jon Hassler. UND graduates have become editors of major magazines: Carroll Eugene Simcox of The Living Church, former Ebony editor Era Bell Thompson and former LIFE editor Edward K. Thompson. Alumni who have become notable in arts and entertainment include actor Sam Anderson and America's Next Top Model winner Nicole Linkletter. Former UND students who have gone on to notable careers in athletics include former NBA player and coach and former president of the New York Knicks, Phil Jackson, 1980 Winter Olympics "Miracle on Ice" hockey player Dave Christian, NHL players Ed Belfour and Zach Parise, and professional football players Jim Kleinsasser and Dave Osborn. As of the 2018–19 season, more than 20 former UND players are in the NHL and more than 100 former players have played in the NHL. Professional athlete alumni Quinton Hooker (born 1995), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League References External links University of North Dakota Athletics website University of North Dakota University of North Dakota Educational institutions established in 1883 1883 establishments in Dakota Territory Buildings and structures in Grand Forks, North Dakota Tourist attractions in Grand Forks, North Dakota Education in Grand Forks County, North Dakota Flagship universities in the United States Universities and colleges accredited by the Higher Learning Commission

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline%20function

Inline function

In the C and C++ programming languages, an inline function is one qualified with the keyword inline; this serves two purposes: It serves as a compiler directive that suggests (but does not require) that the compiler substitute the body of the function inline by performing inline expansion, i.e. by inserting the function code at the address of each function call, thereby saving the overhead of a function call. In this respect it is analogous to the register storage class specifier, which similarly provides an optimization hint. The second purpose of inline is to change linkage behavior; the details of this are complicated. This is necessary due to the C/C++ separate compilation + linkage model, specifically because the definition (body) of the function must be duplicated in all translation units where it is used, to allow inlining during compiling, which, if the function has external linkage, causes a collision during linking (it violates uniqueness of external symbols). C and C++ (and dialects such as GNU C and Visual C++) resolve this in different ways. Example An inline function can be written in C or C++ like this: inline void swap(int *m, int *n) { int tmp = *m; *m = *n; *n = tmp; } Then, a statement such as the following: swap(&x, &y); may be translated into (if the compiler decides to do the inlining, which typically requires optimization to be enabled): int tmp = x; x = y; y = tmp; When implementing a sorting algorithm doing lots of swaps, this can increase the execution speed. Standard support C++ and C99, but not its predecessors K&R C and C89, have support for inline functions, though with different semantics. In both cases, inline does not force inlining; the compiler is free to choose not to inline the function at all, or only in some cases. Different compilers vary in how complex a function they can manage to inline. Mainstream C++ compilers like Microsoft Visual C++ and GCC support an option that lets the compilers automatically inline any suitable function, even those not marked as inline functions. However, simply omitting the inline keyword to let the compiler make all inlining decisions is not possible, since the linker will then complain about duplicate definitions in different translation units. This is because inline not only gives the compiler a hint that the function should be inlined, it also has an effect on whether the compiler will generate a callable out-of-line copy of the function (see storage classes of inline functions). Nonstandard extensions GNU C, as part of the dialect gnu89 that it offers, has support for inline as an extension to C89. However, the semantics differ from both those of C++ and C99. armcc in C90 mode also offers inline as a non-standard extension, with semantics different from gnu89 and C99. Some implementations provide a means by which to force the compiler to inline a function, usually by means of implementation-specific declaration specifiers: Microsoft Visual C++: __forceinline gcc or clang: __attribute__((always_inline)) or __attribute__((__always_inline__)), the latter of which is useful to avoid a conflict with a user-defined macro named always_inline. Indiscriminate uses of that can result in larger code (bloated executable file), minimal or no performance gain, and in some cases even a loss in performance. Moreover, the compiler cannot inline the function in all circumstances, even when inlining is forced; in this case both gcc and Visual C++ generate warnings. Forcing inlining is useful if: inline is not respected by the compiler (ignored by compiler cost/benefit analyzer) inlining results is necessary for boosting performance For code portability, the following preprocessor directives may be used: #ifdef _MSC_VER #define forceinline __forceinline #elif defined() #define forceinline inline __attribute__((__always_inline__)) #elif defined() #if __has_attribute(__always_inline__) #define forceinline inline __attribute__((__always_inline__)) #else #define forceinline inline #endif #else #define forceinline inline #endif Storage classes of inline functions static inline has the same effects in all C dialects and C++. It will emit a locally visible (out-of-line copy of the) function if required. Regardless of the storage class, the compiler can ignore the inline qualifier and generate a function call in all C dialects and C++. The effect of the storage class extern when applied or not applied to inline functions differs between the C dialects and C++. C99 In C99, a function defined inline will never, and a function defined extern inline will always, emit an externally visible function. Unlike in C++, there is no way to ask for an externally visible function shared among translation units to be emitted only if required. If inline declarations are mixed with extern inline declarations or with unqualified declarations (ie., without inline qualifier or storage class), the translation unit must contain a definition (no matter whether unqualified, inline, or extern inline) and an externally visible function will be emitted for it. A function defined inline requires exactly one function with that name somewhere else in the program which is either defined extern inline or without qualifier. If more than one such definition is provided in the whole program, the linker will complain about duplicate symbols. If, however, it is lacking, the linker does not necessarily complain, because, if all uses could be inlined, it is not needed. But it may complain, since the compiler can always ignore the inline qualifier and generate calls to the function instead, as typically happens if the code is compiled without optimization. (This may be the desired behavior, if the function is supposed to be inlined everywhere by all means, and an error should be generated if it is not.) A convenient way is to define the inline functions in header files and create one .c file per function, containing an extern inline declaration for it and including the respective header file with the definition. It does not matter whether the declaration is before or after the include. To prevent unreachable code from being added to the final executable if all uses of a function were inlined, it is advised to put the object files of all such .c files with a single extern inline function into a static library file, typically with ar rcs, then link against that library instead of the individual object files. That causes only those object files to be linked that are actually needed, in contrast to linking the object files directly, which causes them to be always included in the executable. However, the library file must be specified after all the other object files on the linker command line, since calls from object files specified after the library file to the functions will not be considered by the linker. Calls from inline functions to other inline functions will be resolved by the linker automatically (the s option in ar rcs ensures this). An alternative solution is to use link time optimization instead of a library. gcc provides the flag -Wl,--gc-sections to omit sections in which all functions are unused. This will be the case for object files containing the code of a single unused extern inline function. However, it also removes any and all other unused sections from all other object files, not just those related to unused extern inline functions. (It may be desired to link functions into the executable that are to be called by the programmer from the debugger rather than by the program itself, eg., for examining the internal state of the program.) With this approach, it is also possible to use a single .c file with all extern inline functions instead of one .c file per function. Then the file has to be compiled with -fdata-sections -ffunction-sections. However, the gcc manual page warns about that, saying "Only use these options when there are significant benefits from doing so." Some recommend an entirely different approach, which is to define functions as static inline instead of inline in header files. Then, no unreachable code will be generated. However, this approach has a drawback in the opposite case: Duplicate code will be generated if the function could not be inlined in more than one translation unit. The emitted function code cannot be shared among translation units because it must have different addresses. This is another drawback; taking the address of such a function defined as static inline in a header file will yield different values in different translation units. Therefore, static inline functions should only be used if they are used in only one translation unit, which means that they should only go to the respective .c file, not to a header file. gnu89 gnu89 semantics of inline and extern inline are essentially the exact opposite of those in C99, with the exception that gnu89 permits redefinition of an extern inline function as an unqualified function, while C99 inline does not. Thus, gnu89 extern inline without redefinition is like C99 inline, and gnu89 inline is like C99 extern inline; in other words, in gnu89, a function defined inline will always and a function defined extern inline will never emit an externally visible function. The rationale for this is that it matches variables, for which storage will never be reserved if defined as extern and always if defined without. The rationale for C99, in contrast, is that it would be astonishing if using inline would have a side-effect—to always emit a non-inlined version of the function—that is contrary to what its name suggests. The remarks for C99 about the need to provide exactly one externally visible function instance for inlined functions and about the resulting problem with unreachable code apply mutatis mutandis to gnu89 as well. gcc up to and including version 4.2 used gnu89 inline semantics even when -std=c99 was explicitly specified. With version 5, gcc switched from gnu89 to the gnu11 dialect, effectively enabling C99 inline semantics by default. To use gnu89 semantics instead, they have to be enabled explicitly, either with -std=gnu89 or, to only affect inlining, -fgnu89-inline, or by adding the gnu_inline attribute to all inline declarations. To ensure C99 semantics, either -std=c99, -std=c11, -std=gnu99 or -std=gnu11 (without -fgnu89-inline) can be used. C++ In C++, a function defined inline will, if required, emit a function shared among translation units, typically by putting it into the common section of the object file for which it is needed. The function must have the same definition everywhere, always with the inline qualifier. In C++, extern inline is the same as inline. The rationale for the C++ approach is that it is the most convenient way for the programmer, since no special precautions for elimination of unreachable code must be taken and, like for ordinary functions, it makes no difference whether extern is specified or not. The inline qualifier is automatically added to a function defined as part of a class definition. armcc armcc in C90 mode provides extern inline and inline semantics that are the same as in C++: Such definitions will emit a function shared among translation units if required. In C99 mode, extern inline always emits a function, but like in C++, it will be shared among translation units. Thus, the same function can be defined extern inline in different translation units. This matches the traditional behavior of Unix C compilers for multiple non-extern definitions of uninitialized global variables. Restrictions Taking the address of an inline function requires code for a non-inlined copy of that function to be emitted in any case. In C99, an inline or extern inline function must not access static global variables or define non-const static local variables. const static local variables may or may not be different objects in different translation units, depending on whether the function was inlined or whether a call was made. Only static inline definitions can reference identifiers with internal linkage without restrictions; those will be different objects in each translation unit. In C++, both const and non-const static locals are allowed and they refer to the same object in all translation units. gcc cannot inline functions if they are variadic, use alloca use computed goto use nonlocal goto use nested functions use setjmp use __builtin_longjmp use __builtin_return, or use __builtin_apply_args Based on Microsoft Specifications at MSDN, MS Visual C++ cannot inline (not even with __forceinline), if The function or its caller is compiled with /Ob0 (the default option for debug builds). The function and the caller use different types of exception handling (C++ exception handling in one, structured exception handling in the other). The function has a variable argument list. The function uses inline assembly, unless compiled with /Og, /Ox, /O1, or /O2. The function is recursive and not accompanied by #pragma inline_recursion(on). With the pragma, recursive functions are inlined to a default depth of 16 calls. To reduce the inlining depth, use inline_depth pragma. The function is virtual and is called virtually. Direct calls to virtual functions can be inlined. The program takes the address of the function and the call is made via the pointer to the function. Direct calls to functions that have had their address taken can be inlined. The function is also marked with the naked __declspec modifier. Problems Besides the problems with inline expansion in general (see ), inline functions as a language feature may not be as valuable as they appear, for a number of reasons: Often, a compiler is in a better position than a human to decide whether a particular function should be inlined. Sometimes the compiler may not be able to inline as many functions as the programmer indicates. An important point to note is that the code (of the inline function) gets exposed to its client (the calling function). As functions evolve, they may become suitable for inlining where they were not before, or no longer suitable for inlining where they were before. While inlining or un-inlining a function is easier than converting to and from macros, it still requires extra maintenance which typically yields relatively little benefit. Inline functions used in proliferation in native C-based compilation systems can increase compilation time, since the intermediate representation of their bodies is copied into each call site. The specification of inline in C99 requires exactly one external definition of the function, if it is used somewhere. If such a definition wasn't provided by the programmer, that can easily lead to linker errors. This can happen with optimization turned off, which typically prevents inlining. Adding the definitions, on the other hand, can cause unreachable code if the programmer does not carefully avoid it, by putting them in a library for linking, using link time optimization, or static inline. In C++, it is necessary to define an inline function in every module (translation unit) that uses it, whereas an ordinary function must be defined in only a single module. Otherwise it would not be possible to compile a single module independently of all other modules. Depending on the compiler, this may cause each respective object file to contain a copy of the function's code, for each module with some use that could not be inlined. In embedded software, oftentimes certain functions need to be placed in certain code sections by use of special compiler instructions such as "pragma" statements. Sometimes, a function in one memory segment might need to call a function in another memory segment, and if inlining of the called function occurs, then the code of the called function might end up in a segment where it shouldn't be. For example, high-performance memory segments may be very limited in code space, and if a function belonging in such a space calls another large function that is not meant to be in the high-performance section and the called function gets inappropriately inlined, then this might cause the high-performance memory segment to run out of code space. For this reason, sometimes it is necessary to ensure that functions do not become inlined. Quotes "A function declaration [ . . . ] with an inline specifier declares an inline function. The inline specifier indicates to the implementation that inline substitution of the function body at the point of call is to be preferred to the usual function call mechanism. An implementation is not required to perform this inline substitution at the point of call; however, even if this inline substitution is omitted, the other rules for inline functions defined by 7.1.2 shall still be respected." — ISO/IEC 14882:2011, the current C++ standard, section 7.1.2 "A function declared with an inline function specifier is an inline function. [ . . . ] Making a function an inline function suggests that calls to the function be as fast as possible. The extent to which such suggestions are effective is implementation-defined (footnote: For example, an implementation might never perform inline substitution, or might only perform inline substitutions to calls in the scope of an inline declaration.) "[ . . . ] An inline definition does not provide an external definition for the function, and does not forbid an external definition in another translation unit. An inline definition provides an alternative to an external definition, which a translator may use to implement any call to the function in the same translation unit. It is unspecified whether a call to the function uses the inline definition or the external definition." — ISO 9899:1999(E), the C99 standard, section 6.7.4 See also Macro (computer science) References External links Inline functions with the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Summary of "inline" semantics in C and C++, by LLVM contributor David Chisnall Software optimization

428364

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing

Phishing

Phishing is a form of social engineering and scam where attackers deceive people into revealing sensitive information or installing malware such as ransomware. Phishing attacks have become increasingly sophisticated and often transparently mirror the site being targeted, allowing the attacker to observe everything while the victim is navigating the site, and transverse any additional security boundaries with the victim. As of 2020, it is the most common type of cybercrime, with the FBI's Internet Crime Complaint Center reporting more incidents of phishing than any other type of computer crime. The term "phishing" was first recorded in 1995 in the cracking toolkit AOHell, but may have been used earlier in the hacker magazine 2600. It is a variation of fishing and refers to the use of lures to "fish" for sensitive information. Measures to prevent or reduce the impact of phishing attacks include legislation, user education, public awareness, and technical security measures. The importance of phishing awareness has increased in both personal and professional settings, with phishing attacks among businesses rising from 72% to 86% from 2017 to 2020. Types Email phishing Phishing attacks, often delivered via email spam, attempt to trick individuals into giving away sensitive information or login credentials. Most attacks are "bulk attacks" that are not targeted and are instead sent in bulk to a wide audience. The goal of the attacker can vary, with common targets including financial institutions, email and cloud productivity providers, and streaming services. The stolen information or access may be used to steal money, install malware, or spear phish others within the target organization. Compromised streaming service accounts may also be sold on darknet markets. This type of social engineering attack can involve sending fraud emails or messages that appear to be from a trusted source, such as a bank or government agency. These messages typically redirect to a fake login page where the user is prompted to enter their login credentials. Spear phishing Spear phishing is a targeted phishing attack that uses personalized emails to trick a specific individual or organization into believing they are legitimate. It often utilizes personal information about the target to increase the chances of success. These attacks often target executives or those in financial departments with access to sensitive financial data and services. Accountancy and audit firms are particularly vulnerable to spear phishing due to the value of the information their employees have access to. Threat Group-4127 (Fancy Bear) targeted Hillary Clinton's 2016 presidential campaign with spear phishing attacks on over 1,800 Google accounts, using the accounts-google.com domain to threaten targeted users. A study on spear phishing susceptibility among different age groups found that 43% of 100 young and 58% of older users clicked on simulated phishing links in daily emails over 21 days. Older women had the highest susceptibility, while susceptibility in young users declined over the study, but remained stable in older users. Whaling and CEO fraud Whaling attacks use spear phishing techniques to target senior executives and other high-profile individuals with customized content, often related to a subpoena or customer complaint. CEO fraud involves sending fake emails from senior executives to trick employees into sending money to an offshore account. It has a low success rate, but can result in organizations losing large sums of money. Clone phishing Clone phishing is a type of attack where a legitimate email with an attachment or link is copied and modified to contain malicious content. The modified email is then sent from a fake address made to look like it's from the original sender. The attack may appear to be a resend or update of the original email. It often relies on the sender or recipient being previously hacked so the attacker can access the legitimate email. Voice phishing Voice over IP (VoIP) is used in vishing or voice phishing attacks, where attackers make automated phone calls to large numbers of people, often using text-to-speech synthesizers, claiming fraudulent activity on their accounts. The attackers spoof the calling phone number to appear as if it is coming from a legitimate bank or institution. The victim is then prompted to enter sensitive information or connected to a live person who uses social engineering tactics to obtain information. Vishing takes advantage of the public's lower awareness and trust in voice telephony compared to email phishing. SMS phishing SMS phishing or smishing is a type of phishing attack that uses text messages from a cell phone or smartphone to deliver a bait message. The victim is usually asked to click a link, call a phone number, or contact an email address provided by the attacker. They may then be asked to provide private information, such as login credentials for other websites. The difficulty in identifying illegitimate links can be compounded on mobile devices due to the limited display of URLs in mobile browsers. Smishing can be just as effective as email phishing, as many smartphones have fast internet connectivity. Smishing messages may also come from unusual phone numbers. Page hijacking Page hijacking involves redirecting users to malicious websites or exploit kits through the compromise of legitimate web pages, often using cross site scripting. Hackers may insert exploit kits such as MPack into compromised websites to exploit legitimate users visiting the server. Page hijacking can also involve the insertion of malicious inline frames, allowing exploit kits to load. This tactic is often used in conjunction with watering hole attacks on corporate targets. Calendar phishing Calendar phishing involves sending fake calendar invitations with phishing links. These invitations often mimic common event requests and can easily be added to calendars automatically. To protect against this form of fraud, former Google click fraud czar Shuman Ghosemajumder recommends changing calendar settings to not automatically add new invitations. Techniques Link manipulation Phishing attacks often involve creating fake links that appear to be from a legitimate organization. These links may use misspelled URLs or subdomains to deceive the user. In the following example URL, , it can appear to the untrained eye as though the URL will take the user to the example section of the yourbank website; actually this URL points to the "yourbank" (i.e. phishing subdomain) section of the example website (fraudster's domain name). Another tactic is to make the displayed text for a link appear trustworthy, while the actual link goes to the phisher's site. To check the destination of a link, many email clients and web browsers will show the URL in the status bar when the mouse is hovering over it. However, some phishers may be able to bypass this security measure. Internationalized domain names (IDNs) can be exploited via IDN spoofing or homograph attacks to allow attackers to create fake websites with visually identical addresses to legitimate ones. These attacks have been used by phishers to disguise malicious URLs using open URL redirectors on trusted websites. Even digital certificates, such as SSL, may not protect against these attacks as phishers can purchase valid certificates and alter content to mimic genuine websites or host phishing sites without SSL. Filter evasion Phishers have sometimes used images instead of text to make it harder for anti-phishing filters to detect the text commonly used in phishing emails. In response, more sophisticated anti-phishing filters are able to recover hidden text in images using optical character recognition (OCR). Social engineering Phishing often uses social engineering techniques to trick users into performing actions such as clicking a link or opening an attachment, or revealing sensitive information. It often involves pretending to be a trusted entity and creating a sense of urgency, like threatening to close or seize a victim's bank or insurance account. An alternative technique to impersonation-based phishing is the use of fake news articles to trick victims into clicking on a malicious link. These links often lead to fake websites that appear legitimate, but are actually run by attackers who may try to install malware or present fake "virus" notifications to the victim. History Early history Early phishing techniques can be traced back to the 1990s, when black hat hackers and the warez community used AOL to steal credit card information and commit other online crimes. The term "phishing" is said to have been coined by Khan C. Smith, a well-known spammer and hacker, and its first recorded mention was found in the hacking tool AOHell, which was released in 1995. AOHell allowed hackers to impersonate AOL staff and send instant messages to victims asking them to reveal their passwords. In response, AOL implemented measures to prevent phishing and eventually shut down the warez scene on their platform. 2000s In the 2000s, phishing attacks became more organized and targeted. The first known direct attempt against a payment system, E-gold, occurred in June 2001, and shortly after the September 11 attacks, a "post-9/11 id check" phishing attack followed. The first known phishing attack against a retail bank was reported in September 2003. Between May 2004 and May 2005, approximately 1.2 million computer users in the United States suffered losses caused by phishing, totaling approximately . Phishing was recognized as a fully organized part of the black market, and specializations emerged on a global scale that provided phishing software for payment, which were assembled and implemented into phishing campaigns by organized gangs. The United Kingdom banking sector suffered from phishing attacks, with losses from web banking fraud almost doubling in 2005 compared to 2004. In 2006, almost half of phishing thefts were committed by groups operating through the Russian Business Network based in St. Petersburg. Email scams posing as the Internal Revenue Service were also used to steal sensitive data from U.S. taxpayers. Social networking sites are a prime target of phishing, since the personal details in such sites can be used in identity theft; In 2007, 3.6 million adults lost due to phishing attacks. The Anti-Phishing Working Group reported receiving 115,370 phishing email reports from consumers with US and China hosting more than 25% of the phishing pages each in the third quarter of 2009. 2010s Phishing in the 2010s saw a significant increase in the number of attacks. In 2011, the master keys for RSA SecurID security tokens were stolen through a phishing attack. Chinese phishing campaigns also targeted high-ranking officials in the US and South Korean governments and military, as well as Chinese political activists. According to Ghosh, phishing attacks increased from 187,203 in 2010 to 445,004 in 2012. In August 2013, Outbrain suffered a spear-phishing attack, and in November 2013, 110 million customer and credit card records were stolen from Target customers through a phished subcontractor account. CEO and IT security staff subsequently fired. In August 2014, iCloud leaks of celebrity photos were based on phishing e-mails sent to victims that looked like they came from Apple or Google. In November 2014, phishing attacks on ICANN gained administrative access to the Centralized Zone Data System; also gained was data about users in the system - and access to ICANN's public Governmental Advisory Committee wiki, blog, and whois information portal. Fancy Bear was linked to spear-phishing attacks against the Pentagon email system in August 2015, and the group used a zero-day exploit of Java in a spear-phishing attack on the White House and NATO. Fancy Bear carried out spear phishing attacks on email addresses associated with the Democratic National Committee in the first quarter of 2016. In August 2016, members of the Bundestag and political parties such as Linken-faction leader Sahra Wagenknecht, Junge Union, and the CDU of Saarland were targeted by spear-phishing attacks suspected to be carried out by Fancy Bear. In August 2016, the World Anti-Doping Agency reported the receipt of phishing emails sent to users of its database claiming to be official WADA, but consistent with the Russian hacking group Fancy Bear. In 2017, 76% of organizations experienced phishing attacks, with nearly half of the information security professionals surveyed reporting an increase from 2016. In the first half of 2017, businesses and residents of Qatar were hit with over 93,570 phishing events in a three-month span. In August 2017, customers of Amazon faced the Amazon Prime Day phishing attack, when hackers sent out seemingly legitimate deals to customers of Amazon. When Amazon's customers attempted to make purchases using the "deals", the transaction would not be completed, prompting the retailer's customers to input data that could be compromised and stolen. In 2018, the company block.one, which developed the EOS.IO blockchain, was attacked by a phishing group who sent phishing emails to all customers aimed at intercepting the user's cryptocurrency wallet key, and a later attack targeted airdrop tokens. 2020s Phishing attacks have evolved in the 2020s to include elements of social engineering, as demonstrated by the July 15, 2020, Twitter breach. In this case, a 17-year-old hacker and accomplices set up a fake website resembling Twitter's internal VPN provider used by remote working employees. Posing as helpdesk staff, they called multiple Twitter employees, directing them to submit their credentials to the fake VPN website. Using the details supplied by the unsuspecting employees, they were able to seize control of several high-profile user accounts, including those of Barack Obama, Elon Musk, Joe Biden, and Apple Inc.'s company account. The hackers then sent messages to Twitter followers soliciting Bitcoin, promising to double the transaction value in return. The hackers collected 12.86 BTC (about $117,000 at the time). Anti-phishing There are anti-phishing websites which publish exact messages that have been recently circulating the internet, such as FraudWatch International and Millersmiles. Such sites often provide specific details about the particular messages. As recently as 2007, the adoption of anti-phishing strategies by businesses needing to protect personal and financial information was low. Now there are several different techniques to combat phishing, including legislation and technology created specifically to protect against phishing. These techniques include steps that can be taken by individuals, as well as by organizations. Phone, web site, and email phishing can now be reported to authorities, as described below. User training Effective phishing education, including conceptual knowledge and feedback, is an important part of any organization's anti-phishing strategy. While there is limited data on the effectiveness of education in reducing susceptibility to phishing, much information on the threat is available online. Simulated phishing campaigns, in which organizations test their employees' training by sending fake phishing emails, are commonly used to assess their effectiveness. One example is a study by the National Library of Medicine, in which an organization received 858,200 emails during a 1-month testing period, with 139,400 (16%) being marketing and 18,871 (2%) being identified as potential threats. These campaigns are often used in the healthcare industry, as healthcare data is a valuable target for hackers. These campaigns are just one of the ways that organizations are working to combat phishing. To avoid phishing attempts, people can modify their browsing habits and be cautious of emails claiming to be from a company asking to "verify" an account. It's best to contact the company directly or manually type in their website address rather than clicking on any hyperlinks in suspicious emails. Nearly all legitimate e-mail messages from companies to their customers contain an item of information that is not readily available to phishers. Some companies, for example PayPal, always address their customers by their username in emails, so if an email addresses the recipient in a generic fashion ("Dear PayPal customer") it is likely to be an attempt at phishing. Furthermore, PayPal offers various methods to determine spoof emails and advises users to forward suspicious emails to their spoof@PayPal.com domain to investigate and warn other customers. However it is unsafe to assume that the presence of personal information alone guarantees that a message is legitimate, and some studies have shown that the presence of personal information does not significantly affect the success rate of phishing attacks; which suggests that most people do not pay attention to such details. Emails from banks and credit card companies often include partial account numbers, but research has shown that people tend to not differentiate between the first and last digits. This is an issue because the first few digits are often the same for all clients of a financial institution. The Anti-Phishing Working Group, who's one of the largest anti-phishing organizations in the world, produces regular report on trends in phishing attacks. Google posted a video demonstrating how to identify and protect yourself from Phishing scams. Technical approaches A wide range of technical approaches are available to prevent phishing attacks reaching users or to prevent them from successfully capturing sensitive information. Filtering out phishing mail Specialized spam filters can reduce the number of phishing emails that reach their addressees' inboxes. These filters use a number of techniques including machine learning and natural language processing approaches to classify phishing emails, and reject email with forged addresses. Browsers alerting users to fraudulent websites Another popular approach to fighting phishing is to maintain a list of known phishing sites and to check websites against the list. One such service is the Safe Browsing service. Web browsers such as Google Chrome, Internet Explorer 7, Mozilla Firefox 2.0, Safari 3.2, and Opera all contain this type of anti-phishing measure. Firefox 2 used Google anti-phishing software. Opera 9.1 uses live blacklists from Phishtank, cyscon and GeoTrust, as well as live whitelists from GeoTrust. Some implementations of this approach send the visited URLs to a central service to be checked, which has raised concerns about privacy. According to a report by Mozilla in late 2006, Firefox 2 was found to be more effective than Internet Explorer 7 at detecting fraudulent sites in a study by an independent software testing company. An approach introduced in mid-2006 involves switching to a special DNS service that filters out known phishing domains: this will work with any browser, and is similar in principle to using a hosts file to block web adverts. To mitigate the problem of phishing sites impersonating a victim site by embedding its images (such as logos), several site owners have altered the images to send a message to the visitor that a site may be fraudulent. The image may be moved to a new filename and the original permanently replaced, or a server can detect that the image was not requested as part of normal browsing, and instead send a warning image. Augmenting password logins The Bank of America website is one of several that asks users to select a personal image (marketed as SiteKey) and displays this user-selected image with any forms that request a password. Users of the bank's online services are instructed to enter a password only when they see the image they selected. However, several studies suggest that few users refrain from entering their passwords when images are absent. In addition, this feature (like other forms of two-factor authentication) is susceptible to other attacks, such as those suffered by Scandinavian bank Nordea in late 2005, and Citibank in 2006. A similar system, in which an automatically generated "Identity Cue" consisting of a colored word within a colored box is displayed to each website user, is in use at other financial institutions. Security skins are a related technique that involves overlaying a user-selected image onto the login form as a visual cue that the form is legitimate. Unlike the website-based image schemes, however, the image itself is shared only between the user and the browser, and not between the user and the website. The scheme also relies on a mutual authentication protocol, which makes it less vulnerable to attacks that affect user-only authentication schemes. Still another technique relies on a dynamic grid of images that is different for each login attempt. The user must identify the pictures that fit their pre-chosen categories (such as dogs, cars and flowers). Only after they have correctly identified the pictures that fit their categories are they allowed to enter their alphanumeric password to complete the login. Unlike the static images used on the Bank of America website, a dynamic image-based authentication method creates a one-time passcode for the login, requires active participation from the user, and is very difficult for a phishing website to correctly replicate because it would need to display a different grid of randomly generated images that includes the user's secret categories. Monitoring and takedown Several companies offer banks and other organizations likely to suffer from phishing scams round-the-clock services to monitor, analyze and assist in shutting down phishing websites. Automated detection of phishing content is still below accepted levels for direct action, with content-based analysis reaching between 80% and 90% of success so most of the tools include manual steps to certify the detection and authorize the response. Individuals can contribute by reporting phishing to both volunteer and industry groups, such as cyscon or PhishTank. Phishing web pages and emails can be reported to Google. Transaction verification and signing Solutions have also emerged using the mobile phone (smartphone) as a second channel for verification and authorization of banking transactions. Multi-factor authentication Organizations can implement two factor or multi-factor authentication (MFA), which requires a user to use at least 2 factors when logging in. (For example, a user must both present a smart card and a password). This mitigates some risk, in the event of a successful phishing attack, the stolen password on its own cannot be reused to further breach the protected system. However, there are several attack methods which can defeat many of the typical systems. MFA schemes such as WebAuthn address this issue by design. Email content redaction Organizations that prioritize security over convenience can require users of its computers to use an email client that redacts URLs from email messages, thus making it impossible for the reader of the email to click on a link, or even copy a URL. While this may result in an inconvenience, it does almost eliminate email phishing attacks. Limitations of technical responses An article in Forbes in August 2014 argues that the reason phishing problems persist even after a decade of anti-phishing technologies being sold is that phishing is "a technological medium to exploit human weaknesses" and that technology cannot fully compensate for human weaknesses. Organizational responses Scholars have found that the investment into both technological and organizational factors can impact protection against phishing. The studies found that organizations can improve their technical education of employees if they include socio-technical factors in their training. Legal responses On January 26, 2004, the U.S. Federal Trade Commission filed the first lawsuit against a Californian teenager suspected of phishing by creating a webpage mimicking America Online and stealing credit card information. Other countries have followed this lead by tracing and arresting phishers. A phishing kingpin, Valdir Paulo de Almeida, was arrested in Brazil for leading one of the largest phishing crime rings, which in two years stole between and . UK authorities jailed two men in June 2005 for their role in a phishing scam, in a case connected to the U.S. Secret Service Operation Firewall, which targeted notorious "carder" websites. In 2006, Japanese police arrested eight people for creating fake Yahoo Japan websites, netting themselves () and the FBI detained a gang of sixteen in the U.S. and Europe in Operation Cardkeeper. Senator Patrick Leahy introduced the Anti-Phishing Act of 2005 to Congress in the United States on March 1, 2005. This bill aimed to impose fines of up to $250,000 and prison sentences of up to five years on criminals who used fake websites and emails to defraud consumers. In the UK, the Fraud Act 2006 introduced a general offense of fraud punishable by up to ten years in prison and prohibited the development or possession of phishing kits with the intention of committing fraud. Companies have also joined the effort to crack down on phishing. On March 31, 2005, Microsoft filed 117 federal lawsuits in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington. The lawsuits accuse "John Doe" defendants of obtaining passwords and confidential information. March 2005 also saw a partnership between Microsoft and the Australian government teaching law enforcement officials how to combat various cyber crimes, including phishing. Microsoft announced a planned further 100 lawsuits outside the U.S. in March 2006, followed by the commencement, as of November 2006, of 129 lawsuits mixing criminal and civil actions. AOL reinforced its efforts against phishing in early 2006 with three lawsuits seeking a total of under the 2005 amendments to the Virginia Computer Crimes Act, and Earthlink has joined in by helping to identify six men subsequently charged with phishing fraud in Connecticut. In January 2007, Jeffrey Brett Goodin of California became the first defendant convicted by a jury under the provisions of the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003. He was found guilty of sending thousands of emails to AOL users, while posing as the company's billing department, which prompted customers to submit personal and credit card information. Facing a possible 101 years in prison for the CAN-SPAM violation and ten other counts including wire fraud, the unauthorized use of credit cards, and the misuse of AOL's trademark, he was sentenced to serve 70 months. Goodin had been in custody since failing to appear for an earlier court hearing and began serving his prison term immediately. Notable incidents 2016–2021 literary phishing thefts See also Catfishing Clickjacking Link farm , many abusable by phishing Mousetrapping Trojan Horse TrustRank References External links Anti-Phishing Working Group Center for Identity Management and Information Protection – Utica College Plugging the "phishing" hole: legislation versus technology – Duke Law & Technology Review Example of a Phishing Attempt with Screenshots and Explanations – StrategicRevenue.com A Profitless Endeavor: Phishing as Tragedy of the Commons – Microsoft Corporation Database for information on phishing sites reported by the public – PhishTank The Impact of Incentives on Notice and Take-down − Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge (PDF, 344 kB) Internet terminology Organized crime activity Social engineering (computer security) Spamming Cybercrime Confidence tricks Identity theft Types of cyberattacks Deception Fraud

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-cost%20carrier

Low-cost carrier

A low-cost carrier or low-cost airline (occasionally referred to as no-frills, budget or discount carrier or airline, and abbreviated as LCC) is an airline that is operated with an especially high emphasis on minimizing operating costs and without some of the traditional services and amenities provided in the fare, resulting in lower fares and fewer comforts. To make up for revenue lost in decreased ticket prices, the airline may charge extra fees – such as for carry-on baggage. As of April 2020, the world's largest low-cost carrier is Southwest Airlines, which operates primarily in the United States, as well as in some surrounding areas. The term originated within the airline industry referring to airlines with a lower operating cost structure than their competitors. While the term is often applied to any carrier with low ticket prices and limited services, regardless of their operating models, low-cost carriers should not be confused with regional airlines that operate short flights without service, or with full-service airlines offering some reduced fares. Some airlines advertise themselves as low-cost while maintaining products usually associated with traditional mainline carriers’ services. These products include preferred or assigned seating, catering, differentiated premium cabins, satellite or ground-based Wi-Fi internet, and in-flight audio and video entertainment. More recently, the term "ultra low-cost carrier" (ULCC) has been used, particularly in North America and Europe to refer to carriers that do not provide these services and amenities. Business model The low-cost carrier business model practices vary widely. Some practices are more common in certain regions, while others are generally universal. The common theme among all low-cost carriers is the reduction of cost and reduced overall fares compared to legacy carriers. Traditional airlines have also reduced their cost using several of these practices. Common practices Aircraft Most low-cost carriers operate aircraft configured with a single passenger class, and most operate just a single aircraft type, so cabin and ground crew will only have to be trained to work on one type of aircraft, however some low-cost carriers choose to operate more than one type and configure their aircraft with more than one passenger class. This is also beneficial from a maintenance standpoint as spare parts and mechanics will only be dedicated to one type of aircraft. These airlines tend to operate short-haul flights that suit the range of narrow-body (single aisle) planes. As of lately, however, there is also a rise in demand for long range low-cost flights and the availability of next generation planes that make long haul routes more feasible for LCCs. In the past, low-cost carriers tended to operate older aircraft purchased second-hand, such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and older models of the Boeing 737. Since 2000, fleets generally consist of the newest aircraft, commonly the Airbus A320 family and Boeing 737. Although buying new aircraft is usually more expensive than second-hand, new planes are cheaper to operate in the long run since they are extremely efficient in terms of fuel, training, maintenance, and crew costs per passenger. In 2013, ch-aviation published a study about the fleet strategy of low-cost carriers. They summarized that major LCCs that order aircraft in large numbers get large discounts for doing so, and due to this they can sell their aircraft just a few years after delivery at a price high enough to keep their operating costs relatively low. Aircraft often operate with a minimum set of optional equipment, further reducing costs of acquisition and maintenance, as well as keeping the weight of the aircraft lower and thus saving fuel. Ryanair seats do not recline and do not have rear pockets, to reduce cleaning and maintenance costs. Others have no window shades. Pilot conveniences, such as ACARS, may be excluded. Often, no in-flight entertainment systems are made available, though many US low-cost carriers do offer satellite television or radio in-flight. It is also becoming a popular approach to install LCD monitors onto the aircraft and broadcast advertisements on them, coupled with the traditional route–altitude–speed information. Most do not offer reserved seating, hoping to encourage passengers to board early and quickly, thus decreasing turnaround times. Some allow priority boarding for an extra fee instead of reserved seating, and some allow reserving a seat in an emergency exit row (for longer leg room) at an extra cost. Bases Like the major carriers, many low-cost carriers develop one or more bases to maximize destination coverage and defend their market. Many do not operate traditional hubs, but rather focus cities. Simplicity Airlines often offer a simpler fare scheme, such as selling only one-way tickets. Typically fares increase as the plane fills up, which rewards early reservations. In Europe (and early in Southwest's history) luggage is not transferred from one flight to another, even if both flights are with the same airline. This saves costs and is thought to encourage passengers to take direct flights. Tickets are not sold with transfers, so the airline can avoid responsibility for passengers' connections in the event of a delay. Low-cost carriers often have a sparse schedule with one flight per day and route, so it would be hard to find an alternative for a missed connection. Modern US-based low-cost carriers generally transfer baggage for continuing flights, as well as transferring baggage to other airlines. Many airlines opt to have passengers board via stairs, since jetways generally cost more to lease. Often, low-cost carriers fly to smaller, less congested secondary airports and/or fly to airports during off-peak hours to avoid air traffic delays and take advantage of lower landing fees. This is why Ryanair flies to Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport, and Stansted Airport in the London area and how easyJet is able to fly to Paris-Charles de Gaulle, and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. In London's case however, low-cost carriers would not be able to use Heathrow anyway as the airport is running at near capacity, so there is no room to build a base. The airlines tend to offload, service and re-load the aircraft (turnaround) in shorter time periods and do not wait for late passengers, allowing maximum utilization of aircraft. Non-flight revenue Low-cost carriers generate ancillary revenue from a variety of activities, such as à la carte features and commission-based products. Some airlines may charge a fee for a pillow or blanket or for carry-on baggage. In Europe, it is common for each and every convenience and service to have an additional charge. AirAsia, for example, generates revenue by courier services and hotels as well as flights. Limit personnel costs Low-cost carriers intend to be low-cost, so in many cases employees work multiple roles. At some airlines flight attendants also work as gate agents or assume other roles, thereby limiting personnel costs. Southwest Airlines is well known for using fuel hedging programs to reduce its overall fuel costs. Check-in at the gate of luggage requires fees, as it requires addition to the weight calculation and last-minute baggage handling. Online check-in is becoming common, again in the interest of avoiding personnel costs. Where permissible, some airlines have a disinclination to handle Special Service passengers, for instance by placing a higher age limit on unaccompanied minors than full-service carriers. Often these airlines do not offer connecting tickets, since the airline will have to pay for ground crew to transfer luggage. A customer may create a connection manually by purchasing two separate tickets, but these are considered separate contracts, and the passenger bears the risk if a delayed inbound flight causes a missed connection. When most countries had national monopolies, crews could negotiate pay raises and good pension benefits (something that costs money for the airlines only in the long term). During this period, most passengers were business travelers who paid high fares that covered these costs. After deregulation, which led to lower fares, many airlines remained bound to these salary agreements and pensions, whereas new low-cost carriers employed new staff with lower salaries, especially for cabin crew, keeping personnel costs low and allowing for competitive fares. In some cases airlines have gone bankrupt (e.g., Alitalia, Sabena, and Swissair), and new airlines replaced them. Traditional carriers followed the low-cost carriers by enabling web check-in, encouraging machine check-in at the airport, and generally reducing ground personnel cost. Ryanair is unique because it primarily operates at secondary airports without any competition, so it can easily negotiate large cost reductions and deals with the airport owners. The number of crew members follow international conventions that require one flight attendant per 50 passenger seats and two pilots. No carrier can save money by reducing flight crew, but they can reduce ground crew. Carriers like Ryanair hire pilots through third-party agencies based in low-tax countries without benefits for sick pay, pensions or health insurance. Traditional carriers have also started to try this, including starting their own low-tax agencies. These agencies can easily find less experienced co-pilots and cabin crew, as the profession is popular, but there are problems for low-cost carriers to recruit and keep captains who have to be experienced. Principles of operation At IATA, a LCC operation is defined as including the following characteristics, at least to some degree: Primarily point-to-point operations Short-haul routes, often between regional or secondary airports Strong focus on price-sensitive traffic, mostly leisure passengers Typically a single service class, with no (or limited) customer loyalty programmes Limited passenger services, with additional charges for some services (e.g., on-board catering) Low average fares, with a strong focus on price competition Different fares offered, related to aircraft load factors and length of time before departure A very high proportion of bookings made through the Internet High aircraft utilisation rates, with short turnaround between operations A fleet of just one or two aircraft types Private-sector companies A simple management and overhead structure with a lean strategic decision-making process While low-cost airlines differ in service offerings, by definition they feature most of the following: Standardized fleet (lower training, maintenance costs; purchasing aircraft in bulk) Absent non-essential features (reclining seats, frequent flyer schemes) Use of secondary airports for lower landing fees and marketing support Avoidance of airports with high costs Rapid turnaround (less time on the ground, more flights per day) Fly also less convenient times of the day, which price sensitive tourists accept (while business travellers want to fly at times suiting their schedule) Online ticket sales to avoid the cost of call centres or agents Online check-in (fewer check-in desks), charge for desk check-in Baggage charges for checked bags to offset baggage handling and loading costs Passenger loading via stairs rather than jetways Use staff for multiple jobs (cabin crew also check tickets at the gate, clean aircraft) Hedge fuel costs (buying fuel in advance when cheaper) Charge for all services (including on-board services, reserved seating, and extra baggage) Do not use reserved seating (which slows down boarding), or charge extra for reserved seating or early boarding. Fly point-to-point (passenger transfers to other flights are not accommodated, no compensation for missed connections) Carry little extra fuel (reducing aircraft weight ) Outfit plane with cost-cutting modifications, such as winglets Route planning before aircraft arrives at airport (saving time on the ground) Market destination services such as hotels and rental cars for commissions Innovative practices Some airlines resort to very innovative practices. Many airlines these days work with aircraft manufacturers, but airlines such as AirAsia go a step further, working with airports to develop specially designed low-cost terminals that require far less overhead. Lower costs are passed on to the airline, and in turn to the customer. Ryanair generally makes the airports accept their boarding passes which passengers print themselves, although at some airports (where Ryanair is not dominant) passengers have to replace their self-printed boarding pass with a normal boarding pass from the airport. Other practices that reduce expenses are the use of UAVs for aircraft checkups, tablet PCs instead of logs on paper (reduces airplane weight), and smartglasses for the pilot. Differentiation Not every low-cost carrier implements all of the above points. For example, some try to differentiate themselves with allocated seating, while others operate more than one aircraft type, still others have relatively high operating costs but lower fares. JetBlue, for instance, has in-flight entertainment in every passenger seat. Other airlines are limited on what points they can implement based on local laws. For example, Ryanair cannot remove window blinds from its aircraft, as they are required by the Irish Aviation Authority. As supply increases, this sort of differentiation by brand is an important criteria for the future success of low-cost carriers, since many experts believe price competition alone is not enough, given the number of carriers. As the number of low-cost carriers has grown, these airlines have begun to compete with one another in addition to the traditional carriers. In the US, airlines have responded by introducing variations to the model. JetBlue advertises satellite television. Advertiser-supported Skybus Airlines launched from Columbus in 2007, but ceased operations in April 2008. In Europe, the emphasis has remained on reducing costs and no-frills service. In 2004, Ryanair announced proposals to eliminate reclining seats, window blinds, seat headrest covers, and seat pockets from its aircraft. Air India Express offers a complimentary meal with beverages on most of its flights. Ultra low-cost carrier A secondary term "ultra low-cost carrier" (ULCC) has been used to differentiate some low-cost airlines whose model deviates further from that of a standard low-cost carrier, with ultra low-cost carriers having minimal inclusions in the fare and a greater number of add-on fees. In the US market, Spirit Airlines and Allegiant Air have been most commonly referred to as Ultra Low-Cost carriers, with Frontier Airlines repositioning as ultra low-cost in 2015. Following the appointment of former Allegiant Air COO Jude Bricker as their new CEO, Sun Country Airlines began transitioning to an ultra low-cost carrier model in 2017. In Europe, Ryanair and Wizz Air are the most prominent ULCCs. In Canada, Lynx Air launched service in 2022. Swoop is an ultra low-cost carrier owned by WestJet. Pricing policy The pricing policy of the low-cost carriers is usually very dynamic, with discounts and tickets in promotion. Like other carriers, even if the advertised price may be very low, it often does not include charges and taxes. With some airlines, some flights are advertised as free (plus applicable taxes, fees and charges). Depending on the airline, perhaps as many (or as few) as ten percent of the seats on any flight are offered at the lowest price and are the first to sell. The prices steadily rise thereafter to a point where they can be comparable or more expensive than a flight on a full-service carrier. Most airlines charge additional taxes and fees on their tickets. Some low-cost airlines have been known to charge fees for the seemingly ridiculous, such as levying a credit card charge if credit card is the only payment method accepted. History While tour and package operators have offered lower-priced, lower-frilled traveling for a large part of modern airline history, not until during the post–Vietnam War era did this business model escalate. Through various ticket consolidators, charter airlines, and innovators in lower-frills flying, such as Channel Airways and Court Line, the traveling public had been conditioned to want to travel to new and increasingly further away and exotic locations on vacation, rather than short-haul trips to nearby beach resorts. The world's first low-cost airline was Pacific Southwest Airlines, which started intrastate flights connecting Southern and Northern California on 6 May 1949. PSA's light-hearted atmosphere and efficient operations were a runaway success early on, and inspired a number of low-cost start-ups across the United States, beginning in the mid-1960s. Herb Kelleher studied the success of PSA, and copied their culture closely when he established Southwest Airlines in 1971. The first airline to offer cheaper transatlantic fares was Icelandic airline Loftleiðir in 1964, often referred to as "the Hippie Airline". Many young Americans travelled to Europe after graduation, to experience the "old-world culture", and they were more concerned with getting there cheaply than comfortably or even exactly on time. Loftleiðir were not famous for speed or punctuality, but flying with the company became a sort of rite of passage for those young "hippies", one of whom was Bill Clinton, later US President. The first airline offering no-frills transatlantic service was Freddie Laker's Laker Airways, which operated its famous "Skytrain" service between London and New York City during the late 1970s. The service was suspended after Laker's competitors, British Airways and Pan Am, were able to price Skytrain out of the market. In the United States, airline carriers such as Midway Airlines and America West Airlines, which commenced operations after 1978, soon realized a cost of available seat mile (CASM) advantage in relation to the traditional and established, legacy airlines such as Trans World Airlines and American Airlines. Often this CASM advantage has been attributed solely to the lower labor costs of the newly hired and lower pay grade workers of new start-up carriers, such as ValuJet, Midway Airlines, and their like. However, these lower costs can also be attributed to the less complex aircraft fleets and route networks with which these new carriers began operations, in addition to their reduced labor costs. To combat the new round of low-cost and start-up entrants into the very competitive and deregulated United States airline industry, the mainline major carriers and network legacy carriers strategically developed no-frills divisions within the main airlines brand and corporate structures. Among these were Continental Lite, Delta Express, MetroJet, Shuttle by United, Song, and Ted. However, most of these "airlines within an airline" were short-lived and quickly disposed-of when economic rationalization or competitive pressures subsided. Taking a page from the mainline, major, or legacy carriers' desire to reduce costs in all ways possible in regards regional route networks by outsourcing regional operations to the lowest expense airline bidder capable of operating regional aircraft, a new generation of low-cost airlines (in name only) soon evolved in the US with varying levels of success. Among these varieties of low-cost and discount operators were noteworthy starts-ups that managed to get off the ground by using the larger aircraft services of established charter airlines. Among this group were the virtual airlines; Direct Air, PeoplExpress, Western, and those that never began service such as JetAmerica. In Japan, low-cost airlines made major inroads into the market in 2012 when Peach, Jetstar Japan and AirAsia Japan began operations, each with financial sponsorship by a domestic legacy airline and one or more foreign investors. By mid-2013, these new LCCs were operating at a unit cost of around 8 yen per seat-kilometer, compared to 10–11 yen per seat-kilometer for domestic legacy airlines. However, their unit cost was still much higher than the 3 yen per seat-kilometer for AirAsia in Malaysia, due to the higher cost of landing fees and personnel in Japan. Market share By 2017, low-cost carriers had achieved market share of 57.2% in South Asia and 52.6% in Southeast Asia. Market share remained somewhat lower in Europe at 37.9% and North America at 32.7%. For the European Commission, the LCCs market share (44.8%) exceeded legacy carriers (42.4%) in 2012: between 2002 and 2017, LCC share of international seat capacity rose from 23% to 57% in the UK, from 10% to 55% in Italy and from 9% to 56% in Spain but have still room for growth in domestic seat-capacity In France with 19% and in Germany with 25% in 2017, compared with 66% in the UK, 48% in Spain and 47% in Italy. By early 2019, there were more than 100 LCCs operating 6,000 aircraft, doubled from 2,900 aircraft at the end of 2009, while seat capacity reached nearly 1.7 billion in 2018. LCCs accounted for 33% of intra-regional seat capacity in 2018 with 1.564 billion, up from 25% in 2008 with 753 million, and 13% of seat capacity between regions with 101 million, up from 6% in 2009 with 26 million. In 2018, penetration rate was 41% of seats within Europe, 36% within Latin America, 32% within North America, 29% within Asia Pacific, 17% within the Middle East and 12% within Africa. Long-haul low-cost A long-haul low-cost operation would be harder to differentiate from a conventional airline as there are few cost savings possibilities, while the seat costs would have to be lower than the competition. Long-haul aircraft scheduling is often determined by time zone constraints, like leaving the US East Coast in the evening and arriving in Europe the following morning, and the longer flight times mean there is less scope to increase aircraft utilization as in short-haul. The business model is financially risky, and many companies have entered bankruptcy, like Laker Airways. History In 2004, Irish Aer Lingus maintains a full service on transatlantic flights while it lowered its prices to compete with Ryanair on short haul. Late in 2004, Oasis Hong Kong Airlines offered London to Hong Kong flights from £199, and Canadian Zoom Airlines started selling transatlantic flights between the UK and Canada for £89. In August 2006, Zoom announced a UK subsidiary to offer low-cost long-haul flights to the United States and India, but suspended its operations from 28 August 2008 due to high fuel prices inducing financial problems. In 2005, Emirates' Tim Clark viewed long-haul low-cost as inevitable, flights could be operated on 760 seats all-economy Airbus A380s, or 870 for an hypothetical A380 stretch. Since 2005, Australia's Jetstar Airways operates international flights, starting with Christchurch, New Zealand. In late 2006, others followed from Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane, to popular tourist destinations within 10 hours like Honolulu, Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia. With new aircraft deliveries, it hopes to fly to the continental US and Europe. In April 2006, the industry magazine Airline Business analysed the potential for low-cost long-haul service and concluded that a number of Asian carriers, including AirAsia, were closest to making such a model work. On 26 October 2006, Oasis Hong Kong Airlines started flying from Hong Kong to London-Gatwick. The lowest prices for flights between Hong Kong to London could be as low at £75 (approximately US$150) per leg (not including taxes and other charges) for economy class and £470 (approximately US$940) per leg for business class for the same route. From 28 June 2007, a second long-haul route to Vancouver, British Columbia, was started. The company ceased operations on 9 April 2008, after over a billion Hong Kong dollars in losses. On 2 November 2007, AirAsia X, a subsidiary of AirAsia and Virgin Group flew its inaugural flight from Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, to Gold Coast, Australia. AirAsia X claims that it is the first true low-cost long-haul carrier since the end of Skytrain. In late 2007, Cebu Pacific, the Philippines' largest low-cost carrier, announced non-stop flights from the Philippines to the United States West Coast and other US cities from mid-2009. The airline also intends to launch low-cost service to Middle East, where around a million Filipinos are based, and in Europe. As of October 2017, it operates flights to Dubai daily and Guam three times a week. On 11 March 2009, AirAsia X started its first low-cost long-haul service into Europe, to London Stansted. The daily flights are operated by two leased Airbus A340-300s. A one-way economy-class ticket often costs £150, and the premium-class one-way often costs £350. On 12 January 2012, AirAsia announced that it would be suspending services to London on 1 April 2012. Low-cost European airline, Norwegian Air Shuttle, started long-haul low-cost operations in May 2013 under their Norwegian Long Haul arm. Norwegian initially operated flights to Bangkok and New York from Scandinavia using leased Airbus A340 aircraft, switching to new Boeing 787s in the second half of 2013 after Boeing resumed deliveries following extensive problems and delays. It served direct routes from the United States (Los Angeles, Fort Lauderdale, New York City, Oakland-San Francisco, Boston and Orlando) into Scandinavia (Oslo, Stockholm, Copenhagen). In January 2021 Norwegian announced the immediate cessation of their long-haul operations, along with a large-scale reduction of its fleet of Boeing 737 aircraft and operations. In March 2017, International Airlines Group established Level, a long-haul low-cost virtual airline based in Barcelona Airport and serving destinations in North and South America. Long-haul low-cost carriers are emerging on the transatlantic flights market with 545,000 seats offered over 60 city pairs in September 2017 (a 66% growth over one year), compared to 652,000 seats over 96 pairs for Leisure airlines and 8,798,000 seats over 357 pairs for mainline carriers. Former American Airlines CEO Bob Crandall thinks the legacy carriers will force Long-haul LCCS to lose too much money and will continue to dominate. While Asian carriers like AirAsia X, Scoot, Cebu Pacific and Jetstar Airways are successful, the October 2018 demise of Primera Air and its $99 transatlantic flights illustrates the difficulties of the model, as the US World Airways will be relaunched in 2019. Norse Atlantic Airways was founded in 2021 and commenced operations in 2022, operating transatlantic flights as well as flights to Thailand beginning in 2023. Low-cost business-only carriers A trend from the mid-2000s was the formation of new low-cost carriers exclusively targeting the long-haul business market. Aircraft are generally configured for a single class of service, initially on transatlantic routings. Similarly, Midwest Express (later Midwest Airlines) which operated from 1984 until it was absorbed into Frontier Airlines in 2010, and Legend Airlines which ceased operations in late 2000 were also founded on this operating model. Probably best described as "fewer frills" rather than "no frills", the initial entrants in this market utilized second-hand, mid-sized, twin jets, such as Boeing 757 and Boeing 767, in an attempt to service the lucrative London-US Eastern Seaboard market: Eos Airlines, which ceased operating on 27 April 2008 MAXjet, which ceased its scheduled business flights in December 2007 and was unable to transition to charter as planned. Silverjet, which ceased operations on 30 May 2008. La Compagnie Criticism Some elements of the low-cost model have been subject to criticism by governments and regulators; and in the UK in particular, the issue of "unbundling" of ancillary charges by both low-cost carriers and other airlines (showing airport fees or taxes as separate charges rather than as part of the advertised fare) to make the "headline fare" appear lower has resulted in enforcement action. Considering that this amounts to a misleading approach to pricing, the United Kingdom's Office of Fair Trading (OFT) in February 2007 gave all carriers and travel companies three months to include all fixed non-optional costs in their basic advertised prices. Although the full-service carriers had complied within the specified timescales, the low-cost carriers have been less compliant in this respect, leading to the prospect of legal action by the OFT. Some destination cities lie relatively far from the airports that low-cost airlines use to save costs. Examples of this are Hahn, Weeze and Girona airports—which low-cost airlines advertise as the destinations for Frankfurt, Düsseldorf, and Barcelona, respectively—even though these airports are 50 to 90 kilometres away. This has drawn criticism, mostly from competing airlines that fly closer to the destinations. IAG CEO Willie Walsh found established airlines arrogant facing the LCC model. For instance, Aer Lingus turned down the opportunity to buy Ryanair for £29 million Irish pounds (€ million). The company further stated that it would not have developed Ryanair and instead would have shut it down. See also Low cost carrier terminal List of low-cost airlines References Sources Gross, S./Schroeder, A. (Eds.): Handbook of Low Cost Airlines – Strategies, Business Processes and Market Environment, Berlin 2007 External links Oleksandr Laneckij Trends of the European Aviation Market: Seven Themes from the CONNECT 2016 Conference Specialised low-cost air tickets search engine Airline types Business models

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/75th%20Ranger%20Regiment

75th Ranger Regiment

The 75th Ranger Regiment, also known as Army Rangers, is the premier light infantry unit and special operations force within the United States Army Special Operations Command. The regiment is headquartered at Fort Moore, Georgia and is composed of a regimental headquarters company, a military intelligence battalion, a special troops battalion, and three Ranger battalions. The 75th Ranger Regiment primarily handles direct action raids in hostile or sensitive environments, often killing or capturing high-value targets. Other missions include airfield seizure, special reconnaissance, personnel recovery, clandestine insertion, and site exploitation. The regiment can deploy one Ranger battalion within eighteen hours of alert notification. The 75th Ranger Regiment is one of the U.S. military's most extensively used units. On December 17, 2021, it marked 7,000 consecutive days of combat operations. History Origin American Ranger history predates the American Revolutionary War. Captain Benjamin Church formed Church's Rangers, which fought hostile Native American tribes during King Philip's War. In 1756, Robert Rogers recruited nine Ranger companies to fight in the French and Indian War. They were known as "Rogers' Rangers". The 75th Regiment's history dates back these rifle companies organized by Rogers, which made long-range attacks against French forces and their Indian allies, and were instrumental in capturing Fort Detroit. During the American Revolutionary War, Rogers served as a Loyalist officer on the side of the Crown and many of his former Rangers served on both sides. One, John Stark, commanded the 1st New Hampshire Regiment, which gained fame at the Battles of Bunker Hill and Bennington. Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys in Vermont were also designated as a ranger unit. In 1775, the Continental Congress later formed eight companies of expert riflemen to fight in the Revolutionary War. In 1777, this force commanded by Daniel Morgan, was known as The Corps of Rangers. Francis Marion, "The Swamp Fox", organized another famous Revolutionary War Ranger element known as "Marion's Partisans". Perhaps the most famous Ranger unit in the Revolutionary War was Butler's Rangers, from upstate New York. During the War of 1812, companies of United States Rangers were raised from among the frontier settlers as part of the regular army. Throughout the war, they patrolled the frontier from Ohio to Western Illinois on horseback and by boat. Rangers participated in many skirmishes and battles with the British and their American Indian allies. After the Civil War, more than half a century passed without Ranger units in the United States. World War II battalions 1st Ranger Battalion Soon after the United States entered World War II in 1941, General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff of the United States Army, envisioned an elite unit of fifty men selected voluntarily from the 34th Infantry Division. To create and lead this new unit, Marshall picked Major William Orlando Darby, who was serving as General Russell P. Hartle's aide in Belfast, Northern Ireland, where he was frustrated with his lack of hands-on experience. On 8 June 1942, Darby—now known as the founder of the modern Rangers—was put in charge of the First Ranger Battalion under General Hartle. On 19 August 1942, fifty Rangers fought alongside Canadian and British Commandos in the ill-fated Dieppe Raid on the coast of occupied France. Three Rangers were killed and several captured. The first American soldier killed in Europe in World War II, Ranger Lieutenant E. V. Loustalot, was part of this raid. During the mission, Loustalot took command after the British captain leading the assault was killed. While attempting to reach a machine gun nest at the top of a cliff, he was wounded three times by enemy fire and killed. In November 1942, the entire 1st Ranger Battalion entered combat for the first time when they landed at Arzew, Algeria during Operation Torch. The First were split into two groups in hopes of assaulting Vichy-French batteries and fortifications before the 1st Infantry Division would land on the beach. The operation was successful, and the unit sustained minimal casualties. On 11 February 1943, the Rangers moved to raid an Italian encampment at Sened Station. Moving at night, the Rangers slipped to within of the Italian outpost and began their attack. It took the battalion only 20 minutes to overtake the garrison and achieve their objective. Seventy five Italians were killed and eleven were taken prisoner. Darby, along with four other officers and nine enlisted, was awarded the Silver Star Medal for this action. The battalion itself gained the nickname the "Black Death" by the Italians. At the time, the Italians still held the pass at Djebel El Ank, located at the far east edge of El Guettar. The Rangers linked up with engineers elements of the 26th Infantry, First Infantry Division, to attack the area in preparation for the Battle of El Guettar. The First Rangers orders were to move overland, on foot to outflank the enemy's position. In eight hours of fighting, the Americans captured the objective; the First Rangers took 200 prisoners. Creation of 3rd and 4th Ranger Battalions With the success of the First Ranger Battalion during the Tunisian campaign, Darby requested that the Rangers be expanded to a full Regiment. The request was granted. The Third and Fourth Ranger Battalions were authorized shortly after and were trained and led by veteran officers and NCOs from the First Battalion. After getting the "green light" to expand, Darby ran into a problem: the Rangers only took volunteers. Darby, knowing that the best man for the job was not always a volunteer, sought out men around Oran. Although he was still limited in that he could only accept volunteers, he began to find ways around this. For instance, he began to give speeches, put up posters, and encourage his officers to scout around for eligible candidates. By June 1943, the three Ranger battalions were fully operational. 1st Rangers were still under Colonel Darby; the 3rd Rangers under Major Herman Dammer, and the 4th Rangers commanded by Major Roy Murray. 1st and 4th Ranger Battalions were paired together and placed with General Terry Allen's 1st Division to spearhead the American landings of the Sicily campaign. Landing outside Gela, the Rangers took the town just after midnight, starting off the Battle of Gela. They held Gela, enduring 50 hours of constant attack by enemy artillery, tank, and air forces. Following their success, the two Ranger battalions were then ordered to take the town of Butera, a fortress suspended on the high edge of the cliff at Butera beach. After almost withdrawing from the battle, and requesting artillery to level the city, a platoon of Rangers volunteered to breach its defenses. Two privates, John See and John Constantine, sneaked in behind enemy lines and tricked the Italians and Germans into surrendering the city. Meanwhile, the 3rd Ranger Battalion headed out into the area of Agrigento, where they marched through Campobello, Naro, and Favara, successfully occupying each town. The 3rd then took the town of Porto Empedocle. Colonel Darby was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and was promoted by General George Patton; however, Darby, wanting to be closer to his men, turned down this promotion. Fall of 1st, 3rd and 4th Battalions After a break for Christmas 1943, the Rangers were put together for a joint effort to occupy the town of Cisterna before the main infantry division moved in. On the night of 30 January 1944, the 1st and 3rd battalions moved into the town, passing many German soldiers who did not appear to notice the Rangers slip by. The 4th Ranger Battalion, which approached the town from the opposite end, met opposition almost immediately on the road. During the night, the 1st and 3rd Ranger battalions separated by about , and when daylight caught the 1st Ranger Battalion out in an open field, the Germans began their ambush. Surrounded and unable to escape, the two Ranger battalions fought on until they exhausted their ammunition and resources. The 4th Ranger Battalion pushed to save their comrades but were forced to withdraw. After five hours of fighting, the Rangers surrendered to the German armor and mechanized infantry. The two battalions sustained 12 killed, 36 wounded, and 743 captured—only eight were able to escape. The 4th Battalion suffered 30 killed and 58 wounded. This marked the end of the three Ranger battalions. The remaining 400 Rangers were scattered around the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, and the 137 original Rangers were sent home. 1st and 3rd Battalions were disbanded on 15 August 1944 while 4th Battalion was disbanded on 24 October 1944 at Camp Butner, North Carolina. 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions The 2nd Ranger Battalion and 5th Ranger Battalion were trained at Camp Forrest, Tennessee, on 1 April 1943. They first saw action 6 June 1944, during Operation Overlord. During D-day 2nd Rangers companies D, E, and F, were ordered to take a strategic German outpost at Pointe du Hoc. This coastal cliff was supposed to have several 155 mm artillery cannons aimed down at the beach. Once they arrived at the bottom of the cliff, they had an enormous climb to make up rope ladders while receiving a barrage of machinegun fire from the Germans above. The 2nd Rangers took the area even with the intense German resistance but the guns were not in sight. A patrol scouting the area found the 155 mm coastal guns a mile away; the patrol party quickly disabled the guns and resistance in the area. In an interview, Leonard Lomell and Jack Kuhn explained the events that took place that day: Meanwhile, the rest of the 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions spearheaded the attack on the beach at Omaha. An apocryphal story tells of when General Norman Cota, leading the 29th Infantry Division, met with Major Max F. Schneider, commanding the 5th Ranger Battalion. When Schneider was asked his unit by Cota, someone yelled out "5th Rangers!", to which Cota replied, "Well then Goddammit, Rangers, lead the way!" This drive cut the German line allowing the conventional army to move in. The phrase "Rangers lead the way" later became the motto of the regiment. The 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions worked on special operation tasks in the Normandy Campaign. The two battalions fought in many battles such as Battle for Brest and the Battle of the Hurtgen Forest. The 2nd Rangers were responsible for capturing Le Conquet Peninsula, where they disabled a 280 mm gun and took many German prisoners. The 2nd Ranger Battalion also went on to take several tactical German positions, cutting the German line in the Rhineland. In Saar west of Zerf, the 5th Battalion took an overlooking German position cutting of all supply routes to German forces. 6th Ranger Battalion The 6th Ranger Battalion was stationed in the Pacific, and served mostly in the Philippines and New Guinea. All operations completed by the 6th Battalion were done in company- or platoon-size behind enemy lines. They were the first soldiers to hit the Philippines, three days before the army would launch the first invasion. The 6th Ranger Battalion conducted long-range reconnaissance, operating miles past the front line. At Cabanatuan, on the island of Luzon in January 1945, a company of the 6th Ranger Battalion executed the Raid at Cabanatuan. The Rangers penetrated behind enemy lines, including crawling a mile () across an open field on their stomachs. During their final assault the Rangers destroyed a garrison of Japanese soldiers twice their size and rescued 500 POWs. The 6th Ranger Battalion's final mission was to secure a drop zone for 11th Airborne Division paratroopers into enemy territory. They linked up with the 37th Infantry Division and ended the war in the Philippines. Merrill's Marauders In August 1944, after five months of fighting in China Burma India Theater with the Japanese Army, Merrill's Marauders (5307th Composite Unit (Provisional)) were consolidated into then 475th Infantry, afterwards the 75th Infantry Regiment. As a special force group led by Brigadier General Frank Merrill, to commemorate its companion Chinese Expeditionary Force (Burma), Merrill's Marauders put the sun from the National emblem of the Republic of China and the Star from Burma's flag on its badge. The lightning bolt signifies the swiftness of their strikes. Merrill's Marauders would later become part of the regiment's lineage. Korean War The outbreak of hostilities in Korea in June 1950 again signaled the need for Rangers. Fifteen Ranger companies were formed during the Korean War, drawing their lineages from the World War II era Ranger battalions. The Rangers went to battle throughout the winter of 1950 and the spring of 1951. They were nomadic warriors, attached first to one Regiment and then to another. They performed "out front" work—scouting, patrolling, raids, ambushes, spearheading assaults, and as counterattack forces to regain lost positions. In all six airborne Ranger companies, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 8th, averaging 125 soldiers in each company served during the conflict. Two other companies, the 10th and 11th, were scheduled for Korea but were deactivated in Japan. During the course of the Korean War, 100 Rangers were killed in action and 296 were wounded in action. Vietnam War The history of Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP—pronounced "Lurp"), LRP, and Ranger units deployed during the Cold War in Europe and Vietnam is based on three time periods: 1) LRRP from late 1965 to 20 December 1967; 2) LRP from late December 1967 through January 1969; and 3) Ranger from 1 February 1969, to 1972 when the Vietnam War drew down and the U.S. Vietnam Ranger units were deactivated. Despite sharing a similar name, these Ranger units under the 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger) drew their lineages not from the World War II/Korean War era Ranger battalions but from 5307 Composite Unit, also known as Merrill's Marauders. In 1974, their colors and lineage were passed to newly formed Ranger Battalions based in the United States. The first period above began in Vietnam in November 1966 with the creation of a provisional LRRP Detachment by the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile); followed by the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division; the 1st Infantry Division; and the 25th Infantry Division in June 1966. General William C. Westmoreland, commander of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), ordered the creation of provisional LRRPs in all Infantry brigades and divisions on 8 July 1966. By the winter of 1966 the 4th and 9th Infantry Divisions had operational LRRP units, and in January 1967 the 196th Light Infantry Brigade had the same. The 101st Airborne Division "main body," while still at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, converted its divisional Recondo School into a provisional LRRP unit in the summer of 1967, before the division deployed to Vietnam. This provisional company arrived in Vietnam in late November 1967. The second period began in late June 1967, when the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Earle G. Wheeler, authorized the formation of two long-range patrol companies for I and II Field Forces. Company E (Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol), 20th Infantry (Airborne) was activated on 25 September 1967 and assigned to I Field Force and stationed at Phan Rang. The nucleus of this unit came from the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division LRRP Platoon, along with soldiers from the replacement stream. Company F (Long Range Patrol), 51st Infantry (Airborne) was activated on 25 September 1967 and assigned to II Field Force stationed at Bien Hoa. Its nucleus came from the LRRP platoon of the 173d Airborne Brigade, along with soldiers from the replacement stream. Each of the two Field Force LRP companies had a strength of 230 men, and was commanded by a major. In an apparent response to division commanders' tactical requirements, and bolstered by the combat effectiveness of the provisional LRRP units, in the winter of 1967 the Army authorized separate company designations for Long Range Patrol (LRP) units in divisions and detachments in separate brigades. The divisional LRP companies were authorized 118 men and the brigade detachments 61 men. The wholesale renaming of existing divisional LRP units occurred on 20 December 1967 in the 1st Cavalry, 1st Infantry, 4th Infantry, 9th Infantry, 23d (Americal), and 25th Infantry Divisions. LRP detachments were created in the 199th Light Infantry Brigade on 10 January 1968, in the 173d Airborne Brigade on 5 February 1968, and in the 3d Brigade 82d Airborne Division and 1st Brigade 5th Mechanized Division on 15 December 1968. On 1 February 1969, the final period of the existence of these units began when the Department of the Army redesignated the LRP companies and detachments as lettered Ranger companies of the 75th Infantry Regiment under the Combined Arms Regimental System (CARS). The "re-flagged" Ranger companies were: "A" V Corps Rangers, Fort Hood, Texas; "B" VII Corps Rangers, Fort Lewis, Washington; "C" I Field Forces, Vietnam; "D" II Field Forces, Vietnam; "E" 9th Infantry Division, Vietnam; F 25th Infantry Division, Vietnam; "G" 23rd Infantry Division, Vietnam; "H" 1st Cavalry Division, Vietnam; "I" 1st Infantry Division, Vietnam; "K" 4th Infantry Division, Vietnam; "L" 101st Airborne Division, Vietnam; "M" 199th Light Infantry Brigade, Vietnam; "N" 173rd Airborne Brigade, Vietnam; "O" 3rd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division, Vietnam; "P" 1st Brigade, 5th Infantry Division (Mechanized), Vietnam; "D/151" Indiana National Guard; and "F/425 " Michigan National Guard. The third period ended when the Ranger companies were inactivated as their parent units were withdrawn from the war between November 1969 (starting with Company O, 3rd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division) to 15 August 1972 (ending with Company H, 1st Cavalry Division). On 9 June 1972, H Company (Ranger) lost SGT Elvis Weldon Osborne Jr. and CPL Jeffrey Alan Maurer to enemy action. Three other US soldiers were killed by non-hostile action that day, but SGT Osborne and CPL Maurer were the last US Army infantrymen killed on the ground, as well as the last Rangers killed in the Vietnam War. Post-Vietnam War In January 1974, General Creighton Abrams, Army Chief of Staff, directed the formation of a Ranger battalion. General Kenneth C. Leuer was charged with activating, organizing, training and leading the first battalion sized Ranger unit since World War II. Though the Vietnam War era Ranger companies of the 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger), which drew their lineages from Merrill's Marauders, had all been deactivated (or soon would be), they passed their lineages and colors to these new battalions. The 1st Battalion, which carried its legacy from Merrill's Marauders via Company C, 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger) was activated and parachuted into Fort Stewart, Georgia, on 1 July 1974. The 2nd Battalion, which drew lineage from Company H, 75th Infantry (Ranger), followed shortly afterward with activation at Fort Lewis, Washington on 1 October 1974. The 3rd Battalion and Headquarters Company were activated and received their colors on 3 October 1984 from Company F, 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger) at Fort Moore, Georgia. On 3 February 1986, the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Battalions of the 75th were consolidated with active and inactive units which carried the lineages of the World War II era: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th Ranger Battalions. The regiment as a whole was concurrently redesignated as the 75th Ranger Regiment. The modern Ranger battalions were first called upon in 1980 when elements of 1st Ranger Battalion participated in Operation Eagle Claw, the Iranian hostage-rescue mission. In October 1983, 1st and 2nd Ranger Battalions spearheaded Operation Urgent Fury, conducting a dangerous low-level parachute assault to seize Point Salines Airfield and rescue American citizens at True Blue Medical Campus in Grenada. The entire 75th Ranger Regiment participated in Operation Just Cause, which lasted from December 1989 to January 1990. Rangers spearheaded the action by conducting two important operations. Simultaneous parachute assaults were conducted onto Torrijos/Tocumen International Airport, Rio Hato Airfield, and General Manuel Noriega's beach house to neutralize Panamanian Defense Forces. The Rangers captured more than 1,014 prisoners of war and more than 18,000 weapons. Elements of Company B, and 1st Platoon Company A, 1st Ranger Battalion, deployed to Saudi Arabia from 12 February 1991 to 15 April 1991 for Operation Desert Storm. They conducted raids and provided a quick reaction force in cooperation with allied forces. In December 1991, 1/75 and the Regimental headquarters deployed to Kuwait in a show of force called Operation Iris Gold. The Rangers performed an airborne assault onto Ali Al Salem airfield, near Kuwait City, conducted a foot march through devastation (including mine fields) left from the ground campaign, conducted a live fire exercise, and left on foot. In August 1993, elements of 3rd Ranger Battalion deployed to Somalia to help United Nations forces attempting to bring order to the chaotic and starving nation. On 3 October 1993, the Rangers conducted a daylight raid with Delta Force. They captured the high-value targets but the ensuing Battle of Mogadishu ended in chaos as the American forces were trapped for hours inside the city by Somalian militias, due to a series of planning and command errors, resulting in the death of several American soldiers. Rangers held improvised positions for nearly 18 hours, killing between 500 and 1,000 Somalis before American QRF, Pakistani, and Malaysian troops with armor rescued them and the American troops could retreat. The mission was seen as a pyrrhic victory Regimental Reconnaissance Company In 1984, the 75th Ranger Regiment established a Regimental Reconnaissance Detachment (RRD). On 24 November 2000, the detachment deployed with a command-and-control element to Kosovo for Task Force Falcon. By 2005, the unit—enlarged and renamed the Regimental Reconnaissance Company (RRC)—had become an elite special operations force and a member of Joint Special Operations Command. In 2006, the Regimental Reconnaissance Company was moved into the new Regimental Special Troops Battalion. Regimental Special Troops Battalion Several years into the War on Terror, the 75th Ranger Regiment created a Regimental Special Troops Battalion (RSTB) to help switch from short-term "contingency missions" to continuous combat operations. Activated on 17 July 2006, the RSTB conducts sustainment, intelligence, reconnaissance and maintenance missions that were previously accomplished by small detachments assigned to the Regimental Headquarters and then attached within each of the three Ranger battalions. The battalion consists of the Ranger Reconnaissance Company, the Ranger Communications Company (RCC), the Ranger Military Intelligence Company (RMIC), and the Ranger Selection and Training Company (RST&C). The RSTB draws its lineage from Company N, 75th Infantry Regiment (back to Merrill's Marauders) and Company B, 1st Ranger Infantry Battalion. Global War on Terrorism While the Ranger Regiment has traditionally been considered an elite light infantry force, its operations in Afghanistan and Iraq from 2001 to 2012 demonstrated its ability to conduct a full range of special operations missions. In October 2007, a D Company was added to each of the three battalions of the 75th Ranger Regiment. By 2012, the 75th Ranger Regiment was conducting sustained combat operations in multiple countries, deploying from multiple locations in the United States—an unprecedented task for the regiment. Rangers conducted combat operations with almost every deployed special operations, conventional, and coalition force in Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. The Ranger Regiment executed a wide range of operations, including airborne and air assaults into Afghanistan and Iraq, mounted infiltrations behind enemy lines, complex urban raids on high-value targets (HVTs), and rescue operations. Ranger battalion operational tempo while deployed was high. During one Afghanistan deployment, the 1st Ranger Battalion conducted more than 900 missions, captured nearly 1,700 enemy combatants (including 386 high-value targets), and killed more than 400 fighters. By mid-2015 each Ranger battalion had completed its twentieth deployment to Afghanistan and Iraq. Army Times reported that in December 2016, the first female officer completed RASP, making the 75th Ranger Regiment the first special operations unit to have a female soldier graduate its selection course. Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan After the events of 11 September 2001, Rangers were called into action for the War on Terror. On 19 October 2001, 200 Rangers of 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment spearheaded ground forces by conducting an airborne assault to seize Objective Rhino during the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the opening battle of Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan. Spc. Jonn J. Edmunds and Pfc. Kristofer T. Stonesifer became the first combat casualties in the War on Terror when their MH-60L helicopter crashed at Objective Honda in Pakistan, a temporary staging site used by a company of Rangers from 3rd Battalion. Ranger protection force teams were part of Task Force Sword, a black SOF unit whose primary objective was capturing or killing senior leaders and HVTs with al-Qaeda and the Taliban. A squadron of Delta Force operatives, supported by Rangers from TF Sword, conducted an operation outside Kandahar at a location known as Objective Gecko; they missed the mission's target but killed some 30 Taliban fighters in a heavy firefight. In November 2001, the 75th Ranger Regiment carried out its second combat parachute drop into Afghanistan: a platoon-sized Ranger security element, including the Regimental Reconnaissance Detachment Team 3 conducted the missions: Objective Wolverine, Raptor and Operation Relentless Strike. During the Battle of Tora Bora in December 2001, a CIA Jawbreaker team (a small group of CIA SAD ground branch operators) requested that the 3rd Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment be inserted into the mountains to block escape routes from Tora Bora to Pakistan. They would serve as an "anvil" while Special Forces with the Afghan Militia Forces would be the "hammer". With the attached Air Force Combat Controllers, the Rangers could have directed airstrikes onto enemy concentrations or engaged them in ambushes, but their requests to do so were denied. In March 2002, 35 Rangers from 1st Battalion, 75th Ranger Regiment had been assigned as QRF for all Task Force operations, but only half of the platoon was available for the Battle of Takur Ghar. In the final days of Operation Anaconda, a mixed force of Rangers travelling in Blackhawk helicopters backed up operators from DEVGRU who intercepted a convoy of al-Qaeda fighters traveling in three SUVs via three MH-47Es. A firefight left 16 al-Qaeda fighters dead and two seriously wounded and captured. On 18 August, Rangers and other coalition special forces joined the 82nd Airborne Division in Operation Mountain Sweep, carrying out five combat air assault missions in the area around the villages of Dormat and Narizah, south of Khowst and Gardez. The force found an anti-aircraft gun, two 82mm mortars, recoilless rifles, rocket-propelled-grenade launchers, machine guns, small arms and ammunition for all of them; they also detained 10 people. Later in 2002, TF 11 was replaced by a small JSOC element manned by SEALs and Rangers. In 2003, after Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was arrested in a joint CIA-ISI operation in Pakistan, Rangers and 82nd Airborne Division troops helped transport him to a U.S. black site prison. After the troops secured an improvised desert strip in a dry river bed near the Pakistani border, an MC-130 Combat Talon plane landed and lowered its ramp, whereupon SEALs from DEVGRU drove Desert Patrol Vehicles carrying the detainee up the ramp into the back of the plane, which taxied and lifted off. In summer 2005, during Operation Red Wings, a Ranger patrol retrieved HM2 Marcus Luttrell five days after he went missing. In July 2006, in Helmand Province, two MH-47Es from 160th SOAR attempted to insert a combined strike element of DEVGRU, Rangers, and Afghan commandos so they could attack a compound. With some troops on the ground, a large insurgent force ambushed them; both helicopters were struck by small arms fire. One MH-47E pilot put his aircraft in the line of fire to protect the assault team disembarking from the other MH-47E, but was struck by an RPG and crash-landed without serious injury. The Ranger commander and an attached Australian commando organized an all-round defense while the other MH-47E held back the advancing insurgents until its Miniguns ran out of ammunition. An AC-130 Spectre joined the battle and kept the downed crew and passengers safe until a British Immediate Response Team helicopter recovered them. The AC-130 then destroyed the MH-47E wreck, denying it to the Taliban. Also that year, a six-man RRD (Regimental Reconnaissance Detachment) team from the 75th Ranger Regiment attached to the JSOC Task Force inserted into the Hindu Kush mountain range after intelligence indicated that an insurgent chief, Haqqani, would be entering Afghanistan from Pakistan. After establishing an OP almost 4,000 meters above sea level, the RRD team waited and watched for their target. Insurgents arrived and began to fire on the Ranger team, whose attached JTAC called in an orbiting B-1B strategic bomber. The airplane killed an estimated 100 insurgents, but not Haqqani. In 2007, after a CIA source reported seeing Bin Laden in Tora Bora, many theater ISR assets were sent the area. The initial plan based around a small helicopter assault force soon expanded to include Special Forces ODAs and a Ranger element to provide a cordon for the SEALs. Eventually, the operation was launched under the cover of Air Force bombing, but after fruitless searching through the mountains, no sign of Bin Laden was found. In June 2009, Army soldier Bowe Bergdahl was captured by the Taliban. Over the five years that he was held by the Taliban and Haqqani Network, Rangers and DEVGRU "spun up" operations to rescue him, but each resulted in a "dry hole." On 8 October 2010, a troop from DEVGRU and two squads of Rangers tried to rescue Linda Norgrove, who was being held by the Taliban in compounds in the Korangal Valley. The rescue mission failed when a DEVGRU operator accidentally killed Norgrove with a grenade. For actions between 14 and 16 November 2010, Charlie Company 1/75th, received the Valorous Unit Award for extraordinary heroism, combat achievement, and conspicuous gallantry. With ISAF's surge in Afghanistan at its peak in summer 2011, 1/75th (and Bravo Company in particular) received the Meritorious Unit Citation for actions during Operation Enduring Freedom between 15 May – 28 August 2011. These included conducting continuous combat operations, including time-sensitive raids and deliberate movement-to-contact operations in enemy-held terrain beyond reach of friendly forces in places like Khost, Paktika and Nangarhar Province. Two Rangers from the battalion were killed during this time. On 20 July, Delta Force supported by Rangers and Afghan SOF elements were inserted by the 160th SOAR into the mountainous region of Sar Rowzah District, Paktika Province. They were immediately engaged by insurgents who were heavily armed with DShK HMGs and RPGs; during that night's fighting, about 30 insurgents were killed. As the sun rose, dozens of remaining insurgents who had been hiding in bunkers and caves became visible, and armed UAVs, AH-6s, and MH-60 DAPs flew in close air support, as did ground attack aircraft. Fighting continued into a second day as bunkers and fighting positions were systematically cleared, some using then-recently issued Mk14 Antistructural Grenades. An estimated 80 to 100 Haqqani and foreign fighters were killed in the two-day battle. On 6 August, a platoon of U.S. Army Rangers began taking fire while trying to capture a senior Taliban leader in the Tangi Valley in Wardak province. A CH-47 helicopter carrying 38 American and Afghan servicemen was dispatched to help, but was shot down by the Taliban. All 38 aboard died in the deadliest single incident for Americans in the Afghanistan campaign. Operation Iraqi Freedom During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, all three Ranger Battalions were assigned to a new Task Force whose goals were to seize key locations, conduct long-range special reconnaissance, and capture HVTs. On 24 March 2003, 3rd Battalion 75th Ranger Regiment conducted a combat drop onto H-1 Air Base, securing the site as a staging area for operations in western Iraq. A company of Rangers and Royal Marines from 45 Commando flew into Iraq from Jordan to secure H-2 and H-3 airbases after they were captured by US, British and Australian SOF. On 26 March, B Company, 2/75th supported DEVGRU operators in the Objective Beaver raid on a suspected chemical and biological weapons site north of Haditha; they engaged numerous gunmen but found no chemical or biological weapons. On 1 April 2003, 290 Rangers from 1/75th and 2/75th helped rescue Private 1st Class Jessica Lynch; also that day, Delta Force and 3/75th captured the Haditha Dam and held it for five days. After the invasion, the main 75th Ranger element deployed to Iraq carried out operations in northern Iraq and was based out of Mosul or Tikrit, supported by a small element of Delta Force operators. The DEVGRU squadron were supported by a reinforced Ranger platoon as was the Delta Force squadron, all part of the overall effort by JSOC in Iraq. On 18 June 2003, Delta Force operators and Rangers flew from Mosul via helicopter to chase a vehicle convoy of Ba'ath Party Iraqis who were fleeing over the border into Syria; JSOC suspected that Saddam Hussein was part of the convoy so the convoy was destroyed by an AC-130 Spectre. The operators then conducted a heliborne assault into a nearby compound that proved to be a Ba'athist safe house for ferrying former regime elements across the border. The operators came under fire from Syrian border guards, leading to a firefight that left several Syrians dead and 17 captured. Hussein was not in the convoy, but several of his cousins were. On 23 July 2005, in Baghdad, Rangers acted as a back-up force for the British Special Boat Service during Operation Marlborough. On 1 January 2006, Rangers raided a remote farmhouse outside Baghdad, capturing several gunmen without a fight and rescuing British freelance journalist Phillip Sands, who had been kidnapped a week earlier. In Ramadi, the Rangers switched to riskier daylight raids after insurgents learned to move out of the city at night. In November 2006, a new secret directive sanctioned by President Bush allowed U.S. forces in Iraq to kill or capture Iranian nationals if they were targeting coalition forces. The directive reflected Hezbollah's success in the 2006 Lebanon War and Iran's defiance on its nuclear issue; the new mission was known by its acronym CII (Counter Iranian Influence). The CII missions were given to Task Force 17, a new command based around the headquarters of an Army Special Forces group. To support TF 17, Rangers from B Company 2/75th flew into Sadr City to hunt a Shia Special Groups leader, leading to a fierce street battle; the Rangers conducted a fighting withdrawal that was likened to "Mogadishu Mile." More than 45 insurgents were killed with no Ranger losses; when the Iraqi government was made aware of the operation, permission to conduct operations in Sadr City was immediately withdrawn, limiting the Task Force's targeting. In June 2008, Rangers eliminated perhaps their highest-profile target yet: Abu Khalaf, deputy leader of al Qaeda in Iraq. A reinforced platoon of Rangers assaulted the target house, codenamed Objective Crescent Lake. As the Ranger assault element placed their explosive breaching charges, two sentries on the roof of the house armed with AK-47 assault rifles approached them, who were then killed by an attached 4-man sniper team from the Ranger battalion's sniper platoon. The assault element breached the house and methodically cleared each room; in one room, Rangers arrested a man and a woman. When the man reached under his clothing, the Rangers shot him, then the woman as she leapt on his body. The man was found to be wearing a suicide-bomb vest filled with ball bearings. Meanwhile, Khalaf ran to the road with a pistol and was shot dead by the Ranger snipers. The Rangers also discovered a plan for a chemical weapon attack on a coalition base. By this time, the Rangers had sent an additional platoon to Iraq to help conduct a day-night raiding cycle, and conducted up to 100 missions in one three-month deployment. After January 2009, the new Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) required JSOC and Ranger operations to seek Iraqi judicial permission for each mission. On the night of 18 April 2010, ISOF troops, supported by U.S. troops, raided a terrorist safe house near Tikrit in Iraq, the ISOF killed Abu Ayyub al-Masri and Abu Omar al-Baghdadi, the two leaders of ISI; 16 others were also arrested. A US UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter supporting the mission crashed, killing a Ranger NCO from 3/75th and wounding the aircrew. War in North-West Pakistan In March 2006, DEVGRU operators and a Ranger element are alleged to have attacked an al-Qaeda training camp in North Waziristan in Pakistan. In an operation reportedly named Operation Vigilant Harvest, they were flown across the Afghan-Pakistani border and killed as many as 30 terrorists, including the Chechen camp commandant Imam Asad. The operation has been credited to the Pakistani Special Service Group. On 1 May 2011, a Ranger element was assigned to support Operation Neptune Spear, aimed at killing or capturing Osama bin Laden. The Ranger element and additional SEALs in MH-47E Chinooks served as QRF; the Ranger element would also protect the FARP north of Abbottabad. Following the successful completion of the operation, a Ranger team transported the bin Laden's body to the aircraft carrier for burial at sea. Operation Freedom's Sentinel In November 2015, the U.S. military sent a company of Rangers to southeastern Afghanistan, as part of the post-ISAF phase of the war in Afghanistan, to help Afghan counter-terrorism forces destroy an al-Qaeda training camp in a "fierce fight" that lasted for several days. On the evening of 26 April 2017, 50 Rangers from 3/75th joined 40 Afghan commandos in a joint US-Afghan raid on the headquarters of Abdul Hasib, the emir of ISIS-K, in a village in Achin District, Nangarhar Province. The force was flown into Mohmand Valley and within minutes were engaged in a heavy, close-quarter firefight with ISIL-KP militants. AC-130 gunships, Apache helicopters, F-16 fighters, and drones were called in. In the 3-hour firefight, two Rangers died (one each from C and D Companies, possibly from friendly fire) and one was wounded, while 35 ISIL-KP militants (including Abdul Hasib and an unspecified number of ISIL-KP leaders) were killed. Operation Inherent Resolve In March 2017, as part of Operation Inherent Resolve, CNN reported that about 100 Rangers in Strykers and armored Humvees deployed in and around Manbij, Syria, to protect the 11th MEU, which was providing artillery and other support to U.S.-backed forces in the battle to liberate Raqqa from ISIL, rather than the typical mission of training, advising and assisting local forces. U.S. officials took the unusual step of publicly talking about the Ranger deployment and where they are located to protect against them inadvertently coming under fire from forces fighting in the region or Turkish, Russian, or Syrian government forces. Regiment Military Intelligence Battalion (RMIB) On 22 May 2017, the Ranger Regiment Military Intelligence Battalion was established to specialize in intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance, cyber, and electronic warfare operations. Based at Fort Benning, it consists of the Military Intelligence Company (MICO), Cyber Electro Magnetic Activities company (CEMA), and Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC). It draws its lineage from Company P, 75th Infantry (back to Merrill's Marauders) and Company B, 2nd Ranger Infantry Battalion. Operation Kayla Mueller On 26 October 2019, the Rangers, Delta Force, and the 160th SOAR killed ISIL leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Organization Lineage Organized as 5307th Composite Unit (Provisional) on 3 October 1943 Consolidated with the 475th Infantry and unit designated as 475th Infantry on 10 August 1944 Inactivated on 1 July 1945 Redesignated as 75th Infantry on 21 June 1954 Allotted to the Regular Army on 26 October 1954 Activated on 20 November 1954 Inactivated on 21 March 1956 75th Infantry Regiment (Ranger) reorganized as a parent regiment under the Combat Arms Regimental System on 1 January 1969 Reorganized with Headquarters on 1 July 1984 On 3 February 1986, the 75th Infantry Regiment (then consisting of Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 1st Battalion, 2nd Battalion, and 3rd Battalion) was consolidated with the former Company A, 1st Ranger Infantry Battalion (then part of HHC 7th SFG), Company A, 2nd Infantry Battalion (then part of HHC 10th SFG), and the inactive units Company A, 3rd Ranger Infantry Battalion (last part of HHC 13th SFG, inactivated in 1966), 4th Ranger Infantry Battalion, 5th Ranger Infantry Battalion, and 6th Ranger Infantry Battalion; it was concurrently designated as 75th Ranger Regiment and reorganized under the Regimental System. Modern Ranger selection and training Qualifications Be a U.S. citizen Be on active duty and volunteer for assignment Have a General Technical Score of 105 or higher No physical limitations (PULHES of 111221 or better) Qualify and volunteer for Airborne training A person of good character (no pending UCMJ action or drug or alcohol related incidents within 24 months) Must enlist into or currently hold a Military Occupational Specialty found in the 75th Ranger Regiment Able to attain at minimum a Secret clearance Pass physical requirements which include the Ranger Fitness Test (58 push-ups, 69 sit-ups, run 5 miles in 40 minutes or less, 6 pull-ups), Water Survival Assessment, and 12-mile footmarch with a 35lb rucksack and weapon in under 3 hours Additionally Army officer applicants must: Be an officer of grade O-1 through O-4 Qualify for a Top Secret Security Clearance Meet Year Group specific criteria Hold an officer Military Occupational Specialty found in the 75th Ranger Regiment. Selection and training Every volunteer for the Regiment, from new recruit to officer and any senior leader selected to command in the Regiment, will go through the Ranger Assessment and Selection Program (RASP) to assess their ability and provide the basic skills required to be an effective member of the 75th Ranger Regiment. For new soldiers, RASP is conducted after applicants complete their basic Military Occupational Specialty course and graduate from the Army's Parachutists Course (Airborne School). For soldiers, both enlisted and officer, who have completed their first tour of duty and meet the recruiting qualifications, a RASP date will be scheduled upon application and conditional acceptance to the 75th Ranger Regiment. RASP includes two levels of training: RASP 1 for junior non-commissioned officers and enlisted soldiers (pay grades E-1 through E-5) and RASP 2 for senior non-commissioned officers, officers, and warrant officers. Candidates train in physical fitness, marksmanship, small unit tactics, medical proficiency, and mobility. Training is fast-paced and intense, ensuring Ranger candidates can handle continued training and worldwide operations upon reaching their assigned Ranger unit. Throughout the course, candidates are screened to ensure that only the best soldiers are chosen for the Ranger Regiment. All candidates must meet the course requirements in order to serve in the Ranger Regiment. Upon completion of RASP, candidates will don the tan beret and 75th Ranger Regiment Scroll. RASP 1 Ranger Assessment & Selection Program 1 (RASP 1) is an 8-week selection course for junior non-commissioned officers and enlisted soldiers (pay grades E-1 through E-5) that is broken down into two phases. Ranger candidates endure a grueling test of physical and mental endurance, road marches with rucksacks, land navigation, leadership skills, and weapons training—performed under continuous food and sleep deprivation. Graduates have the advanced skills all Rangers are required to know to start their career with the 75th Ranger Regiment. Phase 1 focuses more on the critical events and skill level 1 tasks and Phase 2 focuses on training in marksmanship, breaching, mobility, and physical fitness. RASP 2 Ranger Assessment & Selection Program 2 (RASP 2) is a 21-day selection course for senior non-commissioned officers, officers, and warrant officers. Candidates' physical and mental capabilities are tested as they learn the special tactics, techniques and procedures of the Regiment, as well as learning the expectations of leading and developing young Rangers. Continued training To maintain readiness, Rangers train constantly. Rangers focus on the "Big 5": marksmanship, physical training, medical training, small unit tactics, and mobility. Throughout their time in the Ranger Regiment, Rangers may attend many types of special schools and training. Depending on occupation and job requirements, members of the 75th Ranger Regiment enjoy unparalleled access to countless military schools, including Jumpmaster, Sniper, Pathfinder, Military Freefall, Scuba, Survival-Evasion-Resistance-Escape (SERE), Special Operations Combat Medic and others. Before serving as a leader in the Regiment, Rangers are also expected to attend and graduate Ranger School. Members of the regiment may also get joint training and non-traditional military and civilian schooling. Rangers are trained in "do-it-yourself" emergency medicine. Based on the premise that 90% of deaths from wounds are suffered before reaching medical facilities and that there are not enough medics and doctors to go around, the regiment began to train Rangers to give themselves immediate, preliminary treatment. A 2011 study found a 3 percent death rate from potentially survivable causes in the 75th Regiment between October 2001 and April 2010. That compares with a 24 percent rate in a previously reported set of U.S. military deaths in Iraq and Afghanistan, which included troops who didn't have Ranger-style training. RFS/RFM As a U.S. Army Special Operations Command unit, the Rangers maintain more stringent standards for their personnel. If at any point a Ranger is deemed to be failing to meet these standards he may be relieved and removed from the regiment. This is commonly referred to as being RFSed, short for "Released For Standards". A Ranger can be RFS'd for virtually any reason, ranging from lack of motivation to disciplinary problems. Similarly, a Ranger physically incapable of performing his mission through prolonged illness or injury can also be removed from the regiment through a process referred to as RFM or "Relieved For Medical reasons". Honors, mottos and creed The 75th Ranger Regiment has been credited with numerous campaigns from World War II onwards. In World War II, they participated in 16 major campaigns, spearheading the campaigns in Morocco, Sicily, Naples-Foggia, Anzio, and Leyte. During the Vietnam War, they received campaign participation streamers for every campaign in the war. The regiment received streamers with arrowheads (denoting conflicts they spearheaded) for Grenada and Panama. To date, the Rangers have earned six Presidential Unit Citations, nine Valorous Unit Awards, and four Meritorious Unit Commendation, the most recent of which were earned in Vietnam and Haditha, Iraq, respectively. Sua Sponte, Latin for Of their own accord is the 75th Ranger Regiment's Regimental motto. Contemporary rangers are triple-volunteers: for the U.S. Army, for Airborne School, and for service in the 75th Ranger Regiment. The motto "Rangers lead the way!" dates from 6 June 1944, during the Normandy Landings on Dog White sector of Omaha Beach. Then Brigadier General Norman Cota (assistant CO of the 29th ID) calmly walked towards Maj. Max Schneider (CO of the 5th Ranger Battalion) while under heavy machine gun fire and asked "What outfit is this?" Someone yelled "5th Rangers!" To this, Cota replied "Well then Goddammit, Rangers! Lead the way!" The term "Ranger" Organizations define the term "Ranger" in different ways. For example, the annual "United States Army Best Ranger Competition," hosted by the Ranger Training Brigade, can be won by pairs of participants from the 75th Ranger Regiment, or by ranger-qualified entrants from other units in the U.S. military. For an individual to be inducted into the U.S. Army Ranger Association's "Ranger Hall of Fame," they "must have served in a Ranger unit in combat or be a successful graduate of the U.S. Army Ranger School." The Ranger Association further clarifies the type of unit: "A Ranger unit is defined as those Army units recognized in Ranger lineage or history." Acceptance into the U.S. Army Ranger Association is limited to "Rangers that have earned the U.S. Army Ranger tab, WWII Rangers, Korean War Rangers, Vietnam War Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members and Rangers, and all Rangers that participated in Operations Urgent Fury, Just Cause, Desert Storm, Restore Hope, Enduring Freedom, as well as those who have served honorably for at least one year in a recognized Ranger unit." Ranger term controversy There is some dispute over the use of the word "Ranger." According to John Lock, The problems of the Ranger Tab and indeed Ranger history is in large part caused by the lack of a clear-cut definition of who is a Ranger. The Ranger Department, the Infantry School, and Department of the Army have in the past carelessly accepted the definition of a Ranger unit to include the use of terms 'Ranger-type' and 'Units like Rangers,' and 'Special Mission Units.' In his book Raiders or Elite Infantry, David Hogan of the Center of Military History writes that 'By the time of the formation of LRRP units..., Ranger had become a term of legendary connotations but no precise meaning.' For the want of a definition of who and what is a Ranger, integrity was lost. As a result of Grenada, circumstances have changed. Since 1983, men have had the opportunity to earn and wear an authorized Ranger unit scroll or an authorized Ranger Tab or both. But there is a need for a firm definition of who and what constitutes a RANGER. Without that definition, we face the likelihood of future controversy. Beret change In June 2001, Army Chief of Staff General Eric Shinseki gave the order to issue black berets to regular soldiers. At the time, black berets were being worn exclusively by the Ranger Regiment. This created discontent within the 75th Ranger Regiment and even led to retired Rangers going on nationwide road marches to Washington, D.C. to protest against the decision. Because there was not a Presidential authorization to the regiment for exclusive wear of the black beret, they switched to wearing a tan beret to preserve a unique appearance, tan being reflective of the buckskin worn by the men of Robert Rogers' Rangers during the French and Indian War. A memorandum for the purpose of changing the Ranger beret from black to tan was sent and approved in March 2002. Press releases were issued and articles were published all over the nation about this change in headgear after it was formally announced by the Regimental Commander, Colonel P. K. Keen. In a private ceremony, past and present Rangers donned the tan beret on 26 July 2002. The Army G-1 released a memorandum in October 2017 stating the following: WEAR OF THE TAN BERET OUTSIDE OF RANGER REGIMENT. The memo from the Army G-1 expands authorization for wear of the Tan Beret in the following assignments: Headquarters elements of Combatant Commands, The Joint Staff, Department of the Army Headquarters, U.S. Special Operations Command, U.S. Army Special Operations Command, U.S. Special Operations Command Joint Task Force, Theater Special Operations Command, and Joint Special Operations Command. The Tan Beret is authorized for Ranger-qualified Soldiers in the above listed assignments if they previously served in the 75th Ranger Regiment and departed on honorable terms. This was formalized in DA Pam 670–1 in January 2021. Notable members John P. Abizaid, General, former platoon leader of Company A, and executive officer of Company C, former commander of Company A, 1st Ranger Battalion; former commander, Central Command. David Barno, Lieutenant General, former commander of the 2nd Ranger Battalion; former commander, Combined Forces-Afghanistan. Mat Best, former team leader in 2nd Ranger Battalion, best selling author, music artist, celebrity/actor, and veteran entrepreneur. Richard D. Clarke, General, spent eight years in the 75th Ranger Regiment as a company commander from 1994 to 1996, then as a battalion commander from 2004 to 2006 and regimental commander from 2007 to 2009. Jason Crow, Captain, member of the U.S. House of Representatives for Colorado's 6th congressional district William O. Darby, Colonel, established and commanded "Darby's Rangers" that later evolved into the 75th Ranger Regiment. Ranger Hall of Fame Member. Kristoffer Domeij, Sergeant First Class, enlisted 2001, killed in action in 2011 during his 14th deployment. At the time of his death, he had the most deployments for a Ranger killed in action. Wayne A. Downing, General, third commander of the regiment from 1984 to 1985; former commander of 2nd Ranger Battalion; former commander of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC), former commander U.S. Army Special Operations Command and former commander of United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM). Ranger Hall of Fame Member. Jason Everman, Sergeant First Class, American musician who played with Nirvana, Soundgarden, and Mind Funk. Everman served with the 2nd Ranger Battalion and later the 3rd Special Forces Group with multiple tours to Iraq and Afghanistan. David L. Grange, Major General, seventh 6commander of the regiment from 1991 to 1993; former commander, 1st Infantry Division and deputy commander of Delta Force. Eric L. Haney, Command Sergeant Major, Author and retired member of Delta Force. Robert L. Howard, Colonel, former company commander in the 2nd Ranger Battalion; was nominated three times for the Medal of Honor for his actions in Vietnam. Two were downgraded and the third was awarded. Nicholas Irving, former sniper in the 3rd Ranger Battalion Peter Kassig, 1st Battalion 2006-2006, followed by a medical discharge, then became an aid worker who was taken hostage and beheaded by The Islamic State. Ryan McCarthy, Captain, former US Secretary of the Army. Stanley A. McChrystal, General, tenth commander of the regiment from 1997 to 1999; former commander, International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) and U.S. Forces Afghanistan (USFOR-A); former Director of the Joint Staff; former Commander of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). Danny McKnight, Colonel, former commander of the 3rd Ranger Battalion during the Battle of Mogadishu. Austin S. Miller, General, former 2nd Ranger Battalion Platoon Leader, former commander of Delta Force, and former Commander of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). Glen E. Morrell, Sergeant Major of the Army, former 1st Ranger Battalion command sergeant major and past Sergeant Major of the Army. Kris Paronto, Sergeant, former member of Company B, 2d Ranger Battalion, who served at the CIA annex during the 2012 Benghazi attack. Thomas Payne, Sergeant Major, Member of Delta Force and Medal of Honor recipient. He is the first living Delta Force Medal of Honor recipient, and first Medal of Honor recipient for Operation Inherent Resolve. He served with MSG Joshua Wheeler in the combat operation in Iraq that saw MSG Wheeler KIA, and then-SFC Payne earned Distinguished Service Cross, later upgraded to Medal of Honor. He served with Company A, 1st Ranger Battalion. Leroy Petry, Sergeant First Class, Medal of Honor recipient for actions during a firefight in Afghanistan. Marshall Plumlee 1st Lieutenant James Earl Rudder, Colonel, former commander of the 2nd Ranger Battalion during World War II, which he led the ranger assault on Pointe du Hoc on D-Day and was later the president of Texas A&M University. Randy Shughart, Sergeant First Class, Medal of Honor recipient, who was killed in action during the Battle of Mogadishu while serving as a Delta Force sniper defending a downed helicopter, started his career in 2nd Ranger Battalion. Michael D. Steele, Colonel, former commander of Company B, 3rd Ranger Battalion during the Battle of Mogadishu. Jeff Struecker, Major, served as a staff sergeant and squad leader assigned to Task Force Ranger as a part of the 75th Ranger Regiment. Struecker and his partner, SPC Isaac Gmazel Won the Best Ranger Competition in 1996. He became commissioned as a chaplain in 2000. Keni Thomas, Staff Sergeant, American country music singer who served with the 3rd Ranger Battalion as part of Task Force Ranger during the Operation Restore Hope. Raymond A. Thomas, General, led a Ranger Rifle platoon from A Company, 2nd Ranger Battalion during the Invasion of Grenada in 1983.He was assigned as Assistant S-3, Plans/Liaison Officer with 75th Ranger Regiment at Fort Benning, Georgia until 1987.In 1989, during the Invasion of Panama, Thomas was then assigned as a company commander with 3rd Ranger Battalion. He was also the commander of Joint Special Operations Command from 2014 to 2016 and United States Special Operations Command from 2016 to 2019. Pat Tillman, Corporal, an American football player who left his National Football League career to enlist in the United States Army in May 2002; killed on 22 April 2004 (by friendly fire) as a member of the 2nd Ranger Battalion. Alejandro Villanueva, Captain, an American football player in the National Football League, former company Executive Officer in the 1st Ranger Battalion. Joseph L. Votel, General, twelfth commander of the regiment from 2001 to 2003; former Commander of Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC), former Commander of United States Special Operations Command (SOCOM) and former Commander of United States Central Command (CENTCOM). Joshua Lloyd Wheeler, Master Sergeant, (22 November 1975 – 22 October 2015) was a United States Army Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (aka Delta Force) operator who was killed in Iraq during Operation Inherent Resolve. He was the first American service member killed in action as a result of enemy fire while fighting ISIS militants and at the time of his death was the first American to be killed in action in Iraq since November 2011. Wheeler was a highly decorated Delta Force soldier having earned 11 Bronze Star Medals including four with Valor Devices. He was posthumously awarded the Silver Star, the Purple Heart and the Medal of Patriotism. John Whitley, Sergeant, Acting US Secretary of the Army. Colonels of the Regiment Note: The above list accounts for 20 Colonels, missing are the first two. Assignment dates are based on various biographies and may not all line up properly. Specific dates are based on reports of changes of command. See also Ranger Memorial Recondo School Ranger School Black Hawk Down and the movie based on it. Ranger Body Armor British Commandos Company E, 52nd Infantry (LRP) / H Co. 75th Infantry (Ranger) — The most decorated and longest serving LRRP/Ranger unit in continuous combat. Operation Delaware 17th Special Tactics Squadron - Primary USAF STS attached to the 75th Ranger Regiment. 89th "Oz" Brigade - An Israeli Defense Forces unit approximating to the 75th Ranger Regiment in role. JW AGAT - Polish Special Troops Command unit modelled after the 75th Ranger Regiment. Citations General references . Further reading . Extensive discussion of American colonial Rangers. External links 75th Ranger Regiment Home Page Official Recruiting Website Fort Benning Profile Army.mil profile Goarmy.com profile Airborne units and formations of the United States Army Reconnaissance units and formations of the United States Army Infantry regiments of the United States Army Military units and formations established in 1984 Rapid reaction force units and formations United States Army Special Operations Command United States Army Rangers regiments

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand%20washing

Hand washing

Hand washing (or handwashing), also known as hand hygiene, is the act of cleaning one's hands with soap or handwash and water to remove viruses/bacteria/microorganisms, dirt, grease, or other harmful and unwanted substances stuck to the hands. Drying of the washed hands is part of the process as wet and moist hands are more easily recontaminated. If soap and water are unavailable, hand sanitizer that is at least 60% (v/v) alcohol in water can be used as long as hands are not visibly excessively dirty or greasy. Hand hygiene is central to preventing the spread of infectious diseases in home and everyday life settings. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends washing hands for at least 20 seconds before and after certain activities. These include the five critical times during the day where washing hands with soap is important to reduce fecal-oral transmission of disease: after using the toilet (for urination, defecation, menstrual hygiene), after cleaning a child's bottom (changing diapers), before feeding a child, before eating and before/after preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry. When neither hand washing nor using hand sanitizer is possible, hands can be cleaned with uncontaminated ash and clean water, although the benefits and harms are uncertain for reducing the spread of viral or bacterial infections. However, frequent hand washing can lead to skin damage due to drying of the skin. Moisturizing lotion is often recommended to keep the hands from drying out; dry skin can lead to skin damage which can increase the risk for the transmission of infection. Steps and duration The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the following steps when washing one's hands for the prevention of transmission of disease: Wet hands with warm or cold running water. Running water is recommended because standing basins may be contaminated, while the temperature of the water does not seem to make a difference, however some experts suggest warm, tepid water may be superior. Lather hands by rubbing them with a generous amount of soap, including the backs of hands, between fingers, and under nails. Soap lifts pathogens from the skin, and studies show that people tend to wash their hands more thoroughly when soap is used rather than water alone. Scrub for at least 20 seconds. Scrubbing creates friction, which helps remove pathogens from skin, and scrubbing for longer periods removes more pathogens. Rinse well under running water. Rinsing in a basin can recontaminate hands. Dry with a clean towel or allow to air dry. Wet and moist hands are more easily recontaminated. The most commonly missed areas are the thumb, the wrist, the areas between the fingers, and under fingernails. Artificial nails and chipped nail polish may harbor microorganisms. When it is recommended There are five critical times during the day where washing hands with soap is important to reduce fecal-oral transmission of disease: after using the toilet (for urination, defecation, menstrual hygiene), after cleaning a child's bottom (changing diapers), before feeding a child, before eating and before/after preparing food or handling raw meat, fish, or poultry. Other occasions when correct handwashing technique should be practiced in order to prevent the transmission of disease include before and after treating a cut or wound; after sneezing, coughing, or blowing your nose; after touching animal waste or handling animals; and after touching garbage. Public health Health benefits Hand washing has many significant health benefits, including minimizing the spread of influenza, COVID-19, and other infectious diseases; preventing infectious causes of diarrhea; decreasing respiratory infections; and reducing infant mortality rate at home birth deliveries. A 2013 study showed that improved hand washing practices may lead to small improvements in the length growth in children under five years of age. In developing countries, childhood mortality rates related to respiratory and diarrheal diseases can be reduced by introducing simple behavioral changes, such as hand washing with soap. This simple action can reduce the rate of mortality from these diseases by almost 50%. Interventions that promote hand washing can reduce diarrhoea episodes by about a third, and this is comparable to providing clean water in low income areas. 48% of reductions in diarrhoea episodes can be associated with hand washing with soap. Handwashing with soap is the single most effective and inexpensive way to prevent diarrhea and acute respiratory infections (ARI), as automatic behavior performed in homes, schools, and communities worldwide. Pneumonia, a major ARI, is the number one cause of mortality among children under five years old, taking the lives of an estimated 1.8 million children per year. Diarrhea and pneumonia together account for almost 3.5 million child deaths annually. According to UNICEF, turning handwashing with soap before eating and after using the toilet into an ingrained habit can save more lives than any single vaccine or medical intervention, cutting deaths from diarrhea by almost half and deaths from acute respiratory infections by one-quarter. Hand washing is usually integrated with other sanitation interventions as part of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programmes. Hand washing also protects against impetigo which is transmitted through direct physical contact. Adverse effects A small detrimental effect of handwashing is that frequent hand washing can lead to skin damage due to the drying of the skin. A 2012 Danish study found that excessive hand washing can lead to an itchy, flaky skin condition known as contact dermatitis, which is especially common among health-care workers. Behavior change In many countries, there is a low rate of hand washing with soap. A study of hand washing in 54 countries in 2015 found that on average, 38.7% of households practiced hand washing with soap. A 2014 study showed that Saudi Arabia had the highest rate of 97%; the United States near the middle with 77%; and China with the lowest rate of 23%. Several behavior change methodologies now exist to increase uptake of the behavior of hand washing with soap at the critical times. Group hand washing for school children at set times of the day is one option in developing countries to engrain hand washing in children's behaviors. The "Essential Health Care Program" implemented by the Department of Education in the Philippines is an example of at scale action to promote children's health and education. Deworming twice a year, supplemented with washing hands daily with soap, brushing teeth daily with fluoride, is at the core of this national program. It has also been successfully implemented in Indonesia. Substances used Soap and detergents Removal of microorganisms from skin is enhanced by the addition of soaps or detergents to water. Soap and detergents are surfactants that kill microorganisms by disorganizing their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins. It also emulsifies oils, enabling them to be carried away by running water. Solid soap Solid soap, because of its reusable nature, may hold bacteria acquired from previous uses. A small number of studies which have looked at the bacterial transfer from contaminated solid soap have concluded transfer is unlikely as the bacteria are rinsed off with the foam. The CDC still states "liquid soap with hands-free controls for dispensing is preferable". Antibacterial soap Antibacterial soaps have been heavily promoted to a health-conscious public. To date, there is no evidence that using recommended antiseptics or disinfectants selects for antibiotic-resistant organisms in nature. However, antibacterial soaps contain common antibacterial agents such as triclosan, which has an extensive list of resistant strains of organisms. So, even if antibiotic resistant strains are not selected for by antibacterial soaps, they might not be as effective as they are marketed to be. Besides the surfactant and skin-protecting agent, the sophisticated formulations may contain acids (acetic acid, ascorbic acid, lactic acid) as pH regulator, antimicrobially active benzoic acid and further skin conditioners (aloe vera, vitamins, menthol, plant extracts). A 2007 meta-analysis from the University of Oregon School of Public Health indicated that plain soaps are as effective as consumer-grade anti-bacterial soaps containing triclosan in preventing illness and removing bacteria from the hands. Dissenting, a 2011 meta-analysis in the Journal of Food Protection argued that when properly formulated, triclosan can grant a small but detectable improvement, as can chlorhexidine gluconate, iodophor, or povidone. Warm water Hot water that is still comfortable for washing hands is not hot enough to kill bacteria. Bacteria grow much faster at body temperature (37 °C). WHO considers warm soapy water to be more effective than cold, soapy water at removing natural oils which hold soils and bacteria. But CDC mentions that warm water causes skin irritations more often and its ecological footprint is more significant. Water temperatures from 4 to 40 °C do not differ significantly regarding removal of microbes. The most important factor is proper scrubbing. Contrary to popular belief, scientific studies have shown that using warm water has no effect on reducing the microbial load on hands. Using hot water for handwashing can even be regarded as a waste of energy. Antiseptics (hand sanitizer) In situations where hand washing with soap is not an option (e.g., when in a public place with no access to wash facilities), a waterless hand sanitizer such as an alcohol hand gel can be used. They can be used in addition to hand washing to minimize risks when caring for "at-risk" groups. To be effective, alcohol hand gels should contain not less than 60%v/v alcohol. Enough hand antiseptic or alcohol rub must be used to thoroughly wet or cover both hands. The front and back of both hands and between and the ends of all fingers must be rubbed for approximately 30 seconds until the liquid, foam or gel is dry. Finger tips must be washed well too, rubbing them in both palms. A hand sanitizer or hand antiseptic is a non-water-based hand hygiene agent. In the late 1990s and early part of the 21st century, alcohol rub non-water-based hand hygiene agents (also known as alcohol-based hand rubs, antiseptic hand rubs, or hand sanitizers) began to gain popularity. Most are based on isopropyl alcohol or ethanol formulated together with a thickening agent such as Carbomer (polymer of acrylic acid) into a gel, or a humectant such as glycerin into a liquid, or foam for ease of use and to decrease the drying effect of the alcohol. Adding diluted hydrogen peroxide increases further the antimicrobial activity. Hand sanitizers are most effective against bacteria and less effective against some viruses. Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are almost entirely ineffective against norovirus (or Norwalk) type viruses, the most common cause of contagious gastroenteritis. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend hand washing with soap over hand sanitizer rubs, particularly when hands are visibly dirty. The increasing use of these agents is based on their ease of use and rapid killing activity against micro-organisms; however, they should not serve as a replacement for proper hand washing unless soap and water are unavailable. Despite their effectiveness, non-water agents do not cleanse the hands of organic material, but simply disinfect them. It is for this reason that hand sanitizers are not as effective as soap and water at preventing the spread of many pathogens, since the pathogens remain on the hands. Wipes Hand washing using hand sanitizing wipes is an alternative during traveling in the absence of soap and water. Alcohol-based hand sanitizer should contain at least 60% alcohol. Ash or mud Many people in low-income communities cannot afford soap and use ash or soil instead. The World Health Organization recommended ash or sand as an alternative to soap when soap is not available. Use of ash is common in rural areas of developing countries and has in experiments been shown at least as effective as soap for removing pathogens. However, evidence to support the use of ash to wash hands is of poor quality. It is not clear if washing hands with ash is effective at reducing viral or bacterial spreading compared to washing with mud, not washing, or with washing with water alone. One concern is that if the soil or ash is contaminated with microorganisms it may increase the spread of disease rather than decrease it, however, there is also no clear evidence to determine the level of risk. Like soap, ash is also a disinfecting agent because in contact with water, it forms an alkaline solution. Technologies and design aspects Low-cost options when water is scarce Various low-cost options can be made to facilitate hand washing where tap-water and/or soap is not available e.g. pouring water from a hanging jerrycan or gourd with suitable holes and/or using ash if needed in developing countries. In situations with limited water supply (such as schools or rural areas in developing countries), there are water-conserving solutions, such as "tippy-taps" and other low-cost options. A tippy-tap is a simple technology using a jug suspended by a rope, and a foot-operated lever to pour a small amount of water over the hands and a bar of soap. Low-cost hand washing technologies for households may differ from facilities for multiple users. For households, options include tippy taps, bucket/container with tap (such as a Veronica Bucket), conventional tap with/without basin, valve/tap fitted to bottles, bucket and cup, camp sink. Options for multiple users include: adapting household technologies for multiple users, water container fitted to a pipe with multiple taps, water container fitted to a pipe with holes. Advanced technologies Several companies around the globe have developed technologies that aim to improve the hand washing process. Among the different inventions, there are eco-friendly devices that use 90% less water and 60% less soap compared to hand washing under a faucet. Another device uses light-based rays to detect contaminants on the hands after they have been washed. Certain environments are especially sensitive to the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms, like health care and food production. Organizations attempting to prevent infection transmission in these environments have started using programmed washing cycles that provide sufficient time for scrubbing the hands with soap and rinsing them with water. Combined with AI-powered software, these technological advancements turn the hand-washing process into digital data, allowing individuals to receive insights and improve their hand hygiene practices. Drying with towels or hand driers Effective drying of the hands is an essential part of the hand hygiene process. Therefore, the proper drying of hands after washing should be an integral part of the hand hygiene process in health care. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are clear and straightforward concerning hand hygiene, and recommend paper towels and hand dryers equally. Both have stressed the importance of frequent and thorough hand washing followed by their complete drying as a means to stop the spread of pathogens, like COVID-19. Specifically, the World Health Organization recommends that everyone "frequently clean [their] hands..." and "dry [them] thoroughly by using paper towels or a warm air dryer." The CDC report that, "Both [clean towels or air hand dryers] are effective ways to dry hands." A study in 2020 found that hand dryers and paper towels were both found to be equally hygienic hand-drying solutions. However, there is some debate over the most effective form of drying in public toilets. A growing volume of research suggests paper towels are much more hygienic than the electric hand dryers found in many public toilets. A review in 2012 concluded that "From a hygiene standpoint, paper towels are superior to air dryers; therefore, paper towels should be recommended for use in locations in which hygiene is paramount, such as hospitals and clinics." Jet-air dryers were found to be capable of blowing micro-organisms from the hands and the unit and potentially contaminating other users and the environment up to away. In the same study in 2008 (sponsored by the paper-towel industry the European Tissue Symposium), use of a warm-air hand dryer spread micro-organisms only up to from the dryer, and paper towels showed no significant spread of micro-organisms. No studies have found a correlation to hand dryers and human health, however, making these findings inconsequential. Accessibility Making hand washing facilities accessible (inclusive) to everyone is crucial to maintain hand washing behavior. Considerations for accessibility include age, disability, seasonality (with rains and muddiness), location and more. Important aspects for good accessibility include: Placement of the technology, paths, ramps, steps, type of tap, soap placement. Medical use Medical hand-washing became mandatory long after Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis discovered its effectiveness (in 1846) in preventing disease in a hospital environment. There are electronic devices that provide feedback to remind hospital staff to wash their hands when they forget. One study has found decreased infection rates with their use. Method Medical hand-washing is for a minimum of 15 seconds, using generous amounts of soap and water or gel to lather and rub each part of the hands. Hands should be rubbed together with digits interlocking. If there is debris under fingernails, a bristle brush may be used to remove it. Since pathogens may remain in the water on the hands, it is important to rinse well and wipe dry with a clean towel. After drying, the paper towel should be used to turn off the water (and open any exit door if necessary). This avoids re-contaminating the hands from those surfaces. The purpose of hand-washing in the health-care setting is to remove pathogenic microorganisms ("germs") and avoid transmitting them. The New England Journal of Medicine reports that a lack of hand-washing remains at unacceptable levels in most medical environments, with large numbers of doctors and nurses routinely forgetting to wash their hands before touching patients, thus transmitting microorganisms. One study showed that proper hand-washing and other simple procedures can decrease the rate of catheter-related bloodstream infections by 66%. The World Health Organization has published a sheet demonstrating standard hand-washing and hand-rubbing in health-care sectors. The draft guidance of hand hygiene by the organization can also be found at its website for public comment. A relevant review was conducted by Whitby et al. Commercial devices can measure and validate hand hygiene, if demonstration of regulatory compliance is required. The World Health Organization has "Five Moments" for washing hands: before patient care after environmental contact after exposure to blood/body fluids before an aseptic task, and after patient care. The addition of antiseptic chemicals to soap ("medicated" or "antimicrobial" soaps) confers killing action to a hand-washing agent. Such killing action may be desired before performing surgery or in settings in which antibiotic-resistant organisms are highly prevalent. To 'scrub' one's hands for a surgical operation, it is necessary to have a tap that can be turned on and off without touching it with the hands, some chlorhexidine or iodine wash, sterile towels for drying the hands after washing, and a sterile brush for scrubbing and another sterile instrument for cleaning under the fingernails. All jewelry should be removed. This procedure requires washing the hands and forearms up to the elbow, usually 2–6 minutes. Long scrub-times (10 minutes) are not necessary. When rinsing, water on the forearms must be prevented from running back to the hands. After hand-washing is completed, the hands are dried with a sterile cloth and a surgical gown is donned. Effectiveness in healthcare settings To reduce the spread of pathogens, it is better to wash the hands or use a hand antiseptic before and after tending to a sick person. For control of staphylococcal infections in hospitals, it has been found that the greatest benefit from hand-cleansing came from the first 20% of washing, and that very little additional benefit was gained when hand cleansing frequency was increased beyond 35%. Washing with plain soap results in more than triple the rate of bacterial infectious disease transmitted to food as compared to washing with antibacterial soap. Comparing hand-rubbing with alcohol-based solution with hand washing with antibacterial soap for a median time of 30 seconds each showed that the alcohol hand-rubbing reduced bacterial contamination 26% more than the antibacterial soap. But soap and water is more effective than alcohol-based hand rubs for reducing H1N1 influenza A virus and Clostridium difficile spores from hands. Interventions to improve hand hygiene in healthcare settings can involve education for staff on hand washing, increasing the availability of alcohol-based hand rub, and written and verbal reminders to staff. There is a need for more research into which of these interventions are most effective in different healthcare settings. Developing countries In developing countries, hand washing with soap is recognized as a cost-effective, essential tool for achieving good health, and even good nutrition. However, a lack of reliable water supply, soap or hand washing facilities in people's homes, at schools and the workplace make it a challenge to achieve universal hand washing behaviors. For example, in most of rural Africa hand washing taps close to every private or public toilet are scarce, even though cheap options exist to build hand washing stations. However, low hand washing rates can also be the result of engrained habits rather than due to a lack of soap or water. Hand washing at a global level has its own indicator within Sustainable Development Goal 6, Target 6.2 which states "By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations. The corresponding Indicator 6.2.1 is formulated as follows: "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water" (see map to the right with data worldwide from 2017)." Promotion campaigns The promotion and advocacy of hand washing with soap can influence policy decisions, raise awareness about the benefits of hand washing and lead to long-term behavior change of the population. For this to work effectively, monitoring and evaluation are necessary. A systematic review of 70 studies found that community-based approaches are effective at increasing hand washing in LMICs, while social marketing campaigns are less effective. One example for hand washing promotion in schools is the "Three Star Approach" by UNICEF that encourages schools to take simple, inexpensive steps to ensure that students wash their hands with soap, among other hygienic requirements. When minimum standards are achieved, schools can move from one to ultimately three stars. Building hand washing stations can be a part of hand washing promotion campaigns that are carried out to reduce diseases and child mortality. Global Handwashing Day is another example of an awareness-raising campaign that is trying to achieve behavior change. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, UNICEF promoted the adoption of a hand washing emoji. Designing hand washing facilities that encourage use can use the following aspects: Nudges, cues and reminders Hand washing facilities should be placed at convenient locations to encourage people to use them regularly and at the right times; they should be attractive and well maintained. Cost effectiveness Few studies have considered the overall cost effectiveness of hand washing in developing countries in relationship to DALYs averted. However, one review suggests that promoting hand washing with soap is significantly more cost-effective than other water and sanitation interventions. History The importance of hand washing for human healthparticularly for people in vulnerable circumstances like mothers who had just given birth or wounded soldiers in hospitalswas first recognized in the mid 19th century by two pioneers of hand hygiene: the Hungarian physician Ignaz Semmelweis who worked in Vienna, Austria and Florence Nightingale, the English "founder of modern nursing". At that time most people still believed that infections were caused by foul odors called miasmas. In the 1980s, foodborne outbreaks and healthcare-associated infections led the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to more actively promote hand hygiene as an important way to prevent the spread of infection. The outbreak of swine flu in 2009 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 led to increased awareness in many countries of the importance of washing hands with soap to protect oneself from such infectious diseases. For example, posters with "correct hand washing techniques" were hung up next to hand washing sinks in public toilets and in the toilets of office buildings and airports in Germany. Society and culture Moral aspects The phrase "washing one's hands of" something, means declaring one's unwillingness to take responsibility for the thing or share complicity in it. It originates from the bible passage in Matthew where Pontius Pilate washed his hands of the decision to crucify Jesus Christ, but has become a phrase with a much wider usage in some English communities. In Shakespeare's Macbeth, Lady Macbeth begins to compulsively wash her hands in an attempt to cleanse an imagined stain, representing her guilty conscience regarding crimes she had committed and induced her husband to commit. It has also been found that people, after having recalled or contemplated unethical acts, tend to wash hands more often than others, and tend to value hand washing equipment more. Furthermore, those who are allowed to wash their hands after such a contemplation are less likely to engage in other "cleansing" compensatory actions, such as volunteering. See also References External links Hand Hygiene: Why, How & When? (PDF from the World Health Organization) Centers for Disease Control on hand hygiene in healthcare settings Global Public-Private Partnership for Hand washing Photos of low-cost hand washing installations in developing countries (collected by Sustainable Sanitation Alliance) OCD and Hand Washing WHO: How to handwash with soap and water (video) Articles containing video clips Hand Hygiene Medical hygiene Sanitation

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corneliu%20Zelea%20Codreanu

Corneliu Zelea Codreanu

Corneliu Zelea Codreanu (; 13 September 1899 – 30 November 1938)—born Corneliu Zelinski and commonly known as Corneliu Codreanu—was a Romanian politician of the far right, the founder and charismatic leader of the Iron Guard or The Legion of the Archangel Michael (also known as the Legionary Movement), an ultranationalist and violently antisemitic organization active throughout most of the interwar period. Generally seen as the main variety of local fascism, and noted for its mystical and Romanian Orthodox-inspired revolutionary message, it gained prominence on the Romanian political stage, coming into conflict with the political establishment and the democratic forces, and often resorting to terrorism. The Legionnaires traditionally referred to Codreanu as Căpitanul ("The Captain"), and he held absolute authority over the organization until his death. Codreanu, who began his career in the wake of World War I as an anticommunist and antisemitic agitator associated with A. C. Cuza and Constantin Pancu, was a co-founder of the National-Christian Defense League and assassin of the Iași Police prefect Constantin Manciu. Codreanu left Cuza to found a succession of movements on the far right, rallying around him a growing segment of the country's intelligentsia and peasant population, and inciting pogroms in various parts of Greater Romania. Several times outlawed by successive Romanian cabinets, his Legion assumed different names and survived in the underground, during which time Codreanu formally delegated leadership to Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul. Following Codreanu's instructions, the Legion carried out assassinations of politicians it viewed as corrupt, including Premier Ion G. Duca and his former associate Mihai Stelescu. Simultaneously, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu advocated Romania's adherence to a military and political alliance with Nazi Germany. During the 1937 election, his party registered its strongest showing, placing third and winning 15.8% of the vote. It was blocked out of power by King Carol II, who invited the rival fascists and fourth-place finishers of the National Christian Party to form a short-lived government, succeeded by the National Renaissance Front royal dictatorship. The rivalry between Codreanu and, on the other side, Carol and moderate politicians like Nicolae Iorga ended with Codreanu's incarceration at Jilava Prison and eventual assassination at the hands of the Gendarmerie. He was succeeded as leader by Horia Sima. In 1940, under the National Legionary State proclaimed by the Iron Guard, his killing served as the basis for violent retribution. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's views influenced the modern far-right. Groups claiming him as a forerunner include Noua Dreaptă and other Romanian successors of the Iron Guard, the International Third Position, and various neofascist organizations in Italy and other parts of Europe. Biography Early life Corneliu Codreanu was born in Huși to Ion Zelea Codreanu and Elizabeth (née Brunner) on 13 September 1899. His father, a teacher and himself a Romanian nationalist, would later become a political figure within his son's movement. A native of Bukovina in Austria-Hungary, Ion had originally been known as Zelinski; his wife was ethnically German. Statements according to which Ion Zelea Codreanu was originally a Slav of Ukrainian or Polish origin contrast with the Romanian chauvinism he embraced for the rest of his life; Codreanu the elder associated with antisemitic figures such as University of Iași professor A. C. Cuza. Just prior to Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's 1938 trial, his ethnic origins were the subject of an anti-Legionary propagandistic campaign organized by the authorities, who distributed copies of a variant of his genealogy which alleged that he was of mixed ancestry, being the descendant of not just Ukrainians, Germans, and Romanians, but also Czechs and Russians, and that several of their ancestors were delinquents. Historian Ilarion Țiu describes this as an attempt to offend and libel Codreanu. Too young for conscription in 1916, when Romania entered World War I on the Entente side, Codreanu nonetheless tried his best to enlist and fight in the subsequent campaign. His education at the military school in Bacău (where he was a colleague of Petre Pandrea, the future left-wing activist) ended in the same year as Romania's direct implication in the war. In 1919, after moving to Iași, Codreanu found communism as his new enemy, after he had witnessed the impact of Bolshevik agitation in Moldavia, and especially after Romania lost her main ally in the October Revolution, forcing her to sign the 1918 Treaty of Bucharest; also, the newly founded Comintern was violently opposed to Romania's interwar borders (see Greater Romania). While the Bolshevik presence decreased overall following the repression of Socialist Party riots in Bucharest (December 1918), it remained or was perceived as relatively strong in Iași and other Moldavian cities and towns. In this context, the easternmost region of Bessarabia, which united with Romania in 1918, was believed by Codreanu and others to be especially prone to Bolshevik influence. Codreanu learned antisemitism from his father, but connected it with anticommunism, in the belief that Jews were, among other things, the primordial agents of the Soviet Union (see Jewish Bolshevism). GCN and National-Christian Defense League Codreanu studied law in Iași, where he began his political career. Like his father, he became close to A. C. Cuza. Codreanu's fear of Bolshevik insurrection led to his efforts to address industrial workers himself. At the time, Cuza was preaching that the Jewish population was a manifest threat to Romanians, claimed that Jews were threatening the purity of Romanian young women, and began campaigning in favour of racial segregation. Historian Adrian Cioroianu defined the early Codreanu as a "quasi-demagogue agitator". According to Cioroianu, Codreanu loved Romania with "fanaticism", which implied that he saw the country as "idyllicized [and] different from the real one of his times". British scholar Christopher Catherwood also referred to Codreanu as "an obsessive anti-Semite and religious fanatic". Historian Zeev Barbu proposed that "Cuza was Codreanu's mentor [...], but nothing that Codreanu learned from him was strikingly new. Cuza served mainly as a catalyst for his nationalism and antisemitism." As he himself later acknowledged, the young activist was also deeply influenced by the physiologist and antisemitic ideologue Nicolae Paulescu, who was involved with Cuza's movement. In late 1919, Codreanu joined the short-lived Garda Conștiinței Naționale (GCN, "Guard of National Conscience"), a group formed by the electrician Constantin Pancu. Pancu had an enormous influence on Codreanu. Pancu's movement, whose original membership did not exceed 40, attempted to revive loyalism within the proletariat (while offering an alternative to communism by advocating increased labor rights). As much as other reactionary groups, it won the tacit support of General Alexandru Averescu and his increasingly popular People's Party (of which Cuza became an affiliate); Averescu's ascension to power in 1920 engendered a new period of social troubles in the larger urban areas (see Labor movement in Romania). The GCN, in which Codreanu thought he could see the nucleus of nationalist trade unions, became active in crushing strike actions. Their activities did not fail in attracting attention, especially after students who obeyed Codreanu, grouped in the Association of Christian Students, started demanding a Jewish quota for higher education — this gathered popularity for the GCN, and it led to a drastic increase in the frequency and intensity of assaults on all its opponents. In response, Codreanu was expelled from the University of Iași. Although allowed to return when Cuza and others intervened for him (refusing to respect the decision of the University Senate), he was never presented with a diploma after his graduation. While studying in Berlin and Jena in 1922, Codreanu took a critical attitude towards the Weimar Republic, and began praising the March on Rome and Italian fascism as major achievements; he decided to cut his stay short after learning of the large Romanian student protests in December, prompted by the intention of the government to grant the complete emancipation of Jews (see History of the Jews in Romania). When protests organized by Codreanu were met with lack of interest from the new National Liberal government, he and Cuza founded (4 March 1923) a Christian nationalist organization called the National-Christian Defense League. They were joined in 1925 by Ion Moța, translator of the antisemitic hoax known as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and future ideologue of the Legion. Codreanu was subsequently tasked with organizing the League at a national level, and became especially preoccupied with its youth ventures. With the granting of full rights of citizenship to persons of Jewish descent under the Constitution of 1923, the League raided the Iași ghetto, led a group which petitioned the government in Bucharest (being received with indifference), and ultimately decided to assassinate Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu and other members of government. Codreanu also drafted the first of his several death lists, which contained the names of politicians who, he believed, had betrayed Romania. It included Gheorghe Gh. Mârzescu, who held several offices in Brătianu's executive, and who promoted the emancipation of Jews. In October 1923, Codreanu was betrayed by one of his associates, arrested, and put on trial. He and the other plotters were soon acquitted, as Romanian legislation did not allow for prosecution of conspiracies that had not been assigned a definite date. Before the jury ended deliberation, Ion Moța shot the traitor and was given a prison sentence himself. Manciu's killing Codreanu clashed with Cuza over the League's structure: he demanded that it develop a paramilitary and revolutionary character, while Cuza was hostile to the idea. In November, while in Văcărești prison in Bucharest, Codreanu had planned for the creation of a youth organization within the League, which he aimed to call The Legion of the Archangel Michael. This was said to be in honour of an Orthodox icon that adorned the walls of the prison church, or, more specifically, linked to Codreanu's reported claim of having been visited by the Archangel himself. A more personal problem also divided Codreanu and Cuza, namely that Cuza's son had an affair with Codreanu's sister that left her pregnant. The couple had broken up with the younger Cuza refused his girlfriend's demand that he marry her now that she was bearing his child. Though the scandal was hushed up, the fact that his sister was having an illegitimate child was deeply humiliating for Codreanu as he liked to present his family as model members of the Orthodox church and he sought unsuccessfully to have Cuza pressure his son to marry his sister. Back in Iași, Codreanu created his own system of allegiance within the League, starting with the Frăția de Cruce ("Brotherhood of the Cross", named after a variant of blood brotherhood which requires sermon with a cross). It gathered on 6 May 1924, in the countryside around Iași, starting work on the building of a student centre. This meeting was violently broken up by the authorities on orders from Romanian Police prefect Constantin Manciu. Codreanu and several others were allegedly beaten and tormented for several days, until Cuza's intervention on their behalf proved effective. After an interval of retreating from any political activity, Codreanu took revenge on Manciu, assassinating him and severely wounding some other policemen on 24 October, in the Iași Tribunal building (where Manciu had been called to answer accusations, after one of Codreanu's comrades had filed a complaint). Forensics showed that Manciu was not facing his killer at the moment of his death, which prompted Codreanu to indicate that he considered himself to be acting in self-defence based solely on Manciu's earlier actions. Codreanu gave himself up immediately after firing his gun, and awaited trial in custody. The police force of Iași was unpopular with the public due to widespread corruption, and many locals saw the murder of Manciu as a heroic act by Codreanu. In the meantime, the issue was brought up in the Parliament of Romania by the Peasant Party's Paul Bujor, who first made a proposal to review legislation dealing with political violence and sedition; it won the approval of the governing National Liberal Party, which, on December 19, passed the Mârzescu Law (named after its proponent, Mârzescu, who had been appointed Minister of Justice). Its most notable, if indirect, effect was the banning of the Communist Party. In October and November debates between members of Parliament became heated, and Cuza's group was singled out as morally responsible for the murder: Petre Andrei stated that "Mr. Cuza aimed and Codreanu fired", to which Cuza replied by claiming his innocence, while theorizing that Manciu's brutality was a justifiable cause for violent retaliation. Although Codreanu was purposely tried as far away from Iași as Turnu Severin, the authorities were unable to find a neutral jury. On the day he was acquitted, members of the jury, who deliberated for five minutes in all, showed up wearing badges with League symbols and swastikas (the symbol in use by Cuza's League). After a triumphal return and an ostentatious wedding to Elena Ilinoiu, Codreanu clashed with Cuza for a second time and decided to defuse tensions by taking leave in France. Codreanu's wedding to Elena Ilinoiu in June 1925 in Focșani was the major social event in Romania that year; it was celebrated in lavish, pseudo-royal style and attended by thousands, attracting enormous media attention. After the wedding, Codreanu and his bride were followed by 3,000 ox-carts in a four-mile long procession of "ecstatically happy" peasants. One of Codreanu's followers wrote at the time that Romanians loved royal spectacles, especially royal weddings, but since Crown Prince Carol had eloped first to marry a commoner in 1918 in a private wedding followed by a royal wedding in Greece, Codreanu's wedding was the best substitute for the royal wedding that the Romanian people wanted to see. Codreanu's wedding was meant to change his image from the romantic, restless, Byronic hero image he had held until then to a more "settled" image of a married man, and thus allay concerns held by more conservative Romanians about his social radicalism. Before leaving Romania for Grenoble, Codreanu was the victim of an assassination attempt — Moța, just returned from prison, was given another short sentence after he led the reprisals. Creation of the Legion of the Archangel Michael Codreanu returned from Grenoble to take part in the 1926 elections, and ran as a candidate for the town of Focșani. He lost, and, although it had had a considerable success, the League disbanded in the same year. Codreanu gathered former members of the League who had spent time in prison, and put into practice his dream of forming the Legion (November 1927, just days after the fall of a new Averescu cabinet, which had continued to support now-rival Cuza). Codreanu claimed to have had a vision of the Archangel Michael who told him he had been chosen by God to be Romania's saviour. From the beginning, a commitment to the values of the Eastern Orthodox Church was core to the message of the Legion, and Codreanu's alleged vision was a centrepiece of his message. Based on the Frăția de Cruce, Codreanu designed the Legion as a selective and autarkic group, paying allegiance to him and no other, and soon expanded it into a replicating network of political cells called "nests" (cuiburi). Frăția endured as the Legion's most secretive and highest body, which requested from its members that they undergo a rite of passage, during which they swore allegiance to the "Captain", as Codreanu was now known. According to American historian Barbara Jelavich, the movement "at first supported no set ideology, but instead emphasized the moral regeneration of the individual", while expressing a commitment to the Romanian Orthodox Church. The Legion introduced Orthodox rituals as part of its political rallies, while Codreanu made his public appearances dressed in folk costume — a traditionalist pose adopted at the time only by him and the National Peasant Party's Ion Mihalache. Throughout its existence, the Legion maintained strong links with members of the Romanian Orthodox clergy, and its members fused politics with an original interpretation of Romanian Orthodox messages — including claims that the Romanian kin was expecting its national salvation, in a religious sense. Such a mystical focus, Jelavich noted, was in tandem with a marked preoccupation for violence and self-sacrifice, "but only if the [acts of terror] were committed for the good of the cause and subsequently expiated." Legionnaires engaged in violent or murderous acts often turned themselves in to be arrested, and it became common that violence was seen as a necessary step in a world that expected a Second Coming of Christ. With time, the Legion developed a doctrine around a cult of the fallen, going so far as to imply that the dead continued to form an integral part of a perpetual national community. As a consequence of its mysticism, the movement made a point of not adopting or advertising any particular platform, and Codreanu explained early on: "The country is dying for lack of men and not for lack of political programs." Elsewhere, he pointed out that the Legion was interested in the creation of a "new man" (omul nou). Despite its apparent lack of political messages, the movement was immediately noted for its antisemitism, for arguing that Romania was faced with a "Jewish Question" and for proclaiming that a Jewish presence thrived on uncouthness and pornography. The Legionary leader wrote: "The historical mission of our generation is the resolution of the kike problem. All of our battles of the past 15 years have had this purpose, all of our life's efforts from now on will have this purpose." He accused the Jews in general of attempting to destroy what he claimed was a direct link between Romania and God, and the Legion campaigned in favour of the notion that there was no actual connection between the Old Testament Hebrews and the modern Jews. In one instance, making a reference to the origin of the Romanians, Codreanu stated that Jews were corrupting the "Roman-Dacian structure of our people." The Israeli historian Jean Ancel wrote that, from the mid-19th century onward, the Romanian intelligentsia had a "schizophrenic attitude towards the West and its values". Romania been a strongly Francophile country starting in the 19th century, and most of the Romanian intelligentsia professed themselves believers in French ideas about the universal appeal of democracy, freedom, and human rights while at the same time holding antisemitic views about Romania's Jewish minority. Ancel wrote that Codreanu was the first significant Romanian to reject not only the prevailing Francophilia of the intelligentsia, but also the entire framework of universal democratic values, which Codreanu claimed were "Jewish inventions" designed to destroy Romania. He began openly calling for the destruction of Jews, and, as early as 1927, the new movement organized the sacking and burning of a synagogue in the city of Oradea. It thus profited from an exceptional popularity of antisemitism in Romanian society: according to one analysis, Romania was, with the exception of Poland, the most antisemitic country in Eastern Europe. Codreanu's message was among the most radical forms of Romanian antisemitism, and contrasted with the generally more moderate antisemitic views of Cuza's former associate, the prominent historian Nicolae Iorga. The model favoured by the Legion was a form of racial antisemitism, and formed part of Codreanu's theory that the Romanians were biologically distinct and superior to neighbouring or co-inhabiting ethnicities (including the Hungarian community). Codreanu also voiced his thoughts on the issue of Romanian expansionism, which show that he was pondering the incorporation of Soviet lands over the Dniester (in the region later annexed under the name of Transnistria) and planning a Romanian-led transnational federation centred on the Carpathians and the Danube. In 1936, Codreanu published an essay entitled "The Resurrection of the Race", where he wrote I will under underline this once again: we are not up against a few pathetic individuals who have landed here by chance and who now seek protection and shelter. We are up against a fully-fledged Jewish state, an entire army which has come here with its sights set on conquest. The movement of the Jewish population and its penetration into Romania are being carried out in accordance with precise plans. In all probability, the 'Great Jewish Council' is planning the creation of a new Palestine on a strip of land, starting out on the Baltic Sea, embraces a part of Poland and Czechoslovakia and half of Romania right across to the Black Sea...The worse thing that Jews and politicians have done to us, the greatest danger that they have exposed our people to, is not the way they are seizing the riches and possessions of our country, destroying the Romanian middle class, the way they swamp our schools and liberal professions, or the pernicious influence they are having on our whole political life, although these already constitute mortal dangers for a people. The greatest danger they pose to the people is rather that they are undermining us racially, that they are destroying the racial, Romano-Dacian structure of our people and call into being a type of human being that is nothing, but a racial wreck." From early on, the movement registered significant gains among the middle-class and educated youth. However, according to various commentators, Codreanu won his most significant following in the rural environment, which in part reflected the fact that he and most other Legionary leaders were first-generation urban dwellers. American historian of fascism Stanley G. Payne, who noted that the Legion benefited from the 400% increase in university enrolment ("proportionately more than anywhere else in Europe"), has described the Captain and his network of disciples as "a revolutionary alliance of students and poor peasants", which centred on the "new underemployed intelligentsia prone to radical nationalism". Thus, a characteristic trait of the newly-founded movement was the young age of its leaders; later records show that the average age of the Legionary elite was 27.4. By then also an anticapitalist, Codreanu identified in Jewry the common source of economic liberalism and communism, both seen as internationalist forces manipulated by a Judaic conspiracy. As an opponent of modernization and materialism, he only vaguely indicated that his movement's economic goals implied a non-Marxian form of Collectivist anarchism, and presided over his followers' initiatives to set up various cooperatives. First outlawing and parliamentary mandate After more than two years of stagnation, Codreanu felt it necessary to amend the purpose of the movement: he and the leadership of the movement started touring rural regions, addressing the churchgoing illiterate population with the rhetoric of sermons, dressing up in long white mantles and instigating Christian prejudice against Judaism (this intense campaign was also prompted by the fact that the Legion was immediately sidelined by Cuza's League in the traditionally-receptive Moldavian and Bukovinian centers). Between 1928 and 1930, the Alexandru Vaida-Voevod National Peasants' Party cabinet gave tacit assistance to the Guard, but Iuliu Maniu (representing the same party) clamped down on the Legion after July 1930. This came after the latter had tried to provoke a wave of pogroms in Maramureș and Bessarabia. In one notable incident of 1930, Legionnaires encouraged the peasant population of Borșa to attack the town's 4,000 Jews. The Legion also attempted to assassinate government officials and journalists, including Constantin Angelescu, undersecretary of Internal Affairs. Codreanu was briefly arrested together with the would-be assassin Gheorghe Beza: both were tried and acquitted. Nevertheless, the wave of violence and a planned march into Bessarabia signalled the outlawing of the party by Premier Gheorghe Mironescu and Minister of the Interior Ion Mihalache (January 1931); again arrested, Codreanu was acquitted in late February. Having been boosted by the Great Depression in Romania and the malcontent it engendered, in 1931, the Legion also profited from the disagreement between King Carol II and the National Peasants' Party, which brought a cabinet formed around Nicolae Iorga. Codreanu was consequently elected to the Chamber of Deputies on the lists of the "Corneliu Zelea Codreanu Grouping" (the provisional name for the Guard), together with other prominent members of his original movement — including Ion Zelea, his father, and Mihai Stelescu, a young activist who ultimately came into conflict with the Legion; it is likely that the new Vaida-Voevod cabinet gave tacit support to the Grouping in subsequent partial elections. The Legion had won five seats in all, signalling its first important electoral gain. Codreanu quickly became noted for exposing corruption of ministers and other politicians on a case-by-case basis (although several of his political adversaries at the time described him as "bland and incompetent"). Clash with Duca and truce with Tătărescu The authorities became increasingly concerned with the revolutionary potential of the Legion, and minor clashes in 1932 between the two introduced what became, from 1933, almost a decade of major political violence. The situation degenerated after Codreanu expressed his full support for Adolf Hitler and Nazism (even to the detriment of Italian fascism, and probably an added source for the conflict between the Captain and Stelescu). Romania was traditionally one of the most Francophile countries in Europe and had been allied to its "Latin sister" France since 1926, so Codreanu's call for an alliance with Germany was very novel for the time. A new National Liberal cabinet, formed by Ion G. Duca, moved against such initiatives, stating that the Legion was acting as a puppet of the German Nazi Party, and ordering that a huge number of Legionnaires be arrested just prior to the new elections in 1933 (which the Liberals won). Some of the Legionnaires held in custody were killed by authorities. In retaliation, Duca was assassinated by the Iron Guard's Nicadori death squad on 30 December 1933. Another result was the very first crackdown on non-affiliated sympathizers of the Iron Guard, after Nae Ionescu and allies protested against its repression. Due to Duca's killing, Codreanu was forced into hiding, awaiting calm and delegating leadership to General Gheorghe Cantacuzino-Grănicerul, who later assumed partial guilt for the assassination. Legionnaire Mihai Stelescu, who would become Codreanu's adversary as head of the splinter group Crusade of Romanianism, alleged that Codreanu had been given refuge by a cousin of Magda Lupescu, Carol's mistress, implying that the Guard was becoming corrupt. Despite Codreanu's attacks on the elite, at his trial in 1934 a number of respected politicians like Gheorghe I. Brătianu, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod and Constantin Argetoianu testified for Codreanu as character witnesses. Codreanu was again acquitted. As Duca had alleged, the Iron Guard did have some links to the Nazi Party's foreign office under Alfred Rosenberg, but in 1933–34 the main local beneficiary of financial support from Rosenberg was Codreanu's rival Octavian Goga, who lacked Codreanu's mass following and thus was more biddable. A further issue for the Nazis was concern over Codreanu's statements that Romania had too many minorities for its own good, which led to fears that Codreanu might persecute the volksdeutsch minority if he came to power. Though limited, the connections between the NSDAP and the Iron Guard added to the Legion's appeal as the Iron Guard was associated in the public mind with the apparently dynamic and successful society of Nazi Germany. Some time after the start of Gheorghe Tătărescu's premiership and Ion Inculeț's leadership of the Internal Affairs Ministry, repression of the Legion ceased, a measure which reflected Carol's hope to ensure a new period of stability. In 1936, during a youth congress in Târgu Mureș, Codreanu agreed to the formation of a permanent Death Squad, which immediately showed its goals with the killing of dissident Mihai Stelescu by a group called the Decemviri (led by Ion Caratănase), neutralizing the Crusade of Romanianisms anti-Legion campaign, and silencing Stelescu's claims that Codreanu was politically corrupt, uncultured, a plagiarist, and hypocritical in his public display of asceticism. 1937 was marked by the deaths and ostentatious funerals of Ion Moța (by then, the movement's vice president) and Vasile Marin, who had volunteered on Francisco Franco's side in the Spanish Civil War and had been killed in the battle at Majadahonda. Codreanu also published his autobiographical and ideological essay Pentru legionari ("For the Legionnaires" or "For My Legionnaires"). It was during this period that the Guard came to be financed by Nicolae Malaxa (otherwise known as a prominent collaborator of Carol), and became interested in reforming itself to reach an even wider audience: Codreanu created a meritocratic inner structure of ranks, established a wide range of philanthropic ventures, again voiced themes which appealed to the industrial workers, and created Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar, a Legion branch which grouped members of the working class. King Carol met difficulties in preserving his rule after being faced with a decline in the appeal of the more traditional parties, and, as Tătărescu's term approached its end, Carol made an offer to Codreanu, demanding leadership of the Legion in exchange for a Legionary cabinet; this offer was promptly refused. "Everything for the Country" Party After the consequent ban on paramilitary groups, the Legion was restyled into a political party, running in elections as Totul Pentru Țară ("Everything for the Country", acronym TPȚ'''). Shortly afterwards, Codreanu went on record stating his contempt for Romania's alliances in Eastern Europe, in particular the Little Entente and the Balkan Pact, and indicating that, 48 hours after his movement came into power, the country would be aligned with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Reportedly, such trust and confidence was reciprocated by both German officials and Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano, the latter of whom viewed Goga's cabinet as a transition to the Iron Guard's rule. In the elections of 1937, when it signed an electoral pact with the National Peasants' Party with the goal of preventing the government from making use of electoral fraud, TPȚ received 15.5% of the voteFinal Report, p.39-40; Brustein, p.159; Cioroianu, p.17; Jelavich, p.206; Ornea, p.312 (occasionally rounded up to 16%). Despite failure to win the majority bonus, Codreanu's movement was, at the time, the third most popular party in Romania, the only one whose popularity grew in 1937–1938, and by far the most popular fascist group. The Legion was excluded from political coalitions by nominally fascist King Carol, who preferred newly-formed subservient movements and the revived National-Christian Defense League. Cuza created his antisemitic government together with poet Octavian Goga and his National Agrarian Party. Codreanu and the two leaders did not get along, and the Legion started competing with the authorities by adopting corporatism. In parallel, he urged his followers to set up private businesses, claiming to follow the advice of Nicolae Iorga, after the latter claimed that a Romanian-run commerce could prove a solution to what he deemed the "Jewish Question". The new government alliance, unified as the National Christian Party, gave itself a blue-shirted paramilitary corps that borrowed heavily from the Legion — the Lăncieri — and initiated an official campaign of persecution of Jews, attempting to win back the interest the public had in the Iron Guard. After much violence, Codreanu was approached by Goga and agreed to have his party withdraw from campaigning in the scheduled elections of 1938, believing that, in any event, the regime had no viable solution and would wear itself out — while attempting to profit from the king's authoritarianism by showing his willingness to integrate any possible one-party system. Clash with King Carol and 1938 trials Codreanu's designs were overturned by Carol, who deposed Goga, introducing his own dictatorship after his attempts to form a national government. The system relied instead on the new Constitution of 1938, the financial backing received from large business, and the winning over of several more or less traditional politicians, such as Nicolae Iorga and the Internal Affairs Minister Armand Călinescu (see National Renaissance Front). The ban on the Guard was again tightly enforced, with Călinescu ordering all public places known to have harboured Legion meetings to be closed down (including several restaurants in Bucharest). Members of the movement were placed under close surveillance or arrested in cases where they did not abide by the new legislation, while civil servants risked arrest if they were caught spreading Iron Guard propaganda. The official and semi-official press began attacking Codreanu. He was thus virulently criticized by the magazine Neamul Românesc, which was edited by Iorga. When Carol felt he had sufficient control of the situation, he ordered a brutal suppression of the Iron Guard and had Codreanu arrested on the charge of slander, based on a letter Codreanu sent to Iorga on 26 March 1938, in which he had attacked him for collaborating with Carol, calling Iorga "morally dishonest".Codreanu, in Ornea, p.315 Codreanu referred to the historian's charge that Legionary commerce was financing rebellion, and argued that this strategy had originated from Iorga's own arguments. Nicolae Iorga replied by filing a complaint with the Military TribunalOrnea, p.316 and by writing Codreanu a letter which advised him to "descend in [his] conscience to find remorse" for "the amount of blood spilled over him". Upon being informed of the indictment, Codreanu urged his followers not to take any action if he was going to be sentenced to less than six months in prison, stressing that he wanted to give an example of dignity; however, he also ordered a group of Legionnaires to defend him in case of an attack by the authorities. He was arrested together with 44 other prominent members of the movement, including Ion Zelea Codreanu, Gheorghe Clime, Alexandru Cristian Tell, Radu Gyr, Nae Ionescu, Șerban Milcoveanu and Mihail Polihroniade, on the evening of April 16. The crackdown coincided with the Orthodox celebration of Palm Sunday (when those targeted were known to be in their homes). After a short stay in the Romanian Police Prefecture, Codreanu was dispatched to Jilava Prison, while the other prisoners were sent to Tismana Monastery (and later to concentration camps such as the one in Miercurea Ciuc). Codreanu was tried for slander and sentenced to six months in jail, before the authorities indicted him for treason, sedition, and for the crimes of politically organizing underage students, issuing orders inciting to violence, maintaining links with foreign organizations, and organizing fire practices. Of the people to give evidence in his favour at the trial, the best-known was General Ion Antonescu, who would later become Conducător and Premier of Romania. The two trials were marked by irregularities, and Codreanu accused the judges and prosecutors of conducting it in a "Bolshevik" manner, because he had not been allowed to speak in his own defence. He sought the counsel of the prominent lawyers Istrate Micescu and Grigore Iunian, but was refused by both, and, as a consequence, his defence team comprised Legionary activists with little experience. They were several times prevented by the authorities from preparing their pleas. The conditions of his imprisonment were initially harsh: his cell was damp and cold, which caused him health problems. Sentencing and death Codreanu was eventually sentenced to ten years of hard labour in the salt mines.Jelavich, p.207; Ornea, p.317; Veiga, p.250, 255–256 According to historian Ilarion Țiu, the trial and verdict were received with general apathy, and the only political faction believed to have organized a public rally in connection with it was the outlawed Romanian Communist Party, some of whose members gathered in front of the tribunal to express support for the conviction. The Legionary Movement itself grew disorganized, and provincial bodies of the Legion came to exercise control over the centre, which had been weakened by the arrests. As the political establishment's main branches welcomed the news of Codreanu's sentencing, the Iron Guard organized a retaliation attack targeting the National Peasant Party's Virgil Madgearu, who had become known for expressing his opposition to the movement's extremism (Madgearu managed to escape the violence unharmed). Codreanu was moved from Jilava to Doftana Prison, where, despite the sentence, he was not required to perform any form of physical work. The conditions of his detention improved, and he was allowed to regularly communicate with his family and subordinates. At the time, he rejected all possibility of an escape, and ordered the Legion to refrain from violent acts. A provisional leadership team was also organized, consisting of Ion Antoniu, Ion Belgae, Radu Mironovici, Iordache Nicoară, and Horia Sima. However, the provisional leadership, against Codreanu's wishes, announced that he was faring badly in prison and threatened further retaliation, to the point where the prison staff increased security as a means to prevent a potential break-in. In the autumn, following the successful Nazi German expansion into Central Europe which seemed to provide momentum for the Guard, and even moreso the international context provided by the Munich Agreement and the First Vienna Award, its clandestine leadership grew confident and published manifestos threatening King Carol. Those members of the Iron Guard who escaped persecution or were omitted in the first place started a violent campaign throughout Romania, meant to coincide with Carol's visit to Hitler at the Berghof, as a way to prevent the tentative approach between Romania and Nazi Germany. Confident that Hitler was not determined on supporting the Legion, and irritated by the incidents, Carol ordered the decapitation of the movement. On 30 November, it was announced that Codreanu, the Nicadori and the Decemviri had been shot after trying to flee custody the previous night. The actual details were revealed much later: the fourteen persons had been transported from their prison and executed (strangled or garroted and shot) by the Gendarmerie around Tâncăbești (near Bucharest), and their bodies had been buried in the courtyard of the Jilava prison.Ornea, p.320-321; Sedgwick, p.115; Veiga, p.257 Their bodies were dissolved in acid, and placed under seven tons of concrete. Legacy Lifetime influence and Legionary power According to Adrian Cioroianu, Codreanu was "the most successful political and at the same time anti-political model of interwar Romania". The Legion was described by British researcher Norman Davies as "one of Europe's more violent fascist movements." Stanley G. Payne argued that the Iron Guard was "probably the most unusual mass movement of interwar Europe", and noted that part of this was owed to Codreanu being "a sort of religious mystic"; British historian James Mayall saw the Legion as "the most singular of the lesser fascist movements". The charismatic leadership represented by Codreanu has drawn comparisons with models favoured by other leaders of far-right and fascist movements, including Hitler and Benito Mussolini.Payne, p.117 Payne and German historian Ernst Nolte proposed that, among European far-rightists, Codreanu was most like Hitler in what concerns fanaticism. In Payne's view, however, he was virtually unparalleled in demanding "self-destructiveness" from his followers. Mayall, who states the Legion "was inspired in large measure by National Socialism and fascism", argues that Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's vision of "omul nou", although akin to the "new man" of Nazi and Italian doctrines, is characterized by an unparalleled focus on mysticism. Historian Renzo De Felice, who dismisses the notion that Nazism and fascism are connected, also argues that, due to Legionary attack on "bourgeois values and institutions", which the fascist ideology wanted instead to "purify and perfect", Codreanu "was not, strictly speaking, a fascist." Spanish historian Francisco Veiga argued that "fascization" was a process experienced by the Guard, accumulating traits over a more generic nationalist fibre. According to American journalist R. G. Waldeck, who was present in Romania in 1940–1941, the violent killing of Codreanu only served to cement his popularity and arouse interest in his cause. She wrote: "To the Rumanian people the Capitano [sic, Căpitanul] remained a saint and a martyr and the apostle of a better Rumania. Even skeptical ones who did not agree with him in political matters still grew dreamy-eyed remembering Codreanu." Historiographer Lucian Boia notes that Codreanu, his rival Carol II, and military leader Ion Antonescu were each in turn perceived as "savior" figures by the Romanian public, and that, unlike other such examples of popular men, they all preached authoritarianism. Cioroianu also writes that Codreanu's death "whether or not paradoxically, would increase the personage's charisma and would turn him straight into a legend." Attitudes similar to those described by Waldeck were relatively widespread among Romanian youths, many of whom came to join the Iron Guard out of admiration for the deceased Codreanu while still in middle or high school. Under the leadership of Horia Sima, the Iron Guard eventually came to power for a five-month period in 1940–1941, proclaiming the fascist National Legionary State and forming an uneasy partnership with Conducător Ion Antonescu. This was a result of Carol's downfall, effected by the Second Vienna Award, through which Romania had lost Northern Transylvania to Hungary. On November 25, 1940, an investigation was carried out on the Jilava Prison premises. The discovery of Codreanu and his associates' remains caused the Legionnaires to engage in a reprisal against the new regime's political prisoners, who were then detained in the same prison. On the next night, sixty-four inmates were shot, while on the 27th and 28 November there were fresh arrests and swift executions, with prominent victims such as Iorga and Virgil Madgearu (see: Jilava Massacre). The resulting widespread disorder brought the first open clash between Antonescu and the Legion. During the events, Codreanu was posthumously exonerated of all charges by a Legionary tribunal. His exhumation was a grandiose ceremony, marked by the participation of Romania's new ally, Nazi Germany: Luftwaffe planes dropped wreaths on Codreanu's open tomb. Codreanu's wife Elena withdrew from the public eye after her husband's killing, but, after the communist regime took hold, was arrested and deported to the Bărăgan, where she grew close to women aviators of the Blue Squadron. She also met and married Barbu Praporgescu (son of General David Praporgescu), moving in with him in Bucharest after their liberation. Widowed for a second time, she spent her final years with her relatives in Moldavia. Codreanu and modern-day political discourse The movement was eventually toppled from power by Antonescu as a consequence of the Legionnaires' Rebellion. The events associated with Sima's term in office resulted in conflicts and infighting within the Legion and its contemporary successors: many "Codrenist" Legionnaires claim to obey Codreanu and his father Ion Zelea, but not Sima, while, at the same time, the "Simist" faction claims to have followed Codreanu's guidance and inspiration in carrying out violent acts. Codreanu had an enduring influence in Italy. His views and style were attested to have influenced the controversial Traditionalist philosopher and racial theorist Julius Evola. Evola himself met with Codreanu on one occasion, and, in the words of his friend, the writer and historian Mircea Eliade, was "dazzled". Reportedly, the visit had been arranged by Eliade and philosopher Vasile Lovinescu, both of whom sympathized with the Iron Guard. Their guest later wrote that the Iron Guard founder was: "one of the worthiest and spiritually best oriented figures that I ever met in the nationalist movements of the time." According to De Felice, Codreanu has also become a main reference point for the Italian neofascist groups, alongside Evola and the ideologues of Nazism. He argues that this phenomenon, which tends to shadow references to Italian Fascism itself, is owed to Mussolini's failures in setting up "a true fascist state", and to the subsequent need of finding other role models. Evola's disciple and prominent neofascist activist Franco Freda published several of Codreanu's essays at his Edizioni di Ar, while their follower Claudio Mutti was noted for his pro-Legionary rhetoric. In parallel, Codreanu is seen as a hero by representatives of the maverick Neo-Nazi movement known as Strasserism, and in particular by the British-based Strasserist International Third Position (ITP), which uses one of Codreanu's statements as its motto. Codreanu's activities and mystical interpretation of politics were probably an inspiration on Russian politician Alexander Barkashov, founder of the far right Russian National Unity. After the Romanian Revolution toppled the communist regime, various extremist groups began claiming to represent Codreanu's legacy. Reportedly, one of the first was the short-lived Mișcarea pentru România ("Movement for Romania"), founded by the student leader Marian Munteanu. It was soon followed by the Romanian branch of the ITP and its Timișoara-based mouthpiece, the journal Gazeta de Vest, as well as by other groups claiming to represent the Legionary legacy.Final Report, p.365 Among the latter is Noua Dreaptă, which depicts Codreanu as a spiritual figure, often with attributes equivalent to those of a Romanian Orthodox saint. Each year around November 30, these diverse groups have been known to reunite in Tâncăbești, where they organize festivities to commemorate Codreanu's death. Mediafax, "Zelea Codreanu, comemorat de legionari", in Adevărul, November 28, 2005; retrieved February 11, 2008 In the early 2000s, Gigi Becali, a Romanian businessman, owner of the Steaua București football club, and leader of the right-wing New Generation Party, stated that he admired Codreanu and made attempts to capitalize on Legionary symbols and rhetoric, such as adopting a slogan originally coined by the Iron Guard: "I vow to God that I shall make Romania in the likeness of the holy sun in the sky".Michael Shafir, "Profile: Gigi Becali", at Radio Free Europe, OMRI Daily Digest, December 13, 2004; retrieved February 11, 2008 The statement, used by Becali during the 2004 presidential campaign, owed its inspiration to Legionary songs and was found in a much-publicized homage sent by Ion Moța to his Captain in 1937; it is also said to have been used by Codreanu himself.Tismăneanu, p.255 As a result of it, Becali was argued to have broken the 2002 government ordinance banning the use of fascist discourse. However, the Central Electoral Bureau rejected complaints against Becali, ruling that the slogan was not "identical" to the Legionary one. During the same period, Becali, speaking live in front of Oglinda Television cameras, called for Codreanu to be canonized. The station was fined 50 million lei by the National Audiovisual Council (around $1,223 USD in 2004). In a poll of the Romanian public conducted by Romanian Television in 2006, Codreanu was voted 22nd among the 100 Greatest Romanians, coming in between Steaua footballer Mirel Rădoi at 21 and the interwar democratic politician Nicolae Titulescu at 23. Cultural references Late in the 1930s, Codreanu's supporters began publishing books praising his virtues, among which are Vasile Marin's Crez de Generație ("Generation Credo") and Nicolae Roșu's Orientări în Veac ("Orientations in the Century"), both published in 1937. After the National Legionary State officially hailed Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as a martyr to the cause, his image came to be used as a propaganda tool in cultural contexts. Codreanu was integrated into the Legionary cult of death: usually at Iron Guard rallies, Codreanu and other fallen members were mentioned and greeted with the shout Prezent! ("Present!").Cioroianu, p.435 His personality cult was reflected in Legionary art, and a stylized image of him was displayed at major rallies, including the notorious and large-scale Bucharest ceremony of October 6, 1940. Although Codreanu was officially condemned by the communist regime a generation later, it is possible that, in its final stage under Nicolae Ceaușescu, it came to use the Captain's personality cult as a source of inspiration. The post-communist Noua Dreaptă, which publicizes portraits of Codreanu in the form of Orthodox icons, often makes use of such representation in its public rallies, usually associating it with its own symbol, the Celtic cross. In November 1940, the Legionary journalist Ovid Țopa, publishing in the Guard's newspaper Buna Vestire, claimed that Codreanu stood alongside the mythical Dacian prophet and "precursor of Christ" Zalmoxis, the 15th century Moldavian Prince Stephen the Great, and Romania's national poet Mihai Eminescu, as an essential figure of Romanian history and Romanian spirituality. Other Legionary texts of the time drew a similar parallel between Codreanu, Eminescu, and the 18th century Transylvanian Romanian peasant leader Horea. Thus, in 1937, sociologist Ernest Bernea had authored Cartea căpitanilor ("The Book of Captains"), where the preferred comparison was between Codreanu, Horea, and Horea's 19th century counterparts Tudor Vladimirescu and Avram Iancu. Also in November 1940, Codreanu was the subject of a conference given by the young philosopher Emil Cioran and aired by the state-owned Romanian Radio, in which Cioran notably praised the Guard's leader for "having given Romania a purpose". Other tribute pieces in various media came from other radical intellectuals of the period: Eliade, brothers Arșavir and Haig Acterian, Traian Brăileanu, Nichifor Crainic, N. Crevedia, Radu Gyr, Traian Herseni, Nae Ionescu, Constantin Noica, Petre P. Panaitescu, and Marietta Sadova. The Legionary leader was portrayed in a poem by his follower Radu Gyr, who notably spoke of Codreanu's death as a prelude to his resurrection. In contrast, Codreanu's schoolmate Petre Pandrea, who spent part of his life as a Romanian Communist Party affiliate, left an unflattering memoir of their encounters, used as a preferential source in texts on Codreanu published during the communist period. Despite his earlier confrontation with the Iron Guard, the leftist poet Tudor Arghezi is thought by some to have deplored Codreanu's killing, and to have alluded to it in his poem version of the Făt-Frumos stories. Mircea Eliade, whose early Legionary sympathies became a notorious topic of outrage, was indicated by his disciple Ioan Petru Culianu to have based Eugen Cucoanes, the main character in his novella Un om mare ("A Big Man"), on Codreanu. This hypothesis was commented upon by literary critics Matei Călinescu and Mircea Iorgulescu, the latter of whom argued that there was too-little evidence to support it. The neofascist Claudio Mutti claimed that Codreanu inspired the character Ieronim Thanase in Eliade's Nouăsprăzece trandafiri ("Nineteen Roses") story, a view rejected by Călinescu. Notes References Final Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, Polirom, Iași, 2004. Zeev Barbu, "Romania: The Iron Guard", in Aristotle A. Kallis (ed.), The Fascism Reader, Routledge, London, 2003, p. 195–201. Ruth Benedict, "The History as It Appears to Rumanians", in Margaret Mead, Rhoda Bubendey Métraux (eds.), The Study of Culture at a Distance, Berghahn Books, New York & Oxford, 2000, p. 449–459. Lucian Boia, Istorie și mit în conștiința românească, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1997. William Brustein, Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003. Christopher Catherwood, Why the Nations Rage: Killing in the Name of God, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, 2002. Adrian Cioroianu, , Editura Curtea Veche, Bucharest, 2005. Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996. Renzo De Felice, Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick & London, 1976. Barbara Jelavich, History of the Balkans, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983. James Mayall, "Fascism and Racism", in Terence Ball (ed.), The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003, p. 123–150. Z. Ornea, Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească, Editura Fundației Culturale Române, Bucharest, 1995 Stanley G. Payne, Fascism, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1980. Grigore Traian Pop, "Cînd disidenta se pedepsește cu moartea. Un asasinat ritual: Mihail Stelescu", in Dosarele Istoriei, 6/IV (1999) Ioan Scurtu, "De la bomba din Senat la atentatul din Gara Sinaia", in Dosarele Istoriei, 6/IV (1999) Mark Sedgwick, Against the Modern World: Traditionalism and the Secret Intellectual History of the Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press US, New York, 2004. Vladimir Tismăneanu, Stalinism pentru eternitate, Polirom, Iași, 2005. Francisco Veiga, Istoria Gărzii de Fier, 1919–1941: Mistica ultranaționalismului , Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993 Further reading Nicholas M. Nagy-Talavera, The Green Shirts and the Others: A History of Fascism in Hungary and Rumania, Hoover Institution Press, Stanford, 1970 Codreanu, For My Legionaries'' External links Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, A Few Remarks on Democracy, at the University of Pittsburgh Center for International Studies Biography of Codreanu at Olokaustos.org Codreanu's letter to Iorga, at the University of Bucharest 1899 births 1938 deaths People from Huși Alexandru Ioan Cuza University alumni Romanian nationalists Romanian anti-communists Romanian murderers Romanian essayists Romanian memoirists Members of the Iron Guard 20th-century Romanian politicians Leaders of political parties in Romania Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania) Romanian people of German descent Members of the Romanian Orthodox Church Christian fascists Inmates of Doftana prison Inmates of Râmnicu Sărat prison Inmates of Jilava Prison Anti-Hungarian sentiment Romanian conspiracy theorists Angelic visionaries Romanian politicians convicted of crimes Eastern Orthodoxy and far-right politics Romanian revolutionaries Executed revolutionaries Executed politicians 20th-century essayists Anti-Masonry Fascist politicians 20th-century memoirists Romanian fascists Christian conspiracy theorists Assassinated Romanian politicians Folk saints People convicted of treason against Romania Extrajudicial killings by the Kingdom of Romania Executed Romanian collaborators with Nazi Germany People executed by ligature strangulation People executed by the Kingdom of Romania 1930s assassinated politicians People convicted of sedition Assassinated leaders of political parties Assassinated former national legislators in Europe

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%20Canadian%20federal%20election

1984 Canadian federal election

The 1984 Canadian federal election was held on September 4, 1984, to elect members to the House of Commons of the 33rd Parliament of Canada. In one of the largest landslide victories in Canadian political history, the Progressive Conservative Party (PC Party), led by Brian Mulroney, defeated the incumbent governing Liberal Party led by Prime Minister John Turner. This was the first election since 1958 in which the PC Party won a majority government. Mulroney's victory came as a result of his building of a 'grand coalition' that comprised social conservatives from the West, Red Tories from the East, Quebec nationalists, and fiscal conservatives. Mulroney's PCs won the largest number of seats in Canadian history (at 211) and won the second-largest percentage of seats in Canadian history (at 74.8%), only ranking behind Progressive Conservative Prime Minister John Diefenbaker's triumph in the 1958 federal election (at 78.5%). This was the last time that the winning party won every province and territory and the last time that the winning party received over 50% of the national popular vote. The Liberals suffered what at that time was the worst defeat for a governing party at the federal level (in terms of percentage of seats). The New Democratic Party (NDP) saw no significant change to their seat count. The election marked the end of the Liberals' long dominance of federal politics in Quebec, a province which had been the bedrock of Liberal support for almost a century. They would not win a majority of Quebec seats again until three decades later in 2015. Background The election was fought almost entirely on the record of the Liberals, who had been in power for all but one year since 1963. Pierre Trudeau, who had been Prime Minister from 1968 to 1979 and again since 1980, retired from politics in early 1984. He was succeeded by John Turner, a former Cabinet minister under both Trudeau and Lester B. Pearson. Turner had been out of politics for nine years. Upon assuming the leadership, he made immediate changes in an attempt to rebuild the Liberals' struggling reputation. For example, he announced that he would not run in a by-election to return to the House of Commons, but would instead run in the next general election as the Liberal candidate in Vancouver Quadra, British Columbia. This was a sharp departure from usual practice for a Westminster system, in which the incumbent in a safe seat resigns to allow a newly elected party leader a chance to get into Parliament. But the Liberal Party had lost favour with western Canadians, and policies such as the National Energy Program only aggravated this sentiment. Turner's plan to run in a western Canada riding was, in part, an attempt to rebuild support in that region. Going into the election, the Liberals held only one seat west of Ontario—that of Lloyd Axworthy, from Winnipeg—Fort Garry, Manitoba. More seriously, there was great disaffection in Quebec with the Liberal government, despite their traditional support for the party. Conflict between the provincial and federal parties, a series of scandals, and the 1982 patriation of the Canadian constitution without the approval of the Quebec provincial government had damaged the Liberals' brand in the province. Hoping for success in Quebec, leader Joe Clark began actively courting soft nationalist voters in the province. This was also a main reason why businessman Brian Mulroney, a fluently bilingual native of Quebec, was chosen as Clark's replacement. Although Turner was not required to call an election until 1985, internal data initially showed that the Liberals had regained the lead in opinion polls. Turner and his advisers were also mindful of the fact that Trudeau had seemingly missed an opportunity to take advantage of favourable opinion polls in the latter half of the 1970s, when he waited the full five years to call an election only to go down to an (albeit temporary) defeat. Additionally, several by-election losses and floor crossings had eroded the large majority that the Liberals had won four years earlier. By 1984, the Liberals had been whittled down to a minority government, leaving Turner in serious danger of being toppled by a motion of no confidence. With this in mind, the new Prime Minister requested that Queen Elizabeth II delay her tour of Canada, and asked Governor-General Jeanne Sauvé to dissolve Parliament on July 9. In accordance with Canadian constitutional practice, Sauvé granted the request and set the election for September 4. Campaign The Liberals' early lead began to slip as Turner made several prominent gaffes. In particular, he spoke of creating new "make work programs", a concept from earlier decades that had been replaced by the less patronizing-sounding "job creation programs". He also was caught on camera patting Liberal Party president Iona Campagnolo on her posterior. Turner defended this action as being a friendly gesture, but it was seen by many as condescending. Other voters turned against the Liberals due to their mounting legacy of patronage and corruption. An especially important issue was Trudeau's recommendation that Sauvé appoint over 200 Liberals to patronage posts just before he left office. This action enraged Canadians on all sides. Turner had the right to advise that the appointments be withdrawn, which Sauvé would have had to do according to constitutional convention. However, Turner not only didn't do so, but appointed more than 70 Liberals to patronage posts himself despite a promise to bring a new way of politics to Ottawa. He cited a written agreement with Trudeau, claiming that if Trudeau had made the appointments, the Liberals would have almost certainly lost the election. However, the fact that Turner dropped the writ a year early hurt his argument. Turner found out that Mulroney was allegedly setting up a patronage machine in anticipation of victory. At the English-language televised debate between Mulroney, Turner and New Democratic Party leader Ed Broadbent, Turner started to attack Mulroney on his patronage plans, comparing them to the patronage machine run by old Union Nationale in Quebec. However, Mulroney turned the tables by pointing to the raft of patronage appointments made on the advice of Trudeau and Turner. Claiming that he'd gone so far as to apologize for making light of "these horrible appointments," Mulroney demanded that Turner apologize to the country for not cancelling the appointments advised by Trudeau and for recommending his own appointments. Turner was visibly surprised, and could only reply that "I had no option" except to let the appointments stand. Mulroney famously responded: You had an option, sir. You could have said, 'I am not going to do it. This is wrong for Canada, and I am not going to ask Canadians to pay the price.' You had an option, sir—to say 'no'—and you chose to say 'yes' to the old attitudes and the old stories of the Liberal Party. That sir, if I may say respectfully, that is not good enough for Canadians. Turner, clearly flustered by this withering riposte from Mulroney, could only repeat "I had no option." A visibly angry Mulroney called this "an avowal of failure" and "a confession of non-leadership." He told Turner, "You had an option, sir. You could have done better." Mulroney's counterattack led most of the papers the next day; it was often paraphrased as "You had an option, sir; you could have said 'no'." Many observers saw this as the end of any realistic chance for Turner to stay in power. Final days The last days of the campaign saw multiple Liberal blunders pile together. Turner continued to refer to "make work projects" and made other gaffes that caused voters to see him as a relic from the past. Turner even rehired much of Trudeau's staff during the final weeks in an attempt to turn the tide, but this did nothing to reverse sliding poll numbers. Even Trudeau himself did not campaign for Turner, instead only making appearances to support Liberal candidates. Besides the Tories, the NDP also benefited from the slip in Liberal support. Under Broadbent, the party had seen greater support in opinion polling than ever before, and had actually replaced the Liberals as the second party in much of western Canada. National results All numerical results from Elections Canada's Official Report on the Thirty-Third Election. Notes: "% change" refers to change from previous election. x – less than 0.05% of the popular vote. 1 Tony Roman was elected in the Toronto-area riding of York North as a "coalition candidate", defeating incumbent PC MP John Gamble. Roman drew support from Progressive Conservatives who were upset by Gamble's extreme-right-wing views. 2 Results of the Parti nationaliste du Québec are compared to those of the Union Populaire in the 1980 election. The Revolutionary Workers League fielded five candidates: Michel Dugré, Katy Le Rougetel, Larry Johnston, Bonnie Geddes and Bill Burgess. All appeared on the ballot as independent or non-affiliated candidates, as the party was unregistered. Vote and seat summaries Results by province Notes Number of parties: 11 First appearance: Confederation of Regions Party of Canada, Green Party of Canada, Party for the Commonwealth of Canada Final appearance: none First-and-only appearance: Parti nationaliste du Québec 10 closest ridings Renfrew—Nipissing—Pembroke, ON: Len Hopkins (Lib) def. Don Whillans (PC) by 38 votes Ottawa Centre, ON: Mike Cassidy (NDP) def. Dan Chilcott (PC) by 54 votes Nunatsiaq, NT: Thomas Suluk (PC) def. Robert Kuptana (Lib) by 247 votes Prince Albert, SK: Stan Hovdebo (NDP) def. Gordon Dobrowolsky (PC) by 297 votes Burin—St. George's, NF: Joe Price (PC) def. Roger Simmons (Lib) by 299 votes The Battlefords—Meadow Lake, SK: John Gormley (PC) def. Doug Anguish (NDP) by 336 votes Willowdale, ON: John Oostrom (PC) def. Jim Peterson (Lib) by 362 votes Saskatoon East, SK: Don Ravis (PC) def. Colin Clay (NDP) by 417 votes Humber—Port au Port—St. Barbe, NF: Brian Tobin (Lib) def. Mike Monaghan (PC) by 493 votes Mackenzie, SK: Jack Scowen (PC) def. Mel McCorriston (NDP) by 555 votes Results analysis Liberals Turner's inability to overcome the alleged resentment against Trudeau, combined with his own mistakes, resulted in a debacle for the Liberals. They lost over a third of their popular vote from 1980, falling from 44 percent to 28 percent. Their seat count fell from 135 at dissolution to 40, a loss of 95 seats—the second worst defeat of a sitting government in Canadian history at the time (after the 1935 election), and among the worst defeats ever suffered by a governing party in a Westminster system. It was the worst performance in their long history at the time; the 40 seats would be their smallest seat count until they won only 34 seats in 2011, when they also fell to third place in the seat count for the first time at the national level. Eleven members of Turner's cabinet were defeated. Despite their hopes of winning more support in the West, the Liberals won only two seats west of Ontario. One of those belonged to Turner, who defeated Tory incumbent Bill Clarke in Vancouver Quadra by a fairly solid 3,200-vote margin. The other belonged to Axworthy, who was re-elected in Winnipeg—Fort Garry by 2,300 votes. Particularly shocking was the decimation of the Liberals in Quebec. They won only 17 seats, all but four in and around Montreal. The province had been the bedrock of Liberal support for almost a century; the 1958 Tory landslide was the only time since the 1896 election that the Liberals had not won the most seats in Quebec. They would not win the most seats in the province again until the 2015 election (albeit they won the province's popular vote in 2000). In Ontario, the Liberals won only 14 seats, nearly all of them in Metro Toronto. Progressive Conservatives Early in the election, Mulroney focused on adding Quebec nationalists to the traditional Tory coalition of western populist conservatives and fiscal conservatives from Ontario and the Atlantic provinces. This strategy, as well as denouncing alleged corruption in the Liberal government, resulted in a major windfall for the Tories. They won 211 seats, three more than their previous record of 208 in 1958. They won both a majority of seats and at least a plurality of the popular vote in every province and territory, the only time in Canadian history a party has achieved this (the nearest previous occasion being in 1949, when only Alberta kept the Liberals from a clean sweep). They also won just over half the popular vote, the last time to date that a Canadian party has won a majority of the popular vote. The Tories had a major breakthrough in Quebec, a province where they had been virtually unelectable for almost a century. However, Mulroney's promise of a new deal for Quebec caused the province to swing dramatically to support him. After winning only one seat out of 75 in 1980, the Tories won 58 seats in 1984, more than they had ever won in Quebec before. In many cases, ridings where few living residents had ever been represented by a Tory elected them by margins similar to those the Liberals had scored for years. New Democrats The NDP had a net loss of one seat, which was far better than expected considering the size of the PC tidal wave. Historically, third parties do not do well in landslides. Despite losing less than a percentage point in terms of total vote share, the NDP still finished with less than two-thirds of the Liberals' popular vote. However, the NDP vote proved itself to be much more efficient since it was not as evenly distributed across the country. While they were a distant third everywhere east of Ontario, the NDP won only one seat fewer than the Liberals in Ontario despite finishing a distant third there as well. In Western Canada, the NDP lost seats to the Tories but was by far the second-largest party behind the Tories. Some NDP incumbents essentially held on to their own share of the vote, and simply had to survive a swing from Liberal to PC which in many cases proved insufficient to unseat the sitting New Democratic MP. More importantly, their 30 seats were only ten behind the Liberals. Although the NDP had long since established itself as the third major party in Canada, this was closer than any party had gotten to the Grits or Tories since 1921, when the Progressive Party briefly surpassed the Tories. This led to speculation that Canada was headed for a UK-style Labour–Conservative division, with the NDP knocking the Liberals down to third-party status. It would be as close as the NDP would get to becoming the Official Opposition until 2011, when the party gained the second-most seats in the House of Commons and the majority of seats in Quebec. Other parties The Social Credit Party, which for a long time had been the country's fourth-largest (and occasionally even third-largest) party, suffered a massive drop-off in support from the previous election, in which they had already lost a major share of the vote and all their remaining MPs. Having performed poorly in various by-elections in the years that followed, the party suffered a blow to its image in June 1983, when the party executive voted to re-admit a faction led by Holocaust denier James Keegstra. Party leader Martin Hattersley resigned in protest and was replaced by Ken Sweigard, who publicly endorsed Keegstra's role in the party (if not his personal views) and allowed him to run as the Social Credit candidate in Red Deer. This, along with Sweigard instituting a new party-wide policy of not engaging with the press, caused the drop in support that had begun at the previous election to accelerate dramatically. In Quebec, most of the support which had helped keep the party viable in its final years turned to the Progressive Conservatives. The party essentially disappeared there—even among ridings the party had won as recently as 1979, it could field only one candidate (who finished in last place). What remained of Social Credit essentially reverted to being a western-based party, which was only able to run 52 candidates in 51 ridings (with two Socreds standing in a British Columbia seat), none of whom came even close to being elected. It was its second-smallest slate since first running candidates east of Manitoba four decades earlier, and barely enough to allow Social Credit to retain its party registration. The party lost 92 percent of its vote from 1980 and dropped from fourth place to ninth in the popular vote. For all intents and purposes, this was the end of Social Credit as a viable national party. It would make a desultory final appearance in 1988 before collapsing altogether in 1993. The satirical Rhinoceros Party, despite a slight drop in their popular vote tally from the previous election, recorded its highest-ever finish at a general election, finishing as the fourth-largest party. Of the minor parties, only the Parti nationaliste du Québec and the Confederation of Regions Party of Canada managed to record more votes per candidate than the Rhinos, and even then only by small margins. The Parti nationaliste du Québec, a successor to the previous Quebec-nationalist Union populaire party, ran for the first (and, ultimately, only) time in this election. Despite getting nearly six times the votes that their predecessors did in 1980, and finishing fifth in the popular vote, like the Socreds they proved unable to compete with the Progressive Conservatives, and failed to win any seats. The party would eventually collapse in 1987, though several of its members, along with dissident Tories and Liberals, would go on to found the more successful Bloc Québécois. The Confederation of Regions Party of Canada, formed mostly by disaffected former Socreds, were another party who debuted in this election. While they placed sixth in the popular vote and attracted a little over quadruple the vote of their forerunners, they still failed to seriously challenge for any seats. Much like the Socreds, they too disappeared from the national scene after 1988, though they continued on a regional level for several years afterwards. See also List of Canadian federal general elections List of political parties in Canada Leaders' debate on women's issues during the 1984 Canadian federal election campaign Articles on parties' candidates in this election: Commonwealth Communist Libertarian Liberal Social Credit Progressive Conservative Rhinoceros References Further reading External links Riding map Canadian federal elections by year Federal election

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Chemical%20Society

American Chemical Society

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a scientific society based in the United States that supports scientific inquiry in the field of chemistry. Founded in 1876 at New York University, the ACS currently has more than 155,000 members at all degree levels and in all fields of chemistry, chemical engineering, and related fields. It is one of the world's largest scientific societies by membership. The ACS is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization and holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., and it has a large concentration of staff in Columbus, Ohio. The ACS is a leading source of scientific information through its peer-reviewed scientific journals, national conferences, and the Chemical Abstracts Service. Its publications division produces over 60 scholarly journals including the prestigious Journal of the American Chemical Society, as well as the weekly trade magazine Chemical & Engineering News. The ACS holds national meetings twice a year covering the complete field of chemistry and also holds smaller conferences concentrating on specific chemical fields or geographic regions. The primary source of income of the ACS is the Chemical Abstracts Service, a provider of chemical databases worldwide. The ACS has student chapters in virtually every major university in the United States and outside the United States as well. These student chapters mainly focus on volunteering opportunities, career development, and the discussion of student and faculty research. The organization also publishes textbooks, administers several national chemistry awards, provides grants for scientific research, and supports various educational and outreach activities. The ACS has been criticized for predatory pricing of its products (SciFinder, journals and other publications), for opposing Open Access publishing, as well as for initiating numerous copyright enforcement litigations, often with meaningless outcomes, despite its non-profit status and its chartered commitment to dissemination of chemical information. History Creation In 1874, a group of American chemists gathered at the Joseph Priestley House to mark the 100th anniversary of Priestley's discovery of oxygen. Although there was an American scientific society at that time (the American Association for the Advancement of Science, founded in 1848), the growth of chemistry in the U.S. prompted those assembled to consider founding a new society that would focus more directly on theoretical and applied chemistry. Two years later, on April 6, 1876, during a meeting of chemists at the University of the City of New York (now New York University) the American Chemical Society was founded. The society received its charter of incorporation from the State of New York in 1877. Charles F. Chandler, a professor of chemistry at Columbia University who was instrumental in organizing the society said that such a body would "prove a powerful and healthy stimulus to original research, … would awaken and develop much talent now wasting in isolation, … [bring] members of the association into closer union, and ensure a better appreciation of our science and its students on the part of the general public." Although Chandler was a likely choice to become the society's first president because of his role in organizing the society, New York University chemistry professor John William Draper was elected as the first president of the society because of his national reputation. Draper was a photochemist and pioneering photographer who had produced one of the first photographic portraits in 1840. Chandler would later serve as president in 1881 and 1889. In the ACS logo, originally designed in the early 20th century by Tiffany's Jewelers and used since 1909, a stylized symbol of a kaliapparat is used. Growth The Journal of the American Chemical Society was founded in 1879 to publish original chemical research. It was the first journal published by ACS and is still the society's flagship peer-reviewed publication. In 1907, Chemical Abstracts was established as a separate journal (it previously appeared within JACS), which later became the Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of ACS that provides chemical information to researchers and others worldwide. Chemical & Engineering News is a weekly trade magazine that has been published by ACS since 1923. The society adopted a new constitution aimed at nationalizing the organization in 1890. In 1905, the American Chemical Society moved from New York City to Washington, D.C. ACS was reincorporated under a congressional charter in 1937. It was granted by the U.S. Congress and signed by president Franklin D. Roosevelt. ACS's headquarters moved to its current location in downtown Washington in 1941. Organization Divisions ACS first established technical divisions in 1908 to foster the exchange of information among scientists who work in particular fields of chemistry or professional interests. Divisional activities include organizing technical sessions at ACS meetings, publishing books and resources, administering awards and lectureships, and conducting other events. The original five divisions were 1) organic chemistry, 2) industrial chemists and chemical engineers, 3) agricultural and food chemistry, 4) fertilizer chemistry, and 5) physical and inorganic chemistry. As of 2016, there are 32 technical divisions of ACS. Agricultural and Food Chemistry Agrochemicals Analytical Chemistry Biochemical Technology Biological Chemistry Business Development & Management Carbohydrate chemistry Catalysis Science & Technology Cellulose and Renewable Materials Chemical Education Chemical Health & Safety Chemical Information Chemical Toxicology Chemistry & the Law Colloid & Surface Chemistry Computers in Chemistry Energy & Fuels Environmental chemistry Fluorine Chemistry Geochemistry History of Chemistry Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Medicinal Chemistry Nuclear Chemistry and Technology Organic Chemistry Physical Chemistry Polymer Chemistry Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering Professional Relations Rubber Small Chemical Businesses Division of Organic Chemistry This is the largest division of the Society. It marked its 100th Anniversary in 2008. The first Chair of the Division was Edward Curtis Franklin. The Organic Division played a part in establishing Organic Syntheses, Inc. and Organic Reactions, Inc. and it maintains close ties to both organizations. The Division's best known activities include organizing symposia (talks and poster sessions) at the biannual ACS National Meetings, for the purpose of recognizing promising Assistant Professors, talented young researchers, outstanding technical contributions from junior-level chemists, in the field of organic chemistry. The symposia also honor national award winners, including the Arthur C. Cope Award, Cope Scholar Award, James Flack Norris Award in Physical Organic Chemistry, Herbert C. Brown Award for Creative Research in Synthetic Methods. The Division helps to organize symposia at the international meeting called Pacifichem and it organizes the biennial National Organic Chemistry Symposium (NOS) which highlights recent advances in organic chemistry and hosts the Roger Adams Award address. The Division also organizes corporate sponsorships to provide fellowships for PhD students and undergraduates. It also organizes the Graduate Research Symposium and manages award and travel grant programs for undergraduates. Local sections Local sections were authorized in 1890 and are autonomous units of the American Chemical Society. They elect their own officers and select representatives to the national ACS organization. Local sections also provide professional development opportunities for members, organize community outreach events, offer awards, and conduct other business. The Rhode Island Section was the first local section of ACS, organized in 1891. There are currently 186 local sections of the American Chemical Society in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. International Chemical Sciences Chapters International Chemical Sciences Chapters allow ACS members outside of the U.S. to organize locally for professional and scientific exchange. There are currently 24 International Chemical Sciences Chapters. Australia Brazil China Colombia Georgia Hong Kong Hungary India Iraq Jordan Malaysia Nigeria Pakistan Peru Qatar Republic of China (Taiwan) Romania Saudi Arabia Shanghai South Africa South Korea Southwestern China Thailand United Arab Emirates Educational activities and programs Chemical education and outreach ACS states that it offers teacher training to support the professional development of science teachers so they can better present chemistry in the classroom, foster the scientific curiosity of our nation's youth and encourage future generations to pursue scientific careers. As of 2009, Clifford and Kathryn Hach donated $33 million to ACS, to continue the work of the Hach Scientific Foundation in supporting high school chemistry teaching. The Society sponsors the United States National Chemistry Olympiad (USNCO), a contest used to select the four-member team that represents the United States at the International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO). The ACS Division of Chemical Education provides standardized tests for various subfields of chemistry. The two most commonly used tests are the undergraduate-level tests for general and organic chemistry. Each of these tests consists of 70 multiple-choice questions, and gives students 110 minutes to complete the exam. The ACS also approves certified undergraduate programs in chemistry. A student who completes the required laboratory and course work—sometimes in excess of what a particular college may require for its Bachelor's degree—is considered by the Society to be well trained for professional work. The ACS coordinates two annual public awareness campaigns, National Chemistry Week and Chemists Celebrate Earth Week, as part of its educational outreach. Since 1978 and 2003 respectively, the campaigns have been celebrated with a yearly theme, such as "Chemistry Colors Our World" (2015) and "Energy: Now and Forever!" (2013). Green Chemistry Institute The Green Chemistry Institute (GCI) supports the "implementation of green chemistry and engineering throughout the global chemistry enterprise." The GCI organizes an annual conference, the Green Chemistry and Engineering Conference, provides research grants, administers awards, and provides information and support for green chemistry practices to educators, researchers, and industry. The GCI was founded in 1997 as an independent non-profit organization, by chemists Joe Breen and Dennis Hjeresen in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency. In 2001, the GCI became a part of the American Chemical Society. Petroleum Research Fund The Petroleum Research Fund (PRF) is an endowment fund administered by the ACS that supports advanced education and fundamental research in the petroleum and fossil fuel fields at non-profit institutions. Several categories of grants are offered for various career levels and institutions. The fund awarded more than $25 million in grants in 2007. The PRF traces its origins to the acquisition of the Universal Oil Products laboratory by a consortium of oil companies in 1931. The companies established a trust fund, The Petroleum Research Fund, in 1944 to prevent antitrust litigation tied to their UOP assets. The ACS was named the beneficiary of the trust. The first grants from the PRF were awarded in 1954. In 2000, the trust was transferred to the ACS. The ACS established The American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund and the previous trust was dissolved. The PRF trust was valued at $144.7 million in December 2014. Other programs The ACS International Activities is the birthplace of the ACS International Center, an online resource for scientists and engineers looking to study abroad or explore an international career or internship. The site houses information on hundreds of scholarships and grants related to all levels of experience to promote scientific mobility of researchers and practitioners in STEM fields. The Society grants membership to undergraduates as student members provided they can pay the $25 yearly dues. Any university may start its own ACS Student Chapter and receive benefits of undergraduate participation in regional conferences and discounts on ACS publications. Awards National awards The American Chemical Society administers 64 national awards, medals and prizes based on scientific contributions at various career levels that promote achievement across the chemical sciences. The ACS national awards program began in 1922 with the establishment of the Priestley Medal, the highest award offered by the ACS, which is given for distinguished services to chemistry. The 2019 recipient of the Priestley Medal is K. Barry Sharpless. Other awards Additional awards are offered by divisions, local sections and other bodies of ACS. The William H. Nichols Medal Award was the first ACS award to honor outstanding researchers in the field of chemistry. It was established in 1903 by the ACS New York Section and is named for William H. Nichols, an American chemist and businessman and one of the original founders of ACS. Of the over 100 Nichols Medalists, 16 have subsequently been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Willard Gibbs Award, granted by the ACS Chicago Section, was established in 1910 in honor of Josiah Willard Gibbs, the Yale University professor who formulated the phase rule. The Georgia Local Section of ACS has awarded the Herty Medal since 1933 recognizing outstanding chemists who have significantly contributed to their chosen fields. All chemists in academic, government, or industrial laboratories who have been residing in the southeastern United States for at least 10 years are eligible. The New York Section of ACS also gives Leadership Awards. The Leadership Awards are the highest honors given by the Chemical Marketing and Economic Group of ACS NY since December 6, 2012. They are presented to leaders of industry, investments, and other sectors, for their contributions to science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) initiatives. Honorees include Andrew N. Liveris (Dow Chemical), P. Roy Vagelos (Regeneron, Merck), Thomas M. Connelly (DuPont) and Juan Pablo del Valle (Mexichem). The ACS also administers regional awards presented annually at regional meetings. This includes the E. Ann Nalley Regional Award for Volunteer Service to the American Chemical Society, Regional Awards for Excellence in High School Teaching, and the Stanley C. Israel Regional Award for Advancing Diversity in the Chemical Sciences. Journals and magazines ACS Publications is the publishing division of the ACS. It is a nonprofit academic publisher of scientific journals covering various fields of chemistry and related sciences. As of 2021, ACS Publications published the following peer-reviewed journals: Accounts of Chemical Research Accounts of Materials Research ACS Agricultural Science & Technology ACS Applied Bio Materials ACS Applied Electronic Materials ACS Applied Energy Materials ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces ACS Applied Nano Materials ACS Applied Polymer Materials ACS Bio & Med Chem Au ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering ACS Catalysis ACS Central Science ACS Chemical Biology ACS Chemical Health & Safety ACS Chemical Neuroscience ACS Combinatorial Science ACS Earth and Space Chemistry ACS Energy Letters ACS Engineering Au ACS Environmental Au ACS ES&T Engineering ACS ES&T Water ACS Food Science & Technology ACS Infectious Diseases ACS Macro Letters ACS Materials Au ACS Materials Letters ACS Measurement Science Au ACS Medicinal Chemistry Letters ACS Nano ACS Nanoscience Au ACS Omega ACS Organic & Inorganic Au ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science ACS Photonics ACS Physical Chem Au ACS Polymers Au ACS Sensors ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering ACS Synthetic Biology Analytical Chemistry Biochemistry Bioconjugate Chemistry Biomacromolecules Bulletin for the History of Chemistry Biotechnology Progress Chemical Research in Toxicology Chemical Reviews Chemistry of Materials Crystal Growth & Design Energy & Fuels Environmental Science & Technology Environmental Science & Technology Letters Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research Inorganic Chemistry JACS Au Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data Journal of Chemical Education Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling Journal of Chemical Theory and Computation Journal of Medicinal Chemistry Journal of Natural Products Journal of Organic Chemistry Journal of Proteome Research Journal of the American Chemical Society Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry Langmuir Macromolecules Molecular Pharmaceutics Nano Letters Organic Letters Organic Process Research & Development Organometallics The Journal of Organic Chemistry The Journal of Physical Chemistry A The Journal of Physical Chemistry B The Journal of Physical Chemistry C The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters In addition to academic journals, ACS Publications also publishes Chemical & Engineering News, a weekly trade magazine covering news in the chemical profession, inChemistry, a magazine for undergraduate students, and ChemMatters, a magazine for high school students and teachers. ACS also created ChemRxiv, which is an open access preprint repository for the chemical sciences, co-owned, and collaboratively managed by the American Chemical Society (ACS), German Chemical Society (GDCh), Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC), the chemistry community, other societies, funders, and non-profits; open for submissions and available for all readers at ChemRxiv. Controversies Open access In debates about free access to scientific information, the ACS has been described as "in an interesting dilemma, with some of its representatives pushing for open access and others hating the very thought." The ACS has generally opposed legislation that would mandate free access to scientific journal articles and chemical information. However it has recently launched new open access journals and provided authors with open access publishing options. Nevertheless, the actual percentage of open-access publications in ACS journals is the lowest among the 8 major scientific journal publishers (see figure below): Journals The mid-2000s saw a debate between some research funders (including the federal government), which argued that research they funded should be presented freely to the public, and some publishers (including the ACS), which argued that the costs of peer-review and publishing justified their subscription prices. In 2006, Congress debated legislation that would have instructed the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to require all investigators it funded to submit copies of final, peer-reviewed journal articles to PubMed Central, a free-access digital repository it operates, within 12 months of publication. At the time the American Association of Publishers (of which ACS is a member) hired a public relations firm to counter the open access movement. In spite of publishers' opposition, the PubMed Central legislation was passed in December 2007 and became effective in 2008. As the open access issue has continued to evolve, so too has the ACS's position. In response to a 2013 White House Office of Science and Technology Policy directive that instructed federal agencies to provide greater access to federally funded research, the ACS joined other scholarly publishers in establishing the Clearinghouse for the Open Research of the United States (Chorus) to allow free access to published articles. The ACS has also introduced several open access publishing options for its journals, including providing authors the option to pay an upfront fee to enable free online access to their articles. In 2015, the ACS launched the first fully open access journal in the society's history, ACS Central Science. The ACS states that the journal offers the same peer-review standards as its subscription journals, but without publishing charges to either authors or readers. A second open access title, ACS Omega, an interdisciplinary mega journal, launched in 2016. In December 2020, the ACS launched a series of 9 open access journals under the name ACS Au (chemical symbol for gold) which include ACS Bio & Med Chem Au, ACS Engineering Au, ACS Environmental Au, ACS Materials Au, ACS Measurement Science Au, ACS Nanoscience Au, ACS Organic & Inorganic Au, ACS Physical Chem Au and ACS Polymers Au. Databases In 2005, the ACS was criticized for opposing the creation of PubChem, which is an open access chemical database developed by the NIH's National Center for Biotechnology Information. The ACS raised concerns that the publicly supported PubChem database would duplicate and unfairly compete with their existing fee-based Chemical Abstracts Service and argued that the database should only present data created by the Molecular Libraries Screening Center initiative of the NIH. The ACS lobbied members of the United States Congress to rein in PubChem and hired outside lobbying firms to try to persuade congressional members, the NIH, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) against establishing a publicly funded database. The ACS was unsuccessful, and as of 2012 PubChem is the world's largest free chemical database. The ACS is also the only provider of a major scientific publication database (SciFinder) that imposes a restriction on the number of records that can be exported. None of the competing products, such as Web of Science (owned by Clarivate), Scopus (owned by Elsevier) and The Lens (owned by Cambia) has similar restrictions. Litigations The ACS has been involved in numerous lawsuits regarding access to its databases, trademark rights, and copyrighted material. In many of these cases, the ACS lost or ended up with an unenforceable judgement. These include: Dialog v. American Chemical Society, a suit claiming antitrust violations in access to ACS databases, settled out of court in 1993;, American Chemical Society v. Google, a suit claiming trademark violation, settled out of court in 2006; American Chemical Society v. Leadscope, a suit alleging stolen trade secrets, concluded in 2012 with ACS losing its trade secrets claim and Leadscope losing its counterclaim of defamation; against ResearchGate, where a German court refused to award monetary compensation to the ACS and Elsevier; against Sci-Hub, which resulted in a non-enforceable judgement. The ACS was also found guilty in several lawsuits brought against the Society by its employees. Executive compensation In 2004, a group of ACS members criticized the compensation of former executive director and chief executive officer John Crum, whose total salary, expenses, and bonuses for 2002 was reported to be $767,834. The ACS defended the figure, saying that it was in line with that of comparable organizations, including for-profit publishers. , two employees were reported to have a total compensation exceeding $900,000, while 694 had a compensation exceeding $100,000. See also Reagent Chemicals (Reagent ACS), standards of chemical purity ACS style, the ACS's citation standard Association for Learned and Professional Society Publishers Chemical Abstracts Service List of learned societies List of international professional associations National Chemistry Week National Historic Chemical Landmarks Footnotes References Further reading J. J. Bohning 2001. American Chemical Society Founded 1876. ACS, Washington, D.C. External links ACS website ACS Publications website Chemical & Engineering News ACS Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) International Year of Chemistry A Cauldron Bubbles: PubChem and the American Chemical Society (Information Today, June 2005) ACS Chemical Biology WIKI ACS Chemical Biology Community ACS Green Chemistry Institute ACS Organic Division Leete Award Gassman Award Archives American Chemical Society Puget Sound Section Records. 1909–1989. 11.9 cubic feet plus 10 vertical files and 7 items. At the University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections. Green chemistry Organizations based in Washington, D.C. Scientific organizations established in 1876 Learned societies of the United States Patriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress 1876 establishments in New York (state) Academic publishing companies

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martha%20Graham

Martha Graham

Martha Graham (May 11, 1894 – April 1, 1991) was an American modern dancer and choreographer. Her style, the Graham technique, reshaped American dance and is still taught worldwide. Graham danced and taught for over seventy years. She was the first dancer to perform at the White House, travel abroad as a cultural ambassador, and receive the highest civilian award of the US: the Presidential Medal of Freedom with Distinction. In her lifetime she received honors ranging from the Key to the City of Paris to Japan's Imperial Order of the Precious Crown. She said, in the 1994 documentary The Dancer Revealed: "I have spent all my life with dance and being a dancer. It's permitting life to use you in a very intense way. Sometimes it is not pleasant. Sometimes it is fearful. But nevertheless it is inevitable." Founded in 1926 (the same year as Graham's professional dance company), the Martha Graham School is the oldest school of dance in the United States. First located in a small studio within Carnegie Hall, the school currently has two different studios in New York City. Early life Graham was born in Allegheny City, later to become part of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1894. Her father, George Graham, practiced as what in the Victorian era was known as an "alienist", a practitioner of an early form of psychiatry. The Grahams were strict Presbyterians. Her father was a third-generation American of Irish descent. Graham's mother, Jane Beers, was a second-generation American of Irish, Scots-Irish, and English ancestry, and who claimed descent from Myles Standish. While her parents provided a comfortable environment in her youth, it was not one that encouraged dancing. The Graham family moved to Santa Barbara, California when Martha was fourteen years old. In 1911, she attended the first dance performance of her life, watching Ruth St. Denis perform at the Mason Opera House in Los Angeles. In the mid-1910s, Martha Graham began her studies at the newly created Denishawn School of Dancing and Related Arts, founded by Ruth St. Denis and Ted Shawn, at which she would stay until 1923. In 1922, Graham performed one of Shawn's Egyptian dances with Lillian Powell in a short silent film by Hugo Riesenfeld that attempted to synchronize a dance routine on film with a live orchestra and an onscreen conductor. Career Graham left the Denishawn establishment in 1923 in order to become a featured dancer in the Greenwich Village Follies revue for two years. As a result, she felt a strong urge to make dance an art form that was more grounded in the rawness of the human experience and orientalism as opposed to just a mere form of entertainment. This motivated Graham to strip away the more decorative movements of ballet and of her training at the Denishawn school and focus more on the foundational aspects of movement. In 1925, Graham was employed at the Eastman School of Music where Rouben Mamoulian was head of the School of Drama. Among other performances, together Mamoulian and Graham produced a short two-color film called The Flute of Krishna, featuring Eastman students. Mamoulian left Eastman shortly thereafter and Graham chose to leave also, even though she was asked to stay on. In 1926, the Martha Graham Center of Contemporary Dance was established, in a small studio on the Upper East Side of New York City. On April 18 of the same year Graham debuted her first independent concert, consisting of 18 short solos and trios that she had choreographed. This performance took place at the 48th Street Theatre in Manhattan. She would later say of the concert: "Everything I did was influenced by Denishawn." On November 28, 1926, Martha Graham and others in her company gave a dance recital at the Klaw Theatre in New York City. Around the same time she entered an extended collaboration with Japanese-American pictorialist photographer Soichi Sunami, and over the next five years they together created some of the most iconic images of early modern dance. Graham was on the faculty of Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre when it opened in 1928. One of Graham's students was heiress Bethsabée de Rothschild with whom she became close friends. When Rothschild moved to Israel and established the Batsheva Dance Company in 1965, Graham became the company's first director. Graham's technique pioneered a principle known as "contraction and release" in modern dance, which was derived from a stylized conception of breathing. Contraction and release: The desire to highlight a more base aspect of human movement led Graham to create the "contraction and release", for which she would become known. Each movement could separately be used to express either positive or negative, freeing or constricting emotions depending on the placement of the head. The contraction and release were both the basis for Graham's weighted and grounded style, which is in direct opposition to classical ballet techniques that typically aim to create an illusion of weightlessness. To counter the more percussive and staccato movements, Graham eventually added the spiral shape to the vocabulary of her technique to incorporate a sense of fluidity. New era in dance Following her first concert made up of solos, Graham created Heretic (1929), the first group piece of many that showcased a clear diversion from her days with Denishawn, and served as an insight to her work that would follow in the future. Made up of constricted and sharp movement with the dancers clothed unglamorously, the piece centered around the theme of rejection—one that would reoccur in other Graham works down the line. As time went on Graham moved away from the more stark design aesthetic she initially embraced and began incorporating more elaborate sets and scenery to her work. To do this, she collaborated often with Isamu Noguchi—a Japanese American designer—whose eye for set design was a complementary match to Graham's choreography. Within the many themes which Graham incorporated into her work, there were two that she seemed to adhere to the most—Americana and Greek mythology. One of Graham's most known pieces that incorporates the American life theme is Appalachian Spring (1944). She collaborated with the composer Aaron Copland—who won a Pulitzer Prize for his work on the piece—and Noguchi, who created the nonliteral set. As she did often, Graham placed herself in her own piece as the bride of a newly married couple whose optimism for starting a new life together is countered by a grounded pioneer woman and a sermon-giving revivalist. Two of Graham's pieces—Cave of Heart (1946) and Night Journey (1947)—display her intrigue not only with Greek mythology but also with the psyche of a woman, as both pieces retell Greek myths from a woman's point of view. In 1936, Graham created Chronicle, which brought serious issues to the stage in a dramatic manner. Influenced by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, the Great Depression that followed, and the Spanish Civil War, the dance focused on depression and isolation, reflected in the dark nature of both the set and costumes. That same year, in conjunction with the 1936 Summer Olympic Games in Berlin, the German government wanted to include dance in the Art Competitions that took place during the Olympics, an event that previously included architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and literature. Although Joseph Goebbels, Reich Minister of Propaganda, was not appreciative of the modern dance art form and changed Germany's dance from more avant-garde to traditional, he and Adolf Hitler still agreed to invite Graham to represent the United States. The United States resulted in not being represented in the Art Competitions as Martha Graham refused the invitation by stating: I would find it impossible to dance in Germany at the present time. So many artists whom I respect and admire have been persecuted, have been deprived of the right to work for ridiculous and unsatisfactory reasons, that I should consider it impossible to identify myself, by accepting the invitation, with the regime that has made such things possible. In addition, some of my concert group would not be welcomed in Germany. Goebbels himself wrote her a letter assuring her that her Jewish dancers would "receive complete immunity", however, it was not enough for Graham to accept such invitation. Stimulated by the occurrences of the 1936 Olympic Games, and the propaganda that she heard through the radio from the Axis Powers, Martha Graham creates American Document in 1938. The dance expresses American ideals and democracy as Graham realized that it could empower men and inspire them to fight fascist and Nazi ideologies. American Document ended up as a patriotic statement focusing on rights and injustices of the time, representing the American people including its Native-American heritage and slavery. During the performance, excerpts from The Declaration of Independence, Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, and the Emancipation Proclamation were read. These were passages that highlighted the American ideals and represented what made the American people American. For Graham, a dance needed to "reveal certain national characteristics because without these characteristics the dance would have no validity, no roots, no direct relation to life". The beginning of American Document marks modern concepts of performance art joining dance, theater and literature and clearly defining the roles of the spectator and the actors/dancers. The narrator/actor starts with "establishing an awareness of the present place and time, which serves not only as a bridge between past and present, but also between individual and collective, particular and general". Together with her unique technique, this sociological and philosophical innovation sets dance as a clear expression of current ideas and places and Graham as a pillar of the modern dance revolution. 1938 became a big year for Graham; the Roosevelts invited Graham to dance at the White House, making her the first dancer to perform there. Also, in 1938, Erick Hawkins became the first man to dance with her company. He officially joined her troupe the following year, dancing male lead in a number of Graham's works. They were married in July 1948 after the New York premiere of Night Journey. He left her troupe in 1951 and they divorced in 1954. On April 1, 1958, the Martha Graham Dance Company premiered the ballet Clytemnestra, based on the ancient Greek legend Clytemnestra and it became a huge success and great accomplishment for Graham. With a score by Egyptian-born composer Halim El-Dabh, this ballet was a large scale work and the only full-length work in Graham's career. Graham choreographed and danced the title role, spending almost the entire duration of the performance on the stage. The ballet was based on the Greek mythology of the same title and tells the story of Queen Clytemnestra who is married to King Agamemnon. Agamemnon sacrifices their daughter, Iphigenia, on a pyre, as an offering to the gods to assure fair winds to Troy, where the Trojan War rages. Upon Agamemnon's return after 10 years, Clytemnestra kills Agamemnon to avenge the murder of Iphigenia. Clytemnestra is then murdered by her son, Orestes, and the audience experiences Clytemnestra in the afterworld. This ballet was deemed a masterpiece of 20th-century American modernism and was so successful it had a limited engagement showing at the 54th Street Theatre on Broadway, conducted by Robert Irving, voice parts sung by Rosalia Maresca and Ronald Holgate. Graham collaborated with many composers including Aaron Copland on Appalachian Spring, Louis Horst, Samuel Barber, William Schuman, Carlos Surinach, Norman Dello Joio, and Gian Carlo Menotti. Graham's mother died in Santa Barbara in 1958. Her oldest friend and musical collaborator Louis Horst died in 1964. She said of Horst: "His sympathy and understanding, but primarily his faith, gave me a landscape to move in. Without it, I should certainly have been lost." Graham resisted requests for her dances to be recorded because she believed that live performances should only exist on stage as they are experienced. There were a few notable exceptions. For example, in addition to her collaboration with Sunami in the 1920s, she also worked on a limited basis with still photographers Imogen Cunningham in the 1930s, and Barbara Morgan in the 1940s. Graham considered Philippe Halsman's photographs of Dark Meadow the most complete photographic record of any of her dances. Halsman also photographed in the 1940s Letter to the World, Cave of the Heart, Night Journey and Every Soul is a Circus. In later years her thinking on the matter evolved and others convinced her to let them recreate some of what was lost. In 1952 Graham allowed taping of her meeting and cultural exchange with famed deafblind author, activist and lecturer Helen Keller, who, after a visit to one of Graham's company rehearsals became a close friend and supporter. Graham was inspired by Keller's joy from and interpretation of dance, utilizing her body to feel the vibration of drums and of feet and movement moving the air around her. In her biography Martha, Agnes de Mille cites Graham's last performance as having occurred on the evening of May 25, 1968, in Time of Snow. But in A Dancer's Life, biographer Russell Freedman lists the year of Graham's final performance as 1969. In her 1991 autobiography, Blood Memory, Graham herself lists her final performance as her 1970 appearance in Cortege of Eagles when she was 76 years old. Graham's choreographies span 181 compositions. Retirement and later years In the years that followed her departure from the stage, Graham sank into a deep depression fueled by views from the wings of young dancers performing many of the dances she had choreographed for herself and her former husband. Graham's health declined precipitously as she abused alcohol to numb her pain. In Blood Memory she wrote, It wasn't until years after I had relinquished a ballet that I could bear to watch someone else dance it. I believe in never looking back, never indulging in nostalgia, or reminiscing. Yet how can you avoid it when you look on stage and see a dancer made up to look as you did thirty years ago, dancing a ballet you created with someone you were then deeply in love with, your husband? I think that is a circle of hell Dante omitted. [When I stopped dancing] I had lost my will to live. I stayed home alone, ate very little, and drank too much and brooded. My face was ruined, and people say I looked odd, which I agreed with. Finally my system just gave in. I was in the hospital for a long time, much of it in a coma. Graham not only survived her hospital stay, but she rallied. In 1972, she quit drinking, returned to her studio, reorganized her company, and went on to choreograph ten new ballets and many revivals. Her last completed ballet was 1990's Maple Leaf Rag. Death Graham choreographed until her death in New York City from pneumonia in 1991, aged 96. Just before she became sick with pneumonia, she finished the final draft of her autobiography, Blood Memory, which was published posthumously in the fall of 1991. She was cremated, and her ashes were spread over the Sangre de Cristo Mountains in northern New Mexico. Influence and legacy Graham has been sometimes termed the "Picasso of Dance" in that her importance and influence to modern dance can be considered equivalent to what Pablo Picasso was to modern visual arts. Her impact has been also compared to the influence of Stravinsky on music and Frank Lloyd Wright on architecture. In 2013, the dance films by her were selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the registry's owner, The Library of Congress. To celebrate what would have been her 117th birthday on May 11, 2011, Google's logo for one day was turned into one dedicated to Graham's life and legacy. Graham has been said to be the one that brought dance into the 20th century. Due to the work of her assistants, Linda Hodes, Pearl Lang, Diane Gray, Yuriko, and others, much of Graham's work and technique have been preserved. They taped interviews of Graham describing her entire technique and videos of her performances. As Glen Tetley told Agnes de Mille, "The wonderful thing about Martha in her good days was her generosity. So many people stole Martha's unique personal vocabulary, consciously or unconsciously, and performed it in concerts. I have never once heard Martha say, 'So-and-so has used my choreography.'" An entire movement was created by her that revolutionized the dance world and created what is known today as modern dance. Now, dancers all over the world study and perform modern dance. Choreographers and professional dancers look to her for inspiration. According to Agnes de Mille: The greatest thing [Graham] ever said to me was in 1943 after the opening of Oklahoma!, when I suddenly had unexpected, flamboyant success for a work I thought was only fairly good, after years of neglect for work I thought was fine. I was bewildered and worried that my entire scale of values was untrustworthy. I talked to Martha. I remember the conversation well. It was in a Schrafft's restaurant over a soda. I confessed that I had a burning desire to be excellent, but no faith that I could be. Martha said to me, very quietly: "There is a vitality, a life force, an energy, a quickening that is translated through you into action, and because there is only one of you in all of time, this expression is unique. And if you block it, it will never exist through any other medium and it will be lost. The world will not have it. It is not your business to determine how good it is nor how valuable nor how it compares with other expressions. It is your business to keep it yours clearly and directly, to keep the channel open. You do not even have to believe in yourself or your work. You have to keep yourself open and aware to the urges that motivate you. Keep the channel open ... No artist is pleased. [There is] no satisfaction whatever at any time. There is only a queer divine dissatisfaction, a blessed unrest that keeps us marching and makes us more alive than the others." In 2021 actress Mary Beth Peil portrayed Graham in the Netflix series Halston. Martha Graham Dance Company The Martha Graham Dance Company is the oldest dance company in America, founded in 1926. It has helped develop many famous dancers and choreographers of the 20th and 21st centuries including Erick Hawkins, Anna Sokolow, Merce Cunningham, Lila York, and Paul Taylor. It continues to perform, including at the Saratoga Performing Arts Center in June 2008. The company also performed in 2007 at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago, with a program consisting of: Appalachian Spring, Embattled Garden, Errand into the Maze, and American Original. Early dancers Graham's original female dancers consisted of Bessie Schonberg, Evelyn Sabin, Martha Hill, Gertrude Shurr, Anna Sokolow, Nelle Fisher, Dorothy Bird, Bonnie Bird, Sophie Maslow, May O'Donnell, Jane Dudley, Anita Alvarez, Pearl Lang, and Marjorie G. Mazia. A second group included Yuriko, Ethel Butler, Ethel Winter, Jean Erdman, Patricia Birch, Nina Fonaroff, Matt Turney, Mary Hinkson. The group of men dancers was made up of Erick Hawkins, Merce Cunningham, David Campbell, John Butler, Robert Cohan, Stuart Hodes, Glen Tetley, Bertram Ross, Paul Taylor, Donald McKayle, Mark Ryder, and William Carter. Accolades In 1957, Graham was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1976 by President Gerald Ford (the First Lady Betty Ford had danced with Graham in her youth). Ford declared her "a national treasure". Graham was the first recipient of the American Dance Festival's award for her lifetime achievement in 1981. In 1984 Graham was awarded the highest French order of merit, the Legion of Honour by then Minister of culture Jack Lang. Graham was inducted into the National Museum of Dance's Mr. & Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney Hall of Fame in 1987. In 1990 the Council of Fashion Designers of America awarded Graham with the Geoffrey Beene Lifetime Achievement Award. In 1998 Graham was posthumously named "Dancer of the Century" by Time magazine, and one of the female "Icons of the Century" by People. In 2015 she was posthumously inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. On May 11, 2020, on what would have been Graham's 126th birthday, the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts announced it had acquired Graham's archives for its Jerome Robbins Dance Division. The archive consists mainly of paper-based material, photographs and films, including rare footage of Graham dancing in works such as "Appalachian Spring" and "Hérodiade"; her script for "Night Journey"; and her handwritten notes for "American Document". Choreography This excerpt from John Martin's reviews in The New York Times provides insight on Graham's choreographic style. "Frequently the vividness and intensity of her purpose are so potent that on the rise of the curtain they strike like a blow, and in that moment one must decide whether he is for or against her. She boils down her moods and movements until they are devoid of all extraneous substances and are concentrated to the highest degree." Graham created 181 ballets. See also American Dance Festival Christine Dakin Concert dance List of dancers List of dance companies Postmodern dance Terese Capucilli Women in dance Citations Cited sources Further reading Helpern, Alice. Martha, 1998 Hodes, Stuart, Part Real – Part Dream, Dancing With Martha Graham, (2011) Concord ePress, Concord, Massachusetts External links Martha Graham at the Library of Congress Martha Graham collection, 1896–2003, Music Division, Library of Congress Maxine Glorsky papers relating to Martha Graham, 1940–2019, Music Division, Library of Congress MarthaGraham.org – Martha Graham Center of Contemporary Dance Archival footage of the Martha Graham Dance Company performing Rite of Spring in 2013 at Jacob's Pillow Dance Festival 1894 births 1991 deaths 20th-century American dancers American choreographers American female dancers American people of English descent American people of Irish descent American people of Scotch-Irish descent American women choreographers Artists from Pittsburgh Ballet choreographers Cornish College of the Arts faculty Dancers from Pennsylvania Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Kennedy Center honorees Modern dance Modern dancers Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients Sarah Lawrence College faculty United States National Medal of Arts recipients

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Lammy

David Lammy

David Lammy (born 19 July 1972) is an English politician and lawyer serving as Shadow Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs since 2021. A member of the Labour Party, he has been Member of Parliament (MP) for Tottenham since the 2000 Tottenham by-election. Lammy was a Minister under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, most recently as Minister of State for Universities in the Brown ministry. He served as Shadow Secretary of State for Justice from 2020 to 2021 and has served as Shadow Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs in Keir Starmer's Shadow Cabinet since November 2021. Early life and education Lammy was born on 19 July 1972 in Whittington Hospital in Archway, North London, to Guyanese parents David and Rosalind Lammy. He and his four siblings were raised solely by his mother, after his father left the family when Lammy was 12 years old. Lammy speaks publicly about the importance of fathers and the need to support them in seeking to be active in the lives of their children. He chairs the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Fatherhood and has written on the issue. Lammy grew up in Tottenham, and was educated at Downhills Primary School there, followed by the awarding of an Inner London Education Authority choral scholarship, at the age of 10, to sing at Peterborough Cathedral and attend The King's School, Peterborough. He studied at the School of Law, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, graduating with a 2:1. Lammy went on to study at Harvard University, where he became the first black Briton to attend Harvard Law School; there he studied for a Master of Laws degree and graduated in 1997. He was called to the bar of England and Wales in 1994 at Lincoln's Inn. He was employed as an attorney at Howard Rice in California from 1997 to 1998, and with D.J. Freeman from 1998 to 2000. He is a visiting lecturer at SOAS. Lammy is also a presenter on LBC and hosts a weekly Sunday show, from 10am to 1pm. Political career In 2000 he was elected for Labour on the London-wide list to the London Assembly. During the London election campaign Lammy was selected as the Labour candidate for Tottenham when Bernie Grant died. He was elected to the seat in a by-election held on 22 June 2000. Aged 27, he was the youngest Member of Parliament (MP) in the house until 2003 when Sarah Teather was elected. Minister In 2002, he was appointed by Prime Minister Tony Blair as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Department of Health. In 2003, Lammy was appointed by Blair as a Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Department for Constitutional Affairs and while a member of the Government, he voted in favour of authorisation for Britain to invade Iraq in 2003. After the 2005 general election, Blair appointed Lammy as Minister for Culture at the Department of Culture, Media and Sport. In June 2007, new Prime Minister Gordon Brown demoted Lammy to the rank of Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State in the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills. In October 2008, he was promoted by Brown to Minister of State and appointed to the Privy Council. In June 2009, Brown appointed Lammy as Minister for Higher Education in the new Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, leading the Commons ministerial team as Lord Mandelson was Secretary of State. He held the position until May 2010 when Labour lost the election. Opposition backbencher After Labour lost the 2010 general election, a Labour Party leadership contest was announced. During the contest Lammy nominated Diane Abbott, saying that he felt it was important to have a diverse field of candidates, but nonetheless declared his support for David Miliband. After the election of Ed Miliband, Lammy pledged his full support but turned down a post in the Shadow Cabinet, asserting a need to speak on a wide range of issues that would arise in his constituency due to the "large cuts in the public services". In 2010 there were suggestions that Lammy might stand for election as Mayor of London in 2012. Lammy pledged his support to Ken Livingstone's bid to become the Labour London mayoral candidate, declaring him "London's Mayor in waiting". Lammy became Livingstone's selection campaign chair. In 2014, Lammy announced that he was considering entering the race to become Mayor of London in the 2016 election. Following the party's defeat in the 2015 general election, Lammy was one of 36 Labour MPs to nominate Jeremy Corbyn, whom he is good friends with, as a candidate in the Labour leadership election of 2015. London mayoral candidate On 4 September 2014, Lammy announced his intention to seek the Labour nomination for the 2016 mayoral election. In the London Labour Party's selection process, he secured 9.4% of first preference votes and was fourth overall, behind Sadiq Khan, Tessa Jowell, and Diane Abbott. In March 2016, he was fined £5,000 for instigating 35,629 automatic phone calls urging people to back his mayoral campaign without gaining permission to contact the party members concerned. Lammy apologised "unreservedly" for breach of the Privacy and Electronic Communication Regulations. It was the first time a politician had been fined for authorising nuisance calls. Return to the frontbench Lammy endorsed Keir Starmer and Angela Rayner in the 2020 Labour leadership and deputy leadership elections. After Starmer was elected Labour leader in April 2020, Lammy was appointed to the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Secretary of State for Justice. In the November 2021 Shadow Cabinet reshuffle, Lammy was promoted to Shadow Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs. Lammy attended the 2022 Bilderberg meeting in Washington, D.C. In August 2022, an inquiry found that he had inadvertently breached the MPs' code of conduct. He apologised in a letter to Parliamentary Standards Commissioner Kathryn Stone. In January 2023, Lammy visited Northern Ireland with Shadow Secretary Peter Kyle and Shadow Cabinet Office Minister Jenny Chapman, visiting Foyle Port to make a statement on the Northern Ireland Protocol. Views Crime Over his years in politics, Lammy has publicly attributed blame for certain crimes to various specific causes and persons. He has also talked about black and ethnic minority peoples, especially those who are younger, their relation with crime and how they are treated by the criminal justice system. On 11 August 2011, in an address to Parliament, Lammy attributed part of the cause for England's riots of a few days earlier to destructive "cultures" that had emerged under the prevailing policies. He also stated that legislation restricting the degree of violence that parents are allowed to use when disciplining their children was partly to blame for current youth culture, that had contributed to the riots. Lammy blamed Prime Minister Boris Johnson, Home Secretary Amber Rudd, and Mayor Sadiq Khan for failing to take responsibility over fatal stabbings in London; he also blames inequality, high youth unemployment among black males, and local authorities cutting youth services and outreach programmes. Lammy has stated that the criminal justice system deals with "disproportionate numbers" of young people from black and ethnic minority communities: despite saying that although decisions to charge were "broadly proportionate", he has asserted that black and ethnic minority people still face and perceive bias. Lammy said that young black people are nine times more likely to be incarcerated than "comparable" white people, and proposed a number of measures including a system of "deferred prosecution" for young first time offenders to reduce incarcerations. Lammy has claimed that black and ethnic minority people offend "at the same rates" as comparable white people "when taking age and socioeconomic status into account"; however, they were more likely to be stopped and searched, if charged, more likely to be convicted, more likely to be sent to prison and less likely to get support in prison. Issues of race, prejudice and equality Lammy has commented on Britain's history of slavery. He has also criticised the University of Oxford for admitting relatively few black students and students from disadvantaged backgrounds. He believes the Windrush scandal concerns injustice to a generation who are British, have made their homes and worked in Britain and deserve to be treated better. On 5 February 2013, Lammy gave a speech in the House of Commons on why he would be voting in favour of the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill 2013, critically comparing the relegation of British same-sex couples to civil partnerships to the "separate but equal" legal doctrine that justified Jim Crow laws in the 20th-century United States. In January 2016, Lammy was commissioned by then-Prime Minister David Cameron to report on the effects of racial discrimination and disadvantage on the procedures of the police, courts, prisons and the probation service. Lammy published his report in September 2017, concluding that prosecutions against some BAME suspects should be delayed or dropped outright to mitigate racial bias. He has spoken out against antisemitism within the Labour Party, and attended an Enough is Enough rally protesting against it. Lammy stated that antisemitism has "come back because extremism has come back" and is damaging support for Labour among Britain's Jewish community. He is a member of Labour Friends of Israel. Lammy recorded a Channel 4 documentary for Remembrance Sunday called The Unremembered: Britain's Forgotten War Heroes, which was broadcast on 10 November 2019. In it he reveals how Africans who died in their own continent serving Britain during WWI were denied the honour of an individual grave, despite the Commonwealth War Graves Commission's reputation for equality. The documentary was produced by Professor David Olusoga's production company; Olusoga described the failure to commemorate black and Asian service personnel as one of the "biggest scandals" he had ever come across. The documentary inspired an investigation by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission. The subsequent report found that "pervasive racism" underpinned the failure to properly commemorate service personnel. The report stated that up to 54,000 casualties of "certain ethnic groups" did not receive the same remembrance treatment as white soldiers who had died and another 350,000 military personnel recruited from east Africa and Egypt were not commemorated by name or even at all. In April 2021, Prime Minister Boris Johnson offered an "unreserved apology" over the findings of the review. Secretary of State for Defence Ben Wallace apologised in the House of Commons, promising to make amends and take action. Lammy, who was critical to bringing the matter to light, called this a "watershed moment". Lammy considers himself English; he said: "I'm of African descent, African-Caribbean descent, but I am English." In March 2021, Lammy was a guest on LBC when he rejected a caller's assertion that the dual identity of African-Caribbean descent and English nationality are impossible. Home Office security In October 2022, Lammy called for a full investigation into an alleged security breach by Suella Braverman. Lammy said: "The home secretary is the most serious job you could have in our state. This is a person who makes judgements about terrorism and counter-terrorism, who makes judgements about very, very serious offenders, whether they should be allowed out of prison, and for that reason, it's someone who, I'm afraid, judgement is critically important. I'm afraid this is a lapse of judgement that, quite rightly, she was sacked for. The question is, why was she brought back?" Other views Lammy described the Grenfell Tower fire as "corporate manslaughter" and called for arrests to be made; his friend Khadija Saye died in the fire. He also criticised the authorities for failing to say how many people had died. He has written about what he believes to be the shortcomings of the housing market. Lammy is a staunch advocate of British membership of the European Union. On 23 June 2018, Lammy appeared at the People's Vote march in London to mark the second anniversary of the referendum to leave the European Union. The People's Vote was a campaign group calling for a public vote on the final Brexit deal between the UK and the European Union. On 30 December 2020 he voted for the Brexit deal negotiated by Boris Johnson's Government. He supports shared parental leave, which he maintains would "normalise" fathers being an equal parent with the mother, and would mean they become more involved in the raising of children, arguing that the barriers to "fathers playing a deeper role in family life" are not just legislative, but also cultural. He points out Scandinavian countries such as Sweden as examples of where governments have successfully made this happen, which he states has also helped increase gender equality. Comments attracting criticism In 2013, Lammy accused the BBC of making a "silly innuendo about the race" on Twitter during the announcement of the next Pontiff where the BBC tweeted "will smoke be black or white?" in reference to smoke above the Sistine Chapel. Lammy criticised the BBC's tweet as "crass and unnecessary." He subsequently apologised after other Twitter users pointed out the role played by black and white smoke in announcing the election of a new Pope. In January 2016 Lammy claimed that one million Indians sacrificed their lives during the Second World War, not for the survival of Britain and to fight Nazism, but instead for the "European Project."; the statement was strongly criticised and ridiculed by The Spectator. In 2017, writing in The Guardian, Lammy argued that Comic Relief perpetuated problematic stereotypes of Africa, and that they had a responsibility to use its powerful position to move the debate on in a more constructive way by establishing an image of African people as equals. His comments came after a video featuring Ed Sheeran meeting and rescuing a child in Liberia was criticised as "poverty porn" and was given the "Rusty Radiator" award for the 'most offensive and stereotypical fundraising video of the year'. In 2018, in response to Lammy's comments and the backlash to Sheeran's video, Comic Relief announced they would take steps towards change by halting their use of celebrities for appeals. In February 2019, Lammy criticised Stacey Dooley for photographs she posted on social media of her trip to Uganda for Comic Relief, and said that "the world does not need any more white saviours", and that she was "perpetuating 'tired and unhelpful stereotypes' about Africa". He also stated however, that he does not question her "good motives". The donations received for the Red Nose Day broadcast in March 2019 fell by £8 million and the money raised that year was the lowest since 2007, which some have blamed on Lammy's remarks. Critics of his view included Wikipedia founder Jimmy Wales and Conservative Party MP Chris Philp. Lammy responded to criticism with a statement in which he referred to the decline in donations being due to contributing factors of austerity, declining viewing figures, trends in the charity sector and format fatigue and that he hoped his comments "would inspire the charity to refresh its image and think harder about the effects its output has on our perceptions of Africa". In October 2020, as a result of Lammy's intervention, Comic Relief announced it would stop sending celebrities to Africa for its fundraising films. They stated that they would no longer send celebrities to Africa nor portray Africa with images of starving people or critically ill children, instead, they would be using local filmmakers to provide a more "authentic" perspective and give agency back to African people. In January 2019, Lammy described Rod Liddle having a column in a weekly newspaper as a "national disgrace" and accused Liddle of having "white middle class privilege" for expressing the view that absent fathers played a role in violent crime involving black youths. Writing in an article for The Spectator, Liddle disputed Lammy's claim that he was raised in a family reliant on tax credits, which were not introduced in the United Kingdom until Lammy was aged 31. In April 2019, Lammy was criticised for saying his comparison of the Brexit European Research Group (which consists of Conservative MPs) to Nazis and proponents of the South African apartheid was "not strong enough". Personal life Lammy married the artist Nicola Green in 2005; the couple have two sons and a daughter. Lammy is a Christian. He is also a Tottenham Hotspur F.C. fan. He states that his identity is "African, African-Caribbean, British, English, a Londoner and European". "I'm black, I'm English, I'm British and I'm proud." In November 2011, he published a book, Out of the Ashes: Britain After the Riots, about the August 2011 riots. In 2020, he published his second book, Tribes, which explored social division and the need for belonging. Lammy features as one of the 100 Great Black Britons on both the 2003 and 2020 lists. He has regularly been included in the Powerlist as one of the most influential people in the UK of African/African-Caribbean descent, including the most recent editions published in 2020 and 2021. Since 2019, Lammy has received the highest income on top of his MP's salary amongst Labour Party MPs. Honours He was sworn in as a member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council in 2008. This gave him the honorific prefix "The Right Honourable" for life. He has been elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts; this gave him the Post Nominal Letters "FRSA" for as long as he remains a Fellow. Notes References External links David Lammy MP - Westminster Parliamentary Research David Lammy on LBC |- |- |- |- |- 1972 births Activists against antisemitism Living people Alumni of SOAS University of London Anglican socialists British Christian socialists English people of Guyanese descent Harvard Law School alumni Labour Members of the London Assembly Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Labour Friends of Israel People educated at The King's School, Peterborough People from Harringay People from Tottenham UK MPs 1997–2001 UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 UK MPs 2015–2017 UK MPs 2017–2019 UK MPs 2019–present Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Ministers for Universities (United Kingdom) LBC radio presenters Black British MPs British broadcaster-politicians

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Morley

John Morley

John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923) was a British Liberal statesman, writer and newspaper editor. Initially a journalist in the North of England and then editor of the newly Liberal-leaning Pall Mall Gazette from 1880 to 1883, he was elected a Member of Parliament for the Liberal Party in 1883. He was Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1886 and between 1892 and 1895; Secretary of State for India between 1905 and 1910 and again in 1911; and Lord President of the Council between 1910 and 1914. Morley was a distinguished political commentator, and biographer of his hero, William Gladstone. Morley is best known for his writings and for his "reputation as the last of the great nineteenth-century Liberals". He opposed imperialism and the Second Boer War. He supported Home Rule for Ireland. His opposition to British entry into the First World War as an ally of Russia led him to leave the government in August 1914. Background and education Morley was born in Blackburn, Lancashire, the son of Jonathan Morley, a surgeon, and of Priscilla Mary (née Donkin). He attended Cheltenham College. While at Oxford, he quarrelled with his father over religion, and had to leave the university early without an honours degree; his father had wanted him to become a clergyman. He wrote, in obvious allusion to this rift, On Compromise (1874). Journalism Morley was called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn in 1873, before deciding to pursue a career in journalism. He later described his decision to abandon the law "my long enduring regret". He edited the newly Radical-Liberal Pall Mall Gazette from 1880 to 1883, with W. T. Stead as his assistant editor before going into politics. Political career Morley first stood for Parliament at the Blackburn by-election in 1869, a rare double by-election held after an election petition led to the results of the 1868 general election in Blackburn being voided. He was unsuccessful in Blackburn, and also failed to win a seat when he contested the City of Westminster at the 1880 general election. Morley was then elected as Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Newcastle upon Tyne at a by-election in February 1883. Morley and Newcastle Morley was a prominent Gladstonian Liberal. In Newcastle, his constituency association chairman was the effective Robert Spence Watson, a leader of the National Liberal Federation and its chairman from 1890 to 1902. Newcastle, however, was a dual member constituency and Morley's parliamentary colleague, Joseph Cowen, was a radical in perpetual conflict with the Liberal Party, who owned the Newcastle Chronicle. Cowen attacked Morley from the left, and sponsored working men candidates on his retirement from the seat, showing favour to the local Tory candidate, Charles Hamond. Morley, with Watson's machine, withstood the Cowen challenge until the 1895 general election, when the tactics caused the ejection of Morley and the loss of Newcastle to the Tories. Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1886, 1892–95 In February 1886, he was sworn to the Privy Council and made Chief Secretary for Ireland, only to be turned out when Gladstone's government fell over Home Rule in July of the same year and Lord Salisbury became Prime Minister. After the severe defeat of the Gladstonian party at the 1886 general election, Morley divided his life between politics and letters until Gladstone's return to power at the 1892 general election, when he resumed as Chief Secretary for Ireland. He had during the interval taken a leading part in parliament, but his tenure of the chief secretaryship of Ireland was hardly a success. The Irish gentry made things as difficult for him as possible, and the path of an avowed Home Ruler installed in office at Dublin Castle was beset with pitfalls. In the internecine disputes that agitated the Liberal party during Lord Rosebery's administration and afterwards, Morley sided with Sir William Harcourt and was the recipient and practically co-signatory of his letter resigning the Liberal leadership in December 1898. He lost his seat in the 1895 general election but soon found another in Scotland, when he was elected at a by-election in February 1896 for the Montrose Burghs. Opposition to eight hours working day From 1889 onwards, Morley resisted the pressure from labour leaders in Newcastle to support a maximum working day of eight hours enforced by law. Morley objected to this because it would interfere in natural economic processes. It would be "thrusting an Act of Parliament like a ramrod into all the delicate and complex machinery of British industry". For example, an Eight Hours Bill for miners would impose on an industry with great diversity in local and natural conditions a universal regulation. He further argued that it would be wrong to "enable the Legislature, which is ignorant of these things, which is biased in these things—to give the Legislature the power of saying how many hours a day a man shall or shall not work". Morley told trade unionists that the only right way to limit working hours was through voluntary action from them. His outspokenness against any eight hours bill, rare among politicians, brought him the hostility of labour leaders. In September 1891, two mass meetings saw labour leaders such as John Burns, Keir Hardie and Robert Blatchford all calling for action against Morley. In the election of 1892, Morley did not face a labour candidate but the Eight Hours League and the Social Democratic Federation supported the Unionist candidate. Morley kept his seat but came second to the Unionist candidate. When Morley was appointed to the government and the necessary by-election ensued, Hardie and other socialists advised working men to vote for the Unionist candidate (who supported an Eight Hours Bill for miners), but the Irish vote in Newcastle rallied to Morley and he comfortably kept his seat. After a vote on an Eight Hours Bill in the Commons in March 1892, Morley wrote: "That has taken place which I apprehended. The Labour party—that is, the most headstrong and unscrupulous and shallow of those who speak for labour—has captured the Liberal party. Even worse—the Liberal party, on our bench at any rate, has surrendered sans phrase, without a word of explanation or vindication". Ideological views In 1880, Morley wrote to Auberon Herbert, an extreme opponent of state intervention, that "I am afraid that I do not agree with you as to paternal government. I am no partisan of a policy of incessant meddling with individual freedom, but I do strongly believe that in so populous a society as ours now is, you may well have a certain protection thrown over classes of men and women who are unable to protect themselves". In 1885, Morley spoke out against those Liberals who believed that all state intervention was wrong and proclaimed: "I am not prepared to allow that the Liberty and the Property Defence League are the only people with a real grasp of Liberal principles, that Lord Bramwell and the Earl of Wemyss are the only Abdiels of the Liberal Party". Later that year Morley defined his politics: "I am a cautious Whig by temperament, I am a Liberal by training, and I am a thorough Radical by observation and experience". By the mid-1890s, Morley adopted a doctrinaire opposition to state intervention in social and economic matters. He repeatedly expressed his hope that social reform would not become a party issue and warned voters to "Beware of any State action which artificially disturbs the basis of work and wages". Politicians could not "insure steady work and good wages" because of "great economic tides and currents flowing which were beyond the control of any statesman, Government, or community". Morley also opposed the state providing benefits for sections or classes of the community as the government should not be used as a tool for sectional or class interests. The Unionist government had proposed to help farmers by assuming some of their rates and wanted to subsidise West Indian sugar producers. Morley viewed these as dangerous precedents of "distributing public money for the purposes of a single class" and he asked voters: "How far are you going to allow this to take you? ... If you are going to give grants to help profits, how are you off from giving grants in favour of aiding wages?" The end of this process, Morley warned, would see "national workshops to which anybody has a right to go and receive money out of your pockets". Morley viewed imperialism and an interventionist foreign policy as increasing the power of the state. The increase in state expenditure due to the Boer War (1899–1902) disturbed him because it might lead to the state's revenue-raising power being used to implement great changes in the social and economic structure of the country. Francis Hirst recorded in October 1899 about Morley: "He is depressed about national expenditure. He fears, when bad times come, that we shall have not retrenchment, but 'nefarious attacks on property and reversions to Fair Trade'." Imperialism and the increasing expenditure needed to fund it would lead to a reconstruction of the income tax and in turn would lead to taxing some people more heavily than others, something which was against the "maxims of public equity". Morley now regretted Gladstone's budget of 1853 (where the income tax was set "on its legs") because it gave the Chancellor of the Exchequer "a reservoir out of which he could draw with ease and certainty whatever was asked for". Gladstone had "furnished not only the means, but a direct incentive to that policy of expenditure which it was the great object of his life to check". After Joseph Chamberlain came out in favour of Tariff Reform in 1903, Morley defended Free Trade. Morley claimed that it was no coincidence that since the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, Britain was the only great country in Western Europe not to experience "even a shadow of a civil convulsion". Protectionism was conducive to social distress, political corruption and political unrest. Morley's great speech at Manchester, in 1899, raises him to a special level amongst masters of English rhetoric:You may make thousands of women widows and thousands of children fatherless. It will be wrong. You may add a new province to your empire. It will still be wrong. You may increase the shares of Mr Rhodes and his Chartereds beyond the dreams of avarice. Yea, and it will still be wrong! Morley was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902. In July 1902, he was presented by Andrew Carnegie with the late Lord Acton's valuable library, which, on 20 October, he in turn gave to the University of Cambridge. Secretary of State for India When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his cabinet at the end of 1905, Morley was made Secretary of State for India. He would have preferred to have been Chancellor of the Exchequer. In this position, he was conspicuous in May 1907 and afterwards for his firmness in sanctioning extreme measures for dealing with the outbreak in India of alarming symptoms of sedition. Though he was strongly opposed by some of the more extreme members of the Radical party, on the ground of belying his democratic principles in dealing with the British Raj, his action was generally recognised as combining statesmanship with patience. While firmly opposing revolutionary propaganda, he showed his popular sympathies by appointing two distinguished native Indians to the council and taking steps for a decentralisation of the administrative government. When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman resigned in 1908 and H. H. Asquith became Prime Minister, Morley retained his post in the new cabinet; but it was thought advisable to relieve him of the burden imposed by a seat in the House of Commons, and he was transferred to the Upper House, being created a peer with the title of Viscount Morley of Blackburn, in the County Palatine of Lancaster. He was the first peer to turn down a coat of arms, although a wall panel at Lincoln's Inn incorrectly ascribes one to him. In September 1906, Morley wrote favourably for staunch resistance to the railway workers agitation for higher wages. Failure to do so would damage the Liberal Party with the middle class because "railways are the middle class investment... if anybody thinks we can govern this country against the middle class, he is wrong". In 1909 the Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George increased taxes in his budget (the "People's Budget") to pay for increased armaments and social reform. Morley said that behind the budget "hangs the spectre of Tariff Reform" because the public "may say that, if this is the best that can be done under Free Trade, they'll try something else". Morley viewed "the Expenditure of the country" as "the most formidable of our standing problems". Lord President of the Council As a member of the House of Lords, Lord Morley helped assure the passage of the Parliament Act 1911, which eliminated the Lords' power to veto bills. From 1910 until the outbreak of the Great War Morley was Lord President of the Council. In the lead-up to Great Britain's entry into World War I, on 2 August 1914 the Liberal cabinet declared its intention to defend the French coast against the German Navy. In opposition to this commitment, Morley resigned along with John Burns. Unlike other Liberals, he was not alarmed by Germany's invasion of Belgium. However, he was especially hostile to Russia and felt he could not be a part of a war alongside Russia against Germany. Retirement In 1917, Morley published his two volumes of memoirs, Recollections. In it, he contrasted old and new Liberalism: The theory of new Liberalism did not seem much more piquant or fertile than the respectable old. As it happened, in the fulness of time our distinguished apostles of Efficiency came into supreme power, with a share in the finest field for efficient diplomacy and an armed struggle, that could have been imagined. Unhappily they broke down, or thought they had (1915), and could discover no better way out of their scrape than to seek deliverance (not without a trace of arbitrary proscription) from the opposing party that counted Liberalism, old or new, for dangerous and deluding moonshine. During his retirement, Morley kept an interest in politics. He said to his friend John Morgan on 15 February 1918: I'm sick of Wilson... He hailed the Russian Revolution six months ago as the new Golden Age, and I said to Page, 'What does he know of Russia?' to which Page replied, 'Nothing'. As for his talk about a union of hearts after the war, the world is not made like that. This led Morgan to ask Morley about the League of Nations: "A mirage, and an old one". Morgan asked: "How are you going to enforce it?", whereupon Morley replied: "How indeed? One may as well talk of London morality being due to the Archbishop of Canterbury. But take away Scotland Yard!" When asked in 1919 about the Covenant of the League of Nations Morley said: "I have not read it, and I don't intend to read it. It's not worth the paper it's written on. To the end of time it'll always be a case of 'Thy head or my head'. I've no faith in these schemes". When a prominent Liberal praised someone as "a good European" Morley remarked: "When I lay me down at night or rise in the morning I do not ask myself if I am a good European". Towards the close of 1919 he was worried about Britain's guarantee to France: Surely a permanent commitment like that is contrary to all our foreign policy. What do the words 'unprovoked attack' by Germany mean? They are dangerously vague. I've been discussing them with Rosebery and he is as uneasy as I am. He wrote a letter to the Press about it, and the Times refused to publish it. He often criticised Labour Party policies and said to Morgan: "Have you read Henderson's speech about a capital levy? It's rank piracy". During a discussion on 6 May 1919 Morley remarked: "I see Lloyd George has invited the Irish republicans to a conference. It's an act of inconceivable folly—he, the King's Prime Minister!" When the House of Lords were debating the Fourth Home Rule Bill Morley said to Morgan on 6 January 1921: I should have liked to have been there if only to have got up and said, 'If Mr. G's Home Rule Bill had been passed 30 years ago could Ireland have been worse than now? Would it have not been better?' And then fallen dead like Lord Chatham. On 1 May 1921, Morley said: "If I were an Irishman I should be a Sinn Feiner". When asked by Morgan: "And a Republican?" Morley said "No". He liked Winston Churchill and said to Morgan on 22 December 1921: I foresee the day when Birkenhead will be Prime Minister in the Lords with Winston leading the Commons. They will make a formidable pair. Winston tells me Birkenhead has the best brain in England.... But I don't like Winston's habit of writing articles, as a Minister, on debatable questions of foreign policy in the newspapers. These allocutions of his are contrary to all Cabinet principles. Mr. G. would never have allowed it. In a letter to Sir Francis Webster in 1923, Morley wrote: Present party designations have become empty of all contents... Vastly extended State expenditure, vastly increased demands from the taxpayer who has to provide the money, social reform regardless of expense, cash exacted from the taxpayer already at his wits' end—when were the problems of plus and minus more desperate? How are we to measure the use and abuse of industrial organization? Powerful orators find "Liberty" the true keyword, but then I remember hearing from a learned student that of "liberty" he knew well over two hundred definitions. Can we be sure that the "haves" and the "have-nots" will agree in their selection of the right one? We can only trust to the growth of responsibility; we may look to circumstances and events to teach their lesson. Literature Morley devoted a considerable amount of time to literature, his anti-Imperial views being practically swamped by the overwhelming predominance of Unionism and Imperialism. His position as a leading British writer had early been determined by his monographs on Voltaire (1872), Rousseau (1873), Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (1878), Burke (1879), and Walpole (1889). Burke as the champion of sound policy in America and of justice in India, Walpole as the pacific minister understanding the true interests of his country, fired his imagination. Burke was Morley's contribution to Macmillan's "English Men of Letters" series of literary biographies, of which Morley himself was general editor between 1878 and 1892; he edited a second series of these volumes from 1902 to 1919. The Life of Cobden (1881) is an able defence of that statesman's views rather than a critical biography or a real picture of the period. The Life of Oliver Cromwell (1900) revised Gardiner as Gardiner had revised Carlyle. Morley's contributions to political journalism and to literary, ethical and philosophical criticism were numerous and valuable. They show great individuality of character, and recall the personality of John Stuart Mill, with whose mode of thought he had many affinities. After the death of Gladstone, Morley was principally engaged in his biography, until it was published in 1903. Representing as it does so competent a writer's sifting of a mass of material, the Life of Gladstone was a masterly account of the career of the great Liberal statesman; traces of Liberal bias were inevitable but are rarely manifest; and in spite of the a priori unlikelihood of a full appreciation of Gladstone's powerful religious interests from such a quarter (Morley was an agnostic), the whole treatment is characterized by sympathy and judgement. The work was very successful, selling more than 25,000 copies in its first year. Morley was a Trustee of the British Museum from 1894 to 1921, Honorary Professor of Ancient Literature at the Royal Academy of Arts, and member of the Historical Manuscripts Commission. He was Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester from 1908 until 1923, when he resigned. He was nominated for a Nobel Prize in Literature eleven times. He received an honorary degree (LL.D.) from the University of St Andrews in October 1902. Legacy A philosophical Radical of a somewhat mid-19th century type, and highly suspicious of the later opportunistic reaction (in all its forms) against Cobdenite principles, he yet retained the respect of the majority whom it was his usual fate to find against him in British politics by the indomitable consistency of his principles and by sheer force of character and honesty of conviction and utterance. His legacy was a purely moral one; although in May 1870 he married Mrs. Rose Mary Ayling, the union produced no heirs. Mrs. Ayling was already married when she met John Morley and the couple waited to marry until her first husband died several years later (another similarity to John Stuart Mill). She was never received into polite society, and many of his colleagues, including Asquith, never met her. Morley had three siblings, Edward Sword Morley (1828–1901), William Wheelhouse Morley (1840 – c. 1870), and Grace Hannah Morley (1842–1925). According to historian Stanley Wolpert in his 1967 book: "It is hardly exaggeration to speculate that, but for the socially unpardonable circumstances surrounding his marriage, Morley might well have become Britain's foreign secretary, possibly even prime minister". After more than 50 years of a quietly secluded personal life, Lord Morley died of heart failure at his home, Flowermead, Wimbledon Park, south London, on 23 September 1923, aged eighty-four, when the viscountcy became extinct. After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, his ashes were buried at Putney Vale Cemetery. He was followed in death several months later by Rose. Morley's estate was valued for probate at £59,765, a surprising sum for a self-made man who devoted his life to writing and politics. Morley inspired many leading figures of the 20th century, including Mahomed Ali Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan. The Austrian classical liberal theorist Friedrich Hayek, writing in 1944, wrote this about Morley's reputation: It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the more typically English a writer on political or social problems then appeared to the world, the more he is to-day forgotten in his own country. Men like Lord Morley ... who were then admired in the world at large as outstanding examples of the political wisdom of liberal England, are to the present generation largely obsolete Victorians. Publications Edmund Burke: A Historical Study (London: Macmillan, 1867). Critical Miscellanies (1871. Second volume; 1877). Voltaire (1871). Rousseau (1873). The Struggle for National Education (London: Chapman & Hall, 1873). On Compromise (1874; Chapman & Hall, 2nd edition, revised, 1877). Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (London: Chapman & Hall, 1878). Burke (London: Macmillan, 1879) (English Men of Letters series). The Life of Richard Cobden (1881). Aphorisms: An Address Delivered before the Edinburgh Philosophical Institution, November 11, 1887 (London: Macmillan, 1887). Wikisource: Full text. Walpole (London: Macmillan, 1889) (Twelve English Statesmen series). Studies in Literature (London: Macmillan, 1891). Oliver Cromwell (New York: The Century Co., 1900). The Life of William Ewart Gladstone (London: Macmillan & Co., 1903. 3 vols.). Notes on Politics and History (London: Macmillan & Co., 1913-14). Recollections (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1917. 2 vols.). Vol. 1•Vol. 2 Notes Bibliography Hamer, D. A. John Morley: Liberal Intellectual in Politics (Oxford University Press, 1968). Hamer, David. "Morley, John, Viscount Morley of Blackburn (1838–1923)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford University Press, 2004); online edn, Jan 2008 accessed 13 Sept 2014 : doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/35110 Moore, R. J. "John Morley's Acid Test: India 1906–1910", Pacific Affairs, (Dec 1968) 41#1 pp. 333–340, in JSTOR Waitt, E. I. John Morley, Joseph Cowen and Robert Spence Watson. Liberal Divisions in Newcastle Politics, 1873–1895. Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD at the University of Manchester, October 1972. Copies in Manchester University, Newcastle Central, and Gateshead libraries. Wolpert, S. A. Morley and India, 1906–1910 (University of California Press, 1967) External links 1838 births 1923 deaths Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford British liberal politicians British Secretaries of State Chief Secretaries for Ireland English agnostics Fellows of the British Academy Fellows of the Royal Society Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Lord Presidents of the Council Members of the Order of Merit Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Scottish constituencies Members of the Privy Council of Ireland Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Non-interventionism Peers created by Edward VII People educated at Cheltenham College People educated at University College School Scottish Liberal Party MPs UK MPs 1880–1885 UK MPs 1885–1886 UK MPs 1886–1892 UK MPs 1892–1895 UK MPs 1895–1900 UK MPs 1900–1906 UK MPs 1906–1910 UK MPs who were granted peerages Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian%20Lewis

Julian Lewis

Sir Julian Murray Lewis (born 26 September 1951) is a British Conservative Party politician serving as the Member of Parliament (MP), representing New Forest East since 1997. Lewis has served as Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee since 2020, succeeding Dominic Grieve. Lewis served as Chair of the Defence Select Committee from 2015 to 2019. He actively pursues the retention and renewal of the British strategic nuclear deterrent, the UK Trident programme – confirmed in 2016 – and campaigns for Defence expenditure to be restored to 3% of GDP. Lewis had the Conservative Party whip removed after successfully standing against the Government's preferred candidate for the chairmanship of the Intelligence and Security Committee, former Secretary of State for Transport Chris Grayling, on 15 July 2020. The whip was restored on 30 December 2020. A Eurosceptic, Lewis is a supporter of the pro-Brexit groups Leave Means Leave and the European Research Group (ERG). He was one of just 28 Conservative MPs (the 'Spartans') who voted all three times against Theresa May's EU Withdrawal Agreement, regarding it as "Brexit in Name Only". Early life Born in Swansea, into a Jewish family and son of a tailor and designer, Lewis was educated at Dynevor Grammar School and then at Balliol College, Oxford, receiving a BA, later promoted to MA, in Philosophy and Politics. He studied as a postgraduate at St Antony's College, Oxford, being awarded the DPhil in Strategic Studies for his thesis on "British Military Planning for Post War Strategic Defence, 1942-1947" in 1981. Militant Tendency infiltration of Labour From 1976 until early 1978, with secret funding from The Freedom Association, he posed as a Labour Party moderate and briefly won control of Newham North East Constituency Labour Party, in an eventually unsuccessful attempt to reverse the deselection of the sitting MP, Reg Prentice, and in order to highlight Militant Tendency entryism in the Labour Party. Prentice himself later joined the Conservatives. At the end of the Newham campaign, in 1978, Lewis returned to his DPhil studies and joined the London Division of the Royal Naval Reserve, at HMS President, serving as a Seaman on the Southampton-based Ton-class minesweeper, . Combating CND Lewis was a leading opponent of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and other Left-wing organisations, throughout the 1980s. From 1981 to 1985, he was Research Director and then a Director of the Coalition for Peace through Security, set up to support the replacement of Polaris by Trident and the deployment of NATO cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common and RAF Molesworth, to counter the Soviet SS-20 missiles. This helped the achievement of President Reagan's 1981 Zero Option proposal in the form of the 1987 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Changing legislation and Conservative Research Department From the mid-1980s, Lewis was also Director of Policy Research Associates, working with Conservative and Crossbench members of the House of Lords to initiate changes to legislation (1) requiring postal ballots for trade union elections (incorporated in the 1984 Trade Union Act and 1988 Employment Act); (2) outlawing political indoctrination in schools (incorporated in the 1986 Education Act and carried forward in the 1996 Education Act); (3) prohibiting local councils from publishing material which "promotes or opposes a point of view on a question of political controversy which is identifiable as the view of one political party and not of another" (incorporated in Section 27 of the 1988 Local Government Act); and (4) more strictly defining the concept of 'due impartiality' in the coverage of politically contentious issues on television and radio (incorporated in the 1990 Broadcasting Act). With fellow Conservative John Bercow – later elected Speaker of the House of Commons – Lewis ran an Advanced Speaking and Campaigning course for more than ten years, which trained more than 600 Conservatives (including several current MPs) in campaigning and communication techniques. From 1990 until 1996, Lewis was a deputy director of the Conservative Research Department at Conservative Central Office (CCO). In the run-up to the 1992 general election, CCO published detailed directories compiled by Lewis listing Labour MPs' and candidates' support for Left-wing causes. He continued in this role after his selection in February 1996 as prospective parliamentary candidate for the new constituency of New Forest East, but in December of that year he resigned from CCO to campaign against Britain joining the single European currency. Only later did opposition to adopting the Euro become official Conservative policy. In a lecture to former Dynevor School pupils in May 2017, Lewis set out details of his background, his path into politics and his overall conclusions about Parliamentary life. Parliamentary career Lewis unsuccessfully contested Swansea West at the 1983 general election. He was elected as the MP for New Forest Eastin 1997. In this role, he successfully opposed the development of a large container port at Dibden Bay, between Marchwood and Hythe, and waged other high-profile local campaigns. In Parliament, he was a Shadow Defence Minister from 2002 to 2004 and from 2005 to 2010, also serving as Shadow Minister for the Cabinet Office from 2004 to 2005, and as an Opposition Whip from 2001 to 2002. Before joining the Front Bench, he was a Member of the Defence Select Committee and the Welsh Select Committee, and had also been elected to the Executive of the Conservative Party's 1922 Committee. With the creation of the Liberal-Conservative Coalition as a result of the election of a hung parliament in 2010, the post which he had shadowed (Minister for the Armed Forces) was allocated to the Liberal Democrat Defence spokesman, Nick Harvey MP. Lewis was appointed as a member of Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee in September 2010. He has also been a vice-chairman of the Conservative Friends of Poland. Lewis has been described by The Daily Telegraph as "one of the most vigorous rightwingers in the Commons" and by The Guardian as the Conservative Party's "front bench terrier". He was one of the Frontbenchers and Backbenchers of the Year chosen by commentators on the ConservativeHome website, in December 2009 and December 2010 respectively. In May 2014, he was one of eight candidates for the chairmanship of the House of Commons Defence Select Committee, coming second with 212 votes to the eventual winner's 226. Lewis had been in the lead in four of the seven stages of this Alternative Vote election. He was elected as a member of the Defence Select Committee at a by-election in October 2014, whilst remaining on the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament. In March 2015, he was appointed to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and therefore granted the style The Right Honourable. In June 2015, he was elected to the Chair of the Commons Defence Select Committee by 314 votes to 242, and in July 2017 he was re-elected to this position, in the new Parliament, by 305 votes to 265. Having supervised more than 30 inquiries, during the 2015–17 and 2017–19 Parliaments, Lewis made it known in January 2020 that he would not seek re-election to chair the Defence Committee for a third time, as "It is better to stop while people wish you to carry on, than to carry on until people wish you to stop!" Privacy of MPs' home addresses From May to July 2008, Lewis initiated and organised the successful campaign to change the Freedom of Information Act in order that a High Court ruling, obtained by a journalist on The Sunday Telegraph, that 14 MPs' home addresses should be published, could never be repeated in respect of any other Parliamentarians. More than 250 backbenchers from all parties, as well as members of the Government and the Shadow Cabinet, supported this campaign. In March 2009, his amendment to the Political Parties and Elections Bill was carried by a majority of 59. It removed the requirement for general election candidates to disclose their home addresses on nomination and ballot papers, and was upheld by a majority of 72 when the Bill went through the House of Lords in July 2009. In both Houses, Labour and Conservatives were granted free votes on the Lewis Amendment, and the Liberal Democrats were whipped to vote against it. Finally, in March 2018, in its response to Intimidation in Public Life: a Review by the Committee on Standards in Public Life, the Government additionally accepted the committee's recommendation that it should "bring forward legislation to remove the requirement for candidates standing as local councillors to have their home addresses published on the ballot paper". That requirement would be replaced by "an option to include a statement of residence based on an electoral area the candidate lives in rather than having to include a specific address". Expenses Although Lewis was repeatedly listed as amongst the lowest-claiming MPs (ranked 566th out of 647 in 2008/09), The Sunday Telegraph alleged in May 2009 that he had tried to claim the £6,000 cost of a wooden floor in his second home. He maintained that: "At no stage did I claim for the flooring and it did not cost the taxpayer a penny." A senior Commons official confirmed that, by seeking advice in advance about second home expenditure, he had acted "in accordance with best practice as recommended by this department" and that "it is not true that you attempted to claim £6,000 in expenses for a wooden floor at your second home". Accessibility His constituency casework has always been carried out by correspondence, telephone and surgery appointments, but not by e-mail, which he describes as "inefficient, insecure and open to abuse". Lewis is the only MP who does not allow his constituents to contact him by email. In a letter in the Guardian, he stated: "Letters, phone calls, and, where appropriate, surgery appointments are perfectly adequate for people who genuinely need my help, as the many letters of thanks quoted on my website fully confirm. Only mass, manipulative campaigners and obsessive individuals find this a problem – and so they should!" Selected political issues In August 2000, Lewis attacked Conservatives defectors to Labour due to the party supporting Section 28, describing the "gay lobby" as supporting "propaganda promoting homosexuality" at the expense of taxpayers. In November 2007, Lewis resigned his life membership of the Oxford Union debating society, after 37 years, in protest at its decision to invite Holocaust denier David Irving and Nick Griffin, the leader of the British National Party, to be speakers at one of its events. In April 2010, he was asked why he had opposed lowering the age of consent for homosexual relationships, eleven years earlier, in 1999. He stated that this had been because of his belief that the decision to incur any extra risk of contracting HIV should be taken on reaching the current age of majority, namely 18. He added that he had twice voted voluntarily in favour of the Civil Partnership Bill – at its second and third readings, on 12 October and 9 November 2004, respectively. In December 2010, he attacked, and was one of six Conservative MPs who voted against Coalition proposals to increase student tuition fees from a maximum of £3,000 to a maximum of £9,000 per year, on the grounds that this would deter the less well-off from going to university. In February 2011, he strongly opposed, and was one of three Conservative MPs who voted against, Coalition plans to transfer heritage forests from public ownership to trusts. The plans were later disowned by the Government and abandoned. In October 2011, he was one of 81 Conservative rebels who voted in favour of a referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union and, in October 2012, he was one of 53 Conservative rebels voting to demand a real-terms cut in the EU budget. Both policies were later adopted by the party leadership. In July 2012, he was one of 91 Conservatives who successfully blocked Coalition plans to replace the House of Lords with a second chamber of party politicians elected by proportional representation. In January 2013, with the assistance of MPs from both sides of the nuclear weapons argument, Lewis secured and introduced the first debate in the Commons chamber on Trident since the vote to approve its retention and renewal in March 2007. From May 2013 onwards, he strongly opposed arming the rebels in the Syrian civil war, arguing that Assad's chemical weapons would pose a deadly threat to the West if they fell into the hands of jihadists fighting on the side of the opposition. On 29 August, the Coalition Government's motion in support of the principle of military intervention was defeated by just 13 votes. Julian Lewis spoke and voted against the Government's motion. In November 2013, Lewis was one of 16 Eurosceptic Conservative MPs to support an amendment to the European Union (Referendum) Bill, which – if carried – would have required an "in/out" referendum to be held before, rather than after, the scheduled 2015 general election; and in November 2014 he was one of only 28 Eurosceptic Conservative MPs to vote against the UK opting to rejoin the European Arrest Warrant regime. In November and December 2015, before and during the debate on bombing ISIL/Daesh in Syria, Lewis challenged David Cameron's claim that there were 70,000 "moderate" Syrian fighters opposing ISIL/Daesh, describing the figure as "magical" and quoting expert commentators' views that the "Free Syrian Army" contained many Islamists. In the Commons debate on 2 December, Lewis stated that "instead of having dodgy dossiers [as in the 2003 Iraq conflict], we now have bogus battalions of moderate fighters". He predicted that "Once Daesh has been driven out, ... an Occupying Power will have to remain in control for many years to come ... and only the Syrian Government Army is likely to provide it. ... Airstrikes alone are a dangerous diversion and distraction. What is needed is a grand military alliance involving not only the West but Russia and, yes, its Syrian Government clients too. ... We need to choose the lesser of two evils and abandon the fiction of a cosy third choice" between "very nasty authoritarians and Islamist totalitarians". After making this widely reported speech, Lewis voted against extending airstrikes against ISIL/Daesh into Syria in the absence of "credible ground forces", and he continued to maintain that, apart from the Kurdish-led forces, in Syria the choice remained "between monsters on the one hand, and maniacs on the other". In February 2016, at the start of the referendum campaign on British membership of the European Union, Lewis set out his six main reasons for voting to leave, and in the main Commons debate on whether to trigger Article 50, after the Referendum vote to leave, his entire speech consisted of just 17 words: "Thank you, Mr Speaker. In my opinion, the people have decided, and I'm going to vote accordingly". In January 2017, in a televised Speaker's House lecture, Lewis stated his belief in the unpredictability of future conflicts; the value of nuclear deterrence; and the role of containment in long-term ideological struggles. He called for three per cent of GDP to be spent on Defence, and for a Statute of Limitations to be enacted "covering everything that took place before the Belfast Agreement", in order to protect Service veterans from legal harassment. Lewis also criticised media suggestions that the next NATO Secretary-General should be David Cameron, given his unsatisfactory record of "toppling Arab dictators in places like Libya, increasing military commitments whilst cutting the Armed Forces, predicting a Third World War in consequence of Brexit, [and] dangerously delaying the renewal of Trident for the sake of Coalition politics". In March 2019, Lewis was one of 21 MPs who voted against compulsory sex and relationship education in English schools, arguing that "in some cases, instead of children getting necessary sex education in schools, more parents are going to keep their children out of school" completely. In January and March 2019, he was one of only 28 Conservative Eurosceptic MPs – the so-called 'Spartans' – to vote against Theresa May's EU Withdrawal Agreement in all three divisions in the House of Commons, because "Brexit should mean Brexit and no deal is better than this bad deal". Defence Committee Inquiries Among notable Inquiry reports produced under the chairmanship of Julian Lewis have been: Shifting the Goalposts? Defence Expenditure and the 2% Pledge, published in April 2016, which concluded that the Government had met the minimum 2% NATO guideline only by counting "several significant items not previously included when calculating defence expenditure", although doing so in accordance with NATO rules. The report set out, in detailed Annexes, the decline in UK expenditure on Defence as a proportion of GDP since the mid-1950s in comparison with that on Welfare, Health and Education. It also led to the subsequent adoption by the Defence Committee of a target of 3% of GDP to be spent on Defence, as in the mid-1990s. In July 2019, the Committee published an Update to Shifting the Goalposts?, which confirmed that defence expenditure had declined in successive years to 1.9% (2014–15), then 1.8% (2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18), when "calculated on a historically consistent basis". Under the more generous NATO rules, the corresponding figures were 2.2% (2014–15), then 2.1% (2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18). An Acceptable Risk? The Use of Lariam by Military Personnel, published in May 2016, which led to a significant reduction in the use of the anti-malarial drug mefloquine, and to the enforcement of stringent requirements before its prescription, on account of possible severe side-effects in some cases. UK Military Operations in Syria and Iraq, published in September 2016, which revealed the great disparity between the large number of airstrikes being carried out in Iraq, where the UK was campaigning in support of substantial indigenous government ground forces, and the far lower total undertaken in Syria, where the UK could find only limited ground forces to support. Open Source Stupidity – The Threat to the BBC Monitoring Service, published in December 2016, which strongly criticised the BBC's plan to close the dedicated headquarters of the Monitoring Service at Caversham Park, condemned the UK Government's previous decision to end its ring-fenced grant for the Service which had led to this outcome, and predicted that a state-owned Open Source Information Agency might eventually have to be established. Investigations into Fatalities in Northern Ireland involving British Military Personnel, published in April 2017, which recommended the enactment of a Statute of Limitations coupled with a truth-recovery process as the best way to prevent the legal persecution of UK Service, Police and Security Personnel, decades after the events in question, whilst offering the best prospect of finding out what had actually happened during the Troubles. Sunset for the Royal Marines? The Royal Marines and Amphibious Capability, published in February 2018, which excoriated the heavily trailed suggestion that the amphibious assault ships, HMS Albion and HMS Bulwark, would be removed from the Fleet 15 years early as part of the National Security Capability Review. The report described the proposal as "a short-sighted, militarily illiterate manoeuvre totally at odds with strategic reality". After wide publicity, the plan was abandoned and the capability was saved. Rash or Rational? North Korea and the Threat it Poses, published in April 2018, which concluded that Kim Jong-un is "ruthless, like other Communist dictators before him, but he is rational" and can be "dissuaded from the use of nuclear weapons by means of a policy of deterrence and containment" though "unlikely to give them up now". Lost in Translation? Afghan Interpreters and other Locally Employed Civilians, published in May 2018, which recommended "a looser and more sympathetic approach" to admitting threatened interpreters to the UK, given that it "is impossible to reconcile the generosity of the Redundancy Scheme with the utter failure of the Intimidation Scheme to relocate even a single LEC to the United Kingdom". Subsequently, some liberalisation of the rules for relocation to the UK was introduced. Beyond 2 per cent: A Preliminary Report on the Modernising Defence Programme, published in June 2018, which backed the removal of Defence from the "fiscally neutral" National Security Capability Review process – with its threats to impose further cuts on the Armed Forces, such as the deletion of the amphibious assault ships. The report recommended a financial settlement "based on a level of Defence expenditure approaching the figure of 3% of GDP", which would demonstrate that the mantra "Defence is the first duty of Government" could finally be believed. Defence Committee innovations As well as those carried out by the full Defence Committee under his chairmanship, in 2015 Lewis initiated an arrangement for the Defence Sub-Committee to undertake separate individual inquiries chaired in turn by other members of the Defence Committee. Between 2016 and 2018 the Sub-Committee produced reports on military exercise deaths, the Iraq Historic Allegations Team and Defence in the Arctic. In February 2018, Julian Lewis and his French counterpart Jean-Jacques Bridey agreed to launch a joint Inquiry by their respective committees into the UK-France future cruise/anti-ship weapon project. It was the first joint Inquiry to be held by a House of Commons Committee and a Committee of a non-UK legislature and reported in December 2018. Intelligence and Security Committee On 15 July 2020, Lewis was elected Chair of the Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (ISC) with the support of the opposition MPs on the committee. He defeated Chris Grayling, who had been the Government's preferred candidate. Lewis had the Conservative Party whip removed later that day for what a government source described as "working with Labour and other opposition MPs for his own advantage"; but Lewis stated that he had never responded to government whips about how he would vote, because he considered it an "improper request" as the 2013 Justice and Security Act explicitly removed the Prime Minister's right to choose the committee chair: "At no earlier stage did I give any undertaking to vote for any particular candidate". Although, the following day, the Leader of the House, Jacob Rees-Mogg, said he would not rule out a plot to remove Lewis from the ISC, the government took no further action against him and restored the Conservative Party whip to him unconditionally on 30 December 2020. Military writings and honorary academic posts A second edition of his 1988 book Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-war Strategic Defence, 1942–1947 was published in 2003 and a university paperback edition in 2008. It was described by Professor Richard Aldrich, in the Journal of Cold War Studies, as "an indispensable guide to some of the most fascinating and secretive aspects of early Cold War history" and "one of the few books to penetrate the wall of secrecy that existed in the 1980s". His essay on Nuclear Disarmament versus Peace in the 21st Century won the Trench Gascoigne Prize of the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies (RUSI) in 2005. Two years later, Lewis won this prize for a second time, with an essay entitled Double-I, Double-N: A Framework for Counter-Insurgency. His 10,000-word dissertation on The Future of the British Nuclear Deterrent was selected for an award and for publication as a Seaford House Paper by the Royal College of Defence Studies of which he was a Parliamentary member in 2006. In February 2009, the RUSI Journal published Soldiers against the Bomb? – his essay detailing the principal military and political arguments for retaining the UK nuclear deterrent, in response to a letter in The Times by three retired Generals. Also published in 2009, was a commentary by Lewis written as the foreword to a translation and analysis, by US military academic Norman Cigar, of an Al-Qaida terrorist's handbook. Lewis's own most recent book, published in 2011, is a military biography Racing Ace – The Fights and Flights of "Kink" Kinkead DSO DSC* DFC*, published in 2011, recounting the adventurous life of a pioneering airman whose grave he found in his constituency. In choosing it as a 'Book of the Year 2011' for The Sunday Telegraph Magazine, historian Andrew Roberts described Samuel Kinkead as "one of the bravest airmen of the 20th century", and Racing Ace as "exactly what an action biography should be". Lewis's critique of strategy in Afghanistan International Terrorism – The Case for Containment was published in the US military journal Joint Force Quarterly in April 2012. In December that year, the RUSI Journal published his review article on the ideological fight against Islamist extremism, entitled Countering Terrorism is not Enough. The dangers of another Middle Eastern military intervention – to help overthrow Assad in Syria – were spelt out by Lewis on the ConservativeHome website in June 2013. In May 2014, the RUSI Journal published The Slow Boat to Unilateralism, an analysis by Lewis of Liberal Democrat policy on the British strategic nuclear deterrent after the completion of the Trident Alternatives Review. As part of the events marking the centenary of World War I, he delivered a lecture on Politics and the First World War in May 2015, and in November that year, together with fellow MP Adam Holloway, he wrote to all members of the House of Commons welcoming the proposal to bomb ISIL/DAESH – rather than the Syrian Government forces – as a "step in the right direction", but opposing any air campaign in the absence of a realistic strategy on the ground. During the EU Referendum campaign, in May 2016, The Daily Telegraph published an 'op-ed' article by Lewis arguing that Far from Keeping Britain Safe, the EU is a Threat to Peace, and in January 2017 he delivered the first in that year's Speaker's Lecture series with a presentation on The Future of the Armed Forces. In 2010, Lewis was appointed as a Visiting Senior Research Fellow, Centre for Defence Studies, Department of War Studies, King's College, London; and, in 2019, he became an Honorary Professor, Strategy and Security Institute, University of Exeter. Honours Lewis was knighted in the 2023 New Year Honours for political and public service. See also List of parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire Notes References External links Julian Lewis MP biography at the site of the Conservative Party 1951 births Military personnel from Swansea Living people Politicians from Swansea Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies British Jews British people of Welsh descent UK MPs 1997–2001 UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 UK MPs 2015–2017 UK MPs 2017–2019 UK MPs 2019–present People educated at Dynevor School, Swansea Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Alumni of St Antony's College, Oxford Knights Bachelor Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Jewish British politicians Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel Royal Navy sailors Royal Naval Reserve personnel Independent members of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom British Eurosceptics

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flores%20Island%20%28Azores%29

Flores Island (Azores)

Flores Island (; ) is an island of the Western Group () of the Azores. It has an area of 143 km2, a population of 3428 inhabitants, and, together with Corvo Island of the western archipelago, lies within the North American Plate. The nearby Monchique Islet is the westernmost point of Portugal. It has been referred to as the ('Yellow/Auburn Island') and due to the association with poet Raul Brandão. It is well known for its abundance of flowers, hence its Portuguese name of . History Some early accounts existed of the "(seven) islands of the Azores and two islands of Flores" (referring to the islands of Flores and Corvo), but no "official discovery" occurred until the mid-15th century. The island of Flores was discovered in the late summer of 1452 by the navigator Diogo de Teive and his son João de Teive, and first noted by the pilot Pêro Velasco to Christopher Columbus during his voyages. For his reward, Teive received the concession of the sugar monopoly on Madeira. The earlier names of the island were São Tomás (after Thomas Becket of Canterbury, not to be confused with Saint Thomas, which in Portuguese is spelled Tomé) and Santa Iria (Saint Iria). The island's charter passed to Fernão Teles de Meneses when little was accomplished in populating the islands, except for disembarking some sheep (1475). The death of Fernão Teles (1477) was to initiate exploration and settlement on the island, as his widow (Dona Maria de Vilhena) would contract the Flemish nobleman Willem van der Haegen to explore Flores and Corvo. After meeting with Dona Maria Vilhena (who administered the island in the name of her young son, Rui de Teles), Van der Haegen came to an agreement and moved to the island between 1480 and 1490. Van der Haegen had arrived in the Azores in 1469 and lived for a time on Faial Island by invitation of the first Captain of Faial, Josse van Huerter. Following disagreements with van Huerter over land holdings, Van de Haegen settled in Quatro Ribeiras, Terceira until journeying to Ribeira da Cruz on Flores during the reign of King John II. The historians Gaspar Frutuoso and Diogo das Chagas noted that Van der Haegen cultivated lands (primarily for wheat export) and was involved in the indigo/woad industry, as well as exploring for mineral deposits (likely silver). Due to its isolated location outside shipping lanes, its intemperate climate, and infertile lands, he left Flores ten years later to resettle in Terceira by way of São Jorge Island. At the time, the name of the island was Corvo. According to Bartolomé de las Casas, two dead bodies that looked like those of Amerindians were found on Flores. He said he found that fact in Columbus' notes, and it was one reason why Columbus presumed that India was on the other side of the ocean. By 1504, the island's charter had passed to João Fonseca and settlers streamed through the port of Armoeira to the small hamlets. The island became permanently populated during the reign of King Manuel I in the year 1510 by people from various regions of continental Portugal, mainly from the northern provinces. The island became arable and grain and vegetables were cultivated. Over the next centuries, the inhabitants lived in isolated parts of the island and were visited by vessels from Faial and Terceira which came infrequently to trade whale oil, butter, and honey for other products, or those caravels that stopped en route to Europe. Several of the main communities and local sites were named for settlers of this mid-century period, including Santa Cruz, Lajes and Ponta Delgada. The name of the island of Flores has been made familiar to generations of English readers by the opening line of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's epic poem, The Revenge, A Ballad of the Fleet: "At Flores in the Azores Sir Richard Grenville lay...", referring to the small English fleet of six ships, under Lord Thomas Howard, anchored in the bay of Ribeira da Cruz in Flores, that on 9 September 1591 was surprised by 53 ships under Alfonso de Bazán. The English ships were part of a naval patrol intended to intercept Spanish ships from the Americas and were under repair and re-provisioning when the Spanish ships appeared. Five of the English ships slipped out to sea to the west of Corvo, but the Revenge (under Sir Richard Grenville) waited for her sick crew, many of whom had an epidemic of fever, to be returned from the shore, then decided to go straight through the approaching Spanish lines from the east. Revenge fought the Spanish ships for fifteen hours, resisting multiple attempts to board her. Her fatally wounded captain eventually ordered her to be scuttled, ("Sink me the ship, Master Gunner — sink her, split her in twain! / Fall into the hands of God, not into the hands of Spain!") but her crew instead negotiated an honourable surrender. ("And the stately Spanish men to their flagship bore him then,/ Where they laid him by the mast, old Sir Richard caught at last,/ And they praised him to his face with their courtly foreign grace..."). The "Battle of Flores", as it was known, culminated in the death of Grenville two days later and the Revenge became the only English ship to be captured during the Elizabethan conflict. However, the ship never reached Spain; it foundered during a storm near Terceira and went down with 200 Spaniards, along with several other Spanish ships. Despite the isolation, the waters of Flores were frequently raided by pirates. Sir Walter Raleigh, the English privateer, was one of the early profiteers; he captured, after a bitter battle, the Portuguese carrack Madre de Deus laden with tonnes of spices, precious gems, and pearls, equivalent to half the public finances of the English court. Unusual for its time, the Madre de Deus was three times the capacity of a normal English brig, and the pirates towed it to the port of Dartmouth rather than destroying the ship. The pirate Peter Easton, who commanded a fleet of 40 privateers, made Flores a regular port-of-call, provisioning meat, water and kindling for his travels and supposedly married a daughter of the Captaincy of Flores. Doubly inconvenienced with the damages caused by this pirate's ships and with the complicity of local Florentines, Philip II of Portugal (Philip III of Spain) ordered, on July 30, 1611, the necessary means taken to capture Easton. He was never captured, although the local Florentine magistrate and Captain were arrested. From the 1760s to the early 20th century, American whalers hunted sperm whales in the waters of the Azores, and many of the islands' inhabitants were recruited as whalers. The American whaler, Wanderer, operated off the coast of Flores between 1878 and 1924. The CSS Alabama, an American Confederate States Navy ship, the most prolific commerce raider in the waters off Flores, was responsible for 69 sinkings in the course of two years beginning in the summer of 1862. Between 5 and 18 September 1862, it was responsible for capturing and setting ablaze the schooner Starlight, along with whalers off the coast of Flores. The island's isolation has been remedied during the 20th century, first with the installation of telegraph services, then the establishment of Radio-Flores (1909), and later with point-to-point telephone communication (1925). Service between the island and the rest of the archipelago was handled by small sailing ships until the beginning of the century, with ships such as the 36-ton yacht Santa Cruz or 80-ton yacht Flores, until the latter was lost in the bay of Porto Pim, Horta, Faial during a storm. In July 1962, the French laid the foundations for a missile tracking installation on the island, which was inaugurated in October 1966. In the following years, a hospital, a power station, and an airport were established, which brought a financial upswing to the entire island. After the French left the island in 1994, tourism became the island's dominant industry. Geography Flores, along with the island of Corvo, is situated on the North American Continental Plate of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and belongs to the western group of islands in the Azores archipelago. Geomorphologically, the island is composed of two units: The Central Massif, in the central plain, has many maar structures with lake-filled craters in the adjacent lands; The Coastal Periphery includes the coastal zones, cliffs, and ancient beaches, as well as the coastal shelf. The island developed initially from a submarine volcano from the Pleistocene epoch that constructed small calderas and numerous pyroclastic cones. Following a long period of quiescence beginning about 200,000 years ago, several young phreatomagmatic craters and associated lava flows erupted during the Holocene epoch, including two about 3000 years ago. The Funda de Lajes tuff ring, formed about 3150 years ago, accompanied by a lava flow that traveled toward the southeast reach the area of Lajes. The Caldeira Comprida tuff ring in Caldeira Seca (west-central Flores) later, about 2900 years ago, producing a lava flow that traveled towards the region of Fajã Grande. Azevedo et al. (1986) divides the lavas and deposits into two major volcanic complexes: The Basal Volcanic Complex, which includes products and deposits of both submarine and subaerial volcanism, formed by pyroclastic deposits and inter-bedded flows of alkali basalts. The Upper Volcanic Complex represents the main sub-aerial activity composed of three main stratigraphic units, including basaltic to trachytic flows with interbedded pyroclastic deposits in the first two layers, and a more recent unit of exclusively pyroclastic deposits. During the summer, the island is covered with hydrangeas, which have large blue or pink flowers; this is the origin of the island's name (Flores is the Portuguese word for flowers). The island has deep valleys and high peaks; Morro Alto is the highest place on the island, reaching an altitude of 914 metres, while Pico da Burrinha, Pico dos Sete Pés and Marcela are other peaks on the island. Flores has several inactive volcanoes; Caldeira Funda last erupted in 1200 BCE, and Caldeira Comprida in 950 BCE. In many situations where water collected in volcanic calderas (or caldeiras in Portuguese), lakes formed: there are seven of these lakes on the island. The Águas Quentes are small hot springs of boiling sulfurous water. The Gruta de Enxaréus is an enormous cavern, about 50 metres long and 25 metres wide. Environment Ecoregions/protected areas Fajãzinha, in the municipality of Lajes das Flores, is a typical Azorean village that includes ruins of watermills. Nearby are several waterfalls which flow into the Ribeira Grande. On May 27, 2009, Flores was chosen as one of the several areas to be included on the UNESCO list of World Network of Biosphere Reserves at the Man and the Biosphere Programme meeting held in Jeju, South Korea, along with the islands of Graciosa and Corvo. The program targets the ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity loss and the reduction of this loss. It uses its World Network of Biosphere Reserves as vehicles for knowledge sharing, research and monitoring, education and training, and participatory decision-making with local communities. On 13 October 2010, the Regional Secretary for Environment and Ocean () declared that the Rocha dos Bordões would be given a regional monument designation as part of an overall plan of integrating the Flores Nature Park (). The park is formed from the central plateau, descends in the northern coast and along the southern coast from Morro Alto, including the many lakes, ending at the Rocha dos Bordões. In the government's decision, the regional secretary included an area "especially rich in peat and humid zone vegetation" together with the geological formation of the Rocha dos Bordões. Important Bird Area The island of Flores and the neighbouring Corvo Island, along with the surrounding waters, form the 210,400 ha Corvo and Flores Important Bird Area (IBA), designated as such by BirdLife International because it provides feeding and breeding sites for populations of Cory's, little and Manx shearwaters, as well as roseate and common terns and, possibly, Madeiran storm petrels. Climate Under the Köppen climate classification, Flores Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) that transits into an oceanic climate (Cfb) at higher elevations. Its climate is largely influenced by the warm Gulf Stream and the surrounding ocean, resulting in a narrow temperature range and a wet climate. Winters are very mild and rainy with a February average of . Summers are warm to hot with the average temperature in August averaging during the day and during the night. Throughout the year, temperatures rarely exceed or fall below . Precipitation is significant throughout the year, although summer months are drier than winter months. There are around 240 days with measurable precipitation. Humidity is constantly high (around 80% at sea level, increasing with altitude). The microclimate of the forest park of Fazenda allows the development of a great number and variety of exotic species from all over the world. Human settlement Due to the generally rugged landscape of the island, many of the early settlements developed along the flatter coastal lands. The few settlements that are located in the interior are dotted by small homes or agricultural buildings. Administratively, the island of Flores is divided into two municipalities (concelhos in Portuguese), which in turn are composed of several civil parishes, with their own civil committees and administrative executives: Santa Cruz das Flores, located in the north, has 2,020 inhabitants (2021 census), and includes the island's largest community (Santa Cruz das Flores), a community located on the eastern coast, and where the local airport, as well as the principal governmental services, primary and secondary schools, and regional health centre are located. It comprises the following civil parishes: Caveira, the smallest parish in size, bordering Lajes das Flores, with 76 inhabitants; Cedros, the "middle" parish that straddles the river-valleys of Algoa Bay and historical location of orchards owing to its micro-climate; Ponta Delgada; third-largest community on the island, located along the northern coast; Santa Cruz das Flores; municipal seat, the location of the airport and largest population (with 1,552 inhabitants); Lajes das Flores, the southern municipality includes many of the natural landscapes of the island and is inhabited by approximately 1,408 inhabitants (2021 census). The principal parishes are: Fajã Grande, located in the basin and fajã on the western coast, with a population of 220 inhabitants; Fajãzinha, with 71 residents, is located south of Fajã Grande; Fajãzinha is a diminutive of fajã, referring to it being a small agglomeration of homes in the corner of the fajã; Fazenda, literally meaning "commercial goods" or "location where [these] goods are available for sale", it was the last civil parish to be formed (de-annexed from its neighbour in 1919); with 261 people living in an area of 29.5 km²; Lajedo, an agricultural community located 9 km from Lajes, and close to the Rocha dos Bordões, as well as other natural monuments; Lajes das Flores, the seat of the municipal government, located on the southeast coast; largest population center in the municipality; Lomba, location of the island's first chapel, and neighbor of the parish of Lajes. Lomba represents an area bordered by river valleys along the southern coast; Mosteiro, the smallest parish in area and density, with 19 residents, is the second smallest center on the island. Economy The economy of the island is mainly agricultural, with taro and grain cultivation the principal activities. Due to the early settlers being from northern Portugal, the island's houses and streets resemble those found there. Portugal has a military agreement with France permitting France to have a base in the region. Santa Cruz das Flores houses the only airport on the island. While to the south of the village commercial fishermen operate out of the port and the ferry to Corvo Island is also based at Santa Cruz, the island's primary commercial port is located in Lajes das Flores. Transport The island is serviced by the Flores Airport , a regional airport operated by ANA – Aeroportos de Portugal, and located in the centre of the parish of Santa Cruz das Flores. The airport is unique in dividing the parish in two: an area along the coast, separated by the airport, from the remaining residential homes and businesses along Monte and Pau Pique. On 26 August 2012, the Regional Secretary for Science, Technology, and Equipment oversaw the requalification of of regional roadways on the island. The public works were intended to upgrade many of the island's roads, considered the worst network in the Azores during the late part of the 20th century. An initial investment of 22 million euros had recuperated on the island prior to this, and of roadways were proposed to complete the improvements to the region. Culture In addition to the traditional meat and fish dishes that are popularly Azorean, the island's own dishes include: Papa Grossa, Sopa de Agrião, Cozido de Porco, Molhos de Dobrada, Inhames com Linguiça and Feijões com Cabeça de Porco, as well as a local cheese and creamy butter. The fishery is also the base of seafood dishes such as Caldeirada de Congro, Bonito Assado no Forno, and Pasteis de Ervas Marinhas, in addition to Atlantic lobster, cavacos, crab, limpet and barnacles. Notable citizens Diogo das Chagas (ca.1584 in Santa Cruz das Flores – ca.1661 in Angra do Heroísmo) was a Portuguese Franciscan friar and historian. José António Camões (Fajãzinha, 1777 – Ponta Delgada, 1827), priest, poet, historian, and author of various works of satire, including his heroic satire O Testamento de D. Burro, Pai dos Asnos, that poked fun at his critics, for their class-based antagonisms towards his illegitimacy. He was accused of damaging the reputation of the church, and brought before the inquisition, but absolved: yet, his antagonists had already destroyed his career, forcing him to live in disgrace off handouts from friends or church services, until his death. See also List of volcanoes in Azores References Notes Sources External links Stratovolcanoes of Portugal Mountains of Portugal Biosphere reserves of Portugal Islands of the Azores Islands of the North American Azores Flores

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank%20Pym

Hank Pym

Dr. Henry Jonathan "Hank" Pym () is a character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by penciller Jack Kirby, editor-plotter Stan Lee and writer Larry Lieber, Pym debuted in Tales to Astonish #27 (January 1962). He returned several issues later as the original iteration of Ant-Man, a superhero with the power to shrink to the size of an ant. He later assumed other superhero identities, including the size-changing Giant-Man and Goliath; the insect-themed Yellowjacket; and briefly, the Wasp. He is a founding member of the Avengers superhero team, and the creator of the robotic villain Ultron. He is also the ex-husband of Janet van Dyne and the father of Nadia van Dyne, his daughter by his first wife, Maria Pym. Since his beginnings in the Silver Age of Comic Books, Pym has been featured in various Marvel-endorsed products including animated films, video games, television series, and feature films. Michael Douglas plays Pym in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films Ant-Man (2015), Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023). Douglas also voiced alternate-timeline versions of Pym in the Disney+ animated series What If...? (2021). Publication history Hank Pym debuted in a seven-page solo cover story, "The Man in the Ant Hill", about a character who tests shrinking technology on himself, in the science fiction/fantasy anthology Tales to Astonish #27 (cover date January 1962), created by editor-plotter Stan Lee, writer Larry Lieber, penciller Jack Kirby, and inker Dick Ayers. In a 2008 interview, Lee said: "I did one comic book called 'The Man in the Ant Hill' about a guy who shrunk down and there were ants or bees chasing him. That sold so well that I thought making him into a superhero might be fun." As a result, Pym was revived eight issues later as costumed superhero Ant-Man who starred in the 13-page, the three-chapter story "Return of the Ant-Man/An Army of Ants/The Ant-Man's Revenge" in Tales to Astonish #35 (September 1962). His adventures became an ongoing feature in the title. Issue #44 (June 1963) featured the debut of his socialite girlfriend and lab assistant Janet van Dyne, who adopted the costumed identity of the Wasp. She co-starred in Pym's subsequent appearances, and was a framing-sequence host for backup stories in the series. In September 1963, Lee and Kirby created the superhero title The Avengers, and Ant-Man and Wasp were established in issue #1 as founding members of the eponymous team. Decades later, Lee theorized as to why "Ant-Man never became one of our top sellers or had his own book": Pym began a continuously shift of superhero identities in Tales to Astonish, becoming the Giant-Man in issue #49 (November 1963). Pym and van Dyne continued to costar in the title until issue #69 (July 1965), while simultaneously appearing in The Avengers until issue #15 (April 1965), after which they temporarily left the team. Pym rejoined the Avengers and adopted the new identity Goliath in Avengers #28 (May 1966). Gradually falling to mental strain, he adopted the fourth superhero identity Yellowjacket in issue #59 (December 1968). He reappeared as Ant-Man in Avengers #93 (November 1971); and for issues #4–10 starred in the lead story of the first volume of Marvel Feature (July 1972July 1973). During this run, he appeared in a redesigned costume with a nail as a weapon. After appearing occasionally as Yellowjacket in the 1980s and battling mental and emotional issues, he temporarily abandoned his costumed persona, joining the West Coast Avengers as a scientist and inventor in West Coast Avengers vol. 2, #21 (June 1987). Pym returned to the Avengers as Giant-Man in The Avengers vol. 3, #1 (February 1998). When the team disbanded after a series of tragedies, Pym, as Yellowjacket, took a leave of absence beginning with vol. 3, #85 (September 2004). Following van Dyne's death, a grieving Pym took on yet another identity as a new iteration of Wasp, in tribute to the woman he had married and divorced, in the one-shot publication Secret Invasion: Requiem (January 2009). Giant-Man appeared as a supporting character in Avengers Academy from issue #1 (August 2010) through its final issue #39 (January 2013). Pym returned as the Wasp in the mini-series Ant-Man & The Wasp (January 2011) and as a regular character in the 2010-2013 Secret Avengers series from issue #22 (April 2012) through its final issue #37 (March 2013). After Secret Avengers, Pym joined the Avengers A.I. after beating his creation Ultron. He then appeared in many comics including Daredevil (Vol. 3 and 4) and the graphic novel Rage of Ultron. Fictional character biography 1960s Biochemist Dr. Henry "Hank" Pym discovers an unusual set of subatomic particles he labels "Pym particles". Entrapping them within two separate serums, he creates a size-altering formula and a reversal formula, testing them on himself. Reduced to the size of an insect, he becomes trapped in an anthill before he eventually escapes and uses the reversal formula to return to normal size. Deciding the serums are too dangerous, he destroys them. He later reconsiders his decision and recreates his serums. Pym's experience in the anthill inspires him to study ants, and he builds a cybernetic helmet that lets him communicate with and control them. He designs a costume made of unstable molecules to prevent bites or scratches from the ants and reinvents himself as the superhero Ant-Man. After several adventures, Pym is contacted by Dr. Vernon van Dyne, who asks for his help contacting alien life. Pym refuses, but is attracted to Vernon's socialite daughter Janet van Dyne. When Vernon is killed by an alien criminal who teleports to Earth, Janet asks for Pym's help avenging his death. Pym reveals his secret identity to Janet and uses Pym particles to graft wasp wings beneath her shoulders, which appear when Janet shrinks. She assumes the alias of the Wasp, and together they find and defeat Vernon's killer. They become founding members of the superhero team the Avengers. Pym eventually adopts his first alternate identity as the 12-foot-tall Giant-Man. (Three decades later, a flashback shows him adopting the identity out of feelings of inadequacy when compared to powerful teammates Iron Man and Thor.) Pym and the Wasp begin a romantic relationship, and soon take a leave of absence from the Avengers. Returning to the Avengers, Pym adopts a new superhero identity, Goliath. A mishap traps him in giant form for several issues and affects his self-esteem. After recovering his size-shifting powers, he creates the robot Ultron that unexpectedly achieves sentience and becomes one of the Avengers's greatest foes. During a botched experiment, Pym inhales chemicals that affect his mind, and he reappears at Avengers Mansion in the cocky new persona of Yellowjacket, claiming to have disposed of Pym. The Wasp secretly realizes he is Pym, however, and accepts his offer of marriage. At their wedding, a battle with the Circus of Crime erupts; in the ensuing conflict, the chemicals lose their effect on him and his identity is restored. 1970s After several adventures with the Avengers, including another encounter with Ultron, the pair take another leave of absence. The heroes re-encounter Hank Pym at the beginning of the Kree-Skrull War, and once again as the Ant-Man persona and has a series of solo adventures. After aiding fellow superhero team known as the Defenders as Yellowjacket, Pym returns to the Avengers. He is eventually captured by an upgraded Ultron that brainwashes his creator, causing the character to regress to his original Ant-Man costume and personality — arriving at Avengers Mansion, thinking it to be the very first meeting of the team. Seeing several unfamiliar members, Pym attacks the team until stopped by the Wasp. After Ultron's brainwashing is reversed, Pym rejoins the Avengers as Yellowjacket. Pym is forced to briefly leave the team when the roster is restructured by government liaison Henry Peter Gyrich. Also at this time, he noticed Scott Lang's theft of the Ant-Man suit. After Darren Cross's defeat and aware of Lang's use of the stolen goods, Pym let Lang keep the equipment, albeit only to uphold the law. 1980s Returning 14 issues later, Hank Pym participates in several missions until, after demonstrating hostile behavior toward Janet van Dyne, he attacks a foe from behind once the opponent had ceased fighting. Captain America suspends Yellowjacket from Avengers duty pending the verdict of a court-martial. Pym suffers a mental breakdown and concocts a plan to salvage his credibility. He plans to build a robot and program it to launch an attack on the Avengers; Pym will then counter the false flag attack at a critical moment using his knowledge of the robot's weaknesses, thereby presenting himself as the other Avengers' savior. The Wasp discovers the plan and begs Pym to stop, whereupon he strikes her. Pym is subsequently expelled from the Avengers, and Janet divorces him. Left penniless, Pym is manipulated by an old foe, the presumed-dead Egghead, who tricks Pym into stealing the national reserve of the metal adamantium. Pym is confronted by the Avengers and blamed for the theft, as Egghead erases all evidence of his own involvement. Pym, in turn, blames Egghead, a criminal still believed dead by the other Avengers. This is taken by Pym's former teammates as further proof of his madness, and he is incarcerated. During Pym's imprisonment, Janet has a brief relationship with Tony Stark. Egghead later attempts to kill Pym but is himself accidentally killed by Hawkeye. With the perpetrator of the original theft now exposed, Pym is cleared of all charges. After bidding farewell to Janet and his teammates, Pym leaves to devote himself full-time to research. Pym reappears as a member of the West Coast Avengers, first in an advisory role, then as a full member. He answers to "Doctor Pym" in the field, using none of the names or costumes associated with his previous superhero identities. He begins a short relationship with teammate Tigra. After being taunted by old foe Whirlwind, Pym contemplates suicide, but is stopped by Firebird. Pym and Janet eventually resume a romantic relationship. 1990s The character returns to the Avengers, joining the East Coast team as Giant-Man. The pair, together with many of the other Avengers, apparently sacrifice themselves to stop the villain Onslaught, but actually exist in a pocket universe for a year before returning to the mainstream Marvel Universe. Hank Pym returns and aids the team as Giant-Man, and makes a significant contribution by defeating criminal mastermind Imus Champion and his flawed creation Ultron, simultaneously overcoming his old issues of guilt over Ultron's crimes. 2000s During the Destiny War between Kang the Conqueror and Immortus, two versions of Hank Pym are drawn in: Giant-Man of the present and Yellowjacket immediately prior to his marriage to Janet van Dyne. Yellowjacket briefly betrays the team to Immortus and the powerful Time-Keepers try to create a timeline where he will not turn back into Pym, but he rejects this decision in time to help his allies. Observing the final battle, Libra—who brought the team together by using the Destiny Force to tap into his subconscious awareness of the cosmic balance—reflects that both Pyms were necessary so that Yellowjacket's betrayal could bring the team into the right position to attack the Time-Keepers, while Pym's presence as Giant-Man both provided a stable support and irritated Yellowjacket to provoke his own actions. Back in the present, an encounter with Kulan Gath results in Pym being split into his two personas of Pym and Yellowjacket, after a spell cast by Gath temporarily transforms Pym into a swashbuckler-style Yellowjacket, followed by the Yellowjacket persona manifesting a physical presence from the extradimensional bio-mass Pym uses to grow. Yellowjacket's stability deteriorates in a confrontation with Diablo. The two personalities are restored when the Wasp helps the two halves realize they need each other. Pym is eventually able to resolve his problems and adopts his Yellowjacket persona again. After the events of the "Avengers Disassembled" storyline, Pym takes a leave of absence, and in the one-shot Avengers: Finale, he and Janet leave for England to rekindle their relationship. As Yellowjacket, Pym is a central character in the Civil War storyline, joining those heroes that support the Superhuman Registration Act. At the conclusion of the Civil War, Pym is named "Man of the Year" by Time magazine for his role in freeing several captive anti-registration heroes. Pym becomes one of the administrators at Camp Hammond, a U.S. military base in Stamford, Connecticut, for the training of registered superheroes in the government program The Initiative. Pym and Janet's relationship fails, and Pym again begins a romantic relationship with teammate Tigra. Following the publication of Civil War, Marvel's Secret Invasion storyline uses flashbacks to present the then-current version of the character as an impostor who replaced the real Pym at some point in the books' fictional history prior to the events of Civil War. This impostor is an extraterrestrial of the shape-shifting Skrull race participating in a covert invasion of Earth; Pym's experiences throughout the Civil War series and related series are retold in brief from the perspective of the impostor and its allies. The impostor is exposed and defeated by the hero Crusader. After the final battle between Earth's heroes and the Skrulls, Pym is found with other "replaced" heroes in a Skrull vessel. When Janet is seemingly killed in battle, Pym takes on a new superhero persona, the Wasp, in tribute to her. He rejoins the Avengers and eventually leads the team. The cosmic entity Eternity reveals to Pym that he is Earth's "Scientist Supreme", the scientific counterpart to Earth's Sorcerer Supreme. The Norse trickster-god Loki later claims to have been posing as Eternity to manipulate Pym. 2010s Hank Pym creates Avengers Academy, a program to help train young people with newly acquired superpowers. Pym returns to his Giant-Man identity. Pym later joins the superhero team known as the Secret Avengers. When a future version of Pym's sentient robot Ultron conquers the world of the present in the "Age of Ultron" storyline, a time-travel plan involving Wolverine and the Invisible Woman succeeds in having the past Pym make a change in his creation of Ultron, which destroys the robot with a computer virus. Pym and Monica Chang, A.I. Division Chief of the espionage agency S.H.I.E.L.D., assemble a new team called the Avengers A.I., consisting of Pym, Victor Mancha (his "grandson" by way of Ultron), the Vision, and a Doombot. The team is later joined by Alexis, who is eventually revealed to be one of six sentient A.I.s to be spawned from the Ultron virus along with Dimitrios. Months later, Pym, again using the Yellowjacket identity, is shown as a member of the Illuminati. Later, an accident merges Pym and Ultron during Ultron's latest attack. The hybrid human/machine eventually abandons Earth. A funeral service is held in Pym's honor, and Scott Lang receives one of Hank's labs. Pym apparently resurfaces after helping the crew of a spaceship under attack. Ultron is now Pym's armor rather than being merged seemingly. Back on Earth, he rejoins the Avengers, but his teammates and others discover Ultron has gained control and is impersonating Pym. The Avengers end up defeating the hybrid by plunging into the sun, but both Hank and Ultron survive and continue to do battle with one another internally. Hank is later presented as having fathered a daughter Nadia through his ex-wife Maria Trovaya, and Nadia becomes the latest Wasp. It is also revealed by Janet to Nadia that Hank has bipolar disorder. It had been discussed in Avengers A.I. that Hank was aware of his disorder and was monitoring it himself to predict when and how often his mood swings may occur. During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Pym had set up a base in an unidentified forest in Alaska. Upon being alerted by the approach of Sam Wilson's task force by a robot version of Edwin Jarvis, Ultron Pym decides to give his "family" a warm welcome. When Tony Stark A.I.'s team and the Hydra Supreme Steve Rogers alongside Hydra's Avengers confront each other, they are captured by Pym who forces both teams to sit at a dinner table. Pym argues that he is doing this because the Avengers have become less of a family over the years as so many of them jump to obey Captain America or Iron Man despite past experience confirming that this should be a bad idea. Tony Stark's A.I. counters that the only reason the team failed as a family was because of Pym's attack on Wasp. Outraged, Ultron Pym nearly attacks the other heroes, but Scott Lang is able to talk him down by arguing that Hank Pym remains his own inspiration. Ultron Pym allows Tony Stark A.I.'s team to leave with the Cosmic Cube fragment, arguing that he will leave Hydra Supreme's plans with Hydra alone as it appears to be the best chance for world peace. After discovering that the Infinity Stones were reformed back into the Universe, Pym decided to collect them all. He sends the aliens he had infected with his virus to take the Space Stone from Wolverine while he himself went to claim the Soul Stone. The aliens eventually failed at their task, but Ultron Pym was able to steal the Soul Gem from Magus after ruthlessly killing him. However, unbeknownst to Ultron Pym, once he claimed the Soul Stone, the fragment of Hank Pym's soul entered the Soul World where he was greeted by Gamora's soul fragment, who revealed to him that he was going to be trapped there forever. Soon afterwards, the fragment of Hank's soul encounters and battles a Soul World monster known as Devondra who trapped Hank in the silk it generates. This silk creates a deluding dream which made Hank believe that he had escaped the Soul World and reunited himself with the Avengers. Devondra then devours Hank's soul fragment under the watch of Gamora's soul fragment. As Pym is using Saiph as his base of operations and plans to unleash the Ultron Virus on a cosmic scale, the Silver Surfer goes to look for Galactus. Even though Galactus is no longer a world-eater, the Silver Surfer informs him of what is happening and asks for his help to stop Pym's plot. However, Ultron Pym had already launched rockets filled with the Ultron Virus to infect the entire galaxy while saving Earth as his last target. Galactus initially refuses to consume Saiph due to the consequences of destroying it until he agrees with the Silver Surfer. This results in Saiph and the rockets transporting the Ultron Virus being destroyed. Ultron Pym got wounded in the escape and Adam Warlock claims the Soul Gem. During "The Ultron Agenda" arc, Ultron/Hank Pym returned to Earth with plans to merge robots with humans like how Hank Pym became merged with Ultron so that he can make the ultimate lifeform. In addition, he started to call this form "Ultron Pym". After testing it on some people and some experiments on Wonder Man and Vision, Ultron Pym planned to make a fusion of Jocasta and Wasp. Iron Man and Machine Man interfered with the resulting battle causing Iron Man to be molecularly bonded to the Ultronbuster armor. The combined efforts of Stark Unlimited enabled them to create an atomic separator that separated Tony Stark from the Ultronbuster armor and Wonder Man from Vision. Ultron Pym prepared to take revenge on Iron Man. This led to Iron Man revealing what he discovered about the human and robot fusion. The person who merged with it has died and that the robot can only simulate their personality. In other words, Hank Pym was long dead when he accidentally merged with Ultron. Learning about this and not wanting to risk proving Iron Man's point by having the atomic separator used on him, Ultron surrendered to Iron Man knowing that Hank is dead. 2020s The Ant-Man miniseries in 2022 to celebrate the character's sixtieth anniversary sees an early Hank Pym being pulled into the future, along with Eric O'Grady (from just after he stole the suit) and Scott Lang (of the 'present') to assist the Ant-Man of the 25th century Dr. Zayn Asghar, in battling All-Father Ultron (from the miniseries Ultron Forever), who has escaped his destruction and is trying to pull himself back together. While this Ultron still attempts to claim that he is merged with the Hank Pym of his present, Scott Lang dismisses that observing that if there was anything of Hank Pym in Ultron, he would have used the power of the All-Father to separate himself from Ultron. Upon Zayn using Time Master's aging ray on him after it was brought with him by Scott, Ultron is ultimately defeated once again and the other Ant-Men are returned to the past. An older man claiming to be Hank Pym was revealed to have placed an artificial personality in Whirlwind's corpse called "Victor Shade" as he talks about it with a somehow-revived Eric O'Grady. Powers and abilities Hank Pym is a scientific genius with PhDs in biochemistry and nanotechnology and expertise in the fields of quantum physics, robotics/cybernetics, artificial intelligence, and entomology. Pym discovered the subatomic "Pym particles" that enable mass to be shunted or gained from an alternate dimension, thereby changing the size of himself or other beings or objects. Pym is the creator of the robot Ultron, whom he created as an experiment after examining Dragon Man, showing his knack for AI and cybernetics. After constant experimentation with size-changing via ingested capsules and particle-filled gas, Pym is eventually able to change size at will, and mentally generate Pym particles to change the sizes of other living beings or inanimate objects. Pym retains his normal strength when "ant" size, and possesses greatly increased strength and stamina when in "giant" form, courtesy of the increased mass. Pym's costume is synthetic stretch fabric composed of unstable molecules and automatically adapts to his shifting sizes. Pym also uses a cybernetic helmet he created for achieving rudimentary communication with ants and other higher order insects. As Yellowjacket, then later as Wasp, Pym wears artificial wings and has bio-blasters called "stingers" built into his gloves. He took up the Wasp mantle in memory of Janet, who was believed to be dead at the time. Pym also carries a variety of weaponry, provisions, and scientific instruments, which are shrunken to the size of microchips and stored in the pockets of his uniform. An experienced superhero, Pym is a skilled hand-to-hand fighter. In his first appearance, he claimed to be a master of judo, is skilled in wrestling and karate and has since been seen in combat with opponents of both his own size and radically larger than himself (as a result of his size-changing abilities). During his stay with the West Coast Avengers, Pym constructed a one-man vehicle with artificial intelligence named Rover. Rover is able to communicate with Pym and is capable of flight and discharging energy and acid. Back with the Avengers main team, he built a second Rover, resembling an Avengers Quinjet. After fusing with Ultron, he now contains all of his creation's abilities when he is in control. Successors There are a number of characters in the Marvel universe that have also used the "Pym particles" to effect size changing. These include Janet van Dyne, Clint Barton, Bill Foster, Scott Lang, Erik Josten, Rita DeMara, Cassandra "Cassie" Lang, Eric O'Grady, Tom Foster, Shang-Chi, Raz Malhotra and Nadia Pym. Although they do not use their powers for altering their size, both Wonder Man and Vision derive their powers from Pym particles. Enemies The following are the known enemies of Hank Pym in any of his aliases: Absorbing Man - A powerful enemy that can absorb the properties of everything he touches. A.I.M. - A scientific community that tried to recruit and kill Hank Pym in different occasions. Alkhema - an artificial intelligence born to be the second wife of Ultron. She has the brain patterns of the Avenger Mockingbird. Atlas - Erik Josten is a supervillain that can shrink or grow his own size. He also used the Goliath persona during his permanence in the Masters of Evil. Black Knight - A scientist who made knight-based technology after being denied the Ebony Blade. Dimitrios - A supervillain artificial intelligence created by Pym himself to destroy Ultron only to take a life of its own afterwards. Doctor Nemesis - A supervillain with the ability to shrink and grow in size just like Ant-Man. Egghead - A mad scientist with an egg-shaped head. Hijacker - An armored car company owner who became a car thief. Kraglin - An A-Chiltarian that assisted his kind in controlling a Cyclops robot to capture some human specimens. Kulla - The dictator of the dimension of Dehnock. Liso Trago - A jazz musician from India who uses a special trumpet to control people. Ant-Man and Wasp turned his music against him causing Trago to forget his criminal intention and resume his career as a jazz musician. Living Eraser - An alien from Dimension Z whose Dimensionizer can transport anything to Dimension Z. Magician - A stage magician who used his stage acts in his crimes. MODAM - An alternate female version of MODOK who was originally supposed to be a revived Maria Trovaya. She is later revealed to be the mother of Hank's daughter Nadia prior to becoming MODAM. People's Defense Force - A team of Eastern European super-powered beings who had fought Hank Pym individually before coming together. Beasts of Berlin - A group of western lowland gorillas mutated to human intelligence by Communist scientists and speech. They operate as a team. El Toro - El Toro is Cuba's first super agent and an early opponent of Henry Pym. Madame X - Madame X is a patriot and spy for the communist Hungarian government. Scarlet Beetles - The Scarlet Beetles are normal beetles that have been mutated to a size of 10-feet and given human intelligence and speech. Voice - A supervillain whose voice enables him to control anyone. Pilai - A Kosmonian criminal that was accidentally brought to Earth by Vernon van Dyne. Porcupine - A porcupine-themed villain. Protector - A jewelry store owner who adopted the Protector alias to extort his rivals. Time Master - Elias Weems is an elderly scientist who made an aging ray after having been fired from the Modern Scientific Research Company. After being defeated by Ant-Man when he realized that his visiting grandson Tommy was in the crowd that he aged, Weems was exonerated after Ant-Man and the Modern Scientific Research Company's owner persuaded the judge to waive the charges. Afterwards, Weems got his job back and showed Tommy around his place of work. Ultron - A robot created by Hank Pym that obtained sentience. Whirlwind - A mutant that can spin at supersonic speeds. Reception Accolades In 2011, IGN ranked Hank Pym 67th in their "Top 100 Comic Book Heroes" list. In 2011, Wizard Magazine ranked Hank Pym 93rd in their "Top 200 Comic book Characters" list. In 2015, IGN ranked Hank Pym 16th in their "Top 50 Avengers" list. In 2020, CBR.com ranked Hank Pym 4th in their "10 Most Powerful Members Of The Pym Family" list and 6th in their "10 Best Superhero Doctors In Marvel & DC" list. In 2022, Newsarama ranked Hank Pym 11th in their "Best Avengers members of all time" list. In 2022, Screen Rant included Hank Pym in their "9 Strongest West Coast Avengers" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked Hank Pym 5th in their "10 Smartest Marvel Scientists" list and 8th in their "10 Smartest Tech-Powered Heroes" list. Other versions Marvel 1602 In the world of Marvel 1602, natural philosopher Henri le Pym is forced by Baron von Octavius to devise a serum that would cure him of a fatal disease. Pym is married to Janette. The Last Avengers Story In an alternate future in the miniseries The Last Avengers Story #1-2 (November 1995), Ultron wishes for a decisive victory over the Avengers. After eliminating the team, he has Hank Pym gather a new group. After recruiting other heroes and mercenaries, Pym leads them to victory though fatalities are heavy on both sides. Marvel Zombies Hank Pym is featured in several of the Marvel Zombies miniseries, appearing as one of the cannibalistic zombies in Marvel Zombies #1-5 (February–June 2006), Marvel Zombies 2 #1-5 (December 2007April 2008) and Marvel Zombies Return #4 (October 2009). Although he experiences a brief return to morality in Marvel Zombies 2, throughout most of the series he is presented as being comfortable with his transformation, noting to a captured Black Panther that he thinks he might still eat people even if he was cured of the infection, and setting out to consume a new universe even after learning that the hunger can be beaten. He is opposed in his expansion efforts by the zombie Spider-Man, who finally manages to defeat his own forces with nanites configured to 'eat' zombie flesh. MC2 The MC2 imprint title A-Next, set in a futuristic alternate universe, features Henry Pym and Janet Pym's twin children (Hope Pym and Henry Pym Jr.), who have turned into the supervillains Red Queen and Big Man respectively. Earth-5012 In this reality, Hank Pym is an intelligent, Hulk-like brute. Old Man Logan In the post-apocalyptic Old Man Logan storyline that takes place on Earth-807128, Hank Pym (as Giant-Man) is one of the numerous superheroes killed by the Red Skull's army of villains. Decades after his demise, a Connecticut settlement called "Pym Falls" is built around his massive skeleton. In addition, his Ant-Man helmet is shown in the possession of a young boy named Dwight, who uses it to command an army of ants to enforce the payment of tolls across a bridge. In the pages of "Old Man Logan" that takes place on Earth-21923, it was shown that during the fight in Connecticut that Giant-Man had become enraged when the Wasp was killed by Hobgoblin. This led him to crush Vulture with his hands and step on Crossbones. As he charged the villains, Avalanche used his abilities to shake the ground. Moloids emerged and attack Giant-Man, causing him to fall to the ground. Ultimate Marvel The Ultimate Marvel imprint version of Henry "Hank" Pym is portrayed as a brilliant but mentally fragile scientist. He takes Prozac to battle his mental instability and depressive episodes. He gains his Giant-Man abilities after transfusing the blood of his mutant wife Janet Pym. The character is expelled from the Ultimates after his abusive behavior ends his marriage and his Giant-Man serum is used by S.H.I.E.L.D. to make an entire Giant-Men team. Now a pariah, he briefly joins with both pseudo heroes and then anti-American villains in his Ant-Man persona. The character eventually rejoins the Ultimates in his Yellowjacket identity. During the events of "Ultimatum" storyline, he sacrifices himself against the Multiple Man's suicide bomber duplicates to save the remaining Ultimates' lives. After his death, the character's various formulas/devices are still in usage: the Giant-Man formula further replicated by S.H.I.E.L.D. to have multiple Giant-Women agents while his technology is eventually acquired by HYDRA. Giant-Man was later revived alongside his fellow Ultimates when the Superflow that separated the different universes was destroyed by the Maker and the High Evolutionary. After Earth-1610 was restored, Giant-Man was seen with the Ultimates when they help Spider-Man fight the Green Goblin. Marvel Adventures Henry Pym appears in issue 13 of Marvel Adventures: The Avengers as a scientist working for Janet's father with no superhero identity, and was the one who gave his wife superpowers. He is visited by Spider-Man and Storm when Janet van Dyne (Giant-Girl in this continuity) falls under insect mind-control. He tells them how to free her (severing the antennae on her mask), gives her a new costume, and uses an insect telepathy helmet (identical to his Earth-616 Ant-Man helmet) to create an illusion of several giant-sized people, scaring the insects away. He returns in issue 20, becoming Ant-Man. He not only joins the team but begins a relationship with Janet. Marvel Apes In the Marvel Apes universe, Henry Pym is a gorilla named Gro-Rilla, a member of the Ape-Vengers. Heroes Reborn (2021) In the 2021 Heroes Reborn reality, Hank Pym is a scientist and a devoted Christian who is a former friend and sidekick of Hyperion. When he got consumed by his cybernetic experiments, Hank figuratively and literally was transformed into Ultron which forced Hyperion to banish him to the Negative Zone. Ultron was among the inmates who escaped from the Negative Zone. Hyperion defeated Ultron by dismantling him. In other media Television Hank Pym as Ant-Man and Giant-Man appears in The Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Tom Harvey. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears in a 1979 Saturday Night Live sketch, portrayed by Garrett Morris. Hank Pym as Goliath makes a non-speaking cameo appearance in the X-Men: The Animated Series episode "One Man's Worth (Part 1)". This version is a member of the Avengers who hails from an alternate timeline where Professor X was killed before the X-Men's formation. Hank Pym as Ant-Man and Giant-Man appears in The Avengers: United They Stand, voiced by Rod Wilson. This version is the leader of the Avengers. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears in the Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes episode "World's Tiniest Heroes", voiced by John Payne. This version is a friend of Mister Fantastic's. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears in The Super Hero Squad Show episode "This Forest Green!", voiced by Greg Grunberg. Hank Pym as Ant-Man, Giant-Man, and Yellowjacket appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Wally Wingert. This version initially is Ant-Man and Giant-Man as a pacifist and founding member of the Avengers but later becomes Yellowjacket, a fearless yet violent vigilante. Hank Pym as Giant-Man appears in Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Yasunori Masutani. Hank Pym appears in Ant-Man (2017), voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. This version is based on the Marvel Cinematic Universe version (see below). Hank Pym makes a cameo appearance in the Marvel Future Avengers episode "The Rage of Black Bolt". Film Hank Pym as Giant-Man and Ant-Man appears in Ultimate Avengers and Ultimate Avengers 2, voiced by Nolan North. He joins the Ultimates in fighting Chitauri invasions until he is killed in battle. Hank Pym as Giant-Man makes a non-speaking appearance in Next Avengers: Heroes of Tomorrow. He was killed by Ultron alongside the other Avengers prior to the film. Marvel Cinematic Universe Hank Pym appears in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), portrayed by Michael Douglas, with Dax Griffin and John Michael Morris serving as body doubles in flashback sequences. This version originally operated as Ant-Man and an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. decades earlier until his wife Janet van Dyne / Wasp seemingly died during one of their missions and he discovered S.H.I.E.L.D.'s attempts to recreate his Pym Particle formula and resigned. In the present, he recruits Scott Lang to become the new Ant-Man, helps his daughter Hope van Dyne become the new Wasp, rescues Janet from the Quantum Realm, and becomes a victim of the Blip. Pym is introduced in the live-action film Ant-Man (2015), and makes subsequent appearances in the live-action films Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018), Avengers: Endgame (2019), and Ant-Man and the Wasp: Quantumania (2023). Additionally, Douglas voices alternate timeline versions of Pym in the Disney+ animated series, What If...?, with one version becoming Yellowjacket. Video games Hank Pym as Giant-Man appears as an assist character in Avengers in Galactic Storm. Hank Pym appears as an NPC in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance, voiced by Jerry Houser. Hank Pym as Yellowjacket appears as a boss in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Wally Wingert. Hank Pym as Ant-Man makes a cameo appearance in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3. Hank Pym as Ant-Man and Giant-Man appear as separate playable characters in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online. Hank Pym appears as an unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. Hank Pym appears as an NPC in Marvel Heroes, voiced again by Wally Wingert. Additionally, his Ant-Man design appears as an enhanced costume for Scott Lang / Ant-Man. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced by Nolan North. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears in Lego Marvel's Avengers. Hank Pym as Ant-Man appears as a team-up character in Disney Infinity 2.0. Hank Pym's fusion with Ultron appears as a playable character in Marvel: Future Fight, with Giant-Man and Goliath appearing as alternate skins. Hank Pym appears as an unlockable character in Marvel Avengers Academy, voiced by Christopher McCullough. Hank Pym as Giant-Man, Ant-Man, and Yellowjacket appear as separate playable characters in Lego Marvel Super Heroes 2, voiced by Dar Dash. In the game's story mode, Pym as Giant-Man attends a victory wrap party at Avengers Mansion until Kang the Conqueror brings Manhattan into Chronopolis. Ever since, Giant-Man has been working to find a way to defeat Kang and get every location he took back to their respectful places across time and space. In a bonus mission, A-Bomb, the Hulk, and Wonder Man work to rescue Pym as Ant-Man from his future self, who became Yellowjacket. Hank Pym appears as an NPC in Marvel's Avengers, voiced by Danny Jacobs. This version originally operated as Ant-Man before A.I.M. altered his physiology so that any attempt to shrink himself would be fatal. Following this, he is the leader of the Resistance to rescue Inhumans from A.I.M. and give them sanctuary in his base, the Ant Hill. Hank Pym appears in Marvel Future Revolution, voiced again by Wally Wingert. This version is a scientist for Omega Flight. Additionally, an alternate reality version of Pym as Yellowjacket makes an appearance. Miscellaneous Hank Pym appears in Peter David's novelization of Spider-Man 2. He attends Dr. Otto Octavius's first experiment with his mechanical arms. After the experiment goes awry, Pym confirms he is alive and implies his wife Rosalie is dead. The MCU incarnation of Hank Pym serves as the namesake of the Pym Test Kitchen and Pym Tasting Lab restaurant attractions within Avengers Campus at Disney California Adventure. Collected editions Notes References Ant-Man Avengers (comics) characters Characters created by Jack Kirby Characters created by Larry Lieber Characters created by Stan Lee Comics characters introduced in 1962 Fictional characters from Nebraska Fictional characters who can change size Fictional characters with bipolar disorder Fictional characters with dissociative identity disorder Fictional chemists Fictional domestic abusers Fictional entomologists Male characters in film Marvel Comics American superheroes Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics male superheroes Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics scientists Marvel Comics telepaths

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangor%2C%20County%20Down

Bangor, County Down

Bangor ( ; ) is a city and seaside resort in County Down, Northern Ireland, on the southern side of Belfast Lough. It is within the Belfast metropolitan area and is 13 miles (22 km) east of Belfast city centre, to which it is linked by the A2 road and the Belfast–Bangor railway line. The population was 64,596 at the 2021 Census. Bangor was granted city status in 2022, becoming Northern Ireland's sixth city. Bangor Abbey was an important and influential monastery founded in the 6th century by Saint Comgall. Bangor grew during the 17th century Plantation of Ulster, when many Scottish settlers arrived. Today, tourism is important to the local economy, particularly in the summer months, and plans are being made for the long-delayed redevelopment of the seafront; a notable historical building in the city is Bangor Old Custom House. The largest plot of private land in the area, the Clandeboye Estate, which is a few miles from the city centre, belonged to the Marchioness of Dufferin and Ava. Bangor hosts the Royal Ulster and Ballyholme yacht clubs. Bangor Marina is one of the largest in Ireland, and holds Blue Flag status. Name The name Bangor comes from , from and . This is thought to mean 'place of points' or 'horned curve', referring to the shoreline of Bangor Bay. The Old Irish tale, Táin Bó Fraích, gives a fanciful explanation for the name. It tells how the Connacht warrior Fráech and the Ulster warrior Conall Cernach were returning to Ireland from the Alps with Fráech's cattle. When they came to shore at what is now Bangor Bay, the cattle shed their horns, thus giving rise to the name Trácht mBennchoir, "the strand of the horn-casting". Bangor Bay was originally called Inber Beg (Inver Beg), 'the little inlet or rivermouth', after the now-culverted stream which ran past the abbey. It was also recorded as Inber Bece. The area was also known as 'The Vale of Angels', as Saint Patrick is said to have once rested there and had a vision of angels. History Bangor has a long and varied history, from the Bronze Age people whose swords were discovered in 1949 or the Viking burial found on Ballyholme beach, to the Victorian pleasure seekers who travelled on the new railway from Belfast to take in the sea air. The city has been the site of a Gaelic Irish monastery renowned throughout Europe for its learning and scholarship, the victim of violent Viking raids in the 8th and 9th centuries, and the new home of Scottish and English planters during the Plantation of Ulster. Bangor Abbey The Annals of Ulster says that the monastery of Bangor was founded by Saint Comgall from Antrim in the year 555, while other annals give the year as 558. It was where the Antiphonary of Bangor (Antiphonarium Benchorense) was written, a copy of which can be seen in the town's heritage centre. The monastery had such widespread influence that the city is one of only four places in Ireland to be named in the Hereford Mappa Mundi in 1300. The monastery, situated roughly where the Church of Ireland Bangor Abbey stands at the head of the city, became a centre of great learning and was among the most eminent of Europe's missionary institutions in the Early Middle Ages. At Bangor, Comgall instituted a rigid monastic rule of incessant prayer and fasting. Far from turning people away, this ascetic rule attracted thousands. When Comgall died in 602, the annals report that three thousand monks looked to him for guidance. Named Bennchor Mór, "the great Bangor", to distinguish it from its British contemporaries, it became the greatest monastic school in Ulster as well as one of the three leading monasteries of Celtic Christianity. The others were Iona, the great missionary centre founded by Columba, and Bangor on the Dee, founded by Dinooth; the ancient Welsh Triads also confirm the "Perpetual Harmonies" at the house. Throughout the sixth century, Bangor became famous for its choral psalmody. "It was this music which was carried to the continent by the Bangor missionaries in the following century". Divine services of the seven hours of prayer were carried out throughout Bangor's existence, however the monks went further and carried out the practice of laus perennis. In the twelfth century, Bernard of Clairvaux spoke of Comgall and Bangor, stating, "the solemnization of divine offices was kept up by companies, who relieved each other in succession, so that not for one moment day and night was there an intermission of their devotions." This continuous singing was antiphonal in nature, based on the call and response reminiscent of Patrick's vision, but also practised by St. Martin's houses in France. Many of these psalms and hymns were later written down in the Antiphonary of Bangor which came to reside in Colombanus' monastery at Bobbio, Italy. In 580, a Bangor monk named Mirin took Christianity to Paisley in the west of Scotland, where he died "full of sanctity and miracles". In 590, the fiery Colombanus, one of Comgall's leaders, set out from Bangor with twelve other brothers, including Saint Gall who planted monasteries throughout Switzerland. In Burgundy, Columbanus established a severe monastic rule at Luxeuil which mirrored that of Bangor. From there he went to Bobbio in Italy and established the house which became one of the largest monasteries in Europe. Saint Malachy was elected abbot of the monastery in 1123, a year before being consecrated Bishop of Connor. His extensive travels around Europe inspired him to rejuvenate the monasteries in Ireland, and he replaced the existing wooden huts with stone buildings. 17th and 18th centuries The modern city had its origins in the early 17th century when James Hamilton, a Lowland Scot, arrived in Bangor, having been granted lands in North Down by King James VI and I in 1605. In 1612, King James made Bangor a borough which permitted it to elect two MPs to the Irish Parliament in Dublin. The Old Custom House, which was completed by Hamilton in 1637 after James I granted Bangor the status of a port in 1620, is a visible reminder of the new order introduced by Hamilton and his Scots settlers. In 1689 during the Williamite War in Ireland, Marshal Schomberg's expedition landed at Ballyholme Bay and captured Bangor, before going on to besiege Carrickfergus. Schomberg's force went south to Dundalk Camp and were present at the Battle of the Boyne the following year. The city was an important source of customs revenue for the Crown and in the 1780s Colonel Robert Ward improved the harbour and promoted the cotton industries; today's seafront was the location of several large steam-powered cotton mills, which employed a large workforce. The end of the 18th century was a time of great political and social turmoil in Ireland. The United Irishmen, inspired by the American and French Revolutions, sought to achieve a greater degree of independence from Britain. On the morning of 10 June during the Irish Rebellion of 1798, a force of United Irishmen, mainly from Bangor, Donaghadee, Greyabbey and Ballywalter attempted to occupy the nearby town of Newtownards. They met with musket fire from the market house and were subsequently defeated. Victorian era By the middle of the 19th century, the cotton mills had declined and the city changed in character once again. The laying of the railway in 1865 meant that inexpensive travel from Belfast was possible, and working-class people could afford for the first time to holiday in the city. Bangor soon became a fashionable resort for Victorian holidaymakers, as well as a desirable home to the wealthy. Many of the houses overlooking Bangor Bay (some of which have been demolished to make way for modern flats) date from this period. The belief in the restorative powers of the sea air meant that the city became a location for sea bathing and marine sports, and the number of visitors from Great Britain increased during the Edwardian era at the beginning of the 20th century, which also saw the improvement of Ward Park. 20th century to present The inter-war period of the early 20th century saw the development of the Tonic Cinema, Pickie Pool and Caproni's ballroom. All three were among the foremost of their type in Ireland, although they no longer exist. However, there is a park which replaced Pickie Pool named Pickie Fun Park. A children's paddling pool was created as the original Pickie Pool was demolished due to the rejuvenation of Bangor seafront in the 1980s and early 1990s. Pickie Fun Park closed in early 2011 to be refurbished and modernised. The park, which reopened in March 2012, has an 18-hole maritime themed mini golf course, children's electric cars and splash pads (replacing the old children's paddling pool). Also, the Pickie Puffer steam train has been given an updated route and the swans have a new lagoon. During World War II, General Dwight D. Eisenhower addressed Allied troops in Bangor, who were departing to take part in the D-Day landings. In 2005, his granddaughter Mary-Jean Eisenhower came to the city to oversee the renaming of the marina's North Pier to the Eisenhower Pier. With the growing popularity of inexpensive foreign holidays from the 1960s onwards, Bangor declined as a tourist resort and was forced to rethink its future. The second half of the 20th century saw its role as a dormitory town for Belfast become more important. Its population increased dramatically; from around 14,000 in 1930 it had reached 40,000 by 1971 and 58,000 by the end of the century (the 2001 census showed the population as 76,403). The 1970s saw the building of the Springhill Shopping Centre, an out-of-town development near the A2 road to Belfast and Northern Ireland's first purpose-built shopping centre. It has since been demolished to facilitate a modern Tesco supermarket. In the early 1990s, Bloomfield Shopping Centre, another out-of-town development, opened beside Bloomfield Estate. In 2007, a major renovation of the centre began, including the construction of a multistorey car park. The trend towards out-of-town shopping centres was somewhat reversed with the construction of the Flagship Centre around 1990. The Flagship Centre went into administration and was closed in January 2019, it is currently undergoing appraisal for re-development options. The former seafront of the city is awaiting redevelopment and has been for over two decades, with a large part of the frontage already demolished, leaving a patch of derelict ground facing onto the marina. A great deal of local controversy surrounds this process and the many plans put forward by the council and developers for the land. In November 2009 it was voted by UTV viewers as Ulster's Biggest Eyesore. A state of the art recycling centre has been built in Balloo Industrial Estate which is supposed to be one of the most advanced in Europe. It opened in the summer of 2008. In May 2022, it was announced that, as part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours, Bangor would be granted city status by Letters Patent. It received the status on 2 December 2022, becoming Northern Ireland's sixth city, alongside Armagh, Belfast, Derry, Lisburn, and Newry. The Troubles Despite escaping much of the sectarian violence during The Troubles, Bangor was the site of some major incidents. During the troubles there were eight murders in the city including that of the first Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) woman to be murdered on duty; 26-year-old Mildred Harrison was killed by an explosion from a UVF bomb while on foot patrol in the High Street on 16 March 1975. On 23 March 1972 the IRA detonated two large car bombs on the town's main street. On 30 March 1974, paramilitaries carried out a major incendiary bomb attack on the main shopping centre in Bangor. On 21 October 1992, an IRA unit from the lower Ormeau exploded a bomb in Main Street, causing large amounts of damage to nearby buildings. Main Street sustained more damage on 7 March 1993, when the IRA exploded a car bomb. Four RUC officers were injured in the explosion; the cost of the damage was later estimated at £2 million, as there was extensive damage to retail premises and Trinity Presbyterian Church, as well as minor damage to the local Church of Ireland Parish Church and First Bangor Presbyterian Church. Coat of arms The shield is emblazoned with two ships, which feature the Red Hand of Ulster on their sails, denoting that Bangor is in the province of Ulster. The blue and white stripes on the shield show that Bangor is a seaside city. Supporting the shield are two sharks, signifying Bangor's links with the sea. Each is charged with a gold roundel; the left featuring a shamrock to represent Ireland, and the right featuring a bull's head, possibly in reference to the derivation of the city's name. The arms are crested by a haloed St Comgall, founder of the city's abbey, who was an important figure in the spread of Christianity. The motto reads Beannchor, the archaic form of the city's name in Irish. Governance Bangor is administered by Ards and North Down Borough Council which is based at Bangor Castle. Geography Bangor lies on the east coast of Northern Ireland, on the south shore of the mouth of Belfast Lough, north east of central Belfast. Townlands Bangor city includes the following townlands: Balloo () Ballycroghan () Ballyholme (probably meaning "townland of the river meadow") Ballykillare () Ballymaconnell () Ballymacormick () Ballymagee () Ballyree () Ballyvarnet, historically 'Ballyvernan' () Carnalea () Conlig (, referring to a standing stone on Runestone Hill) Rathgill or Rathgael () Ballyholme Bay The sea area to the north east of Bangor is Ballyholme Bay, named for the township of Ballyholme in the east of the town. During World War II the bay was used as a base for American troops training for the Normandy Landings. Two ships have been named SS Ballyholme Bay. In 1903 a Viking grave was found on the shore at Ballyholme Bay: it contained two bronze brooches, a bowl, a fragment of chain and some textile material. It has been said that "Ballyholme Bay is a sheltered bay and studies have suggested that it is one of the best landing places on Belfast Lough and would therefore have made a good location for a Viking base. It is possible that the burial was associated with a Viking settlement in the area." In 1689 Field Marshal Schomberg landed with 10,000 troops either at Ballyholme Bay or at Groomsport, a little further east. Demography 2021 Census On Census day (21 March 2021) there were 64,596 people living in Bangor. Of these: 66.62% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion and 12.67% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith. 67.38% indicated that they had a British national identity, 41.06% had a Northern Irish national identity and 10.30% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity). 2011 Census On Census day (27 March 2011) there were 61,011 people living in Bangor, accounting for 3.37% of the NI total. Of these: 18.83% were aged under 16 years and 17.40% were aged 65 and over; 52.14% of the usually resident population were female and 47.86% were male; 74.84% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' religion and 11.99% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith. 72.51% indicated that they had a British national identity, 32.95% had a Northern Irish national identity and 8.05% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity); 41 years was the average (median) age of the population; 7.94% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots and 2.72% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic). Economy Bangor had an estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the equivalent of $US678 million in 2015. Education Colleges and schools in the area include South Eastern Regional College, Bangor Academy and Sixth Form College, Bangor Grammar School, Glenlola Collegiate School, and St Columbanus' College. Primary schools include Towerview Primary School, Clandeboye Primary, Ballyholme Primary School, Kilmaine Primary, St Malachy's Primary, St Comgall's Primary, Grange Park Primary, Ballymagee Primary, Bloomfield Primary, Kilcooley Primary, Rathmore Primary, Towerview Primary, and Bangor Central Integrated Primary School. There are also a number of secondary, grammar, and primary schools in nearby towns and the vicinity of Bangor such as Crawfordsburn Primary & Groomsport Primary; Priory Integrated College, Sullivan Upper School, Regent House Grammar School, Movilla High School, Strangford College, Campbell College, and Rockport School are secondary schools. Places of interest Bangor Marina Clandeboye Estate Ward Park Clandeboye Park Castle Park Bangor Abbey Bangor Carnegie Library Bangor Castle Somme Heritage Centre Bangor Market House, which dates from the late 18th century, is a 5-bay 2-storey building currently used as a bank Bangor Old Custom House McKee Clock Bangor walled garden Bloomfield Aurora Leisure centre Climate Like the rest of Northern Ireland, Bangor has a mild climate with few extremes of weather. It enjoys one of the sunniest climates in Northern Ireland, and receives about of rain per year, which is moderate by Ireland's standards. Snow is rare but occurs at least once or twice in an average winter and frost is not as severe as areas further inland. This is due to the mild winters and close proximity to the sea. Winter maxima are about but can reach as high as . Average maxima in summer are around , although the record high is . The lowest recorded temperature is . Temperatures above in Bangor can be uncomfortable due to the high humidity, with an apparent temperature in the high 20s. Bangor has had a number of extreme weather events, including hot summers in 2006, 2013 and 2018. The summers of 2007, 2008 and 2009 were some of the wettest on records with flooding in June 2007. The Autumn of 2006 was also the warmest recorded. December 2010 saw record snowfall fall on the town, with temperatures below . On 21 December 2010 an unofficial weather station staffed by a retired meteorological officer in the Springhill area recorded a low of , and a high of . Snow lay to a level depth of , the same morning. Inland Northern Ireland saw almost , new record lows. Like much of the UK, spring 2020 was the sunniest on record. Transport The first section of Belfast and County Down Railway line from Belfast to Holywood opened in 1848 and was extended to Bangor by the Belfast, Holywood and Bangor Railway (BHBR), opening on 1 May 1865, along with Bangor railway station. It was acquired by the BCDR in 1884. and closed to goods traffic on 24 April 1950. Bangor West railway station was opened by the Belfast and County Down Railway on 1 June 1928. Bangor is served by Ulsterbus, which aside from local town services, provides daily services to Belfast, Newtownards, Holywood and Donaghadee. Sport Football In football, NIFL Championship sides Ards and Bangor play at Clandeboye Park on Clandeboye Road. Hockey Bangor has two hockey clubs that cater for both men's and women's hockey, respectively: Bangor Ladies Hockey Club : Bangor Ladies run three teams playing in Ulster Hockey Senior 3, Junior 7 and Junior 8b Bangor Mens Hockey Club : Bangor Mens run five teams with the 1st XI playing in the Ulster Hockey Premiership Rugby Union Bangor RFC plays in division 2C of the All-Ireland league at Upritchard Park. Sailing Bangor has clubs such as the Royal Ulster Yacht Club and Ballyholme Yacht Club which is the venue for Northern Ireland's Elite Sailing Facility. Softball North Down Softball Club (previously Bangor Buccaneers Softball Club, est. 2014) compete in the Softball Ulster league. Based at Ward Park the club comprises two competitive teams; the Buccaneers & the Barracudas (2023). Other sports Bangor Aurora Aquatic and Leisure Complex includes Northern Ireland's only Olympic-size swimming pool. Music The city has created an environment which has supported local musicians, such as Foy Vance and Snow Patrol. Notable people Iain Archer, musician (Snow Patrol) Jo Bannister, author and newspaper editor (County Down Spectator) Colin Bateman, author, screenwriter and journalist attended Bangor Grammar School (County Down Spectator) Edward Bingham, soldier; Victoria Cross recipient Colin Blakely, stage, film and TV actor Neil Brittain, news reporter Mike Bull, Commonwealth Games pole vaulter and decathlete Winifred Carney, suffragist and Irish independence activist Bryn Cunningham, Ulster Rugby player who attended Bangor Grammar School Samuel Cleland Davidson, inventor and engineer Kieron Dawson, Ulster Rugby player who attended Bangor Grammar School David Feherty, Professional golfer and now broadcaster, attended Bangor Grammar School Kelly Gallagher, MBE, British Winter Paralympic gold medallist Cherie Gardiner, former Miss Northern Ireland winner Keith Gillespie, N Ireland footballer, attended Rathmore Primary and Bangor Grammar School Christopher Gray, organist and choirmaster Billy Hamilton, former Northern Ireland international footballer Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, diplomat and third Governor General of Canada Eddie Izzard, comedian (grew up in Bangor until age five) Alan Kernaghan, ex-Republic of Ireland and Middlesbrough FC professional footballer Bobby Kildea, musician (bassist and guitarist) Gary Lightbody, member of the band Snow Patrol Alex Lightbody, Former Northern Ireland, Irish and British Open Singles Champion Bangor Bowling Club Josh Magennis, professional footballer (Charlton Athletic; the Northern Irish National team) Stephen Martin, Olympic hockey gold medalist Mark McCall, Ulster rugby coach Mark McClelland, member of the band Snow Patrol Stuart McCloskey, professional rugby union player Rebecca McKenna, footballer Miles McMullan, aka Niall, author and naturalist William McWheeney, soldier; recipient of the Victoria Cross George McWhirter, author; winner with Chinua Achebe of the Commonwealth Poetry Prize inaugural Poet Laureate of Vancouver, Canada, former teacher at Bangor Grammar School Peter Millar, author; award-winning Sunday Times journalist Dick Milliken, Irish rugby and British Lion player attended Bangor Grammar School David Montgomery, media mogul Jamie Mulgrew, Northern Irish footballer (Linfield F.C.) Terry Neill, Arsenal F.C. captain (1962–63) W. P. Nicholson, Presbyterian preacher Lembit Öpik, former Liberal Democrat MP and Shadow Welsh and Shadow Northern Ireland Secretary Jonny Quinn, musician (Snow Patrol) Gillian Revie, former first soloist of the Royal Ballet Glenn Ross, strongman, multiple Britain's Strongest Man & UK's Strongest Man Champion Zoe Salmon, Blue Peter presenter; former Miss Northern Ireland Ian Sansom, author Mark Simpson, BBC Ireland Correspondent Pete Snodden, DJ and radio host on Cool FM Patrick Taylor, author David Trimble, Nobel Laureate, former Ulster Unionist Party leader and former First Minister of Northern Ireland Paul Tweed, media lawyer Foy Vance, singer-songwriter Twin towns – sister cities Bangor is twinned with: Bregenz, Austria Virginia Beach, United States See also Bangor (civil parish) List of localities in Northern Ireland by population List of RNLI stations Market Houses in Northern Ireland Kilcooley estate References External links Civil parish of Bangor Port cities and towns in Northern Ireland Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland Seaside resorts in Northern Ireland Cities in Northern Ireland

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward%20%28association%20football%29

Forward (association football)

Forwards (also known as attackers) are outfield positions in an association football team who play the furthest up the pitch and are therefore most responsible for scoring goals as well as assisting them. As with any attacking player, the role of the forward relies heavily on being able to create space for attack. Their advanced position and limited defensive responsibilities mean forwards normally score more goals on behalf of their team than other players. Attacking positions generally favour irrational players who ask questions to the defensive side of the opponent in order to create scoring chances, where they benefit from a lack of predictability in attacking play. Modern team formations normally include one to three forwards. For example, the common 4–2–3–1 includes one forward. Less conventional formations may include more than three forwards, or sometimes none. Centre-forward The traditional role of a centre-forward is to score the majority of goals on behalf of the team. If they are tall and physical players, with good heading ability, the player may also be used to get onto the end of crosses, win long balls, or receive passes and retain possession of the ball with their back to goal as teammates advance, in order to provide depth for their team or help teammates score by providing a pass ('through ball' into the box), the latter variation usually requiring quicker pace and good movement, in addition to finishing ability. Most modern centre-forwards operate in front of the second strikers or central attacking midfielders, and do the majority of the ball handling outside the box. The present role of a centre-forward is sometimes interchangeable with that of an attacking midfielder or second striker, however, especially in the 4–3–1–2 or 4–1–2–1–2 formations. The term centre-forward is taken from the earlier football playing formations, such as the 2–3–5, in which there were five forward players: two outside forwards, two inside forwards, and one centre-forward. The term "target forward" is often used interchangeably with that of a centre-forward, but usually describes a particular type of striker, who is usually a tall and physically strong player, who is adept at heading the ball; their main role is to win high balls in the air, hold up the ball, and create chances for other members of the team, in addition to possibly scoring many goals themselves. However, the two terms are not necessarily synonymous, with the target forward having developed into a more specialised role, while the centre-forward description is more broad, encompassing many types of forwards. When numbers were introduced in the 1933 English FA Cup final, one of the two centre-forwards that day wore the number 9 – Everton's Dixie Dean, a strong, powerful forward who had set the record for the most goals scored in a season in English football during the 1927–28 season. The number would then become synonymous with the centre-forward position (only worn that day because one team was numbered 1–11 whilst the other was numbered 12–22). Striker The role of a striker is rather different from that of a traditional centre-forward, although the terms centre-forward and striker are used interchangeably at times, as both play further up the field than other players, while tall, heavy and technical players, like Zlatan Ibrahimović, and Edin Džeko, have qualities which are suited to both positions. Like the centre-forward, the traditional role of a striker is to score goals; strikers are therefore known for their ability to peel off defenders and to run into space via the blind side of the defender and to receive the ball in a good goalscoring position, as typified by Ronaldo and Thierry Henry. They are typically fast players with good ball control and dribbling abilities. Shorter statured, more agile strikers like Michael Owen, Kylian Mbappé, Dries Mertens, Sergio Agüero, and Paulo Dybala have an advantage over taller defenders due to their short bursts of speed. Good strikers should be able to shoot confidently with either foot, possess great power and accuracy, and have the ability to link-up with teammates and pass the ball under pressure in breakaway situations. While many strikers wear the number 9 shirt, such as Alan Shearer, an out and out striker, the position, to a lesser degree, is also associated with the number 10, which is frequently worn by more creative deep-lying forwards such as Pelé, and occasionally with numbers 7 and 11, which are often associated with wingers. Second striker Deep-lying forwards or second strikers have a long history in the game, but the terminology to describe their playing activity has varied over the years. Originally such players were termed inside forwards, creative or deep-lying centre-forwards ("sub forwards"). More recently, the role has occasionally been colloquially referred to as the centre-forward role, however, two more variations of this old type of player have developed: the second, or shadow, or support, or auxiliary striker and, in what is in fact a distinct position unto its own, the number 10; the former role is exemplified by players such as Dennis Bergkamp (who would play just behind the striker Thierry Henry at Arsenal), Alessandro Del Piero at Juventus, Youri Djorkaeff at Inter Milan, or Teddy Sheringham at Tottenham Hotspur. Other creative offensive players who play further back, such as Diego Maradona, Ronaldinho, Kaká, Michael Laudrup, and Zinedine Zidane are often instead described as the "number 10", and usually operate as an attacking midfielder or advanced playmaker. The second striker position is a loosely defined and most often misunderstood description of a player positioned in a free role, somewhere between the out-and-out striker, whether the player is a "target man" or more of a "poacher", and the number 10 or attacking midfielder, while possibly showing some of the characteristics of both. In fact, a term coined by French advanced playmaker Michel Platini, the "nine-and-a-half", which he used to describe the playing role of his successor in the number 10 role at Juventus, Italian playmaker Roberto Baggio, has been an attempt to become a standard in defining the position. Conceivably, a number 10 can alternate as a second-striker provided that the player is also a prolific goalscorer; otherwise, a mobile forward with good technical ability (dribbling skills and ball control), acceleration, vision, passing, and link-up play, who can receive the ball and retain possession, in addition to being capable of scoring goals and creating opportunities for a less versatile centre-forward, is more suited to playing in the second striker role. This player should also be able to position themselves well in order to receive passes and subsequently either create or finish off a goalscoring opportunity. They should also be capable of finishing well with either foot as well as their head (which is less common, seeing as many second strikers are diminutive creative players), as this will lead to a good scoring percentage on attempts on goal and give their team an advantage offensively. Although they are often deployed in a free role, and given "licence to roam," and either run forward, or drop further back in order to pick up the ball in deeper areas, giving them more time and space in possession, second or support strikers do not tend to get as involved in the orchestration of attacks as the number 10, nor do they bring as many other players into play, since they do not share the burden of responsibility, functioning predominantly in a supporting role as assist providers. In Italy, this role is known as a "rifinitore", "mezzapunta", or "seconda punta", whereas in Brazil, it is known as "segundo atacante" or "ponta-de-lança". Inside forward The position of inside forward was popularly used in the late nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries. The inside forwards would support the centre-forward, running and making space in the opposition defence, and, as the passing game developed, supporting him with passes. The role is broadly analogous to the "hole" or second striker position in the modern game, although here, there were two such players, known as inside right and inside left. In early 2–3–5 formations the inside-forwards would flank the centre-forward on both sides. With the rise of the WM formation, the inside forwards were brought back to become attacking midfielders, supplying balls to the centre-forward and the two attacking outside forwards – known as the outside right and outside left. In Italian football jargon, the inside forward was initially occasionally known as a mezzala (literally "half-winger", not to be confused with wing-half); however, the use of this particular term to describe inside forwards is now obsolete, as the mezzala label was later reapplied to describe the role of offensive-minded central midfielders in Italian football, while the inside forward role was instead labelled as "interno" ("internal", in Italian) in Italian football in subsequent years. In today's game, inside forwards have been pushed up front to become either out-and-out attackers or false-9s, or out wide to wingers (in a 4–3–3 formation), or they have even been switched to a deeper position in which they are required to drop back to link-up with the midfield, while also supporting another striker playing alongside them up front (in a 4–4–2 formation). Many teams still employ one of their strikers in this latter more withdrawn role as a support forward for the main striker, in a role broadly similar to the inside forward. Outside forward An outside forward plays as the advanced forward on the right or left wing – as an outside right or outside left, typically as part of a 2–3–5 formation or one of its variants. As football tactics have largely developed, and wingers have dropped back to become midfielders, the terminology has changed and "outside forward" has become a historical term. Many commentators and football analysts still refer to the wing positions as "outside right" and "outside left". Such players in the modern era have been labelled "wing forwards", particularly when the two wingers play high up the pitch in a 4–3–3 or similar formation, where the front 3 attacking players have 3 central midfielders behind them. A wing forward who is known for cutting inside and shooting can have the term "inverted winger" used interchangeably. The responsibilities of an outside forward include but are not limited to: Scoring: their first option should be to shoot, while their second option should be to find another way to create a goal opportunity for the team. Passing: when they run into a shooting angle that is unlikely to become a goal, they must find a way to pass the ball to the middle of the penalty box area allowing the centre-forwards to finish the job. Crossing: a main job of outside players, or players in the wide areas, especially forwards is their ability to cross the ball to the middle of the field in front of the goal for the central players to score from Due to these responsibilities some of the most important attributes include: Good dribbling and circumventing defenders Speed as a necessity to produce effective counter-attacks Technical ability to strike a ball Quickness in deception to pass a defender Striking technique to get on the end of crosses from wide players of the opposing side Winger A winger is an offensive player located in a wide position near the touchlines. They can be classified as forwards, considering their origin as the old "outside-forward" position, and continue to be termed as such in most parts of the world, especially in Latin and Dutch football cultures. However, in the British game (in which the 4–4–2 formation and its variants are most commonly used) they are usually counted as part of the midfield. It is a winger's duty to beat opposing full-backs, deliver cut-backs or crosses from wide positions and, to a lesser extent, to beat defenders and score from close range. They are usually some of the quickest players in the team and usually have good dribbling skills as well. In Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese usage, the defensive duties of the winger have been usually confined to pressing the opposition fullbacks when they have the ball. Otherwise, a winger will drop closer to the midfield to make themself available, should their team win back the ball. In British and other northern European styles of football, the wide-midfielder is expected to track back all the way to their own corner flag should their full-back require help, and also to track back their marker, as well as tucking into the midfield when the more central players are trying to pressure the opposition for the ball. This is a large responsibility for attack-orientated players, and particularly those like Joaquín (winger/wide midfielder), or Ryan Giggs (winger/striker), and John Barnes (winger/central midfielder), who lack the physical attributes of a wing-back or of a more orthodox midfield player. As these players grow older and lose their natural pace, they are frequently redeployed as "number 10s" between the midfield and the forward line, where their well-honed ball control, technical skills, ability to create chances, and improved reading of the game in the final third can serve to improve their teams' attacking options in tight spaces. An example is Inter Milan's use of veteran Luís Figo behind one or two other attackers, either as a second striker or in a playmaking role as an attacking midfielder. In recent years there has been a trend of playing inverted wingers – wide players stationed on the 'wrong' side of the pitch, in order to enable them to cut inside and shoot on their stronger foot and sometimes provide in-swinging crosses. This tactic was used by Frank Rijkaard, who, whilst at Barcelona, moved Lionel Messi from the left flank onto the right wing, initially against the player's wishes. This allowed him to cut into the centre and shoot or cross with his left foot. Another example of a successful inverted winger partnership was Bayern Munich's pairing of the left-footed Arjen Robben alongside the right-footed Franck Ribéry, on the right and left flanks respectively. A description that has been used in the media to label a variation upon the inverted winger position is that of an "attacking", "false", or "goalscoring winger", as exemplified by Cristiano Ronaldo and Gareth Bale's roles on the left and right flank during their time at Real Madrid in particular. This label has been used to describe an offensive-minded inverted winger, who will seemingly operate out wide on paper, but who instead will be given the freedom to make unmarked runs into more advanced central areas inside the penalty area, in order to get on the end of passes and crosses and score goals, effectively functioning as a striker. This role is somewhat comparable to what is known as the raumdeuter role in German football jargon (literally "space interpreter"), as exemplified by Thomas Müller, namely an attacking-minded wide player, who will move into central areas in order to find spaces from which he can receive passes and score or assist goals. The "false winger" or "seven-and-a-half" is instead a label which has been used to describe a type of player who normally plays centrally, but who instead is deployed out wide on paper; during the course of a match, however, they will move inside and operate in the centre of the pitch, in order to drag defenders out of position, congest the midfield and give their team a numerical advantage in this area, so that they can dominate possession in the middle of the pitch and create chances for the forwards; this position also leaves space for full-backs to make overlapping attacking runs up the flank. Samir Nasri, who has been deployed in this role, once described it as that of a "non-axial playmaker". On occasion, the role of an offensive winger can also be occupied by a different type of player. For example, certain managers have been known to use a "wide target man" on the wing, namely a large and physical player who usually plays as a centre-forward, and who will attempt to win aerial challenges and hold up the ball on the flank, or drag full-backs out of position. Jostein Flo epitomizes this role so much so that a tactic was named after him – Flo Pass. Egil Olsen, while managing the Norway national football team, positioned Flo, usually a centre-forward, on the right flank to exploit the opposition full-backs' lack of aerial abilities. Another example is Mario Mandžukić, a natural centre-forward, who was used on the left flank under manager Massimiliano Allegri at Juventus during the 2016–17 season, as well as the following season. Unlike wide target men of earlier eras, Mandžukić was also tasked with pressing opposing players. Romelu Lukaku has also been used in this role on occasion. False 9 A False 9, in some ways similar to a more advanced attacking midfielder/playmaker role, is an unconventional lone striker or centre-forward, who drops deep into midfield. The purpose of this is that it creates a problem for opposing centre-backs who can either follow the false 9, leaving space behind them for onrushing midfielders, forwards or wingers to exploit, or leaving the false 9 to have time and space to dribble or pick out a pass. The term comes from the traditional number for centre-forwards (nine), and the fact that normally a centre-forward traditionally stayed near the line of defenders until they got an opportunity to move past them toward goal. Key attributes for a false 9 are similar to those of a deep-lying striker: dribbling ability to take advantage of space between the lines, good short passing ability to link up with the midfield and vision to play through teammates making runs from deep to goal. The first false 9 in a World Cup was Juan Peregrino Anselmo in the Uruguay national team, although he could not play the match against Argentina in the 1930 World Cup due to injury. Matthias Sindelar was the false 9 of the Wunderteam, the Austria national team, in 1934. In South America, in 1941, River Plate's La Máquina team started using the left winger Adolfo Pedernera as a man of reference. When Pedernera transferred to Atlanta, a young Alfredo Di Stéfano took his place. A false 9 was also utilized by Hungary at the beginning of the 1950s, with striker Nándor Hidegkuti acting in the role as a deep-lying centre forward. In 1953, English football was astounded by the Hungarian team which beat England 6–3 at Wembley Stadium. The Revie Plan was a variation on the tactics used by the Hungarians, involving Don Revie playing as a deep-lying centre-forward. Revie started attacks by coming into the centre of the field to receive the ball, drawing the opposing centre-half out of position. The role can also be compared to the false role in which Hidegkuti operated. The system was first implemented by the Manchester City reserve team, who using the system went unbeaten for the last 26 games of the 1953–54 season. Before the start of the 1954–55 season, Manchester City manager Les McDowall called his team into pre-season training two weeks early to try the new tactic. Manchester City lost their first game using the system 5–0, but as the players became more used to the system it started to become more successful. Using the system Manchester City reached the 1955 FA Cup Final, but lost to Newcastle United 3–1. The following year City again reached the final where they played Birmingham City, this time winning 3–1. Throughout his career, Johan Cruyff was often deployed in a free role as a centre-forward with Ajax, Barcelona, and the Netherlands in the 1970s in Rinus Michels's fluid 1–3–3–3 formation, which was a key and trademark feature of the manager's total football system; although Cruyff was a prolific goalscorer in this position, he also frequently dropped deep to confuse his markers and orchestrate attacks, or moved out onto the wing in order to create space for other teammates' runs, which has led certain pundits to compare this role retroactively as a precursor to the modern false 9 role. Michael Laudrup was occasionally used as a lone centre-forward in Johan Cruyff's Barcelona Dream Team, a role which was similar to that of the modern false 9 role. Roma under manager Luciano Spalletti used Francesco Totti, nominally an attacking midfielder or trequartista, up-front in an innovative "4–6–0" formation in the mid-2000s; this was met with a run of 11 consecutive victories. At Euro 2012, Spain manager Vicente del Bosque, although sometimes deploying Fernando Torres as a traditional striker, often used Cesc Fàbregas as a false 9 in several matches, including the final. By the end of 2012, the False 9 had gone "mainstream" with many clubs employing a version of the system. Barcelona's Lionel Messi has been an epitome of the false 9 position to much success in recent years, first under coach Pep Guardiola and later under his successor Tito Vilanova. Brazilian forward Roberto Firmino was later also successfully used in the false 9 position under manager Jürgen Klopp at Liverpool. One approach to stop false 9s has been to create congestion in the midfield by bringing several players back into a more defensive role in an attempt to deny them space needed to create plays, notably in José Mourinho's "parking the bus" strategy. In Italian football jargon, this role is historically known as the "centravanti di manovra" (which literally translates to "manoeuvring centre-forward"). Target forward The term "target forward" or "target man" is often used to describe a particular type of striker or centre-forward whose main role is to win high balls in the air, hold up the ball, and create chances for other members of the team in addition to scoring goals themselves. These players are usually tall and physically strong, adept at heading the ball, and capable of playing with their back to goal in the final third of the pitch. Some of the most high-profile examples of this type of players in modern football include Olivier Giroud and Fernando Llorente, both World Cup winners, with the former having played the entire tournament as a starting line-up forward tasked primarily with pressing, counter-pressing, winning high or loose balls, and providing key passes to quicker and more agile teammates, namely Antoine Griezmann or Kylian Mbappé. Another example of a striker who played in this position is Didier Drogba. However, not any tall and/or physically strong player feels comfortable in the role of a "target man", despite having all the necessary features. Such forwards as Zlatan Ibrahimović, Romelu Lukaku, and Erling Haaland have all rejected the term when applied to specifically them, with Ibrahimović preferring to be described as an attacking all-rounder, while Lukaku and Haaland have said to favour poaching goals rather than physical play. As stated above, the target forward is a player who does not run or look to make runs as compared to other forwards. Typically they are strong, tall, and physical players. Usually, the build-up play of a target forward will often consist of one of the following options: firstly, the goalkeeper will either launch a long kick or distribute the ball to a central defender or full-back. From there, the defender will play a long ball to the striker, either in the air or ground. The target forward usually has perfected their ability to provide first touches of the ball on all areas of the body. They will control the ball and provide holdup, which allows their teammates to transition forward. From here, they may create more opportunities such as passing the ball backwards and creating space by moving around defenders, making combination plays with a "false 9", midfielders, or wingers, or turning and facing the goal and attempting to score by dribbling or shooting. Because of their strength and physicality, target forwards may be defended against by man-to-man marking. Sometimes the central defender of the opposing team will be of similar strength and height, which makes the matchup more evenly based. Due to this man-to-man marking, target forwards are often fouled and receive many calls from the referee. Striker combinations Strike teams consist of two or more strikers who work together. The history of football has been filled with many effective combinations. Three-man teams often operate in "triangles", giving a wealth of attacking options. Four-man packages expand options even more. Strikers must also be flexible, and be able to switch roles at a moment's notice, between the first (advanced penetrator position), second (deep-lying manoeuvre) and third (support and expansion, e.g. wings) attacker roles. Another example was the Total Football played by the Dutch team in the 70s, where the ability of their players, and in particular Johan Cruyff, to swap positions allowed a flexible attacking approach which opposition teams found difficult to effectively mark. In a two-player front line, it is common for two forwards who complement one another to be paired together; for example, former Italy manager Cesare Maldini often used a large, physical, and prolific player as a traditional centre-forward – such as Christian Vieri – alongside a smaller, faster, creative and more technical player as a second striker – such as Roberto Baggio or Alessandro Del Piero. Another similar example of an effective partnership at international level was that of Alex Morgan and Abby Wambach with the United States national team, who scored a combined 55 goals in 2012, matching a 21-year-old record set in 1991 by Michelle Akers (39 goals) and Carin Jennings (16 goals) as the most goals scored by any duo in U.S. WNT history. One of the most prolific forward combinations in the history of the game was the front three of Barcelona, Lionel Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed MSN. On average they scored a goal every 45 minutes – two goals per game from the three forwards. The trio scored a record-breaking 131 goals in one season for Barcelona during 2015–16. In 2017, Kylian Mbappé, Neymar, and Edinson Cavani scored a record-breaking number of goals for Paris Saint-Germain in the Champions League group stage. The next year, the Liverpool attacking quartet of Roberto Firmino, Mohamed Salah, Sadio Mané and Philippe Coutinho, dubbed the "Fab Four" (in reference to the Beatles), contributed to a record-breaking 47 goals for a single Champions League season. MSN is known to be one of the most successful striker combinations in the history of football. However, BBC was often compared as the same elite level of forwards. The combination consisted of Karim Benzema, Gareth Bale, and Cristiano Ronaldo. During the height of their success with Spanish team Real Madrid, they were frequently compared to MSN. The two striker combinations played on long time rivals teams Real Madrid and Barcelona, both of which are considered some of the best football clubs of all time. Of the prolific trio, Karim Benzema typically played the center forward position, while Ronaldo and Bale played as inverted or outside forwards, so they were able to cut into the center with their dominant side. Between the two trios Lionel Messi has won the most Ballon d'Or trophies, while Cristiano Ronaldo has won the second most of these trophies, at 5. BBC rivaled MSN throughout the 2010s in the La Liga, as well as the UEFA Champions League. Defensive capabilities Although the striker is mainly an offensive position in many cases, they still play critical roles for defense that are often overlooked. Strikers can be involved in tactics such as high-pressing, cutting out passing lanes, defending set pieces, and tracking back (mostly for wingers). For high-pressure, this tactic is employed when the opposing team without the ball will defend the team all the way to their back line of defenders so that they have little area to pass or perform play buildup. Strikers will usually be at the forefront of this high-pressing movement and will attempt to direct ball movement. As part of this high-pressing technique, they can also cut out passing lanes. This means that they will position their bodies in-between an outside defender and central defender or midfielders and center defenders so that the opposing player is not able to pass the ball or make a play. By performing this method, they can effectively force the opposing team to one area of the pitch and create better opportunities for the opposing team to turn the ball over. They are heavily used in the "delay, coverage, balance, and concentration principles of football" through a variety of methods. According to the delay principle of defense in football is the idea that players should disturb the ball holder and block passing lanes, which is done in high-pressing and closing down. Closing down is the ability of a player to very quickly start defending the opposing player with the ball. This usually falls under the concentration principle of football, so strikers must be able to start defending the opposing team very high up in the opposing half. Although many believe strikers are not very involved in defensive strategies, they greatly help with "gathering defense to protect vital zones from progression of offensive actions, direct play to less vital zones, and allow for a regain of ball possession." See also Association football positions Association football tactics Defender (association football) Goalkeeper (association football) Midfielder (association football) References Association football positions Association football terminology Association football player non-biographical articles

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20War%20II%20Online

World War II Online

WWII Online is the very first massively multiplayer online first-person shooter (MMOFPS) ever created and holds three Guinness World Records. It is in active (continuous) development by Playnet, Inc.'s internal game studio, "Cornered Rat Software," and it was originally released on June 6, 2001 (D-Day), for Microsoft Windows, with a Mac OS version being released in 2002. WWII Online was re-released in 2006 under the new name of WWII Online: Battleground Europe. In the summer of 2017, WWII Online was released on Steam Early Access where it once again returned its name back to the original "WWII Online" because it resonated with its players more. As of June 6th, 2021 the developers are working to port WWII Online from its proprietary engine to the Unreal Engine 5 in an effort to modernize graphics and workflows. Gameplay WWII Online is set in 1940–1944 World War II in Western Europe. It is a virtual battlefield and a combined arms war simulation. A player can command or crew a variety of accurately modeled aircraft; armored fighting vehicles, anti-tank guns, anti-aircraft artillery, four naval vessels, fight as a foot-soldier with a variety of infantry weapons, or play as a paratrooper and drop from either a C-47 or Ju52 transport aircraft. All vehicles with two or more positions may be multi-crewed by (2) players. The game is played in real time alongside or against other players as either German, American, British or French forces in a persistent world. Command structures and missions provide strategic and tactical layers while ranks provide a RPG layer by demonstrating leadership roles. It uses a single, non-instanced, ½ scale map of western Europe with approximately of accurate terrain (800 m resolution satellite data) in which capturable cities, airfields and ports have been placed. The game takes skill, teamwork, tactics, strategy, planning, patience and perseverance to win battles, make progress, and individually rank upward. In WWII Online players working together in large numbers have the greatest success which is a simulation in it of itself to the way real battles in war are won. Players and units WWII Online is team-oriented. Players play as various troops, pilots, gunners, tank commanders, naval destroyer captains, mission leaders, and high commanders, and are organized into brigades. Everyone plays in the brigade of their choice. Smaller military units of heavily themed squads are independently managed by players and can use their own tactics, but follow the brigade and strategic rules set by the high command players and cooperate with other squads and non-squad players. Being a squad member is optional but encouraged. Some squads have vigorous membership rites. Anyone that has a paid account can, however, form their own squad, solicit members and register the squad with the high command for brigade assignment. Each player holds a title of rank, based on the military ranks of the time. Ranks are gained through a performance-based scoring system. Rank is never lost as a result of an unsuccessful mission or death. Detailed statistics are tracked by the server, and made available through a web interface, known as 'Combat Statistics and Records', or CSR. Statistics are very detailed, recording a history of every mission the player has attempted over the campaign. Summary statistics are available to compare player performance to those of other players. Statistics include elements such as number of kills, damages, deaths, time spent on each mission, and depot captures. The top 100 players for several categories are updated regularly. Communication between players via text is supported by a variety of communication channels for messages exchanged between players. Default channels are Target (players will communicate with others whose missions target a town and its linked facilities), Mission (all players who chose a mission created by the same person), squad (a voluntary group similar to a clan in other online games), Brigade (not commonly used), Operations (for Tactical/Strategic information and discussions) and Side (for more general and sometimes off-topic chat). There is also a Help channel which is tuned by default for new players. Numbered text channels can also be manually connected to. Each side's Air Force and Navy have designated numbered channels. Some squads who often play together use specific channels for inter-squad communication, and a particular coordinated effort between many the side's High Command, players, various squads and/or various military branches may decide to use a specific numbered channel, as their Target channels may be quite different. Additionally, it is common for players to communicate via the WWII Online Discord since cooperation with other players can be critical for success. Playable equipment and damage model WWII Online has a variety of playable equipment, each modeled with data from historical references. In total, there are currently 250 different playable weapons. Like in many other RPGs, more equipment becomes available as the player gains more experience. New recruits start with a limited equipment selection. As the player progresses in rank, better vehicles and more infantry classes become available. The damage model in WWII Online is realism based, as explain in this developer demonstration video. Within the limits of modern technology, it simulates real world kinetic damage to the game world. Vehicles are modeled with their essential critical components, such as engine, fuel tanks, etc. The components interact as if they were the real machine. For example, a punctured fuel tank will cause loss of fuel which will eventually cause the engine to run out of fuel causing the engine to stop. Leaking fuel within the vehicle can be set on fire by subsequent or existing damage to other parts of the vehicle, resulting in the tank "brewing up" and possibly exploding. Damaged components also provide feedback into the simulation model. For example, for aircraft, damage to flight surfaces will result in increased drag and reduced performance of the vehicle. Vehicles are modeled, within reasonable technical limits, to historically accurate detail. The ballistic model is also detailed, taking into account drag coefficient properties, muzzle velocity, and mass of each individual type of ammunition. The game engine considers the physical details of all rounds in flight and at point of impact, calculating the angle of impact and energy of the round, and the thickness and slope of the target vehicle's armor. Rounds which manage to penetrate may go on to cause damage to components or crew members in the path of penetration. High energy rounds that do not fully penetrate may still cause spall (high velocity metal fragments) within the vehicle, if close enough to penetration. Rounds that penetrate a vehicle will usually leave a visible hole on the outside, while rounds that don't penetrate may leave a scuff mark where the round bounced off. Small arms fire will also often leave bullet holes or scuff marks on buildings or vehicles. Strategic layer (High Command) Both sides in WWII Online have player-run groups, known as the High Command (HC), responsible for strategic management of the side's forces. High Command players have their own avatar. When HC players broadcast on the Ops channel a small "HC" symbol is displayed rather than the British/French/German side's symbol. An in-game list of all currently logged in HC players is available. HC players have abilities that are not available to the rest of the playerbase, namely in the placing of Attack Objectives (AOs). When an AO is placed on a town, the other side gets an automatic Defence Objective (DO) on that town allowing all players to know that it is under attack. 10 minutes after an AO is first placed on a town, the town's Depot Office building, City Office building, and Rail Road Office buildings all become capturable. These capturable buildings are collectively known as Capture Points (CPs). Entering the Flag building linked to an Office building (marked with a large flag) will show an attacker how long it will take for the building to become capturable. To capture a building, attackers must remain inside the Flag Building until the capture bar has hit 100%. If more than one player (up to eight) are inside the flag building, the bar will move faster. Additional attackers past the eighth have no effect on the capture speed. Defenders must kill all attackers in the flag building to start liberating the facility. Any attackers who enter the building (even if it is currently being liberated) start the capture bar moving up again. Capturing a flag gives the attacking side control of the corresponding building linked to the Office. If the Office links to a Depot that has a link to a friendly town, the Depot is referred to as "Spawnable" and players may spawn from new missions there, making them an important objective. Players may also despawn near a friendly depot and respawn inside it, called "Warping". This allows attackers to set up a Mobile Spawn Point near a non-spawnable depot and warp directly into it, avoiding any heavy defenses around the spawnable depots. Ten minutes after an Office is captured, the town's Army Bunkers, Airfield Bunkers, Docks and Factories become capturable. The attacking side must continuously hold one flag in the town for this to happen. It does not have to be the same flag, they may capture two, lose one, capture another, lose the first, in any combination as long as they continue to hold at least one flag for ten minutes. Once all the town's Office buildings, Army Bunkers, Airfield Bunkers, Docks and Factories are captured, the AO and DO are lifted and the town changes ownership to the attacking side. All towns have an Army Base, some on rivers have Docks, some with large historical airfields have Airfields with a command bunker, and some important industrial towns have Factories. AOs can also be placed on bridges. An AO on a bridge enables that side to destroy it, while a DO allows it to be repaired. Bombers and Naval Destroyers are usually tasked with blowing up bridges, while sapper (engineer) units must repair them. Bridges repair slowly if left alone. High Command players are able to move their side's "brigades" along road links between friendly towns. Each brigade can be moved once every Hour if in a frontline town, or every half an hour if in a non-frontline town. A friendly brigade in a town allows players to spawn in that town to either defend or attack. Naval and Air Force brigades are considered "Self-Deployable" and can move directly from any town to another with the right Docks or Air Field facilities, as long as the destination town is held by friend forces and is not cut off from the main friendly-held area. Each army division has a headquarters (HQ) unit and three combat brigades. Two of the brigades are Infantry brigades (with a high proportion of infantry and artillery, with only light tanks) and one brigade is classified as Armoured (with a high proportion of heavy and medium tanks and fewer infantry and artillery). The HQ unit is mostly used to resupply the other three brigades, and is vulnerable when placed on the front line by itself. It is common practice to attach the armoured brigade to one of the infantry brigades and use the HQ unit to resupply both. The game's movement rules only allow the brigades to be moved to a friendly town that is no more than 1 town away from another brigade or the HQ in its own Division. The rule though does not apply in the case that the brigade is the only one left in its division and if this occurs it is free to move to any surrounding town. This occurs through the routing of brigades. Routing removes brigades from the game map for 6 hours and can happen in a few ways. Brigades in a division will normally "fallback" if the AB is captured, but only if the game's movement rules allow it, that is, move to within 1 link of a brigade or HQ in its own division. If none of the surrounding friendly towns are within 1 link of a brigade within its own division when the AB is captured, then the brigade will be routed off the game map for 6 hours. High Command players that are Commanding Officers (CO) of a Brigade or higher can give out side wide messages known as dot Axis or dot Allied messages. They are named thus as the command to type one out is, ".axis" or ".allied". These messages are seen by all players on a side and are used for a number of purposes. The usual purpose of the message is to inform players of important battles. The message will tell players what town is being attacked or defended, what brigade or brigades are involved, who the Officer in Command (OIC) of the attack or defence is and what chat and possibly Team Speak channels are being used. Most high command players liven their messages up beyond just the generic and quite humorous messages can often be seen. These messages can also be used to boost the "morale" of the troops by telling them how well they have been fighting and to announce future Operations that are being planned. History Initial release The game is commonly recognized as the first MMOFPS. Following the purchase of Interactive Creations of Grapevine's WarBirds by IEntertainment Network in 1999, several of the developers departed the company and formed new gaming companies. Some went to form Hitech Creations, others went with John "Killer" MacQueen, Jonathon "Hoof" Hoof, Chris "Mo" Sherland to leverage their experience on WarBirds and Raider Wars to develop an online gaming network (G2 Network) with a massively-multiplayer first-person WWII simulation for both PC and Mac as the showpiece. After a lengthy closed beta stage, WWII Online went live on June 6, 2001 under the campaign title Blitzkrieg. The release was timed to coincide with the anniversary of the D-Day. Like most online games, WWII Online is a continual work in progress, and so has a history of updates that are frequently released to add new features, fix problems and improve existing features. Updates, or patches to the game code, were released every 6 weeks, on average; but recently have moved to a less frequent but larger content format of 3 or 4 times a year. These patches generally include a wide range of features and problem fixes. Everything from new weapons and vehicles to audits of the performances of existing weapons and vehicles are part of the patching process as well as terrain, structure, game play and performance improvements. The initial launch had a number of technical difficulties. The game required that players download a 70 MB update before they could play online. At the time, the majority of users had 56k modems, requiring around three hours to update the game. As the developers worked feverishly behind the scenes to complete other promised features and fix the software bugs on the gold CD, even more updates became necessary. Three days prior to release, the colocation network facility had a bad fiber optic cable. This failure reduced the player capacity of the server cluster, from 10,000 players down to only 1200 players. As a temporary workaround, Playnet set up multiple copies of the game-world on different servers, distributing the network load, but at some cost in game play. This solution lasted for several months while the developers resolved the server-side issues, after which all servers were merged into a single game-world. Some features advertised on the game box were partially implemented, or missing, such as rank and high-command strategic features. The combination of the above problems resulted in game returns, complaints from customers, and a drop-off in sales as word spread of the game's state. Subscription fees for the first several months were waived, until the major problems with the game were resolved. This helped to retain many of the players, especially the long-term fans of the project, but it was not long before Playnet had financial problems. They filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in late 2001, and cut costs, resulting in a number of lay-offs within the company. Statements from both the developer (CRS), and publisher (Strategy First), indicated that CRS wanted a longer open beta, but the game was launched anyway, due to financial reasons. Re-release WWII Online completed a third retail release in 2005 under the new campaign title Battleground Europe. This new title was chosen because of legal considerations with the old title of Blitzkrieg, whose trademark was owned by another game. The Battleground Europe re-release was distributed across Europe in late 2005 and in the United States in early 2006 by the game's new publishers GMX Media (Europe) and Matrix Games (USA). WWII Online: Battleground Europe was largely a compilation of fixes already available through patches to the original game. However, compared to the initial 2001 release, the game was drastically different due to these changes. In summer 2017, WWII Online was released on Steam Early Access. Retired Developers Cornered Rat Software has a long tradition of honoring those who participated on the development team. This list shows the "call signs" of all RATS (or game developers) recognized by the team for their contributions. Ahwulf, Airborne, Animal, Arradin, Bable, Badger, Blkhwk8, Bloo, Bmbm, Caligula, Caveman, Chkicker, Codec, Company0, Crawdad, Dekard, Doc, Dragon, Drloon, Edthehead, Elmo, Fogaban, Fohdron, Fredrik1, Frytiger, Gnache, Gophur, Granik, Greatone, Greni, Gryf, Gvonpaul, Hallpass, Hawkmoon, Hicksey, Heavy265, Hoof, Hoss, Jaeger, Jammyman, Joker007, Jokerzwild, Kango, Kfs1, Killer, Kms, Krieger, Kyotee, LadyJ, Latham, Lindir, Maco, Martini, Maypol, Meat, Mediiic, Minnie, Mo, Monty, Motormouth, Mumbles, Newzguy, Rafter, Ramp, Rickb, Rogue, Salad, Scking, Sgtfury, Shef, Sherman, Shilling, Showkillr, Sideout, Snail, Snicker, Soloje, Squirm, Staffel, Stick, Sudz, Tadpole, Tater, Tgunr, TheChosn, Thunder, Tongue, Toto, TopD, Tragic, Trips, Troper, Vandal, Victarus, Vixen, Vozz, Waver25, Wickett, Wildhund, Xl2rippr, Zach and the others that may have been unintentionally missed. Guinness World Records First MMO first-person shooter (FPS) videogame First massively multiplayer online war game Largest playable area in a shooter videogame Reception Kevin Rice reviewed the PC version of the game for Next Generation, rating it two stars out of five, and stated that "A huge learning curve coupled with low gratification and zero organization make this a title only for those with the patience of a saint." WWII Online and the Battleground Europe release received an average review score of 73 and an average player score of 8.3. Reviews Softonic (May 17, 2007) Game Informer Magazine (Aug, 2001) About This Particular Macintosh (May, 2003) Cyber Stratege (Dec 06, 2009) Gamezilla (Jul 06, 2001) Eurogamer.net (Dec 19, 2005) Game Over Online (Jul 17, 2001) FiringSquad (Aug 15, 2001) JeuxVideoPC.com (Oct 17, 2006) Mac Addict (May, 2003) GameGenie (2001) GameSpot (Jun 20, 2001) GameSpy (Jun 29, 2001) Inside Mac Games (Apr 11, 2003) The Adrenaline Vault (Sep 05, 2001) References External links WWII Online on Steam World War II Online at MobyGames 2001 video games Flight simulation video games MacOS games Massively multiplayer online first-person shooter games Massively multiplayer online role-playing games Multiplayer vehicle operation games Naval video games Tank simulation video games Video games developed in the United States Windows games World War II first-person shooters Strategy First games

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleraine

Coleraine

Coleraine ( ; from , 'nook of the ferns') is a town and civil parish near the mouth of the River Bann in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland. It is northwest of Belfast and east of Derry, both of which are linked by major roads and railway connections. It is part of Causeway Coast and Glens district. Description Coleraine had a population of 24,483 people in the 2021 Census. The North Coast (Coleraine and Limavady) area has the highest property prices in Northern Ireland, higher even than those of affluent South Belfast. Coleraine during the day is busy but relatively quiet at night. Much of the nightlife in the area centres on the nearby seaside resort towns of Portrush and Portstewart, with the three towns forming a combined visitor area known as “The Triangle”. Coleraine is home to one of the largest Polish communities in Northern Ireland. Coleraine is at the lowest bridgeable point of the River Bann, where the river is wide. The town square is called 'The Diamond' and is the location of Coleraine Town Hall. St. Patrick's Church of Ireland is in the town centre, with churches for other denominations all within walking distance. The University of Ulster campus was built in the 1960s and brought a theatrical space to the town in the form of the Riverside Theatre. The town has a large catchment area and is designated as a "major growth area" in the Northern Ireland Development Strategy. History Coleraine has a long history of settlement. The Mesolithic site at Mount Sandel, which dates from approximately 5935 BC is some of the earliest evidence of human settlement in Ireland. The 9th-century Hagiography Tripartite Life of Saint Patrick records how the town got its name. When Patrick arrived in the neighbourhood, he was received with great honour and hospitality by the local chieftain, Nadslua, who offered him a piece of ground on which to build a church. The spot was next to the river Bann and was overgrown with ferns, which were being burned by some boys to amuse themselves. This incident led to the area being called ('nook of ferns'), which was later anglicised as Colrain, Colerain and Coleraine. It was translated by Colgan into Latin as . The town was one of the two urban communities developed by the London Companies in County Londonderry in the Plantation of Ulster at the start of the 17th century. The slightly skewed street pattern of Coleraine's town centre is the legacy of that early exercise in town planning, along with traces of the lines of the ramparts that provided the Plantation town with its defences. During the War of the Two Kings (1689–91) Coleraine was a centre of Protestant resistance to the rule of James II. Richard Hamilton's Irish Army made an attempt to seize the town but was repulsed. The Protestants were forced to abandon the town shortly afterwards and withdrew to Derry. Later the same year, following the failed Siege of Derry, Sir Charles Carney and his Jacobite garrison fled the town on receiving news of the advance of Percy Kirke's Enniskillen forces and the landing at Carrickfergus of Marshal Schomberg. The Williamites controlled Coleraine for the remainder of the war. With some industrialisation, the expansion of the river port, and the development of the railway, the town expanded significantly throughout the 19th century and into the early part of the 20th century, especially after the Second World War. The population doubled due to a number of factors: major industrial development on extensive suburban sites; the decision to site the New University of Ulster (now known as the Ulster University) in the town; the expansion of commerce; and the development of sporting and recreational facilities. There has been a steady expansion of the urban area from the mid 20th-century compact town of less than , to the present much more dispersed area of about . Since 1980 growth has continued but at a slightly more modest pace. In the twenty years to 2001 the town's population increased by 22% to approximately 25,000 but the rate of increase fell from 12% in the 1980s to 8% in the 1990s. The Troubles During the Troubles in Northern Ireland, a total of 13 people were killed in or near Coleraine. Ten of these people were killed in two separate car bomb explosions, although in very different circumstances. On 12 June 1973, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) detonated a car bomb on Railway Road, with inadequate warning. Six Protestant civilians, all in their 60s and 70s, were killed. The second most fatal incident occurred on 2 October 1975 but in this case, all four victims were members of the loyalist paramilitary group the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), killed when their own bomb went off as they travelled through Farrenlester near Coleraine. A third bombing occurred on 13 November 1992 when the IRA detonated a large van bomb in the town centre. Although extensive property damage was caused, which resulted in several major buildings being demolished, no one was killed. Coleraine Town Hall required major structural work, and was not reopened until August 1995. The other three people to be killed in Coleraine were all shot by loyalist paramilitaries. One was Danny Cassidy, a Sinn Féin electoral worker who was killed by the Ulster Freedom Fighters and the other two were also civilians with no paramilitary connections. One was killed by the UVF and the other by a non-specific loyalist group. In literature The poetical illustration The Coleraine Salmon Leap by Letitia Elizabeth Landon, in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1836, refers to an abundance of salmon in the river here in those times, and to a considerable sport derived therefrom. It accompanies an engraving of a painting of the salmon leap by Thomas Mann Baynes. Governance Coleraine was the headquarters of the former Coleraine Borough Council, before this was amalgamated in 2015 to form the Causeway Coast and Glens District Council, which is now based in the former Coleraine Borough Council headquarters. The Borough Council area together with the neighbouring district of Limavady, forms the East Londonderry constituency for elections to the Westminster Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, despite some of the borough being in County Antrim. In 2014, the residents elected 3 Democratic Unionist Party, 2 Ulster Unionist Party, 1 Progressive Unionist Party, 1 Northern Ireland Conservatives and 1 Social Democratic and Labour Party councillors. Tourism Coleraine is near the Causeway Coast tourist route, attracting over 2 million annual visitors. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Giant's Causeway, is a 25-minute bus ride away. The distillery village of Bushmills is served by buses from the town and there is a narrow-gauge steam train running in the summer from Bushmills to the Giant's Causeway. Also north of Coleraine is the scenic coastal town of Portstewart, with a sandy beach and coastal walks. Portrush is part of the Borough. North-west of Coleraine lies the small village of Castlerock, with a beach which is essentially a continuation of the beach at Portstewart, separated by the mouth of the River Bann. Also nearby is the beach at Benone Strand and Mussenden Temple, built by Frederick Augustus Hervey, an 18th-century Anglican bishop atop a precipitate cliff and overlooking County Donegal in one direction and Scotland in another. The bishop's residence, Downhill House, which is managed by the National Trust, fell into disrepair after the Second World War. Climate Coleraine experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and relatively mild winters. The nearest official Met Office weather station for which online records are available is at nearby Coleraine University, about north of the town centre. However, observations ceased a few years ago and the nearest current Met Office weather observing station is at Movanagher, about to the south. Rainfall at Coleraine typically peaks at over during the month of October. The driest month is May, with an average of under . On average, 173 days of the year will report at least of rain, ranging from 18 days in January to 11 days during June. The following table summarises temperature averages sampled between 1971 and 2000. Places of interest The east side of the town is distinguished by Mountsandel Forest, which contains the Mount Sandel fort, an ancient site which has been claimed as the oldest site of human settlement in Ireland. Here wooden houses dating from about 7000 BC were uncovered. The fort can be accessed via Mountsandel forest, the closest entrance being the side near the Coleraine Courthouse. There is another fort about two miles south of Mountsandel near the small village of Loughan. Notable people Living people Richard Archibald – rower Alan Campbell – rower Joel Cassells — rower Peter Chambers – rower Richard Chambers – rower Jack Doherty – potter Michelle Fairley – actress Maureen Madill – golfer, coach and broadcaster Jenna McCorkell – British ladies' figure skating champion Gerry McKenna – biologist and university vice chancellor James Nesbitt – actor Maggie O'Farrell – novelist Damien O'Kane – folk singer Tommy Sheppard – Scottish politician Claire Sugden – politician Andrew Trimble – rugby union player Bronagh Waugh – actress Jayne Wisener – actress Historical figures John Bodkin Adams – general practitioner and suspected serial killer Alexander Anderson – physicist Peter Dermot Doherty - footballer and manager Lewis Thomas Drummond – lawyer, judge, political figure Harry Gregg MBE – goalkeeper Sam Henry – civil servant, antiquarian, lecturer, writer, photographer, folklorist, and folk-song collector Sir Thomas Ranken Lyle – mathematical physicist Patrick McGilligan – politician Hercules Mulligan – tailor and spy during the American Revolutionary War Edward Nicolls – Royal Marines officer Bertie Peacock – footballer Hilary Stevenson -scientist, educator, and expert on food irradiation Isaac Todd – fur trader and merchant Charles Frederick Williams – journalist and war correspondent Edmund Mackenzie Young – Australian banker, financier/investor and grazier Education Coleraine has a variety of educational institutions at all levels. Primary and secondary schools The local schools include: Saint John's Primary School Irish Society's Primary School Coleraine Grammar School Coleraine College St Joseph's College, Coleraine D.H Christie Memorial Primary School Killowen Primary School Loreto College, Coleraine (a co-educational Roman Catholic grammar school) Harpurs Hill Primary School Millburn Primary School Saint Malachy's Primary School North Coast Integrated College Macosquin Primary School Sandelford Special School Ballysally Primary School Tertiary Coleraine is the location of a University of Ulster campus and houses the university's administration buildings. It is the original campus of what was the New University of Ulster (established in 1968) which merged with the former Ulster Polytechnic at Jordanstown just north of Belfast in 1984 to form the present-day institution. The university was placed in the top five of UK universities by the 2014 Research Excellence Framework for its law, biomedical, and humanities programs. The Causeway Institute is a College of Further and Higher Education based in Coleraine, with another campus in nearby Ballymoney. Transport Coleraine railway station opened on 4 December 1855 and shares facilities with the town's Ulsterbus bus depot. Passenger service is delivered via the Belfast-Derry railway line along the scenic shore of Lough Foyle and the Coleraine-Portrush railway line branch line. The Belfast-Derry railway line is to be upgraded to facilitate more frequent trains and improvements to the permanent way such as track and signalling to enable faster services. The railway station was closed for goods traffic on 4 January 1965. Sport Coleraine itself contains Coleraine Rugby Club, established in 1921, Coleraine F.C., established in 1927 and currently in the IFA Premiership and CLG Eoghan Rua established in 1957. Coleraine is one of the hosting towns for the Milk Cup. Coleraine is part of the circuit for the North West 200, a series of motorcycle road races organised by the Coleraine and District Motor Club. Coleraine Bowling Club is a lawn bowls club on Lodge Road and was founded in 1903. Coleraine is one of the most successful teams in the NIPBA and Irish bowling, with 64 titles on the honours list. The Bannsiders have claimed two Irish Bowling Association Senior Challenge Cup victories, in 1921 and 2013. Coleraine have also provided a number of international players and Commonwealth Games representatives, most notably Victor Dallas and Roy Fulton. Coleraine Cricket Club plays in the North West Senior League. In the wider local area are a number of well-known golf courses, including Castlerock Golf Club, Royal Portrush Golf Club and Portstewart Golf Club. The Coleraine area has a significant equestrian presence. Of particular interest is RDA Coleraine (Riding for the Disabled Association (Coleraine & District Group), which provides riding opportunities for anyone with a physical and/or learning disability at their £1.75 million RDA Causeway Coast Arena at Castleroe (see website www.rdacoleraine.org). The new arena was funded by SportNI, Coleraine Borough Council, and by donations from the people of the district. The conditions of grant aid included the provision of a first-class sporting arena for RDA, the equestrian fraternity, and other sporting activities. Especially important is the development of The OWLS Sports Club (Opportunities Without Limits), which will coordinate the development of a range of different sporting opportunities for persons with physical and/or learning disabilities, and in many cases their siblings. To facilitate this process SportNI has funded a Sports Development Officer. Demography Coleraine is classified as a large town (i.e. with a population between 18,000 and 75,000 people). 2011 Census On Census day (27 March 2011) there were 24,634 people living in Coleraine, accounting for 1.36% of the NI total. Of these: 19.91% were aged under 16 years and 14.89% were aged 65 and over; 52.16% of the usually resident population were female and 47.84% were male; 68.08% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denomination and 24.09% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith; 66.16% indicated that they had a British national identity, 31.52% had a Northern Irish national identity and 10.19% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity); 38 years was the average (median) age of the population. 13.67% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots and 4.77% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic). 2021 Census On Census day (2021) there were 24,483 people living in Coleraine. Of these: 61.72% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)' denomination and 24.38% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic Christian faith. 47.37% indicated that they had a British only identity, 22.25% had a Northern Irish only identity and 7.56% had an Irish only identity. Other places internationally Coleraine, as a town name, exists in other countries. In the United States, for example, several places are named after Coleraine, including two townships in Ohio: Colerain Township, Belmont County and Colerain Township, Hamilton County. In 1853, a surveyor named Lindsay Clarke was working on a township called Bryans Creek Crossing in Victoria, Australia. He renamed the town Coleraine. International relations International projects, under the guidance of Coleraine Borough Council, include the Zomba Action Project – a charity founded in 2003 to provide aid to the municipality of Zomba in southern Malawi. The region was chosen due to the historical connections between the Presbyterian and Catholic churches and Malawi, sustained by a number of specific local contacts. Donations have been used to fund computers, education, medical and other projects. Coleraine is twinned with French town La Roche-sur-Yon. See also Coleraine cheddar County Coleraine List of towns in Northern Ireland List of villages in Northern Ireland List of localities in Northern Ireland by population List of civil parishes of County Londonderry O'Cahan References External links Activ Coleraine – an online guide to Coleraine Towns in County Londonderry Civil parishes of County Londonderry Causeway Coast and Glens district

428710

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-access%20television

Public-access television

Public-access television (sometimes called community-access television) is traditionally a form of non-commercial mass media where the general public can create content television programming which is narrowcast through cable television specialty channels. Public-access television was created in the United States between 1969 and 1971 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), under Chairman Dean Burch, based on pioneering work and advocacy of George Stoney, Red Burns (Alternate Media Center), and Sidney Dean (City Club of NY). Public-access television is often grouped with public, educational, and government access television channels, under the acronym PEG. Distinction from PBS In the United States, the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) produces public television, offering an educational television broadcasting service of professionally produced, highly curated content. It is not public-access television, and has no connection with cable-only PEG television channels. Although non-commercial educational television bears some resemblance to the E of PEG, PBS bears little resemblance to public-access television. PBS generally does not offer local programming content. Instead, it broadcasts content produced for a national audience distributed via satellites. There is no generally accepted right of access for citizens to use broadcast studio facilities of PBS member stations, nor right of access by community content producers to the airwaves stewarded by these television stations outside of some universities or technical colleges such as Milwaukee's Milwaukee Area Technical College, which owns the area's two PBS member stations and offers students the limited ability (within FCC guidelines) to produce their own programs to air on a public television station for television production experience. These qualities are in stark contrast to PEG channel content, which is mostly locally produced, especially in conjunction with local origination studio facilities. And in the case of the P, public-access television, the facilities and channel capacity are uncurated free-speech zones available to anyone for free or little cost. Since 53% to 60% of public television's revenues come from private membership donations and grants, most stations solicit individual donations by methods including fundraising, pledge drives, or telethons which can disrupt regularly scheduled programming. PBS is also funded by the federal government of the United States. PEG channels are generally funded by cable television companies through revenues derived from cable television franchise fees, member fees, grants and contributions. PEG-TV Public, educational, and government access television (also PEG-TV, PEG channel, PEGA, local-access television) refers to three different cable television narrowcasting and specialty channels. Public-access television was created in the United States between 1969 and 1971 by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and has since been mandated under the Cable Communications Act of 1984, which is codified under 47 USC § 531. PEG channels consist of: Public-access televisionGenerally quite free of editorial control, a form of non-commercial mass media where ordinary people can create television programming content which is transmitted through cable TV The channels are reserved free or at a minimal cost. The local origination television content revolves primarily around community interest, developed by individuals and nonprofit organizations. Educational-access televisionIs distance education, a curated form of educational television, it is a synchronous learning educational technology unique to cable television systems and transmit instructional television, on Time Warner Cable channel 21, programming within city limits. Educational-access channels are generally reserved for educational purposes and are not for government-access or public-access television. Many schools have adapted educational access channels to enhance school curriculum. Some schools have done this better than others. Although the use of television in schools can be traced to those schools serving the bedroom communities of Manhattan in the 1960s, where executives and technicians of early television lived, the creation of PEG channels expanded the value of television as a school or community resource. Students produced and aired community stories in part to serve community stakeholders and in part to engage in active learning. These schools developed school-based community television as a storytelling laboratory. Government-access televisionCable channel capacity for the local government bodies and other legislative entities to access the cable systems to televise public affairs and other civic meetings. Government channels are generally reserved for government purposes and not for education-access or public-access television. Leased accessCable television channels that are similar to commercial television where a fee is paid-for-services of reserved channel time. Municipal-access televisionor "Community Access television" are ambiguous terms that usually refer to a channel space assigned on a Cable TV System intended to provide the content to all or some of the above listed access channels, and may contain other "access" programming such as "religious access" or the TV programming of a local institution, such as a college or a library. These channels are usually created as cost saving measures for the Cable TV company if their franchises or governing authorities allow it. Hybrid Often, one channel will take on the role of another channel type on a regular basis. An example of this would be a college with a strong television production curriculum assumes the roles of educational access and public access. Beyond the typical curated educational access programming, a public access television element would be added where public access television producers would make shows using college owned ( or shared) equipment and college students as crew. This can be very beneficial to both entities, as the students earn credits for the work while contributing to the public access channel. However, difficulties can arise when the programming made for public access is of a type that does not reflect the values or tastes of the supporting college, and in such situations, colleges often make the decision to downplay or abandon the public access element of the channel, depending on how much funding is earned by assuming the public access television duties. The channel numbering, signal quality, and tier location of these channels are usually negotiated with a local authority, but often, these choices are made with the intention of one or more of the parties involved to marginalize one channel and emphasize another, such as placing Government access on channel 3 or 10, Educational access on a channel numerically near a PBS station, and Public Access in the high 90's or higher on a digital-only service tier. Various Cable TV companies have marginalized PEG programming in other ways, such as moving some or all of them to a sub-menu on the cable box, giving subscribers limited bandwidth access (and limited picture quality) to the channel, while also separating the PEG channels from the commercial channel lineup in an effort to fulfill their franchise obligations while discouraging the channels use, and hopefully eliminate the PEG channels that have the least political power. History In the United States, public-access television is an alternative system of television which originated as a response to disenchantment with the commercial broadcasting system, and in order to fulfill some of the social potential of cable television. Pioneers The first experiments in public-access television and/or non-commercial community television began in 1968 with Dale City, Virginia's Dale City Television (DCTV) and 1970 with Bob & Janeen Burrel at Stoughton, Wisconsin's WSTO TV. Also, at that same time in New York City, Fred Friendly, head of the Cable TV and Communications Commission, made recommendations for a leased-access channel for public use. The rent for equipment usage and studio time was opposed and later dropped. This free-access requirement was the contractual beginnings of PEG. Filmmakers George Stoney, and Red Burns (who had served on the Canadian Film Board), along with Sidney Dean (City Club of NY), were instrumental in developing the theoretical legal basis and the practical need for public-access television, and helped to eventually obtain public-access television requirements in the franchise agreement between the city government and the cable company. The legal basis of the local municipality regulating cable companies—which use public rights-of-way in order to make profits—to meet certain minimum standards of public service requirements, i.e., facilities and equipment, channel capacity, and funding, came out of this work of these pioneers. Local origins The public policy origins begin at the federal level with the concept of local origination. It was the first attempt by officials at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to create a service like PEG through regulation of the cable industry. In 1969, in the First Report and Order, the FCC stated, "no CATV system having 3,500 or more subscribers shall carry the signal of any television broadcast station unless the system also operates to a significant extent as a local outlet by cablecasting and has available facilities for local production and presentation of programs other than automated services." In a report filed with this regulation, the Commission said, "[We] recognize the great potential of the cable technology to further the achievement of long-established regulatory goals in the field of television broadcasting by increasing the number of outlets for community self-expression and augmenting the public's choice of programs and types of services. . . . They also reflect our view that a multi-purpose CATV operation combining carriage of broadcast signals with program origination and common carrier services, might best exploit cable channel capacity to the advantage of the public and promote the basic purpose for which this Commission was created:" In 1971, this rule was rescinded, and replaced with a requirement for PEG facilities and channel capacity. The concept of local programming persisted, however the rules have been modified to say Origination cablecasting. Programing (exclusive of broadcast signals) carried on a cable television system over one or more channels and subject to the exclusive control of the cable operator. In contrast with public-access television, which is government-mandated access for programming, local programming is now usually programming of local interest produced by the cable operator or PEG organizations. The term is also generally accepted to refer to television programming that is not produced by a commercial broadcasting company or other media source for national or international distribution. Also note that at this time, the FCC was considering CATV a common carrier which is a term that comes from the bus and shipping industries, where, in exchange for being offered a charter for their operations by the government, companies were required to give all persons passage. Thus, if CATV operators we considered common carriers, then they certainly would have to give all persons access to carriage on their cable channels. However, this was specifically rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States in the Midwest Video decision. Federal mandate by the FCC Hundreds of public-access television production facilities were launched in the 1970s after the Federal Communications Commission issued its Third Report and Order in 1972, which required all cable systems in the top 100 U.S. television markets to offer three access-channels, one each for public, educational, and local government use. The rule was amended in 1976 to require that cable systems in communities with 3,500 or more subscribers set aside up to 4 cable TV channels and provide access to equipment and studios for use by the public. Midwest Video decisions Cable companies saw this regulation as an unlawful intrusion by the federal government into their business practices, and immediately started challenging the legality of these new rules. Two important United States Supreme Court cases involved a company known as Midwest Video. In United States v. Midwest Video Corp., 406 U.S. 649 (1972), the Supreme Court upheld the FCC's requirements for Local Origination facilities. However the public-access television requirement did not survive legal scrutiny seven years later. In 1979, the U.S. Supreme Court sided against the FCC in the case FCC v. Midwest Video Corp., 440 U.S. 689 (1979), determining that the FCC's new requirements exceeded the agency's statutory powers as granted to them by Congress. The Supreme Court explicitly rejected the notion that cable companies were "common carriers", meaning that all persons must be provided carriage. Instead, the Supreme Court took the stance that cable companies were private persons under the law with First Amendment to the United States Constitution rights, and that the requirement for public-access television was in fact a burden on these free speech rights. This judicial action prompted PEG advocates to begin work on what would become the Cable Communications Act of 1984. 1984 Cable Act Congress acted to save PEG from the result of the Supreme Court Midwest Video decision. However, the legislative imperatives of compromise between the demands of the people and the demands of the cable industry yielded a law with only small benefits for consumers and public-access television advocates. The 1984 Cable Franchise Policy and Communications Act written by Senator Barry Goldwater, said, "A franchising authority ... may require as part of a cable operator's proposal for a franchise renewal ... that channel capacity be designated for public, educational, or governmental use." – 47 USC § 531(a)(emph. added) This appeared to be a law which creates new rights, allowing local communities to require PEG channels, however, it in fact had the opposite effect. Since the franchise agreement is a license between the cable operator and the municipality, the municipality could always stipulate a PEG channel requirement, and the contracts clause of the United States Constitution prevents Congress from interfering. So while the intent may have been to correct the omission which led to the Midwest Video decision, and make PEG mandatory, the result was a law which allowed the municipality to opt out of PEG requirements, and keep 100% of the cable television franchise fees for their general fund, while providing no PEG facilities or television channel capacity. Since 1984, many public-access television centers have closed around the country as more municipalities take the opt-out provision. However, the Cable Communications Act of 1984 did contain some benefits for PEG, as it barred cable operators from exercising editorial control over content of programs carried on PEG channels, and absolved them from liability for that content. Congress passed the Cable Television Protection and Competition Act of 1992, which gave the FCC authority to create rules requiring cable operators to prohibit certain shows. The Alliance for Community Media (ACM) and others brought suit. The U.S. Supreme Court, in Denver Area Educational Telecommunications Consortium v. FCC, 95–124 (1996) held the law unconstitutional, in part because it required cable operators to act on behalf of the federal government to control expression based on content. Currently the ACM and others are focusing on operational challenges after new deregulation rules in various states are directly threatening PEG access. Principles PEG access may be mandated by local or state government to provide any combination of television production equipment, training and airtime on a local cable system to enable members of the public, accredited educational institutions, and government to produce their own shows and televise them to a mass audience. Municipalities must take initiative and petition the cable operator to provide the funding for PEG access as laid out by law, but municipalities may also choose to take no action and will instead keep the cable television franchise fees in a general fund. A municipality may also choose to allow government-access television (GATV) but not public-access television or may replace it with governmental access television or may take away Public-access television altogether, depending on the disposition of the local government or its voters. Municipalities have a broad spectrum of franchise agreements with cable television service providers and may not create a monopoly through these agreements. Depending on the size of the community and their contractual agreement the PEG and local origination channels may take many forms. Large communities often have a separate organization for each PEG type, smaller communities may have a single organization that manages all three. Because each organization will develop its own policies and procedures concerning the commercial content of a program, constituent services differ greatly between communities. Structure and programming PEG channels may be run by public grassroots groups, individuals, private non-profits, or government organizations. Policies and regulations are subject to their own ordinances and community standards, initially defined within the individual franchise agreements between community (government) franchise grantor and system operator. While many of these agreements are similar boilerplate, motivated individuals and groups have been able to make creative stipulations to serve an individual community's needs. Services available at public-access television organizations are often low cost or free of charge, with an inclusive, content neutral, first-come, first-served, free speech ideology. Monies from cable television franchise fees are paid to government for use of right-of-way use of public property, hopefully allowing other general fund monies to be used to operate the facilities, employ staff, develop curriculum, operate training workshops, schedule, maintain equipment, manage the cablecast of shows and publish promotion materials to build station viewership. Funding and operating budgets vary significantly with the municipality's finances. Frequently it is left to the cable franchise to determine how they operate public-access television. The FCC does not mandate a cable franchise to provide any of the above services mentioned. Users of public-access television stations may participate at most levels of this structure to make content of their choosing. Generally, anyone may have their programming aired on a public-access television channel. Users are not restricted to cable subscribers, though residency requirements may apply, depending on local franchise agreements or facility policy. Many public-access television channels try to favor locally produced programs while others also carry regionally or nationally distributed programming. Such programming—regional, national or even international—is usually aired on a channel curated by the PEG operator, which also carries programs produced by professional producers. A show that originates outside the municipality is often referred to as "bicycled", "dub and submit", or "satellite" programming. In the event that a public-access television channel becomes filled with programming, a franchise may state that more television channels may be added to satisfy the demand. Educational-access television Educational-access television is the institution set aside for fulfilling the needs of the educational departments and organizations within the municipality. Educational-access television channels may be associated with a specific school, school district or even private organization that is contracted to operate the educational-access television channel for the city. Educational-access television centers usually operate a cable channel on the local cable system and often include elements and principle that echo public-access television in terms of training and resources. Many school media and video training programs are based in the educational-access television centers. Programming distributed by these centers ranges from student or parent produced media to coverage of local school functions and bodies (such as the School Council meetings or Committee). There are a number of notable educational-access television organizations that produce programming for a national audience and experiences a very broad distribution. Government-access television Government-access television (GATV) is a resource of the city to address local municipal programming needs. Often the city or town may use the G channel to cablecast city council meetings, election programming, local emergency announcements and other events and programs as valued by the local government. Technologies Equipment available for public-access television broadcasting is evolving quickly. At its birth, the state of the art PEG facilities were composed of racks full of analog videotape decks and an automated video switching system. Recently, the low cost of digital production and distribution equipment, such as cameras, non-linear editing systems, digital video playback servers and new Internet technologies have made digital content production the norm. The dropping cost of digital production and distribution gear has changed the way many PEG facilities operate. Challenges PEG television has come under fire from many sources including cable TV providers, local governments and officials, producers, viewers and even corporate litigation from potential copyright infringements. Special interest groups have also frequently applied pressure on PEG operations. PEG often struggles to balance freedom of speech with free, open access to the cable systems and as a result cable operators or PEG organizations have occasionally (rightfully or wrongfully) banned producers, discriminated between programming in their allocation of airtime, or have removed or banned programming based upon potential legal problems, the values of the PEG organization, or the values or desires of the cable TV provider. Funding for PEG is usually managed from local governments issuing the cable television franchise agreement. This same government often receives cable television franchise fees that come from the cable companies. Negotiation for PEG television services can often be hindered by obstructive or restricting behavior from the cable company, a competing cable provider, or the government officials and staff issuing the franchise agreement. PEG television has been challenged by cable TV operators and telephone companies, who are now expanding into the cable TV business. These companies have lobbied for significant legislation through the U.S. Congress and through various state legislatures to reduce or end PEG television. In California, the passage of AB2987 or "The Digital Infrastructure and Video Competition Act of 2006," has changed the laws by which cable TV companies operate and as a result many public-access television studios in the state have closed. The California Public Utilities Commission now franchises cable television. However, they do not regulate PEG television, which remains the purview of the various city and county governments. Municipalities, local governments and even residents often confuse the difference between commercial broadcast television and PEG television. PEG television has been reported to the FCC about infractions that may apply to broadcast television, even though cable television content (including public-access television) is not subject to the same rules. Because cable television is a closed system with elective access there are fewer rules and restrictions about content. PEG television stations and studios are sometimes poorly managed and/or poorly supported, and give rise to numerous complaints. Station complaints range from poor scheduling and playback, programming playing late or not at all, or signal strength being so weak that the program becomes unwatchable. Studio complaints usually focus on the lack of equipment or facilities, poor equipment condition, and staff indifference. Accusations are often made that these situations arose as a result of willful neglect on the part of a city, a cable company, or other third party organization, with the intention of making the public-access television facilities so inviable that interest in them will wane and facilities can be closed. Complaints may also reflect viewers' general disagreement with other people's viewpoints. Complaints may also reflect discrimination in the resources a PEG organization applies to one type of programming vs. another. Another challenge in maintaining public-access television facilities as a free speech forum can come from within the membership of the PEG facility itself, by the overuse of commercial video programmers whose program content contains sponsorship underwriting advertisements like the type permitted on Public Broadcasting stations. Programming could then become very similar to other cable channels and programming without such sponsorship could be deprived of fair treatment by the administrators of a public-access television facility. Future Public-access television organizations remain in service in their municipalities. In a changing technology industry, many PEG organizations began investing in training and technology to distribute media in new ways using the Internet. In the twenty-first century, the consumer media market became flooded with blogs, vlogs, RSS syndication and aggregation, mobile-device and cell phone media, and countless new methods for distributing information and ideas. As cable television adopts new technologies, many public-access television centers adapted these new technologies in order to continue serving their missions and goals within their own constituency. Outside the U.S. There are public-access television or community television channels in other countries, notably in Scandinavia, Western Europe, Canada and Australia. In Germany, Norway and Sweden there are "open channels". In most countries public-access television channels are broadcast on cable but in Australia, Denmark and Norway Terrestrial television transmission is common (UHF or digital). All channels are for profit operations. Notable series Notable stations Boston Neighborhood Network BronxNet Chicago Access Network Television Citizens Television (New Haven, Connecticut) CreaTV San Jose List of American public access television programs Manhattan Neighborhood Network NSTV (North Shore TV) Queens Public Television Seattle Community Access Network Tri-Valley Community Television (Tri-Valley, California) WSTO TV (Stoughton, Wisconsin), early public access station York Community Access Television (York, Pennsylvania), early public access station See also Alliance for Community Media References External links "L.I. Cable Company Ordered to Restore a Public-Access Program" New York Times Published: August 14, 1994 MassAccess Massachusetts advocacy for PEG TV stations. American Community Television national advocacy for PEG TV Alliance for Community Media national organization for PEG access centers "PEG channels" Fact Sheet – FCC Global Village CAT – community television stations around the world Community Media Forum Europe european network for community radio and television RÖK-TV Swedish "Riksförbundet Öppna Kanaler" organisation, representing local public TV stations in Sweden. Swedish Open TV Channel Television terminology American inventions 1969 introductions 1969 establishments in the United States

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20Illusions

City of Illusions

City of Illusions is a 1967 science fiction novel by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin. It is set on Earth in the distant future, and is part of her Hainish Cycle. City of Illusions lays the foundation for the Hainish cycle which is a fictional universe in which the majority of Ursula K. Le Guin's science fiction novels take place. Plot introduction City of Illusions takes place on Earth, also known as Terra, in the future, twelve hundred years after an enemy named the Shing has broken up the defunct League of All Worlds and taken up residence on Earth. The indigenous inhabitants of Earth have been reduced to small communities that are widely separated, living in highly independent rural communes, or in nomadic tribes. The Shing control the human population by using various strategies of indirect manipulation, which include divide and rule, as well as deceptive telepathic mental projection, known as mind-lying. In contrast, innately truthful telepathy, which is the only form of telepathy available to human beings, is known as mindspeech. The ability to lie during mindspeech is unique to the Shing. Prior to the opening scene, the main character, who is a descendant of the protagonists in Planet of Exile, has been involved in a ship crash, and since the Shing do not believe in killing, has had his memory erased and been abandoned in the forest; this leaves his mind as a blank slate or tabula rasa. As the story begins he must develop a new self-identity ex nihilo. Plot summary The man without a memory The story starts as a man is found by a small community (housed in one building) in a forest area in eastern North America. He is naked except for a gold ring on one finger, has no memory except of motor skills at a level equivalent to that of a one-year-old and has bizarre, amber, cat-like eyes. The villagers choose to welcome and nurture him, naming him Falk (Yellow). They teach him to speak, educate him about the Earth, and teach him from a book they consider holy, which is Le Guin's "long-translated" version of the Tao Te Ching. Also they teach him about the nature of the never-seen Shing. The journey After six years, Falk is told by the leader of the community that he needs to understand his origins, and therefore sets off alone for Es Toch, the city of the Shing in the mountains of western North America. He encounters many obstacles to learning the truth about himself and about the Shing, along with evidence of the barbarism of current human society. Along the way, it is sometimes put to him that the image he holds of the Shing is a distorted one; that they respect the idea of 'reverence for life' and are essentially benevolent and non-alien rulers. This suggestion comes from Estrel, a young woman whom Falk meets after being captured by the Basnasska tribe in the great plains. Falk escapes this violent community with Estrel, to reach the city under her guidance. In the course of his journey Falk also encounters Shing-bred talking birds and animals who plead reverence for life in self-defense. The Shing Originally from an unknown, distant region of the galaxy, the Shing infiltrated and destroyed the League of All Worlds twelve hundred years before City of Illusions begins. The League had received prior warning of alien conquerors subduing distant worlds, and for generations had prepared defensive alliances and weaponry. However when the Shing finally arrived they were able to speedily subdue the 80 planets in the League, apparently with no effective opposition. The main weapon enabling this rapid and confused occupation is the Shing's ability to lie in mindspeech. The Shing closely resemble humans though they seem to be unable to interbreed with them. Coming to Earth as "exiles or pirates or empire builders from some distant star" the Shing, who are not numerous, establish themselves in a single fantastical city Es Toch. Under their rule the remainder of Earth declined into a thinly populated collection of backward and often mutually hostile tribal societies. When Falk reaches Es Toch, Estrel betrays him into the hands of the Shing and laughs as she does so. He is told that he is part of the crew of a starship of alien / human hybrids from a planet called Werel. He meets a young man, Orry, who came with him in the ship. At this point it becomes clear that Estrel is a human collaborator working for the Shing, and that she had been sent to retrieve him from the wilds of the so-called Continent 1. The Shing tell Falk that they are in fact humans; the conflict between the League and an alien invader never occurred: On the contrary, the League self-destructed through civil war and exploitation; the "enemy" is an invention of the Shing rulers themselves to try to ensure, through fear, that world peace endures under their benevolent, if misunderstood, rule; Falk's expedition was attacked by rebels who then erased Falk's memory of his previous self; and the Shing, who managed to save only Orry from the rebel attack, now want to restore Falk's previous identity. Falk however believes that the Shing are non-human liars and that their true intent is to determine for their own purposes the location of his home planet. Ruling through "toolmen" – human collaborators who are either computer-controlled or who have been raised to accept the Shing as benign human overlords, the only principle that the Shing seem to adhere to is their law of Reverence for Life. They appear as pathological liars, though Falk, concludes that "the essence of their lying was a profound, irremediable lack of understanding" of the peoples that they have conquered. Shing character, culture, architecture, and even clothing, are deliberately ambiguous and illusory. The Shing also appear to keep vegan lifestyle. Their "elaborately disguised foods were all vegetable" and their law of Reverence for Life is often expressed by the animals it is meant to protect. Throughout his journey to Es Toch, the City of Illusions, Falk encounters animals who instinctively repeat the spoken / telepathic admonition "Wrong to kill. Wrong to kill." Falk, however, suspects that this reverence is nothing more than a disguise for the Shing's own extreme fear of death. Restored Memories Seeing no other way forward, Falk consents to have his memory tampered with. The mind of the original Werelian, Agad Ramarren, is restored and the Falk personality is ostensibly destroyed. He emerges as a new person with pre-Falk memories and vastly greater scientific knowledge. Having prepared a memory-restoring mnemonic trigger, that Falk had left for himself (an instruction, through young Orry, to read the beginning of the book he travels with, his translation of the Tao Te Ching), the Falk personality is revived. After some instability Falk's and Ramarren's minds come to coexist. By comparing the knowledge given to them before and after Ramarren's re-emergence, the joint minds are able to detect the essential dishonesty of the Shing's rule and the fact that the alien conquerors can lie telepathically. It was this power that had enabled the not-very-numerous Shing, "exiles or pirates or empire-builders from some distant star", to overthrow the League of All Worlds twelve centuries before. The Werelians' mental powers are significantly greater than those of their human ancestors; they are able to recognize the Shing mindlie, and cannot be subverted as the member-worlds in the League were. The Shing's cultural inhibition against killing and their dread of being killed leaves them with no effective defense against any armed and cautious expedition that arrived forewarned. Still ignorant of the survival of the Falk persona, the Shing hope to send Ramarren back to his home-world of Werel to present their idyllic story of Earth as a happy garden-planet prospering under their benign guidance, and in no need of outside help. Falk / Ramarren, now fully aware of the brutalized and misruled reality, pretends to accept this, postponing the return journey. Eventually, while on a pleasure trip to view another part of the Earth, his Shing escort (Ken Kenyek) takes telepathic control of Ramarren but is then overcome by Falk, operating as a separate person. Now controlling Ken Kenyek, Falk / Ramarren makes his escape, manipulating his prisoner to find a light-speed ship that can take him home, and how to program it. Falk / Ramarren leaves for his planet of origin, taking Orry and the captive Ken Kenyek with him so that each can present their perception of Shing rule over Earth. The military culture and recently restored advanced technology of the Werelians mean that Earth can probably be liberated "at a blow". However the light-years of travel required mean that Falk's forest friends will be long dead when he returns. Epilogue embedded in Left Hand of Darkness While City of Illusions concludes at this point, Falk / Ramarren's mission apparently succeeds in bringing freedom to the Earth. In The Left Hand of Darkness, the Terran diplomat Genly Ai refers to the "Age of the Enemy" as something dreadful that is now past. He also knows of the Werelians, now called Alterrans. The fate of the Shing is not mentioned, either there or in any later book. Characters All-Alonio A solitary, yet profound man who shelters Falk and gives him a "slider," or flying machine. He provides Falk with oblique but pertinent guidance, most notably that the Shing are few in number and rule through lies and illusion. Estrel Portrayed as Falk's ally and lover, Estrel is later shown to be a human agent of the Shing tasked with bringing him to Es Toch convinced of the beneficial nature of their rule. She wears a necklace which appears to have religious significance, but is actually a communication device. Estrel eventually suffers a psychotic break-down, attempts to kill Falk, and suffers an unknown fate at the hands of the Shing. Falk A middle aged man who is the protagonist of the story; he appears to suffer from amnesia. As Ramarren he was navigator of the Werel expedition to Earth. As Ramarren / Falk he comes to possess the skills, knowledge and character traits of both individuals. Har Orry A youth raised and largely brain-washed by the Shing. Other than Falk he is the only known survivor of the Werel expedition, two of whom were his parents. Like Estrel he is used by the Shing to convince Falk of their benign purposes. Passive and easily dominated he still shows traces of his childhood in a disciplined and hierarchical society. Ken Kenyek A Shing mindhandler and scientist, who together with fellow Lords Abundibot and Kradgy, attempts to deceive and manipulate Falk. These are the only characters in the book who are identified as being Shing. Ken Kenyek appears as a detached and analytical figure, lacking the more sinister traits of his two fellow aliens. Parth A young human woman of the Forest People, who helps re-educate Falk and becomes his lover. She farewells him, knowing that he will not return in her lifetime. Prince of Kansas An elderly man who, without force, leads a sophisticated enclave of approximately 200 people living in the wilderness. He is in possession of luxuries such as a great library, domesticated dogs (otherwise extinct in this era), and a complex patterning frame that he uses to foretell Falk's future. His miniature society appears benign but quixotic – setting off fire-crackers to repulse occasional Shing "air-cars" as they fly indifferently overhead. Zove A father-figure of a family of Forest People whose teaching-by-paradox methods closely resemble those of the sage Laozi. Publication history City of Illusions was Le Guin's first novel that appeared as an independent paperback, unlike her earlier novels which appeared in the tête-bêche format. City of Illusions was initially published with no introduction, but Le Guin wrote an introduction for Harper & Row's 1978 hardcover edition. City of Illusions was re‑issued along with Rocannon's World and Planet of Exile in a 1978 omnibus volume titled Three Hainish Novels, and again in 1996 with the same novels in Worlds of Exile and Illusion. Literary significance and criticism Reception City of Illusions, like its two preceding Hainish novels, received little critical attention when it was published. Subsequently, it has not received as much critical attention as many of Le Guin's other works. In terms of its place in the development of the canon of science fiction, it has been noted that City of Illusions combines the sensibility of traditional British Science Fiction, images from American genre Science Fiction and anthropological ideas. Wood (1986), regarding the initial Hainish trilogy as a whole, notes that "innovative and entertaining fictions develop on the solid conceptual basis of human values affirmed" She goes on to point out that philosophical speculation is the most important element of the novel. Bain (1986) points out that City of Illusions, like Le Guin's novels The Left Hand of Darkness and The Dispossessed, is permeated with a "Taoist mythos". One science fiction scholar points out that City of Illusions, along with Rocannon's World and Planet of Exile exhibits Le Guin's struggle as an emerging writer to arrive at a plausible, uniquely memorable and straightforward locale for her stories. The author herself makes several comments about City of Illusions in her introduction to the 1978 hardback edition. Le Guin was excited to use her own translation of the Tao Te Ching. She was also interested in using physical and mental forests in the novel, and in imagining a less populated world, while still holding some type of civilization as a worthwhile, lofty ideal. Specifically she regrets the improbable and flawed depiction of the villains, the Shing, as not convincingly evil. Themes Defining and questioning the truth is the central issue of City of Illusions, which holds its roots in the always-truthful "mindspeech" introduced in Planet of Exile and the Shing's ambiguous variation on it, called the "mindlie". Correspondingly, themes of illusion and ambiguity are central to the novel. The story is as much a post industrial-collapse science fiction tale as it is a mystery tale. It starts with a man with no memory, and with eyes whose appearance suggests he is not human, raising questions as to his true nature: Is he human or alien, and is he a tool or a victim of the alien enemy, the Shing? The Shing's nature itself eventually comes into question through his journey. The theme of illusion and ambiguity is present throughout the book – both in terms of behavior (the main female character is initially a friend, then a betrayer, and ultimately maybe both) and even physical environment (the city Es Toch is a shimmering facade of visual deceptions). Barbour (1986) points out that light / dark imagery is in an important and common thread that runs through Le Guin's initial Hainish trilogy, tying in closely with Taoism in the Tao-te Ching, a book that has special meaning to the main character. Specifically in City of Illusions the main character's story begins and ends in darkness, and among many other similar images, the city of Es Toch is described as a place of awful darkness and bright lights. Although Le Guin based the location of Es Toch on the Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, Bittner (1986) points out that the city, like many of Le Guin's imaginary landscapes, is both an image and a symbol with underlying psychological value and meaning, in this case an underlying chasm. Wood (1986) furthers this notion pointing out the city is "built across a chasm in the ground, a hollow place." Spivack (1984) points out that City of Illusions includes Le Guin's focus on the concept of contrasts, in particular the need for reconciliation of opposites, a concept related to Taoism, that must take place in Falk's divided mind. One notable theme of City of Illusions is that of isolation and separation, with the story focusing heavily on one character who does not connect well with other characters. A minor theme of exploring an oppressive male-dominated culture is present, represented by the misogynistic Bee-Keepers. It has been suggested that the novel also explores theme of anarchism in the original village and its neighbors, which display communal living. Objects The patterning frame, a device which Falk encounters twice, is notable. He first sees a simple one at Zove's house and then later a more complex one that belongs to the Prince of Kansas. The device uses moveable stones on crossing wires as a representation of the physical world; its use as a fortune-telling device, computer, toy, or mystical implement is vague. Scholars have noted that it is a foreshadowing device and used to attain a coexistence of the past, present and future, a notable aspect of Taoism. It has been suggested that the book The Old Canon, the book of the Way, the Tao Te Ching, has talismanic properties in the narrative. As a mere object it is an inspiring book; Falk is given a luxurious copy by Zove before he sets out on his travels. After Falk loses this copy, the Prince of Kansas gives him a replacement from his vast library. Its first page is the mnemonic trigger that Falk uses to restore his memories and personality to his and Ramarren's shared mind after it is erased by the Shing (see above). Footnotes References Sources 1967 American novels 1967 science fiction novels Fiction set around Gamma Draconis Hainish Cycle Post-apocalyptic novels Ace Books books Novels by Ursula K. Le Guin Novels about telepathy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20Burrell

Pat Burrell

Patrick Brian Burrell (born October 10, 1976), nicknamed "Pat the Bat", is an American former professional baseball outfielder. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Philadelphia Phillies, Tampa Bay Rays, and San Francisco Giants. Burrell won two World Series championships (2008, 2010). During his playing days, he stood tall, weighing . He batted and threw right-handed. Burrell attended the University of Miami, where he won the Golden Spikes Award in 1998. On June 2, 1998, he was the first overall draft pick by the Philadelphia Phillies. After two years in the minor leagues, Burrell was called up by the Phillies in 2000, and he finished fourth in voting for the National League Rookie of the Year Award. After hitting 27 home runs (HR) in 2001 (the first of eight straight years in which Burrell would hit at least 20), he hit a career-high 37 home runs in 2002 and finished 14th in NL Most Valuable Player Award voting. In 2003, Burrell signed a six-year contract with the Phillies but batted a career-low .209, with 21 home runs. In 2004, he batted .257 with 24 home runs but missed several games with a wrist injury. Burrell hit 32 home runs in 2005 and finished seventh in NL MVP Award voting after he set a career high with 117 runs batted in (RBI). In 2006, he batted .258, with 29 home runs, and 95 RBI but was benched for a few games due to a slump after April. Burrell batted .256 with 30 home runs in 2007 as the Phillies reached the playoffs for the first time in his career. He hit a home run in the playoffs as the Phillies were swept in the first round. In 2008, Burrell hit 33 home runs as the Phillies reached the playoffs again, winning the World Series. After the 2008 season, Burrell became a free agent. He signed a two-year deal with the Tampa Bay Rays to be their designated hitter. In 2009, Burrell batted a disappointing .221 with 14 home runs. After he batted only .202 with two home runs in his first 24 games of the 2010 season, Burrell was designated for assignment by the Rays. He became a free agent and signed with the San Francisco Giants several days later. Burrell took over as San Francisco's left fielder and hit 18 home runs in 96 games for the Giants, helping to lead them into the playoffs. He had a key double versus his former team, the Phillies, as the Giants defeated them on their way to the World Series. That fall, Burrell got his second World Series ring as the Giants emerged victorious against the Texas Rangers. The following year, he signed a one-year deal to return for the Giants’ 2011 season; however, Burrell ultimately lost his left field job, as he batted .230, with a career-low 7 home runs, in 92 games, while battling what would be a career-ending foot injury. Burrell filed for free agency on October 30, 2011. On April 12, 2012, it was announced that Philadelphia would sign him to a one-day contract, in order that he could finish his career as a Phillie. On May 19, 2012, at Citizens Bank Park, prior to the Phillies-Boston Red Sox game, Burrell threw out the ceremonial first pitch and subsequently retired. In March 2012, Burrell was named as a special assignment scout for the Giants and an assistant to General Manager (GM) Brian Sabean. Early life Burrell attended San Lorenzo Valley High School in Felton, California, as a freshman. After his freshman year, he transferred to Bellarmine College Preparatory in San Jose, where he played baseball and football. In the football program, playing quarterback, Burrell competed against Tom Brady, who played for rival Junipero Serra High School in San Mateo, California. He decided to concentrate on baseball in his senior year, however, and he was named the California Coaches Association Player of the Year after he batted .369 with 11 home runs. College career After graduating from high school in 1995, Burrell was drafted by the Boston Red Sox in the 43rd round of the 1995 Major League Baseball (MLB) Draft. Instead of signing, he chose to attend the University of Miami, where he played third base and was a teammate of Aubrey Huff. As a freshman, he was selected as a First-Team All-American by Baseball America and the Collegiate Baseball Newspaper. He was also named the Most Outstanding Player of the 1996 College World Series, joining Dave Winfield and Phil Nevin as the only players to win the award without winning the series. In the summer of 1996, he played collegiate summer baseball in the Cape Cod Baseball League for the Hyannis Mets and was named a league all-star. In his sophomore year, he was again named a First-Team All-American by Baseball America and the Collegiate Baseball Newspaper but also by the Sporting News this year. He was named Baseball America's Summer Player of the year in 1997. In 1998, as a junior, he won the Golden Spikes Award as the best player in college baseball. That year, he was drafted by the Philadelphia Phillies with the first overall pick in the 1998 MLB draft. Burrell finished his college career with 61 home runs, 187 runs batted in (RBI), and 170 walks in 162 games. His .442 batting average was seventh all-time by an NCAA player, and his slugging percentage of .888 was second only to Pete Incaviglia. In February 2008, Burrell was inducted into the University of Miami Sports Hall of Fame. Professional career On July 24, 1998, Burrell and the Phillies agreed to a five-year contract with a $3.15 million signing bonus. Upon signing, Burrell was assigned to the Class A-Advanced Clearwater Phillies of the Florida State League, and he was moved to first base because Scott Rolen, Philadelphia's third baseman in the major leagues, had just won the National League (NL) Rookie of the Year Award. With Clearwater in 1998, Burrell batted .303 with 7 home runs and 30 RBI in 37 games. Entering the 1999 season, Burrell was named the top prospect in the Phillies' organization by Baseball America, who also named him baseball's 19th best prospect. He spent most of the season with the Double-A Reading Phillies of the Eastern League, batting .333 with 28 home runs and 90 RBI in 117 games. He was named to the Eastern League's post-season All-Star team and won the Eastern League Rookie of the Year Award. He also played 10 games with the Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons of the Triple-A International League, batting .152 with 1 home run and 4 RBI. In addition to playing first base, he was used as an outfielder with both teams. Burrell was named the Phillies' top prospect and the second-best prospect in baseball by Baseball America in 2000. He began the season with Scranton/Wilkes-Barre. Playing first base and the outfield, he batted .294 with 4 home runs and 25 RBI in 40 games. Philadelphia Phillies (2000–2008) 2000 On May 23, 2000, Burrell was called up by the Phillies. On May 24, he replaced Kevin Jordan (who had been filling in for injured Opening Day first baseman Rico Brogna) as the Phillies' first baseman. Making his major league debut that day, Burrell had two hits (his first coming against Octavio Dotel) and two RBI in a 9–7 victory over the Houston Astros. The following day, he hit his first career home run in a 10–6 loss to Houston. On June 20, with the Phillies trailing 2–1 against the New York Mets, Burrell hit a home run against Mets' closer Armando Benítez to make the score 2–2 in an eventual 3–2 victory for Philadelphia. The next day, Burrell had five RBI, two home runs, and his first career grand slam in a 10–5 victory for Philadelphia. On July 2, he had four hits and two RBI in a 9–1 victory over the Pittsburgh Pirates. Burrell remained the Phillies' first baseman when Brogna returned in July. He had five RBI, two home runs, and a grand slam on August 8 in a 10–4 victory over the San Diego Padres. On August 9, newly acquired outfielder Travis Lee was moved to first base, and Burrell was moved to left field for the rest of the year. On September 21, he had a game-winning single against Rick White in a 6–5 victory against the Mets. Burrell finished the season with 18 home runs, 79 RBI, and a .260 batting average in 111 games, and received the fourth most votes for the NL Rookie of the Year Award. 2001 On April 14, 2001, Burrell hit a game-winning home run in the sixth inning of a 2–1 victory over the Atlanta Braves. He had a game-winning two-RBI double in the ninth inning as the Phillies beat the Chicago Cubs, 6–3, on April 17. From May 19 to June 2, Burrell had a career-high 14-game hitting streak. During the streak, on May 28, he hit a game-winning two-run home run against Benítez in the tenth inning of a 5–3 win over the Mets. Burrell hit a home run and had four RBI the next day as the Phillies beat the Mets, 7–3. He hit a game-winning, three-run home run on July 4 in a 4–1 victory over the Atlanta Braves. On July 20, Burrell had a home run and five RBI (including the game-winner) as the Phillies beat the Mets, 10–1. He hit home runs in three straight games from July 31 to August 2. On August 10, as the Phillies beat the Los Angeles Dodgers, 10–5, Burrell hit his third career grand slam. He had a home run and three RBI in the final game of the season in a 4–1 victory over the Cincinnati Reds. Burrell finished the season with 27 home runs, 70 RBI, and a .258 batting average in 155 games. His 18 assists led NL outfielders and tied with Raúl Mondesí for most in the major leagues. However, his 162 strikeouts were the third-highest total in Phillies' history at the time, and they currently are the ninth-highest total. 2002 Burrell hit a leadoff walk-off home run on April 7, 2002, in the 11th inning, giving a 3–2 victory over the Florida Marlins. Three days later, Burrell hit a two-run, walk-off home run in the 11th inning to give the Phillies a 7–5 victory over the Braves. He was the first player in the major leagues to hit two such home runs in a four-day period since Albert Belle did it in 1995, and he was the first Phillie to hit two such in a season since Von Hayes hit two in 1989. In May, Burrell hit eight home runs, the most by a Phillie in May since teammate Mike Lieberthal hit eight in 1999. From June 2 through June 16, he had an 11-game hitting streak, his longest of the season. During the streak, on June 2, Burrell tied a career high with five RBI in an 18–3 victory over the Montreal Expos. Burrell had 22 home runs by the All-Star break, the most by a Phillie since Mike Schmidt had 31 by the 1979 All-Star break. On July 15, he hit a game-winning three-run home run against Matt Herges in an 11–8 victory over Montreal. Burrell had two home runs, five RBI, and a grand slam in a 7–6 loss to the Dodgers on August 9. On August 30, Burrell had three RBI (including the game-winner) in a 7–5 victory over the Mets. He recorded his 100th RBI that day, becoming the first Phillie with 100 RBI by August 31 since Greg Luzinski accomplished the feat in 1977. Burrell finished the season with career highs in almost every offensive category, including runs (96), batting average (.286), and games (157). He was the 12th Phillie with 30 home runs and 100 RBI in a season. His 37 home runs were seventh in the NL, and his 116 RBI were third, behind only Lance Berkman (128) and Albert Pujols (127). He was 14th in NL Most Valuable Player Award voting. 2003 On February 3, 2003, Burrell signed a six-year, $50 million contract with the Phillies. He had two home runs and five RBI (including the game-winner) on April 9 in a 16–2 victory over the Braves. The home runs both came against Greg Maddux, making Burrell the sixth player to hit two home runs in a game against Maddux (and the first since Rolen did it in 2001). On May 20, he hit two home runs and had four RBI in an 11–7 victory over the Mets. On August 9, Burrell hit a game-tying solo home run and a game-winning two-run home run in the 8th and 10th innings of an 8–6 victory over the San Francisco Giants. He hit two home runs (including his 100th) on August 22 in a 9–4 victory over the St. Louis Cardinals. On September 28, he had the final hit in Veterans Stadium (a single against Jason Marquis) in a 5–2 loss to Atlanta. Burrell endured a season-long slump, and he was occasionally benched for a few games (often in favor of Ricky Ledée) by Phillies' manager Larry Bowa. In 146 games, he batted .209 with 21 home runs and 64 RBI. However, his 21 home runs were still the second-highest total on the Phillies (teammate Jim Thome led the NL with 47). 2004 Burrell had four hits and three RBI on April 27, 2004, in a 7–3 victory over the Cardinals. He also made a leaping catch to take a home run away from Rolen, and he threw out Pujols trying to score from third base on a single by Édgar Rentería. On May 2, Burrell hit his first career pinch-hit home run: a two-run game-tying home run in the ninth inning against Matt Mantei of the Arizona Diamondbacks. The Phillies won the game, 6–5, in extra innings. On May 14, Burrell had four RBI (including the game-winner) in a 6–4 victory over the Colorado Rockies. He had four RBI again on May 18 (including two home runs) in an 8–7 victory over the Dodgers. On July 30, he hit two home runs in a 10–7 loss to the Cubs. On August 3, Burrell strained his left wrist during batting practice, and he was placed on the disabled list (DL) for the first time in his career the next day. He was originally scheduled to have season-ending surgery on August 13, but after getting a second opinion from Dr. Tom Graham, he decided to postpone the surgery and attempt to come back before the season ended. On September 3, he was activated from the disabled list. In 127 games, Burrell batted .257 with 24 home runs and 84 RBI. 2005 On April 9, 2005, Burrell had four hits and five RBI in a 10–4 victory over the Cardinals. He won the first NL Player of the Week Award of the 2005 season on April 10 after accumulating 15 RBI in the first week of the season. On May 12, he had four hits in a 7–5 loss to Cincinnati. He hit a three-run game-winning home run on May 22 in a 7–2 victory over the Baltimore Orioles. He won another Player of the Week Award that day after he batted .500 with two home runs and eight RBI during the week, becoming the first Phillies player to win the award twice in a season since Hayes won it twice in 1986. On June 5, his solo home run against Mike Koplove was the game-winner in a 7–6 victory over Arizona. Four days later, he hit two home runs and had four RBI in a 10–8 victory over the Texas Rangers. On June 11, he hit a game-winning three-run home run in a 7–5 victory over the Milwaukee Brewers. He hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 13–7 victory over Florida on July 14. On July 30, he had four hits and two RBI in an 8–7 victory over Colorado. On August 9, he had four RBI, including a go-ahead three-run home run against Steve Schmoll in an 8–4 victory over the Dodgers. His three-run home run against Jake Peavy on August 12 provided all of the Phillies' runs in a 3–2 victory over San Diego. He had four RBI on September 9 in a 12–5 victory over the Marlins. Two days later, he had four RBI again (including a three-run home run against Ismael Valdez) in an 11–1 victory over Florida. Burrell finished the season batting .281 with 32 home runs in 154 games, and he set career highs in walks (99) and RBI (117). His 32 home runs led the Phillies, and his 117 RBI were second only to Andruw Jones' 128 (Pujols also had 117). On defense, however, he tied for the lead among all major league left fielders in errors, with seven, and the lowest fielding percentage among them, at .972. Burrell finished seventh in voting for the NL MVP award, and he was the co-winner of the Mike Schmidt MVP Award (along with Chase Utley). 2006 In April 2006, Burrell batted .300 with seven home runs. From April 14 to 27, he had 13 RBI in 11 games. However, he batted .249 for the rest of the season, and in June Philles' manager Charlie Manuel began benching him occasionally (often in favor of David Dellucci). On May 1, Burrell hit a game-winning solo home run in an 8–5 victory over Florida. On May 7, he had three RBI, including a two-run home run against Matt Morris as the Phillies defeated the Giants, 9–5. On June 9, he had three RBI, including a two-run home run against Gary Majewski, but the Phillies lost, 9–8, to the Washington Nationals. The next day, he hit a game-winning two-run home run in a 6–2 victory over the Nationals. On June 15, he hit two home runs and had three RBI against Steve Trachsel, but the Phillies lost to the Mets, 5–4. He had four hits and four RBI in a 14–6 victory over the Giants on July 15. On August 22, his RBI double in the sixth inning was the game-winning RBI in a 6–3 victory over the Cubs. His first inning grand slam against Roger Clemens on September 15 provided all of the Phillies' runs in a 4–3 victory over Houston. On September 20, his fielder's choice was the game-winning RBI in a 6–2 victory over the Cubs. He hit two home runs, had four RBI, and set a career high with four runs scored on September 29 in a 14–2 victory over Florida. In 144 games, Burrell finished the season batting .258 with 29 home runs and 95 RBI. 2007 Burrell became the Phillies' longest tenured player in 2007 with the departure of Lieberthal via free agency. He hit only one home run in April but had a .292 batting average. On April 6, he homered and had four RBI (including the game-winner) in an 8–2 victory over Florida. He began to slump after April, batting .157 over the next two months. Once again, Manuel began benching him, using Greg Dobbs, Jayson Werth, or Michael Bourn in left field. On May 11, Burrell hit two home runs and had five RBI in a 7–2 victory over the Cubs. Werth was injured at the end of June, however, and Burrell reclaimed his starting job by batting .435 in July, with six home runs and 22 RBI. From July 1 through the end of the season, he batted .300 with 22 home runs and 65 RBI, starting the final 75 games of the season for the Phillies in left field. On July 14, he had four RBI in a 10–4 victory over St. Louis. Three days later, Burrell hit his 200th career home run in a 15–3 victory over the Dodgers. He had a 14-game hitting streak from July 22 to August 5, tying his career high. On August 17, in an 11–8 victory over the Pirates, Burrell got his 1,000th career hit, a two-run home run. At the end of August, the Phillies faced the Mets, whom they trailed in the NL East by six games, for a four-game series. In the first game of the series, on August 27, Burrell hit a game-winning two-run home run in a 9–2 victory. Two days later, in the third game of the series, he hit a solo home run and had a sacrifice fly (the game-winning RBI) against Óliver Pérez in a 3–2 victory. He hit two home runs in the fourth and final game of the series as the Phillies won 11–10 to sweep the Mets. On September 21, his two-run home run against Shawn Hill provided the game-winning RBI in a 6–3 victory over Washington. Burrell finished the 2007 regular season batting .256 with 30 home runs, 97 RBI, and 114 walks (a career high) in 155 games. Burrell, Ryan Howard, and Jimmy Rollins became the second trio of Phillies with 30 or more home runs (and the first since 1929). On defense, he led major league outfielders in errors, with 10, and his .948 fielding percentage was the lowest among left fielders. In 2007, the Phillies won the NL East and reached the playoffs for the first time since 1993 and the first time in Burrell's career. Burrell hit a home run against Jeff Francis in the first game of the NL Division Series (NLDS) but had only one other hit in the series as the Phillies were swept by the Colorado Rockies. 2008 Burrell batted .326 in April 2008, with 8 home runs and 24 RBI. He hit two home runs on April 7 (including the game-winner) against Bronson Arroyo in a 5–3 victory over Cincinnati. On April 24, his two-run double against David Riske provided the game-winning RBI in the Phillies' 3–1 victory over Milwaukee. With the double, Burrell got his 23rd and 24th RBI of the month, breaking Hayes' team record for most RBI in April (22). After batting .227 in May (with five home runs), Burrell batted .256 with six home runs in June. His walk-off two-run home run with two outs in the tenth inning gave the Phillies a 6–5 victory over San Francisco on May 2. On May 22, Burrell hit a game-winning pinch-hit home run in a 7–5 victory over Houston. On June 3, he hit a game-winning two-run home run in a 3–2 victory over Cincinnati. He followed up his performance in June by hitting .304 in July with seven home runs, but he slumped over the final two months, batting .191 with seven home runs. He hit a game-winning three-run home run on July 13 in a 6–3 victory over Arizona. On August 15, his home run helped the Phillies defeat the Padres 1–0. Two days later, he hit a game-winning home run in a 2–1 victory over the Padres. He had five RBI (including a game-winning three-run home run against Clayton Kershaw) in a 9–2 victory over the Dodgers on August 23. Burrell finished the season batting .250 with 33 home runs (tied for ninth in the NL), 86 RBI, and 102 walks (third in the NL) in 157 games, and the Phillies won the NL East for the second straight year. In Game 4 (the final game) of the NLDS against the Brewers, Burrell hit two home runs (a three-run game-winning home run against Jeff Suppan and a solo home run against Guillermo Mota) in a 6–2 victory that gave the Phillies their first playoff series victory since 1993. Four days later, in the first game of the NL Championship Series, he hit a game-winning solo home run in a 3–2 victory over the Dodgers. After going hitless in his first 14 at-bats in the World Series, Burrell doubled against J. P. Howell of the Tampa Bay Rays on October 29 in Game 5 (the final game of the series). Burrell was then replaced by pinch-runner Eric Bruntlett, who scored the game's winning run in the 4–3 victory as the Phillies won their first World Series since 1980. After the series, Burrell was chosen to lead the Phillies' World Series parade. Burrell filed for free agency on November 6. On December 16, the Phillies signed left fielder Raúl Ibañez to a three-year contract, ending Burrell's tenure in Philadelphia. Burrell's 104 double plays grounded into were the seventh-most in Phillies history, and his 1,273 strikeouts were second only to Schmidt. However, Burrell was fifth in walks (785), eighth in RBI (827), and fourth in home runs (251) as a Phillie. His eight straight seasons with at least 20 home runs were topped only by Schmidt. Tampa Bay Rays (2009–2010) On January 5, 2009, the Tampa Bay Rays signed Burrell to a two-year, $16 million contract. They planned to use him as their designated hitter. Burrell got a standing ovation when he returned to Philadelphia for an exhibition series on April 3 and 4. On April 9, Burrell flew to Philadelphia to join the Phillies as they received their World Series rings in a pregame ceremony. After the ceremony, he flew back to Boston for the Rays' game against the Boston Red Sox. On May 17, Burrell was placed on the disabled list (retroactive to May 12) with a neck strain. He was activated from the DL on June 11. On June 24, he hit a game-winning two-run home run and had three RBI in a 7–1 victory over the Phillies. On July 7, he hit a walk-off two-run home run in the 11th inning of a 3–1 victory over the Toronto Blue Jays. On September 2, he had a game-winning RBI single in an 8–5 victory over Boston. He had four RBI against Jason Berken (including a three-run home run) on September 15 in a 10–5 loss to Baltimore. Burrell slumped throughout the 2009 season, and he finished the year batting .221 in 122 games. He set or tied career-lows in hits (91), home runs (14), RBI (64), and walks (57). Burrell hit a game-winning two-run home run in the 12th inning of a 3–1 victory over Boston on April 17, 2010. On April 27, he hit a game-winning three-run home run in an 8–6 victory over the Oakland Athletics. In his first 24 games of the season, Burrell batted .202 with two home runs and 13 RBI. On May 15, he was designated for assignment and replaced on the Rays' roster by Hank Blalock. Four days later, he became a free agent after clearing waivers. San Francisco Giants (2010–2011) On May 29, 2010, the San Francisco Giants signed Burrell to a minor league contract and assigned him to the triple-A Fresno Grizzlies of the Pacific Coast League. After batting .313 with one home run and six RBI in five games, he was called up to the Giants on June 4 to replace John Bowker, who was optioned to Fresno. The next day, he took over from Aubrey Huff (who moved over to right field) as the Giants' left fielder. On July 31, with the Giants trailing 1–0 to the Dodgers in the eighth inning, Burrell hit a two-run home run to give the Giants a 2–1 victory. On August 6, he hit a game-winning sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 3–2 victory over Atlanta. Three days later, the Giants faced the Chicago Cubs for a four-game series. In the first game of the series, Burrell hit a walk-off sacrifice fly in the 11th inning of a 4–3 victory. In the third game, he had three RBI (including a game-winning home run in the eighth inning against Justin Berg) in a 5–4 victory. In the finale, Burrell hit two home runs (including a grand slam) and had five RBI in an 8–7 victory. On August 17, Burrell returned to Philadelphia for his first regular season game there as a member of the opposing team, and he received a standing ovation. He hit a home run in his first at bat of the game, but the Giants lost, 9–3. With the Giants in 2010, Burrell batted .266 with 289 at-bats, 18 home runs, and 51 RBI in 96 games as the Giants won the NL West and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since 2003. Burrell's 2010 totals were 373 at-bats, 94 hits, 20 home runs, and 64 RBI in 120 games. In Game 2 of the NLDS against Atlanta on October 8, Burrell hit a three-run home run in a 5–4 loss. On October 16, in Game 1 of the NLCS against the Phillies, he had an RBI double against Roy Halladay. Nate Schierholtz then pinch-ran for him, scoring the winning run in the Giants' 4–3 victory. In the World Series, Burrell struck out eleven times in thirteen at-bats, had no hits, and was benched for Game 4. The Giants won the World Series in five games, and Burrell received his second championship ring. On November 1, Burrell filed for free agency. A month later, on December 3, he signed a one-year, $1 million contract to return to the Giants in 2011. In his first 20 games of 2011, Burrell batted .270 with five home runs and eight RBI. On April 18, he hit a game-winning three-run home run in an 8–1 victory over Colorado. After batting .172 with one RBI over his next 12 games, he was replaced as the Giants' left fielder by Cody Ross, who was replaced as the Giants' right fielder by Schierholtz. On May 4, Burrell had a game-winning RBI single in a 2–0 victory over the Mets. In the first game of a doubleheader against the Cubs on June 28, Burrell had a home run and three RBI in a 13–7 victory. He had a game-winning RBI single on July 7 in a 2–1 victory over San Diego. On July 15, Burrell was placed on the disabled list with a potentially career-ending foot injury. He returned from the DL on August 31, but he was not able to start regularly upon returning. For the final game of the year (a 6–3 loss to Colorado on September 28), Burrell started in left field after asking Giants' manager Bruce Bochy to put him in the lineup since it was potentially his final game. He finished the year batting .230 with career-lows in games (92), at bats (183), hits (42), home runs (seven), and RBI (21). On October 30, he filed for free agency. Burrell signed a one-day contract with the Philadelphia Phillies on May 19, 2012, so he could officially retire as a Phillie. It was announced on February 28, 2015, that Burrell would be inducted onto the Phillies Wall of Fame. He was subsequently inducted on Friday, July 31. He stated, "I always knew that the fans were behind me, even through the tough times. When David called and told me I had been voted in by the fans, it was overwhelming." Burrell was the 37th inductee to the Wall of Fame. "Met Killer" Burrell showed a penchant for hitting clutch home runs against the New York Mets. In 2007, Burrell hit four home runs in a four-game series sweep against the Mets in late August. In total, he hit 42 home runs against the Mets through the 2011 season, his highest total against any team, which ranked fifth all-time in home runs hit against the franchise at the time of his departure from Philadelphia (he has since fallen to sixth, having been passed by Chipper Jones.) Batting .264 at the Phillies' home parks against a .228 mark at Shea Stadium, Burrell nonetheless enjoyed playing in New York, citing the atmosphere and memorable home runs against Mets pitchers, including two in back-to-back games against then-closer Armando Benítez. Scouting and coaching After his playing career ended, Burrell became a special assignment scout for the San Francisco Giants in Scottsdale, Arizona. He is currently hitting coach for the San Jose Giants, the Giants' farm team in the California League. Personal life Pat had an English Bulldog named Elvis who was featured in the Phillies 2008 World Series Parade. Elvis died in September 2014. See also List of Major League Baseball career home run leaders References External links Pat Burrell at Baseball Almanac Pat Burrell at Baseball Gauge 1976 births Living people Baseball players from Arkansas Baseball players from San Jose, California Charlotte Stone Crabs players College World Series Most Outstanding Player Award winners Clearwater Phillies players Fresno Grizzlies players Golden Spikes Award winners Hyannis Harbor Hawks players Major League Baseball designated hitters Major League Baseball left fielders Miami Hurricanes baseball players Montgomery Biscuits players People from Carroll County, Arkansas People from Eureka Springs, Arkansas Philadelphia Phillies players Reading Phillies players San Francisco Giants players San Francisco Giants scouts Baseball players from San Francisco Scranton/Wilkes-Barre Red Barons players Baseball players from Scottsdale, Arizona Tampa Bay Rays players People from Felton, California Baseball players from Santa Cruz County, California All-American college baseball players Bellarmine College Preparatory alumni

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrell%20Owens

Terrell Owens

Terrell Eldorado Owens (; born December 7, 1973), nicknamed "T.O.", is an American former football wide receiver who played 15 seasons in the National Football League (NFL). Regarded as one of the greatest wide receivers of all time, Owens ranks third in NFL history in career receiving yards and receiving touchdowns. After playing college football and basketball at Chattanooga, Owens was selected in the third round of the 1996 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers. Owens was a member of the team for seven seasons until he was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2004. Two years later, he signed with the Dallas Cowboys, where he spent three seasons. Owens' NFL career subsequently concluded after one season each with the Buffalo Bills and Cincinnati Bengals. He also played for the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League (IFL) in 2012 and returned to professional football in 2022 with Fan Controlled Football (FCF). A six-time Pro Bowl and five-time first-team All-Pro selection, Owens also created a significant amount of controversy during his professional career and attracted attention for his flamboyant touchdown celebrations. He was inducted to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2018, in his third year of eligibility. Early life Owens was born to Marilyn Heard and her neighbor L.C. Russell in Alexander City, Alabama. At 10 years old, he discovered his father's identity after liking his daughter, only to learn that she was his sister. He grew up with three other siblings and was raised by his mother and grandmother. He enjoyed watching football, especially his favorite player, Jerry Rice. However, Owens' grandmother initially forbade him from playing sports until high school. Owens attended Benjamin Russell High School, where he participated in football, baseball, track, and basketball. Owens did not start on his high school football team until his junior year, when one of his teammates missed a game due to illness. College career While enrolled at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Owens played basketball, football, and ran track. Owens played in the 1995 NCAA basketball tournament. He became a starter during his sophomore year. Owens caught 38 passes for 724 yards and eight touchdowns during his sophomore year, and 34 passes for 357 yards and three touchdowns during his junior year. Having gained respect in the NCAA, Owens faced double coverage more frequently during his senior year, and was limited to 43 receptions for 667 yards and one touchdown. Owens previously held the single-season receptions record at Chattanooga until it was broken in 2007 by Alonzo Nix. In his senior year, he anchored the school's 4 × 100 relay team at the NCAA championship. He also participated in the Senior Bowl, a college all-star game played by college seniors, in preparation for the NFL Draft. Professional career San Francisco 49ers Because he played his college football at UT-Chattanooga, an FCS school that did not have a winning season during his time there, Owens' visibility to NFL scouts was lessened, and he dropped to the third round of the 1996 NFL Draft, where the San Francisco 49ers drafted him 89th overall. Owens played his first professional game against the New Orleans Saints, where he served as a member of the 49ers' special teams. His first two catches were recorded against the Carolina Panthers on September 22, 1996, for a total of six yards. His first touchdown came on October 20 against the Cincinnati Bengals; in the fourth quarter he caught a 45-yard touchdown pass from Steve Young that tied a game eventually won by the 49ers 28–21. After the 49ers' top receiver Jerry Rice suffered a torn ACL early in the 1997 NFL season, Owens took Rice's place in the lineup, beating out former 1st round pick J.J. Stokes for the job. He and quarterback Young helped the 49ers win 13 games that season; Owens finished with 936 receiving yards and eight touchdowns; he added a touchdown in San Francisco's playoff win over the Minnesota Vikings. 1998 was another 12–4 season for the 49ers and the first 1,000-yard year for Owens, as he caught 67 balls for 1,097 yards and 14 touchdowns; he even had a rushing touchdown in October against the St. Louis Rams. In the Wildcard playoff game, the 49ers faced the Green Bay Packers who had beaten them five straight times, three of them playoff games. Owens struggled, dropping a number of passes as a result of being briefly blinded by late-afternoon sun. Despite this, Young kept throwing to Owens and he redeemed himself by catching the game-winning touchdown (immortalized by the impassioned game call of 49ers radio play-by-play announcer Joe Starkey) for a 30–27 comeback victory. In 1999, Owens had 60 catches for 754 yards and four touchdowns. Young retired after the 1999 season after he was unable to pass medical tests as a result of a concussion sustained that season, and Jeff Garcia was named the 49ers' starting quarterback. In 2000, the 49ers managed to win only six games. However, Owens had a record-breaking day on December 17, 2000 with 20 catches for 283 yards in a 17-0 49ers win over the Chicago Bears. The record-breaking 20 receptions surpassed a 50-year-old mark held by Tom Fears (it has since been surpassed by Brandon Marshall, who made 21 receptions in a game in 2009). Owens finished the year with 1,451 receiving yards and thirteen touchdowns. The 2001 49ers had a 12–4 record but were defeated by the Packers in a Wild Card playoff game. Owens finished with 16 touchdown catches (half the 32 thrown by Garcia that season) and 1,412 receiving yards. The 49ers followed up in 2002 with a 10–6 record and their 17th NFC West title; in this season, Owens had 100 catches for 1,300 yards and 13 touchdowns. The 49ers hosted the New York Giants in the Wild Card playoff round, and after falling behind 38–14, the 49ers erupted to 25 unanswered points; Owens had two touchdown catches and caught two 2-point conversions in the 49ers' 39–38 win. However, they were shot down 31–6 against the soon-to-be Super Bowl champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who held Owens to only four catches for 35 yards. Coach Steve Mariucci was fired and former Seahawks coach Dennis Erickson took over. The ensuing season in 2003 proved subpar as the 49ers finished 7–9. It was here that Owens decided to leave. In the summer of 2004, when Garcia, who had been released in the off-season, was a member of the Cleveland Browns, and Owens was a member of the Philadelphia Eagles, Owens appeared in an interview for Playboy magazine, where he was asked about long-standing rumors that his former teammate Garcia was homosexual, to which he implied he thought there might be truth to the rumors. Although Owens was eager to leave the 49ers, the 49ers asserted that Owens' previous agent, David Joseph, had missed the deadline to void the final years of his contract with the team. The National Football League Players Association and Owens disputed this assertion, contending that the deadline referred to by the 49ers was not the applicable deadline. On March 4, 2004, San Francisco, believing it still held Owens' rights, attempted to trade Owens to the Baltimore Ravens for a second-round pick in the 2004 draft. However, Owens challenged the 49ers' right to make the deal. Owens assumed that he would become a free agent on March 3, and did not believe that the earlier deadline was applicable. Hence, he negotiated with other teams in advance of his expected free agency, and reached a contract agreement with the Philadelphia Eagles, whose fan base strongly supported Owens in his desire to play for the team. The NFLPA filed a grievance on his behalf. Before an arbitrator could make a ruling on Owens' grievance, the NFL and the three teams involved in the controversy reached a settlement on March 16, 2004. The Ravens got their second-round pick back from San Francisco, and the 49ers in turn received a conditional fifth-round pick and defensive end Brandon Whiting from the Eagles in exchange for the rights to Owens. Owens' contract with the Eagles was worth about $49 million for seven years, including a $10 million signing bonus. In September 2004, Owens released an autobiography: Catch This! Going Deep with the NFL's Sharpest Weapon, which he co-wrote with bestselling author Stephen Singular. Philadelphia Eagles On December 19, 2004, Owens sustained a severely sprained ankle and a fractured fibula when Dallas Cowboys safety Roy Williams took him down with a horse-collar tackle; Williams' horse-collars resulted in injuries to several NFL players, and the horse-collar tackle was later prohibited. Owens' injury required surgery, including insertion of a screw into his leg, and Eagles trainer Rick Burkholder stated that he would miss the rest of the season, with only an outside chance of playing in the Super Bowl if the Eagles advanced. After the Eagles defeated the Atlanta Falcons in the NFC Championship game, Owens defied the advice of his doctors and played in Super Bowl XXXIX. Owens' trainer, James "Buddy" Primm, helped bring Owens back much sooner with the use of Microcurrent and a hyperbaric chamber. Owens started in the game and had nine receptions for 122 yards, but the Eagles lost to the New England Patriots. After the game, Owens stated that the media would have called Brett Favre "a warrior" for playing with such an injury, but that "For me, they said I was selfish." In April 2005, Owens announced that he had hired a new agent, Drew Rosenhaus, and indicated that he would seek to have his contract with the Eagles renegotiated. Owens made $9 million in 2004 (most of which was bonus money, as his base salary was only $660,000), and was slated to make $4.5 million in 2005. This two-year amount did not place Owens in the top ten paid wide receivers playing. He also made a comment that he "wasn't the guy who got tired in the Super Bowl." The remark, directed at quarterback Donovan McNabb, caused a controversy to heat up between them. On July 1, Owens' relationship with the Eagles became even more tense after Eagles owner Jeffrey Lurie and club president Joe Banner denied Owens permission to play basketball in a summer league under the auspices of the National Basketball Association's Sacramento Kings. Owens, with the negotiating help of Rosenhaus, continued to lobby for a new contract. Owens and Rosenhaus met with Eagles head coach Andy Reid and president Joe Banner, but no agreement was reached (this was in line with the Eagles' policy against contract renegotiations). Owens threatened to hold out of training camp until a deal was reached, but reported to camp on time. When the 2005 football season began, Owens was in the second year of a seven-year, $49 million contract. However, the contract was heavily back-loaded, and while the $49 million figure was routinely touted by the sports media as an example of Owens' greed, the money guaranteed to him was under the annual average for a top-tier wide receiver. In 2005, after a game against the Dallas Cowboys on October 9 in which the Eagles lost, Owens was seen by reporters wearing a throwback jersey of former Cowboys player Michael Irvin on the team plane. On November 2, Owens was involved in an argument in the training room with team ambassador Hugh Douglas, which led to a fistfight between the two. The argument was reportedly started after Douglas said there were players on the team who were faking injuries. During an ESPN interview the next day, Owens made several comments that Eagles fans perceived as verbal jabs at McNabb and the team. In this interview, when asked whether he agreed with a comment made by analyst Michael Irvin saying that the Eagles would be undefeated if Brett Favre was on the team, Owens replied, "That's a good assessment. I would agree with that." Owens went on to state that if Favre were the Eagles quarterback, "I just feel like we'd be in a better situation." Owens stated on his radio show that his remarks were taken out of context, noting that he had just stated two questions prior that the Eagles' record would also be better had McNabb not been injured. While he did not comment on Owens' slight at the time, McNabb later stated in an interview that "It was definitely a slap in the face to me." Two days after the interview aired, the Eagles suspended Owens indefinitely for "conduct detrimental to the team". According to Owens' agent Drew Rosenhaus, head coach Andy Reid demanded that Owens make a public apology to McNabb. An apology was drafted by Rosenhaus, but Owens balked at reading a specific apology to McNabb, and crossed that part of the statement out. The apology he read on TV did not address McNabb directly. The following day, Reid announced that Owens' suspension would be increased to four games and that he would be deactivated for the remainder of the season. On November 8, Owens and Rosenhaus held a news conference at Owens' residence, where he apologized to the fans, the team, and McNabb specifically, and also made an appeal for reinstatement to the team. The NFL Players Association filed a grievance against the Eagles, claiming violation of the sport's collective bargaining agreement, but Owens' suspension and deactivation were upheld by an arbitrator. On March 14, 2006, the Philadelphia Eagles released Owens. Dallas Cowboys On March 18, 2006, the Dallas Cowboys signed Owens to a 3-year, $25 million deal, including a $5 million signing bonus, with a $5 million first-year salary. Owens returned to the field during the Cowboys' 2006 season opener against the Jacksonville Jaguars. While the game ended in a Jaguars victory, Owens recorded eight receptions for 80 yards and one touchdown. The following week against the Redskins, Owens broke his finger while blocking, and was forced to leave the game. He had a plate screwed into the finger, and returned to play the team's next game against the Tennessee Titans, where he accounted for 88 receiving yards. The following week, Owens made his highly anticipated return to Philadelphia, where he played against his former teammate, Donovan McNabb. Upon his return, Owens was met by a hail of angry jeers and taunts, including chants of "O.D." throughout the game. Despite pregame talk about a weak Eagles secondary, Owens struggled throughout the game. Owens had three catches for 45 yards, while the Cowboys went on to lose, 38–24. After the Cowboys defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 38–28, owner Jerry Jones revealed that Owens had injured a tendon on the same finger that he had broken earlier in the season. The doctors recommended season-ending surgery, but Owens elected to risk permanent damage to his finger and decided to wait until the end of the season to repair the damage. "There's no question about what he's willing to do for his team", Jones said. Owens led the league in regular season with 13 touchdown receptions. On March 1, 2007, he underwent surgery twice to repair his right ring finger. In the 2007 season, Owens and the Cowboys began to live up to their potential. On November 18, Owens set a new career high and tied a franchise record, with four touchdown catches against the Washington Redskins. With his touchdown catch against Green Bay on November 29, Owens became the first player in NFL history with at least one touchdown catch and six receptions in seven straight games. Also with this win, the Cowboys clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive season, making this the third time Owens would participate in back-to-back postseasons. Owens was one of the starting wide receivers to represent the NFC in the Pro Bowl along with Arizona Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald. On January 9, Owens made the All-Pro team along with teammates Jason Witten and DeMarcus Ware. On December 22 in a Week 16 game against the Carolina Panthers, Owens caught his 15th touchdown catch of the season to set a new Cowboys record for touchdown catches in a season. During this game, however, Owens suffered a high ankle sprain after making a catch in the second quarter, which kept him out of the rest of the regular season. Owens was leading the league in receiving yards and was second in receiving touchdowns at the time. He finished the season with 81 receptions, 15 touchdowns, and 1,355 receiving yards, as the team finished 13-3 and clinched the NFC's top seed. Owens returned for the divisional playoff game against the Giants, where he caught four passes for 49 yards and a touchdown. The Cowboys lost the game, however, 21-17 and Owens broke down crying during the postgame press conference in a now-infamous incident. In the 2008 Pro Bowl, Owens caught seven passes for 101 yards and two touchdowns in an NFC win. Despite his efforts, Minnesota Vikings rookie running back Adrian Peterson was named MVP. In the Cowboys' second game of the season, the last Monday Night game at Texas Stadium, Owens passed Cris Carter to move to second in touchdowns behind former teammate Jerry Rice. The Cowboys released Owens on March 4, 2009. Owens later said that Jones had assured him that he would be remaining with the team and that he was blindsided by his release. Buffalo Bills On March 8, 2009, the Buffalo Bills signed Owens to a 1-year, $6.5 million contract. Owens had his first catch with the Bills when he had a 27-yard play on a 3rd-and-1 in the 25–24 loss to the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium. With that catch, he passed former Bills receiver Andre Reed on the all-time Top 20 career leaders list for pass receptions. Owens debuted with two catches for 45 yards in the game. Owens caught his first touchdown pass with Buffalo in a 33–20 win over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on September 20, 2009. However, the following week, Owens was held without a catch against the New Orleans Saints, ending a 185-game streak of consecutive games with a catch that was the longest streak among active players at the time. Owens had his best game with the Bills in a 15–18 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, with nine receptions for 197 yards and a touchdown. Owens and Ryan Fitzpatrick set a Bills record for longest touchdown reception when Fitzpatrick connected with Owens for a 98-yard TD, which also became Owens' longest career touchdown reception. He also became the oldest player to have a touchdown reception of more than 76 yards (35 years, 350 days). Against the Atlanta Falcons in week 16, Owens became the sixth player to reach 1,000 receptions in a career after catching an 8-yard pass from Brian Brohm. He finished his lone season with Buffalo with 55 catches for 829 yards and 5 receiving touchdowns, and also rushed 6 times for 54 yards and a touchdown. Cincinnati Bengals On July 27, 2010, Owens signed a one-year contract with the Cincinnati Bengals. It was reportedly worth $2 million, with another $2 million possible from bonuses. He joined Carson Palmer and Chad Johnson, both of whom lobbied for the Bengals to sign Owens. With the retirement of Isaac Bruce, Owens spent his last active season in the NFL as the active career leader in receiving yards. He received his customary number, #81, given to him by free-agent acquisition wide receiver Antonio Bryant in exchange for an undisclosed sum of money, some of which went to a charity of Bryant's choice. Against the Cleveland Browns in Week4, he had a spectacular game with ten receptions, 222 yards and a touchdown of 78 yards. On December 21, Owens was placed on injured reserve, for the first time in his 15-year career. He still managed to lead all Bengals' receivers (including Ochocinco) with receptions (72), yards (983), and touchdowns (9) for the season. However, the Bengals fell from a 10–6 record the year before Owens joined to a 4–12 record with Owens. The Bengals decided not to re-sign Owens for the 2011 season. He suffered a torn ACL during the 2011 offseason and underwent surgery in April 2011. According to his agent, he was cleared to play again on October 19. He held a televised workout on October 25, which no NFL teams chose to attend. Allen Wranglers On November 2, 2011, the Allen Wranglers of the Indoor Football League announced they had extended a six-figure contract offer to Owens to play for the Wranglers in the 2012 season. On January 18, 2012, Owens announced via Twitter that he had accepted the Wranglers' offer and joined their ownership group, with an official press conference to follow the following week. In his debut for the Wranglers, Owens caught three passes for 53 yards and three touchdowns as the Wranglers defeated the Wichita Wild 50–30. His statistics were: eight games played; 35 catches; 420 yards; 52.5 yards per game; 12 yards per catch; 45 longest catch; and ten touchdowns. On May 29, 2012, Owens was released. The Wranglers' co-owners stated Owens was released for showing a lack of effort both on and off the field. Seattle Seahawks On August 6, 2012, Owens signed a one-year, $925,000 contract with the Seattle Seahawks. On August 26, 2012, Owens announced on his Twitter account that the Seahawks had released him. Possible NFL comeback On January 13, 2015, in an interview with Sports Illustrated Now, Owens stated that he had not retired and that, after a hiatus, he had trained with numerous NFL players during the 2014 NFL season and the offseason. He did not state when he planned to return to the NFL. Flag football On June 28, 2017, Owens played as team captain for Team Owens in the inaugural game for the newly formed American Flag Football League. Canadian Football League On June 19, 2018, the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League (CFL) added Owens to their negotiation list. On July 14, Owens activated his 10-day signing window with the Eskimos, requiring the team to offer him a contract in ten days, else he would've become a CFL free agent and be eligible to sign with any of the eight other CFL teams. On July 20, 2018 the Eskimos dropped Owens from their negotiation list. On August 5, 2018, a day after his Hall of Fame induction, Owens worked out for the Saskatchewan Roughriders. Fan Controlled Football On March 31, 2022, Owens signed with Fan Controlled Football. Though FCF players typically rotate through multiple teams in a season, Owens was expected to be given a franchise tag by the Zappers (one of two Zappers franchise players, along with quarterback Johnny Manziel) committing Owens to that team. On May 11, 2022, Owens was traded to the Knights of Degen in a three-team, four-player trade. On December 28, 2022, it was announced that Owens was in contact with the Dallas Cowboys, as well as other teams, regarding a possible NFL return. However, no deal was reached with Dallas, or any other team. Personal life Owens is the father of two daughters and two sons. In September 2011, Owens was sued by Melanie Paige Smith III, the mother of his daughter, for failure to pay child support, but the case was settled prior to trial. Owens insisted that the reason for the missed child support payments was due to his wages decreasing in the NFL and Smith was aware of his circumstances. His daughter Kylee plays volleyball at Prairie View A&M University. On a May 8, 2012, episode of Dr. Phil, three of the four mothers to his children accused Owens of either coming up short in his monthly child support payments or not paying at all. Owens said he was paying some $45,000 per month in child support at one time. Owens is a Christian. He was raised as a Christian by his grandmother and has been baptized. On October 16, 2023, Owens was hit by a car in Calabasas, California after being in an argument following a pick-up basketball game. Owens was not injured. Controversies Desperate Housewives skit On November 15, 2004, Owens, wearing a Philadelphia Eagles uniform, appeared with television actress Nicollette Sheridan (of the ABC series Desperate Housewives in character as Edie Britt) in an introductory skit which opened that evening's Monday Night Football telecast, in which Owens and the Eagles played the Cowboys at Texas Stadium. Some observers (especially then-Indianapolis Colts coach Tony Dungy) condemned the skit as being sexually suggestive because of Sheridan removing a towel, and ABC later apologized for airing it. However, on March 14, 2005, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that the skit did not violate decency standards, because it contained no outright nudity or foul language. 2006 Hydrocodone overdose Some media outlets in Dallas reported on the morning of September 27, 2006, that Owens had tried to kill himself by intentionally ingesting an overdose of hydrocodone, a pain medication. A police report filed on the night of September 26 seemed to confirm the attempt, saying that Owens's publicist, Kim Etheredge, found him unresponsive with an empty bottle of pain killers, pried two pills from his mouth, and called 9-1-1, after which an ambulance transported him four blocks from his Deep Ellum condo to Baylor University Medical Center. According to the police report, Owens and Etheredge both said he was depressed, and Owens answered "yes" when asked whether he had intended to harm himself. Owens' publicist, however, refuted the report, stating that Owens had suffered an allergic reaction to the medication combined with a dietary supplement. ESPN reported that about half the police report was blacked out, but included the phrases "attempting suicide by prescription pain medication" and "a drug overdose". Owens left the hospital later on September 27. At a news conference after his release, Owens denied having made a suicide attempt, stating that he expected to join the team for practice the next morning. He stated that he was "not depressed" and was "very happy to be here", and denied that doctors had pumped his stomach, calling speculation to that effect "definitely untrue". The press conference took place after Owens had run routes and caught passes with the Cowboys at the team's practice facility in Valley Ranch. Afterwards, Owens' publicist stated that she felt the police had taken advantage of Owens. The president of the union representing Dallas police officers subsequently demanded an apology from Owens and his publicist for her comments, which he said damaged the reputations of three patrolmen. On Thursday, September 28, the Dallas Police Department reported the incident to be an "accidental overdose" and ended their investigation. The pain medication Owens had ingested had been prescribed to him for a broken finger he had suffered in a Week2 victory against the Washington Redskins. Bill Parcells had noted in a press conference a few days before the incident that the medication Owens had been taking had made him sick, and he had been prescribed a milder pain killer. Spitting incident After the December 16, 2006, game against the Atlanta Falcons, Falcons cornerback DeAngelo Hall stated that Owens spat in his face after a play early in the game. Game officials and reporters were unaware of the incident and Owens was not asked about it until his post-game interview with the NFL Network, when he confirmed it. Owens said, "I got frustrated and I apologize for that. It was a situation where he kept hugging me and getting in my face. He had a lot of words, I didn't. I just wanted to come and prove I'm not a guy to be schemed with." Hall said that he lost all respect for Owens. When made aware that Hall was saying Owens did it deliberately, Owens said that it was an accident that occurred while they were in each other's face, talking trash. Despite no video evidence, the NFL fined Owens $35,000 for the incident. After initially refusing to take a phone call from Owens, Hall was convinced by Deion Sanders to speak with Owens two days after the incident and later stated that they "cleared it all out". Hall of Fame Owens was not voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in his first two years of eligibility, despite being statistically ranked near the top of every NFL receiving category. Commentators attributed Owens' exclusion to his issues off the field. In 2018, Owens was voted into the Hall of Fame. He subsequently caused controversy in his induction by skipping the official celebration in Canton, Ohio, and instead choosing to host his own celebration in McKenzie Arena on the campus of the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, his alma mater. Owens is the only inductee of the hall to skip his induction and instead host a separate induction ceremony. Touchdown celebrations During his playing career, Owens attracted attention for his flamboyant celebrations after scoring touchdowns, some of which resulted in fines from the NFL front office. Celebrations for San Francisco On September 24, 2000, in Dallas, Owens twice sprinted to midfield after scoring touchdowns and stood on the Dallas Cowboys' star logo. The second time, Cowboys safety George Teague leveled him at midfield, which started a confrontation between the two teams. Teague was ejected from the game, while Owens was suspended for a week by head coach Steve Mariucci. During a Monday Night Football game against the Seattle Seahawks on October 14, 2002, Owens pulled a Sharpie marker out of his sock to sign the football he caught to score a touchdown, and then gave the ball to his financial adviser, who happened to also be the financial adviser of Shawn Springs, who was covering Owens on the play. He was criticized by Seahawks head coach Mike Holmgren for the stunt, but was not punished by the 49ers or the NFL. However, in the wake of the highly publicized incident, the league immediately adopted a new rule banning players from carrying "foreign objects" with them on the field. Celebrations for Philadelphia The "Bird Dance", "The Bird", or "Wing Flap" became T.O.'s trademark dance with the Eagles. T.O. did the "Bird Dance" frequently during the 2004 season after a big play or touchdown. His touchdown celebration was mocked by Hines Ward in the Eagles' first loss of the season at Pittsburgh. After scoring on a reverse, Ward flexed and began flapping his arms like a bird. Owens imitated and mocked the trademark pre-game ritual dance of Baltimore Ravens linebacker Ray Lewis after scoring a touchdown while playing against the Ravens in the 2004 season. Celebrations for Dallas On the Thanksgiving Day game against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on November 23, 2006, Owens, after catching a pass for a touchdown, dropped the ball in an oversized Salvation Army Red Kettle, donating the ball to the Salvation Army. About the touchdown celebration, Owens was quoted as saying, "That was my donation. I hope it's worth as much as the fine." On September 16, 2007, Owens mocked Bill Belichick after catching a touchdown against the Miami Dolphins, by hiding behind a field goal post and holding the football to his face in a video camera fashion, as if secretly spying and filming the game. The Cowboys were penalized 15 yards for "excessive celebration". On September 19, 2007, the league fined Owens $7,500 for the celebration. On November 4, 2007, against his former team, the Philadelphia Eagles, Owens flapped his wings, mimicking the dance he did while with the Eagles. This, coupled with Owens' tumultuous stay with the Eagles and his subsequent tenure with the Cowboys (an Eagles division rival), earned the boos of the crowd. After the game, Owens was quoted as saying, "There's a lot of love in those boos." Career statistics NFL Regular season Other Leagues NFL records and career notables NFL records Only player in NFL history to score a TD against all 32 NFL teams Only player in NFL history to score two or more touchdowns against all 32 NFL teams Only player in NFL history to have an 800-yard receiving season with five different teams (Cincinnati Bengals, Buffalo Bills, Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, San Francisco 49ers) Only player in NFL history to have a 150-yard receiving game with five different teams (Bengals, Bills, Cowboys, Eagles, 49ers) Only player in NFL history to have a 200-yard receiving game with three different teams (Bengals, Cowboys, 49ers) Oldest player to accumulate 200 combined yards/receiving yards/yards from scrimmage in a single game (36 years, 300 days) Consecutive seasons with at least six touchdowns, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Jerry Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least five touchdown receptions, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Cris Carter 1991–2001, Tim Brown 1991–2001, Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least five touchdowns, 2000–2010 (11) – tied with Frank Gore 2006–2016, Marvin Harrison 1996–2006, Cris Carter 1991–2001, Tim Brown 1991–2001, Rice 1986–1996, Don Hutson 1935–1945 Consecutive seasons with at least four touchdown receptions, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least four touchdowns, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least three touchdown receptions, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least three touchdowns, 1996–2010 (15) Consecutive seasons with at least 700 receiving yards/yards from scrimmage/combined yards 1996–2010 (15) - tied with Tony Gonzalez, 1999-2013 One of seven players to have at least two receptions of more than 90 yards (John Taylor, Mike Quick, Gaynell Tinsley, Steve Watson, Willard Dewveall, and Mike Wallace) One of twelve players to have at least two offensive TDs of more than 90 yards 49ers franchise records Most receptions in a single game: 20 (12/17/00 vs Chicago Bears) (Week 15) Most receiving yards on a Sunday game: 283 (12/17/00 vs Bears) (Week 15) Eagles franchise records Most receiving touchdowns in a single season: 14 (2004) Most receiving yards per game, season: 109.0 (2005) 763 in seven games. Cowboys franchise records Most consecutive games with a receiving touchdown: seven (2007). Record shared with Franklin Clarke (1961–1962), Bob Hayes (1965–1966) and Dez Bryant (2012) Most touchdown receptions in a single game: four (11/18/07 vs Washington Redskins). Record shared with Bob Hayes (12/20/70) Most receiving yards per game, career: 76.3 (2006–2008) Bills franchise records Longest reception: 98 yard TD (11/22/09 vs Jacksonville Jaguars) (Week 11) Longest play from scrimmage: 98 yard TD reception (11/22/09 vs Jaguars) (Week 11) Bengals franchise records Most combined yards/receiving yards/yards from scrimmage in a single game by a player over age 30: 222 (10/3/10 vs Cleveland Browns) (Week4) Career milestones 5th player to reach 150 touchdowns 6th player to reach 1,000 career receptions, 6th player to reach 100 touchdown receptions, 6th player to reach 14,000 receiving yards 3rd player to reach 150 touchdown receptions, 3rd player to reach 15,000 receiving yards Through 15 seasons, has 156 total touchdowns (153 receiving), 15,934 receiving yards, 1,078 receptions, 39 rushing attempts, 251 rushing yards, three rushing touchdowns, five kickoff returns, 23 kickoff return yards, five fumble recoveries, 13 fumble return yards, and three two-point conversions Averaged one touchdown per game in 2001, 2004, and 2007 Has had nine 1,000 yard seasons, including five consecutive (2000–2004) Reached 100 catches in only 14 games in 2002 Led League in receiving touchdowns in 2001, 2002, and 2006 Third all-time in regular season receiving touchdowns behind Jerry Rice and Randy Moss Third all-time in regular season receiving yards behind Rice and Larry Fitzgerald. Eighth all-time in regular season receptions behind Rice, Tony Gonzalez, Marvin Harrison, Cris Carter, Tim Brown, Larry Fitzgerald, and Jason Witten Other work Owens is depicted in a photographic work by contemporary African-American artist Hank Willis Thomas entitled Liberation of T.O.: Ain't no way I'm go'n in back ta'work fa'massa in dat darn field (2004). The work was featured in "Frequency", the Studio Museum in Harlem's 2006 exhibition of emerging artists. Owens rapped in a single titled "I'm Back", available for download on his website. Outside of his football career, Owens also appeared in various commercials, television shows, and films. Owens played himself, as a wide receiver wearing #82 for the fictional Miami Sharks, in the 1999 film Any Given Sunday. In 2003, he appeared in a commercial for the ESPY Awards where he caught a home run ball from Barry Bonds in McCovey Cove. Owens appeared in an episode of Punk'd, starring Ashton Kutcher, which is based on his November 19, 2005 suspension. In August 2008, Owens was featured in the pilot episode of the web series FACETIME, on My Damn Channel. He and Three 6 Mafia interview each other in the episode. He starred in a summer 2009 reality show on VH1, dubbed The T.O. Show; the show followed Owens and his "best friends and publicists" as they re-evaluated Owens' personal life. Owens appeared in the NBA All-Star celebrity game again in 2009 scoring 17 points including two alley-oops, to secure his second consecutive MVP award. In June 2009, Owens starred in ABC's reincarnation of Superstars, a sports competition show from the 70s where celebrities are paired with professional athletes. The first episode is rumored to have ended in controversy, as evidenced by a leaked clip of partner supermodel Joanna Krupa calling Owens a "prima donna". As a one-time rating sweeps week stunt, Owens replaced WKBW-TV sports anchor Jeff Russo for their 6:00p.m. newscast on May 18, 2009. On May 8, 2012, Owens appeared on Dr. Phil with the mothers of three of his children to discuss relationships. In 2013, NBC Sports reported that Owens has become a model. In 2014, Owens made a cameo appearance in R&B singer Faith Evans' music video "I Deserve It", featuring Missy Elliott and Sharaya J. In 2015 Owens participated in The Celebrity Apprentice 7, finishing in 12th place. On September 5, 2017, Owens was announced as one of the celebrities set to compete on season 25 of Dancing with the Stars. He was partnered with professional dancer Cheryl Burke and was the eighth contestant eliminated. In 2017, Owens competed on the special for the MTV reality series The Challenge titled Champs vs. Stars. In May 2018, it was announced that Owens would be featured on the cover of the "Hall of Fame" edition of Madden NFL 19. An avid bowler, Owens has twice won Chris Paul's CP3 PBA Celebrity Invitational, an annual televised event in which celebrities and PBA Tour professionals team up to benefit the Chris Paul Family Foundation. Owens won in 2016 with Pete Weber, and again in 2021 with AJ Johnson. Owens has also won the Celebrity Clash at this event twice, in 2018 and 2021. The T.O. Show In the summer of 2009, VH1 premiered The T.O. Show, which followed Owens in his personal life off the football field. The show was renewed for two additional seasons. Time Out with T.O. In September 2013, Owens launched a podcast on the Sideshow Network with co-hosts comedian Alonzo Bodden and former-Survivor contestant and podcast host, Rob Cesternino. Shows are released each Wednesday and the discussion centers on the week's NFL games and news. Comedian Roy Wood, Jr. has been a regular guest. Guests have been from both the sports and the entertainment worlds. Some of them were: Ron Artest, Ray J, comic Sam Tripoli, and writer Caleb Bacon. See also T.O.'s Honey Toasted Oats, Honey Nut Toasted Oats breakfast cereal named after Owens. References External links Cincinnati Bengals bio Seattle Seahawks bio Time Out with T.O. (Podcast) 1973 births Living people African-American basketball players African-American male models African-American models American male models African-American players of American football Allen Wranglers players American football wide receivers Basketball players from Alabama American men's basketball players Buffalo Bills players Chattanooga Mocs men's basketball players Chattanooga Mocs football players Cincinnati Bengals players Dallas Cowboys players National Conference Pro Bowl players Sportspeople from Moorestown, New Jersey Players of American football from Burlington County, New Jersey People from Alexander City, Alabama Philadelphia Eagles players Players of American football from Alabama Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees San Francisco 49ers players Seattle Seahawks players The Challenge (TV series) contestants The Apprentice (franchise) contestants 21st-century African-American sportspeople 20th-century African-American sportspeople Fan Controlled Football players

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20military%20divisions%20by%20number

List of military divisions by number

This is a list of military divisions of all nationalities organised by number. Divisions may be infantry, airborne, cavalry, mechanized, armoured or aviation. 1st to 5th 1st Division Australian 1st Division Australian 1st Armoured Division Brazilian 1st Division British 1st Cavalry Division British 1st Mounted Division British 1st Armoured Division British 1st Airborne Division British 1st Commonwealth Division British 1st Division 1st Canadian Division Chinese 1st Fighter Division 1st Royal Bavarian Division 1st Bavarian Landwehr Division 1st Bavarian Reserve Division Imperial German 1st Cavalry Division Imperial German 1st Division Imperial German 1st Guards Division Imperial German 1st Guards Reserve Division Imperial German 1st Landwehr Division Imperial German 1st Naval Division Imperial German 1st Reserve Division German Hermann Göring Parachute Panzer Division 1 (previously Hermann Göring Division, Hermann Göring Panzer Division) German 1st Infantry Division German 1st Luftwaffe Field Division German 1st Panzer Division German 1st Parachute Division (previously 7th Flieger (Air) Division) German 1st Waffen-SS Panzer Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler Division Greek 1st Infantry Division 1st (Peshawar) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 1st Indian Cavalry Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Italian 1st Alpine Division Italian 1st Blackshirt Armoured Division Italian 1st Blackshirt Division Italian 1st Cavalry Division Italian 1st Libyan Colonial Division Italian 1st Mountain Infantry Division Japanese 1st Division North Korean 1st Division Philippine 1st Infantry Division Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division Polish 1st Lithuanian-Belarusian Division Polish 1st Armoured Division Polish 1st Grenadiers Division South African 1st Infantry Division Spanish 1st Mechanized Infantry Division "Brunete" U.S. 1st Armored Division U.S. 1st Cavalry Division U.S. 1st Infantry Division U.S. 1st Marine Division 1st Infantry Division (Belgium) 2nd Division Australian 2nd Division British 2nd Cavalry Division British 2nd Armoured Division British 2nd Infantry Division British 2nd Mounted Division British 2nd (African) Division 2nd Canadian Division 2nd Royal Bavarian Division 2nd Bavarian Landwehr Division Imperial German 2nd Cavalry Division Imperial German 2nd Division Imperial German 2nd Guards Division Imperial German 2nd Guards Reserve Division Imperial German 2nd Landwehr Division Imperial German 2nd Naval Division German 2nd Luftwaffe Field Division German 2nd Naval Infantry Division German 2nd Parachute Division Greek 2nd Mechanized Infantry Division 2nd (Rawalpindi) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 2nd Indian Cavalry Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 2nd Infantry Division Italian 2nd Alpine Division Italian 2nd Blackshirt Division Italian 2nd Cavalry Division Italian 2nd Libyan Division Italian 2nd Mountain Infantry Division Japanese 2nd Division New Zealand 2nd Division North Korean 2nd Division Philippine 2nd Infantry Division Polish 2nd Legions Infantry Division Russian 2nd Guards Tamanskaya Motor Rifle Division South African 2nd Infantry Division Soviet 2nd Rifle Division U.S. 2nd Air Division U.S. 2nd Armored Division U.S. 2nd Cavalry Division U.S. 2nd Infantry Division U.S. 2nd Marine Division 2nd Infantry Division (Belgium) 3rd Division Australian 3rd Division British 3rd Infantry Division British 3rd Mounted Division British 3rd Cavalry Division 3rd Canadian Division Chinese 3rd Fighter Division 3rd Royal Bavarian Division Imperial German 3rd Cavalry Division Imperial German 3rd Division Imperial German 3rd Guards Division Imperial German 3rd Landwehr Division Imperial German 3rd Naval Division Imperial German 3rd Reserve Division German 3rd Luftwaffe Field Division German Parachute Division 3 3rd (Lahore) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 3rd Lahore Divisional Area of the British Indian Army during the First World War 3rd Indian Infantry Division – official designation for the Chindits Italian 3rd Alpine Division Italian 3rd Blackshirt Division Italian 3rd Cavalry Division Italian 3rd Mountain Infantry Division Japanese 3rd Division North Korean 3rd Division Philippine 3rd Infantry Division Polish 3rd Legions Infantry Division Polish 3rd Carpathian Infantry Division South African 3rd Infantry Division U.S. 3rd Armored Division U.S. 3rd Infantry Division U.S. 3rd Marine Division 3rd Division (Vietnam) 3rd Infantry Division (Belgium) 4th Division Australian 4th Division British 4th Cavalry Division British 4th Infantry Division British 4th Mounted Division 4th Canadian Division (also 4th Canadian (Armoured) Division) Chinese 4th Fighter Division 4th Royal Bavarian Division Imperial German 4th Cavalry Division Imperial German 4th Division Imperial German 4th Ersatz Division Imperial German 4th Guards Division Imperial German 4th Landwehr Division German 4th Luftwaffe Field Division German 4th Parachute Division 4th (Quetta) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 4th Cavalry Division (India) of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 4th Infantry Division Italian 4th Alpine Division Italian 4th Blackshirt Division Italian 4th Mountain Infantry Division Japanese 4th Division North Korean 4th Division Philippine 4th Infantry Division Russian 4th Guards Kantemirovskaya Tank Division U.S. 4th Air Division U.S. 4th Armored Division U.S. 4th Infantry Division U.S. 4th Marine Division 4th Infantry Division (Belgium) 5th Division Australian 5th Division British 5th Infantry Division 5th Canadian Division (also 5th Canadian (Armoured) Division) French 5th Light Cavalry Division French 5th Motorized Division French 5th North African Infantry Division 5th Royal Bavarian Division 5th Bavarian Reserve Division Imperial German 5th Cavalry Division Imperial German 5th Division Imperial German 5th Ersatz Division Imperial German 5th Guards Division Imperial German 5th Landwehr Division Imperial German 5th Reserve Division German 5th Luftwaffe Field Division German 5th Mountain Division German 5th Panzer Division German 5th Parachute Division Greek 5th Infantry Division 5th (Mhow) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 5th Cavalry Division (India) of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 5th Infantry Division Italian 5th Alpine Division Italian 5th Infantry Division Japanese 5th Division North Korean 5th Division Philippine 5th Infantry Division Polish 5th Siberian Rifle Division Polish 5th Infantry Division Soviet 5th Rifle Division U.S. 5th Air Division U.S. 5th Armored Division U.S. 5th Infantry Division U.S. 5th Marine Division 5th Infantry Division (Vietnam People's Army) 5th Infantry Division (Belgium) 6th to 10th 6th Division Australian 6th Division British 6th Airborne Division British 6th Armoured Division British 6th Infantry Division (World War I and II) 6th Canadian Infantry Division Finnish 6th Division (Winter War) Finnish 6th Division (Continuation War) French 6th Light Armored Division 6th Royal Bavarian Division 6th Bavarian Landwehr Division 6th Bavarian Reserve Division Imperial German 6th Cavalry Division Imperial German 6th Division Imperial German 6th Reserve Division German 6th Luftwaffe Field Division German 6th Parachute Division 6th (Poona) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 6th Poona Divisional Area of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 6th Infantry Division Italian 6th Alpine Division Italian 6th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 6th Division North Korean 6th Division Norwegian 6th Division Philippine 6th Infantry Division South African 6th Armoured Division U.S. 6th Armored Division U.S. 6th Infantry Division U.S. 6th Marine Division 6th Infantry Division (Belgium) 7th Division Australian 7th Division British 7th Armoured Division "The Desert Rats" British 7th Infantry Division Canadian 7th Infantry Division Imperial German 7th Cavalry Division Imperial German 7th Division Imperial German 7th Landwehr Division Imperial German 7th Reserve Division German 7th Air Division (also 7th Flieger Division) German 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division German 7th Luftwaffe Field Division German 7th Parachute Division (earlier Erdmann Parachute Division) 7th (Meerut) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War 7th Meerut Divisional Area of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 7th Infantry Division Italian 7th Infantry Division Japanese 7th Division North Korean 7th Division Philippine 7th Infantry Division U.S. 7th Air Division U.S. 7th Armored Division U.S .7th Infantry Division 7th Division (Vietnam) 7th Infantry Division (Belgium) 8th Division Australian 8th Division British 8th Infantry Division British 8th Armoured Division Canadian 8th Infantry Division 8th Bavarian Reserve Division Imperial German 8th Cavalry Division Imperial German 8th Division Imperial German 8th Ersatz Division Imperial German 8th Landwehr Division German 8th Luftwaffe Field Division German 8th Parachute Division Greek 8th Infantry Division 8th (Lucknow) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War Indian 8th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 8th Division Italian 8th Infantry Division North Korean 8th Division Philippine 8th Infantry Division U.S. 8th Armored Division U.S. 8th Infantry Division 8th Infantry Division (Belgium) 9th Division Australian 9th Division British 9th (Highland) Infantry Division (Second World War) British 9th (Scottish) Division (First World War) British 9th Armoured Division 9th Bavarian Reserve Division Imperial German 9th Cavalry Division Imperial German 9th Division Imperial German 9th Landwehr Division Imperial German 9th Reserve Division German 9th Luftwaffe Field Division German 9th Parachute Division 9th (Secunderabad) Division of the British Indian Army before and during the First World War Indian 9th Infantry Division Italian 9th Motorised Division Japanese 9th Division North Korean 9th Division Philippine 9th Infantry Division U.S. 9th Armored Division U.S. 9th Infantry Division 9th Division (Vietnam) 9th Infantry Division (Belgium) 10th Division Australian 10th Division British 10th (Irish) Division (First World War) British 10th Armoured Division French 10th Parachute Division 10th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 10th Division Imperial German 10th Ersatz Division Imperial German 10th Landwehr Division Imperial German 10th Reserve Division German 10th Infantry Division German 10th Luftwaffe Field Division German 10th Parachute Division 10th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 10th Infantry Division Japanese 10th Division Italian 10th Motorised Division North Korean 10th Division Philippine 10th Infantry Division U.S. 10th Armored Division U.S. 10th Mountain Division 10th Guards Motor Rifle Division (Soviet Army) 10th Division (Vietnam People's Army) 10th Infantry Division (Belgium) 11th to 20th 11th Division Australian 11th Division British 11th (Northern) Division British 11th Armoured Division 11th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 11th Division Imperial German 11th Landwehr Division Imperial German 11th Reserve Division German 11th Luftwaffe Field Division German 11th Parachute Division 11th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 11th Infantry Division Italian 11th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 11th Division U.S. 11th Airborne Division U.S. 11th Armored Division U.S. 11th Infantry Division Yugoslav 11th Air Defense Division 11th Infantry Division (Belgium) 12th Division Australian 12th Division British 12th (Eastern) Division, a formation in the First World War British 12th (Eastern) Division, a formation in the Second World War 12th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 12th Division Imperial German 12th Landwehr Division Imperial German 12th Reserve Division German 12th Luftwaffe Field Division Greek 12th Mechanized Infantry Division 12th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 12th Infantry Division Italian 12th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 12th Division 12th Division (North Korea) U.S. 12th Armored Division Philippine Division (United States) 12th Infantry Division (Belgium) 13th Division British 13th (Western) Division Imperial German 13th Division Imperial German 13th Landwehr Division Imperial German 13th Reserve Division German 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar (1st Croatian) German 13th Luftwaffe Field Division Italian 13th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 13th Division North Korean 13th Division Soviet 13th Guards Cavalry Division U.S. 13th Airborne Division U.S. 13th Armored Division Yugoslav 13th Air Defense Division 13th Infantry Division (Belgium) 14th Division 14th (Light) Division (British Army) 14th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 14th Division Imperial German 14th Landwehr Division Imperial German 14th Reserve Division German 14th Luftwaffe Field Division 14th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 14th Infantry Division Italian 14th Infantry Division U.S. 14th Armored Division 14th Infantry Division (Belgium) 15th Division British 15th (Scottish) Division Chinese 15th Fighter Division 15th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 15th Division Imperial German 15th Landwehr Division Imperial German 15th Reserve Division German 15th Luftwaffe Field Division Italian 15th Infantry Division 15th Division (Imperial Japanese Army) North Korean 15th Division 15th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Philippine 15th Infantry Division Yugoslav 15th Air Defense Division 15th Infantry Division (Belgium) 16th Division 16th (Irish) Division (United Kingdom) 16th Bavarian Infantry Division Imperial German 16th Division Imperial German 16th Landwehr Division Imperial German 16th Reserve Division German 16th Luftwaffe Field Division Greek 16th Mechanized Infantry Division 16th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Italian 16th Motorised Division Polish 16th Infantry Division 16th Rifle Division (Soviet Union) 16th Armored Division (United States) 16th Infantry Division (Belgium) 17th Division British 17th (Northern) Division Imperial German 17th Division Imperial German 17th Landwehr Division Imperial German 17th Reserve Division German 17th Luftwaffe Field Division 17th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Indian 17th Infantry Division Italian 17th Motorised Division 17th Division (Imperial Japanese Army) 17th Airborne Division (United States) 17th Infantry Division (Belgium) 18th Division 18th (Eastern) Division (United Kingdom) 18th Infantry Division (United Kingdom) Imperial German 18th Division Imperial German 18th Landwehr Division Imperial German 18th Reserve Division German 18th Luftwaffe Field Division 18th Indian Division of the British Indian Army during the First World War Italian 18th Infantry Division 18th Division (North Korea) 18th Division (South Vietnam) 18th Cavalry Division (Soviet Union) 18th Infantry Division (Belgium) 19th Division 19th (Western) Division (British Army) Imperial German 19th Division Imperial German 19th Ersatz Division Imperial German 19th Landwehr Division Imperial German 19th Reserve Division German 19th Luftwaffe Field Division (later 19th Luftwaffe Storm Division) Indian 19th Infantry Division Italian 19th Infantry Division North Korean 19th Division 19th Motor Rifle Division (Soviet Union) 19th Infantry Division (United States) 20th Division British 20th (Light) Division Imperial German 20th Division Imperial German 20th Landwehr Division German 20th Luftwaffe Field Division (later 20th Luftwaffe Storm Division) German 20th Parachute Division Indian 20th Infantry Division Italian 20th Infantry Division U.S. 20th Armored Division 21st to 30th 21st Division British 21st Division Imperial German 21st Division Imperial German 21st Landwehr Division Imperial German 21st Reserve Division German 21st Luftwaffe Field Division (formerly the Meindl Division) German Parachute Division 21 German Panzer Division 21 Indian 21st Infantry Division Italian 21st Infantry Division 21st Mountain Infantry Division (Poland) 22nd Division British 22nd Division French 22nd Infantry Division Imperial German 22nd Division Imperial German 22nd Landwehr Division Imperial German 22nd Reserve Division German 22nd Panzer Division German 22nd Air Landing Division German 22nd Luftwaffe Field Division Italian 22nd Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 22nd Infantry Division Polish 22nd Mountain Infantry Division U.S. 22nd Cavalry Division 23rd Division British 23rd Division British 23rd (Northumbrian) Division Imperial German 23rd Division Imperial German 23rd Landwehr Division Imperial German 23rd Reserve Division German 23rd Infantry Division German 23rd Panzer Division German 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama Italian 23rd Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 23rd Infantry Division Indian 23rd Infantry Division U.S. 23rd Air Division U.S. 23rd Cavalry Division U.S. 23rd Infantry Division ("Americal Division") 24th Division British 24th Division Chinese 24th Fighter Division Imperial German 24th Division Imperial German 24th Reserve Division German 24th Panzer Division Italian 24th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 24th Division Soviet 24th Rifle Division U.S. 24th Air Division U.S. 24th Cavalry Division U.S. 24th Infantry Division 25th Division British 25th Infantry Division Imperial German 25th Division Imperial German 25th Landwehr Division Imperial German 25th Reserve Division Imperial Japanese 25th Infantry Division Italian 25th Motorised Division Soviet 25th Rifle Division U.S. 25th Infantry Division 26th Division Imperial German 26th Division Imperial German 26th Landwehr Division Imperial German 26th Reserve Division German 26th Infantry Division Indian 26th Infantry Division Italian 26th Mountain Infantry Division U.S. 26th Air Division U.S. 26th Infantry Division 27th Division British 27th Division Imperial German 27th Division German 27th Panzer Division Italian 27th Motorised Division North Korean 27th Division Polish 27th Home Army Infantry Division U.S. 27th Infantry Division 28th Division British 28th Division Imperial German 28th Division Imperial German 28th Reserve Division Italian 28th Infantry Division Polish 28th Infantry Division U.S. 28th Infantry Division 29th Division British 29th Division Imperial German 29th Division German 29th Infantry Division German 29th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Italian) Italian 29th Infantry Division U.S. 29th Air Division U.S. 29th Infantry Division 30th Division Imperial German 30th Division Imperial German 30th Reserve Division – later 30th Bavarian Reserve Division Italian 30th Infantry Division British 30th Division U.S. 30th Infantry Division 31st to 40th 31st Division British 31st Division Imperial German 31st Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 31st Infantry Division Italian 31st Infantry Division U.S. 31st Infantry Division 31st Division (Vietnam People's Army) 32nd Division British 32nd Division French 32nd Infantry Division German 32nd Infantry Division Imperial German 32nd Infantry Division Italian 32nd Infantry Division Soviet 32nd Rifle Division U.S. 32nd Air Division U.S. 32nd Infantry Division 33rd Division Imperial German 33rd Division Imperial German 33rd Reserve Division German 33rd Infantry Division German 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS Charlemagne (1st French) Indian 33rd Armoured Division Italian 33rd Mountain Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 33rd Division Soviet 33rd Motor Rifle Division British 33rd Division U.S. 33rd Air Division U.S. 33rd Infantry Division 34th Division British 34th Division Imperial German 34th Division U.S. 34th Infantry Division 35th Division Imperial German 35th Division Imperial German 35th Reserve Division German 35th SS and Police Grenadier Division British 35th Division U.S. 35th Air Division U.S. 35th Infantry Division 36th Division British 36th (Ulster) Division British 36th Infantry Division (World War II) Imperial German 36th Division Imperial German 36th Reserve Division Indian 36th Infantry Division Israeli 36th Armor Division Italian 36th Mountain Infantry Division U.S. 36th Infantry Division 37th Division Imperial German 37th Division Imperial Japanese 37th Division Italian 37th Mountain Infantry Division U.S. 37th Air Division U.S. 37th Infantry Division 38th Division Imperial German 38th Division Imperial German 38th Landwehr Division British 38th (Welsh) Division Italian 38th Infantry Division U.S. 38th Air Division U.S. 38th Infantry Division 39th Division British 39th Division Imperial German 39th Division Imperial German 39th Reserve Division – later 39th Bavarian Reserve Division Indian 39th Infantry Division U.S. 39th Air Division 39th Infantry Division (United States) 40th Division British 40th Infantry Division Imperial German 40th Division Imperial Japanese 40th Division Italian 40th Infantry Division U.S. 40th Air Division U.S. 40th Infantry Division 41st to 50th 41st Division British 41st Division French 41st Infantry Division Imperial German 41st Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 41st Division Italian 41st Infantry Division U.S. 41st Air Division U.S. 41st Infantry Division 42nd Division British 42nd (East Lancashire) Division British 42nd Armoured Division Imperial German 42nd Infantry Division U.S. 42nd Infantry Division 43rd Division British 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division 43rd Reserve Division (German Empire) North Korean 43rd Division U.S. 43rd Infantry Division 44th Division British 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division Imperial German 44th Landwehr Division Imperial German 44th Reserve Division German 44th Infantry Division Indian 44th Airborne Division Italian 44th Infantry Division 44th Training Airborne Division (Soviet Airborne Forces) U.S. 44th Infantry Division U.S. 44th Air Division 45th Division German 45th Landwehr Division German 45th Reserve Division 45th Rifle Division (Soviet Union) British 45th Infantry Division U.S. 45th Air Division U.S. 45th Infantry Division 46th Division British 46th Infantry Division Imperial German 46th Landwehr Division Imperial German 46th Reserve Division German 46th Infantry Division 47th Division British 47th (1/2nd London) Division Imperial Landwehr 47th Reserve Division Imperial German 47th Reserve Division Italian 47th Infantry Division U.S. 47th Air Division U.S. 47th Infantry Division 48th Division Imperial Landwehr 48th Reserve Division Imperial German 48th Reserve Division Italian 48th Infantry Division 48th Armored Division (United States Army) 48th Infantry Division 49th Division Imperial German 49th Reserve Division Italian 49th Infantry Division 49th Rifle Division (Soviet Union) British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division (World War I and II) U.S. 49th Armored Division U.S. 49th Infantry Division 50th Division 50th (Northumbrian) Division 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division (World War II) Imperial German 50th Infantry Division Imperial German 50th Reserve Division Italian 50th Infantry Division 50th Infantry Division (United States) 50th Armored Division (United States) 51st to 60th 51st Division British 51st (Highland) Division (World War I) British 51st (Highland) Infantry Division (World War II) Imperial German 51st Reserve Division Italian 51st Infantry Division Japanese 51st Division 52nd Division British 52nd (Lowland) Division Imperial German 52nd Infantry Division Imperial German 52nd Reserve Division Italian 52nd Motorised Division 53rd Division French 53rd Infantry Division Imperial German 53rd Reserve Division Italian 53rd Infantry Division 53 Division (Sri Lanka) British 53rd (Welsh) Division 54th Division British 54th (East Anglian) Division Imperial German 54th Infantry Division Imperial German 54th Reserve Division Italian 54th Infantry Division 55th Division British 55th Division: 55th (West Lancashire) Division (1908-1920) 55th (West Lancashire) Infantry Division (1920-1945) French 55th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 55th Infantry Division Italian 55th Infantry Division Polish 55th Infantry Division 56th Division British 56th (1/1st London) Division (World War I) British 56th (London) Infantry Division German 56th Infantry Division Imperial German 56th Infantry Division Italian 56th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 56th Division Soviet 56th Rifle Division 57th Division British 57th (2nd West Lancashire) Division Italian 57th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 57th Infantry Division U.S. 57th Air Division 58th Division Chinese 58th Division Imperial German 58th Infantry Division German 58th Infantry Division Italian 58th Infantry Division Sri Lankan 58th Division U.S. 58th Air Division 59th Division British 59th (Staffordshire) Infantry Division (World War II) Chinese 59th Division Italian 59th Mountain Infantry Division 60th Division British 60th (2/2nd London) Division Chinese 60th Division French 60th Infantry Division German 60th Infantry Division Italian 60th Infantry Division 61st to 70th 61st Division British 61st (2nd South Midland) Division - (First World War) British 61st Infantry Division (Second World War) French 61st Infantry Division (Second World War) German 61st Infantry Division (Second World War) Italian 61st Infantry Division Soviet 61st Tank Division (Second World War) 62nd Division British 62nd Infantry Division Italian 62nd Infantry Division U.S. 62nd Cavalry Division 63rd Division British 63rd (Royal Naval) Division Italian 63rd Infantry Division U.S. 63rd Cavalry Division U.S. 63rd Infantry Division 64th Division German 64th Infantry Division Italian 64th Infantry Division Imperial Japanese 64th Infantry Division Soviet 64th Rifle Division U.S. 64th Air Division U.S. 64th Cavalry Division 65th Division British 65th Division Italian 65th Infantry Division U.S. 65th Air Division U.S. 65th Cavalry Division U.S. 65th Infantry Division 66th Division 66th (2nd East Lancashire) Division (British First World War formation) 66th Infantry Division (British Second World War formation) U.S. 66th Cavalry Division U.S. 66th Infantry Division 67th Division 67th Guards Rifle Division 67th (2nd Home Counties) Division (United Kingdom) 68th Division 68th Infantry Division (France) 68th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) 68th (2nd Welsh) Division (United Kingdom) 69th Division German 69th Infantry Division 69th (2nd East Anglian) Division (United Kingdom) U.S. 69th Air Division U.S. 69th Infantry Division 70th Division 70th Infantry Division (United Kingdom) (Second World War) 70th Infantry Division (United States) 71st to 80th 71st Division 71st Infantry Division 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Union) 324th Division (Vietnam) 325th Division 325th Division (Vietnam) 334th Division German 334th Infantry Division 341st Division 341st Division (Vietnam) 350th Division 350th Division (Vietnam People's Army) 351st Division 351st Artillery-Engineer Division (Vietnam) 383rd Division 383rd Rifle Division (Soviet Union) 395th Division 395th Division (Vietnam) 477th Division 477th Rifle Division (Soviet Union) 538th Division 538th Frontier Guard Division (Wehrmacht) 562nd Division German 562nd Grenadier Division 840th Division U.S. 840th Air Division 968th Division 968th Division (Vietnam People's Army) 999th Division German 999th Light Afrika Division See also List of military divisions by name Military divisions by number Lists of divisions (military formations)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Great%20Eastern

SS Great Eastern

SS Great Eastern was an iron sail-powered, paddle wheel and screw-propelled steamship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and built by John Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall Iron Works on the River Thames, London, England. She was the largest ship ever built at the time of her 1858 launch, and had the capacity to carry 4,000 passengers from England to Australia without refuelling. Her length of was surpassed only in 1899 by the 17,274-gross-ton , her gross tonnage of 18,915 was only surpassed in 1901 by the 20,904-gross-ton and her 4,000-passenger capacity was surpassed in 1913 by the 4,234-passenger . The ship having five funnels (which were later reduced to four) was unusual for the time. The vessel also had the largest set of paddle wheels. Brunel knew her affectionately as the "Great Babe". He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. After repairs, she plied for several years as a passenger liner between Britain and North America before being converted to a cable-laying ship and laying the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable in 1866. Finishing her life as a floating music hall and advertising hoarding (for the department store Lewis's) in Liverpool, she was broken up on Merseyside in 1889. History Concept After his success in pioneering steam travel to North America with and , Brunel turned his attention to a vessel capable of making longer voyages as far as Australia. With a planned capacity of 15,000 tons of coal, Great Eastern was envisioned as being able to sail halfway around the world without taking on coal, while also carrying so much cargo and passengers that papers described her as a "floating city" and "the Crystal Palace of the sea". Brunel saw the ship as being able to effectively monopolize trade with Asia and Australia, making regular trips between Britain and either Trincomalee or Australia. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made a sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it: "Say 600 ft x 65 ft x 30 ft" (180 m x 20 m x 9.1 m). These measurements were six times larger by volume than any ship afloat; such a large vessel would benefit from economies of scale and would be both fast and economical, requiring fewer crew than the equivalent tonnage made up of smaller ships. Brunel realised that the ship would need more than one propulsion system; since twin screws were still very much experimental, he settled on a combination of a single screw and paddle wheels, with auxiliary sail power. Although Brunel had pioneered the screw propeller on a large scale with Great Britain, he did not believe that it was possible to build a single propeller and shaft (or, for that matter, a paddleshaft) that could transmit the required power to drive his giant ship at the required speed. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell, an experienced naval architect and ship builder whom he had first met at the Great Exhibition. Scott Russell examined Brunel's plan and made his own calculations as to the ship's feasibility. He calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require to achieve , but believed it was possible. At Scott Russell's suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company with the new design plan. The James Watt Company would design the ship's screw, Professor Piazzi Smyth would design its gyroscopic equipment, and Russell himself would build the hull and paddle wheel. 1854–1859: Construction to launch Construction Brunel entered into a partnership with John Scott Russell, an experienced naval architect and ship builder, to build Great Eastern. Unknown to Brunel, Russell was in financial difficulties. The two men disagreed on many details. It was Brunel's final great project, and he collapsed from a stroke after being photographed on her deck, and died only ten days later, a mere four days after Great Easterns first sea trials. About the ship, Brunel said "I have never embarked on any one thing to which I have so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have devoted so much time, thought and labour, on the success of which I have staked so much reputation." Great Eastern was built by Messrs Scott Russell & Co. of Millwall, London, England, the keel being laid down on 1 May 1854. She was long, wide, with a draught of unloaded and fully laden, and displaced 32,000 tons fully loaded. In comparison, SS Persia, launched in 1856, was long with a beam. She was at first named Leviathan, but her high building and launching costs ruined the Eastern Steam Navigation Company and so she lay unfinished for a year before being sold to the Great Eastern Ship Company and finally renamed Great Eastern. It was decided she would be more profitable on the Southampton–New York run, and she was outfitted accordingly. The hull was an all-iron construction, a double hull of wrought iron in plates with ribs every . Her roughly 30,000 iron plates weighed each, and were cut over individually-made wooden templates before being rolled to the required curvature. Internally the hull was divided by two long, high, longitudinal bulkheads and further transverse bulkheads dividing the ship into nineteen compartments. Great Eastern was the first ship to incorporate a double-skinned hull, a feature which would not be seen again in a ship for 100 years, but which would later become compulsory for reasons of safety. To maximize her fuel capacity, stored coal was bunkered around and over her 10 boilers. She had sail, paddle and screw propulsion. The paddle-wheels were in diameter and the four-bladed screw-propeller was across. The power came from four steam engines for the paddles and an additional engine for the propeller. The cylinders for the paddle engines measured bore and stroke. The four cylinders for the screw engine measured bore and stroke. Total power was estimated at . She had six masts (said to be named after the days of a week – Monday being the fore mast and Saturday the spanker mast), providing space for of sails (7 gaff and maximum 9 (usually 4) square sails), rigged similar to a topsail schooner with a main gaff sail (fore-and-aft sail) on each mast, one "jib" on the fore mast and three square sails on masts no. 2 and no. 3 (Tuesday & Wednesday); for a time mast no. 4 was also fitted with 3 yards. In later years, some of the yards were removed. According to some sources she would have carried in sails. Setting sails turned out to be unusable at the same time as the paddles and screw were under steam, because the hot exhaust from the five (later four) funnels would set them on fire. Her maximum speed was . She was involved in a series of accidents during construction, with 6 workers being killed. Launch Great Eastern was planned to be launched on 3 November 1857. The ship's massive size posed major logistical issues; according to one source, the ship's 19,000 tons (12,000 inert tons during the launch) made it the single heaviest object moved by humans to that point. On 3 November, a large crowd gathered to watch the ship launch, with notables present including the Comte de Paris, the Duke of Aumale, and the Siamese ambassador to Britain. The launch, however, failed, and the ship was stranded on its launch rails – in addition, two men were killed and several others injured, leading some to declare Great Eastern an unlucky ship. Brunel rescheduled the launch for January 1858, hoping to use the tide in the next launch attempt. In the leadup to the second launch, Brunel and Great Eastern's backers gathered a significant number of chains, jacks, hydraulic rams, and windlasses to assist in launching the ship. Some were obtained from sympathetic engineers, others through returned favours, and yet more for increasing sums of money; so lucrative was renting out of supplies for the ship's launch that engineer Richard Tangye was able to found his own engineering firm (Tangye & Co) the next year, remarking that "We launched Great Eastern, and she launched us". Advice sent to Brunel on how to launch the ship came from a number of sources, including steamboat captains on the Great Lakes and one admirer who wrote an insightful description on how the massive Bronze Horseman had been erected in Saint Petersburg. High winds prevented the ship from being launched on 30 January, but the next morning a fresh attempt successfully launched the ship around 10:00 in the morning. Following her launch, Great Eastern spent a further 8 months being fitted out. However, the cost of the fitting out ($600,000) concerned many investors, who had already spent nearly $6,000,000 constructing her. With the building company already in debt, cost cutting measures were implemented; the ship was removed from Russell's shipyard, and many investors requested she be sold. As reported by the Times, one investor openly proposed that the ship be sold to the Royal Navy, noting if the navy employed Great Eastern as a ram, she would easily cleave through any warship afloat. These efforts had mixed success, with the ship eventually being sold to a new company for £800,000, equating to a loss of $3,000,000 for investors in the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. The new company modified parts of its predecessor's design, most notably cutting the ship's coal capacity as it intended to use the ship for the American market. Fitting out concluded in August 1859 and was marked with a lavish banquet for visitors (which included engineers, stockholders, members of parliament, 5 earls, and other notables). In early September 1859, the ship sailed from her dock towards the channel, accompanied by many spectators. However, off Hastings she suffered a massive steam explosion (caused by a valve being left shut by accident after a pressure test of the system) that killed five men. She proceeded to Portland Bill and then to Holyhead, though some investors claimed more money could have been made if the ship had remained as an "exhibition ship" for tourists in the Thames. Great Eastern successfully rode out the infamous Royal Charter Storm, after which it was moved to Southampton for the winter. The start of 1860 led to a further change of ownership when the owning company was found to be badly in debt and the value of the ship depreciated by half. This revelation forced the resignation of the board of directors, who were then replaced by a third group of controlling stockholders. With the new board in place, the ship was recapitalized to raise an additional $50,000. The new board was determined to finish the ship, but also bet heavily on making large profits exhibiting the ship in North American seaports. To accomplish this, the company played major American and Canadian cities against each other, goading them into competition over which city would welcome Great Eastern; the city of Portland, Maine (with additional investment from the Grand Trunk Railway) went so far as to build a $125,000 pier to accommodate the ship. Ultimately New York City – which had quickly dredged a berth for her alongside a lumber wharf – was decided on as the ship's first destination. 1860–1862: Early career After some delays, Great Eastern began her eleven-day maiden voyage on 17 June 1860, with 35 paying passengers, 8 company "dead heads" (passengers who do not pay) and 418 crew. Among the passengers were two journalists, Zerah Colburn and Alexander Lyman Holley. Her first crossing went without incident, and the ship's seaworthiness was proven again when she easily survived a small gale. Great Eastern arrived in New York on 28 June and was successfully docked, though she did damage part of a wharf. The ship was received with great aplomb, with many vessels and tens of thousands of people crowding to see her. In preparation for the crowds, the crew established a bar on deck, spread sand to soak up tobacco juice, and prepared to receive thousands of visitors. However, relations between the crew and New Yorkers began to sour – the public was outraged by the $1 entry fee (similar excursion trips in New York charged 25 cents) and many would-be visitors decided to forego visiting the ship. Great Eastern left New York in late July, taking several hundred passengers on an excursion trip to Cape May and then to Old Point, Virginia. However, this too raised issues as the ship did not have enough provisions (a burst pipe in a storeroom had ruined much of the ship's food) to make the short trip comfortable, while the ship's rudimentary bathrooms posed a sanitation issue. Duplicate tickets were sold for some berths, families were separated and remixed in improperly assigned cabins, and five plainclothes police officers (put on by New York to deter pickpockets) were discovered and chased into a livestock pen on deck. After reaching Virginia, the ship steamed back to New York, and from there sailed south again for an excursion cruise in the Chesapeake bay. The ship departed for Annapolis, where it was given 5,000 tons of coal by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Great Eastern remained in Annapolis for several days, where she was toured by several thousand visitors and President James Buchanan. During the presidential visit, one member of the company board discussed sending the ship to Savannah to transport Southern cotton to English mills, but this idea was never followed up on. Upon its second return to New York, the company decided to sail from the United States. From a financial perspective, the American venture had been a disaster; the ship had taken in only $120,000 against a $72,000 overhead, whereas the company had expected to take in $700,000. In addition, the company was facing a daily interest payment of $5,000, which ate into any profits the ship made. Hoping to net more profit before returning to Britain, the ship sailed from New York in mid August, bound for Halifax with 100 passengers. However, on approach to the port the ship was hailed by a local lighthouse service, which was empowered by law to collect a toll based on ship tonnage – given the size of the ship, the lighthouse levied a toll of $1,750 on Great Eastern. Infuriated by the size of the toll, a party went ashore to request that the toll be waived, but the governor of Halifax denied this request. Angered by the refusal, the captain and company leadership ordered the ship to return to Britain immediately, and as such no passengers or visitors were taken on in Halifax. With the engineering success but financial failure of the 1860 trip, the ship's ownership company again attempted to turn Great Eastern profitable. During the winter of 1860, Scott Russell (who had recently won a $120,000 legal judgement against the ship company) refitted the ship and repaired damage sustained during its first year of operations; during the refit, she once broke free from her moorings and cut off the bowsprit of HMS Blenheim. She departed for New York in May 1861 (her other potential port, Baltimore, now considered too risky due to the outbreak of the American Civil War), arriving in the port with little fanfare. Taking on a cargo of 5,000 tons of barrelled wheat and 194 passengers, she departed for Liverpool on 25 May, making an uneventful trip. Upon her return to Britain, it was announced that the ship's company had been contracted by the British War Office to transport 2,000 troops to Canada, part of a show of force to intimidate the rapidly-arming United States. After a further refit to carry troops, Great Eastern departed Britain for Quebec City carrying 2,144 soldiers, 473 passengers, and 122 horses; according to one source, this number of passengers – when coupled with Great Eastern's crew of 400 – marked the most number of people aboard a single ship to that point in history. The voyage was a success and the ship made it to Quebec, where it took two days for the city's steamers to ferry the passengers from the ship. The crossing was made in record-setting time, taking 8 days and 6 hours. Great Eastern's durable design was praised by the military officers aboard, but soon after her return to Britain the War Office discontinued the contract, and the ship returned to regular passenger service. In September 1861, Great Eastern was caught in a major hurricane two days out of Liverpool. The ship was trapped in the storm for three days and suffered major damage to her propulsion systems; both her paddle wheels were torn off, her sails stripped away, and her rudder had been bent to 200 degrees and subsequently torn up by the ship's single propeller. A jury-rigged propeller was installed by Hamilton Towle (an American engineer returning from Austria), allowing the ship to steer for Ireland powered only by her screw. Arriving in Queenstown, (now Cobh), she was denied entry to the harbour as it was feared high winds would cause her to smash her anchorage; she was granted entry three days later and towed in by HMS Advice, tearing the anchor off an American merchant on her way to her berth. The only fatal casualty of the cruise occurred in port when a man was killed by backspin off the helm. Damage caused by the storm and lost revenue from the trip amounted to $300,000. The ship continued a cycle of uneventful cruises, cargo loadings, and brief exhibitions from late 1861 to mid 1862. By July 1862, the ship was turning its first noteworthy profits, carrying 500 passengers and 8,000 tons of foodstuffs from New York to Liverpool, bringing in $225,000 in gross and requiring a turnaround of only 11 days. However, as noted by sources, the ship's owners struggled to sustain this profitability as they were heavily focused on upper and middle class passenger service. As such, the ship was not used to transport large groups of immigrants travelling to the United States, nor did it take full advantage of the major downturn in the American clipper industry during the American Civil War. 1862–1884: Later career Great Eastern Rock incident On 17 August 1862, Great Eastern departed from Liverpool for New York, carrying 820 passengers and several thousand tons of cargo – given the size of her load, she was drawing of water. After outrunning a small squall, the ship approached the New York coast on the night of 27 August. Fearing that Great Eastern was resting too low in the water to pass by Sandy Hook, the ship's captain instead chose the nominally safer route through Long Island Sound. While passing by Montauk Point around 2:00 AM, the ship collided with an uncharted rock needle (later named Great Eastern Rock) that stood around below the surface. The rock punctured the outer hull of the ship, leaving a gash wide and longit was later calculated that the needle was large enough to contact the inner hull, but that the outer hull and strong transverse braces had prevented the inner hull from being breached. The collision was noticed by the crew, who guessed that the ship had struck a shifting sand shoal, and after a bilge check Great Eastern continued onto New York without incident. While in port, however, it was noticed that the ship had acquired a slight list to starboard, and so a diver was sent in to inspect the hull. After several days of inspection, the diver reported the massive hole in the ship's outer hull, a major issue as no drydock in the world could fit the ship. The ship's hull was repaired by metalworkers in a cofferdam, but cost the company $350,000 and delayed the ship's return to Britain by several months. She would make one more trip to New York and back in 1863 before being laid up until 1864 due to her operating costs. In January 1864, it was announced that the ship would be auctioned off. During the auction, four members of the company board of directors bid $125,000 for the ship and won it, thus acquiring personal control of the vessel. The group then allowed the ship company to go bankrupt, thus separating the ship from the now defunct shipping company and divesting many smaller stockholders. The ship was then contracted out to Cyrus West Field, an American financier, who intended to use it to lay underwater cables. The ship's owners developed a business model whereby they would rent out Great Eastern as a cable layer in exchange for shares in cable companies, ensuring that if Great Eastern succeeded in laying cables, the unprofitable ship could be personally lucrative for her owners. Cable laying In May 1865, Great Eastern steamed to Sheerness to take on wire for the laying of the Transatlantic telegraph cable. In return for using the ship, her owners wanted $250,000 in telegraph company stock, but only on the condition the wire laying succeeded. To accommodate the of cable she was carrying, Great Eastern had some of her salons and rooms replaced with large tanks to hold the cable. In July the ship began laying the undersea cable near Valentia Island, gradually working her way west at a speed of . The effort went relatively smoothly for several weeks, but the cable end was lost mid-Atlantic in an accident, forcing the ship to return in 1866 with a new line. The ship's first officer, Robert Halpin, managed to locate the lost cable end and the unbroken cable made it to shore in Heart's Content, Newfoundland on 27 July 1866. Halpin became captain of Great Eastern, with the ship laying further cables. In early 1869 she laid a series of undersea cables near Brest. Later that year she was outfitted to lay undersea cables in the Indian Ocean; most of the operation's expenses were covered by the British government and banks in India, which hoped to circumvent the unreliable overland cables linking Britain to India. In preparation for operations in the hot climate, the ship was painted white to deflect heat away from the ship's cable tanks. Great Eastern departed from Britain in December 1869, arriving in Bombay (now Mumbai) 83 days later to lay her first cable anchor. Upon her arrival in port, Great Eastern's size generated considerable public interest, with the captain offering tickets to view the ship for 2 rupees apiece, distributing proceeds to the crew. Departing from Bombay before the onset of the Monsoon season, she proceeded north to lay a cable between Bombay and Aden. From Aden, she laid another cable to the island of Jabal al-Tair, where a second ship rendezvoused with her to take up the cable to Suez and then on to Alexandria. Suez Canal concerns The Suez Canal, which opened in 1869, was a setback for the ship: the ship was too wide for the canal, and going around Africa it would not be able to compete with ships that could use the canal. One famed Arab navigator proposed taking the ship through the canal, but this was never attempted. 1885–1890: Break up At the end of her cable-laying career – hastened by the launch of the CS Faraday, a ship purpose built for cable laying – she was refitted as a liner, but once again efforts to make her a commercial success failed. She remained moored in Milford Harbour for some time, annoying the Milford harbour board, which wanted to build dockyards in the area. Many proposals for the ship were raised; according to one source, pubs were full of talk of filling her with gunpowder and blowing her up. The ship was ultimately saved, however, as a dock engineer (Frederick Appleby) was able to build a dock around her, using the ship's massive hulk as a station for driving pylons. During her 11 years moored in Milford, she accrued a large amount of biofouling on her hull. Early marine naturalist Henry Lee (best known at the time for his skepticism towards sea monsters) conducted an extensive study of her hull, calculating she had ~300 tons of marine life attached to her. She was sold at auction, at Lloyd's on 4 November 1885, by order of the Court of Chancery. Bidding commenced at £10,000, rising to £26,200 and sold to Mr Mattos, a city merchant. Sold again, she was used as a showboat, a floating palace/concert hall and gymnasium. She later acted as an advertising hoardingsailing up and down the Mersey for Lewis's Department Store, who at this point were her owners, before being sold. The idea was to attract people to the store by using her as a floating visitor attraction. In 1886 she was sailed to Liverpool for the Liverpool Exhibition of 1886 – during the transit, she struck and badly damaged one of her tugs, the last of 10 ships she would damage or sink. On 10 May 1887, the steamship G. E. Wood collided with her in the Mersey. Sold again after the exhibition, one company considered using her to raise shallow shipwrecks, while one humorist suggested that Great Eastern be used to help dig the Panama canal by ramming her into the isthmus. She was, again, sold at auction in 1888, fetching £16,000 for her value as scrap. Many pieces of the ship were bought by private collectors, former passengers, and friends of the crew – various fixtures, lamps, furniture, paneling, and other artifacts were kept. Parts of Great Eastern were repurposed for other uses; one ferry company converted her wood paneling into a public house bar, while one mistress at a Lancashire boarding school acquired the ship's deck caboose for use as a children's playhouse. An early example of breaking-up a structure by use of a wrecking ball, she was scrapped near the Sloyne, at New Ferry on the River Mersey by Henry Bath & Son Ltd in 1889–1890—it took 18 months to take her apart, with her double hull being particularly difficult to salvage. The breaking of the ship caused a minor labour dispute as workers – who were paid by the ton of ship scrapped – became frustrated with the slow pace of breaking and went on strike. Trapped worker legend After Great Eastern's scrapping, rumours spread that the shipbreakers had found the remains of trapped worker(s) entombed in her hull—likely inspired by tales spread by her crew of a phantom riveter who had been sealed in the ship's hull. The legend was first widely noted on by James Dugan in 1952, who quoted a letter from a Captain David Duff, and many later sources cite Dugan's work. Other authors, notably L. T. C. Rolt in his biography of Brunel, have dismissed the claim (noting such a discovery would have been recorded in company logs and received press attention), but the legend has become widely mentioned in books and articles about nautical ghost stories. In London and Londoners in the Eighteen-Fifties and Sixties, Alfred Rosling Bennett writes about the skeleton that "it was then remembered that while on the stocks building a pay-clerk had disappeared with a large sum of money... and was supposed to have fled with it", and questions if the remains could have been deposited by workmen who had murdered the man. Brian Dunning wrote about the legend in 2020, noting that while it was technically impossible to prove or disprove, the incident could not have happened given the lack of evidence being found during the numerous times Great Eastern was being repaired. Surviving parts In 1928, Liverpool Football Club were looking for a flagpole for their Anfield ground, and consequently purchased her top mast. It still stands there today at the Kop end. In 2011, the Channel 4 programme Time Team found geophysical survey evidence to suggest that residual iron parts from the ship's keel and lower structure still reside in the foreshore. During 1859, when Great Eastern was off Portland conducting trials, an explosion aboard blew off one of the funnels. The funnel was salvaged and subsequently purchased by the water company supplying Weymouth and Melcombe Regis in Dorset, UK, and used as a filtering device. It was later transferred to the Bristol Maritime Museum close to Brunel's SS Great Britain then moved to the SS Great Britain Museum. In October 2007, the recovery of a anchor in of water about from Great Eastern Rock stirred speculation that it may have belonged to Great Eastern. In popular culture The SS Great Eastern is the subject of the Sting song, "Ballad of the Great Eastern" from the 2013 album The Last Ship. The history of the SS Great Eastern is chronicled in detail in James Dugan's non-fiction book The Great Iron Ship. An Atlantic crossing on the SS Great Eastern is the backdrop to Jules Verne's 1871 novel A Floating City An 1867 ten-day maiden trip of the SS Great Eastern from Liverpool to New York forms the backdrop of the eight-volume erotic novel by Andreas Embirikos titled after the ship's name in Greek: Megas Anatolikos. The SS Great Eastern and its creator Isambard Kingdom Brunel are central to Howard A. Rodman's 2019 novel The Great Eastern, in which Captain Ahab is pitted against Captain Nemo. The Great Eastern was the name of a radio comedy show on CBC Radio One from 1994 to 1999, named for the steamship. In the trade management video game Anno 1800, released in 2019 by Ubisoft, the player has the opportunity to construct Great Eastern as an addition to their naval fleet. Great Eastern has the largest cargo capacity of any ship in the game with a total of eight cargo slots. Gallery See also James Henry Pullen's model of SS Great Eastern Steering engine – Great Eastern was the first ship so equipped Transatlantic telegraph cable Robert Halpin, commanded the SS Great Eastern when a cable layer List of large sailing vessels References Further reading Kelly, Andrew and Melanie, (editors), Brunel – In Love With the Impossible, 2006 by Bristol Cultural Development Partnership, Hardback Paperback . . (Account of his 1867 voyage on Great Eastern). The Titanic Disaster: An Enduring Example of Money Management vs. Risk Management External links Great Eastern on thegreatoceanliners.com The building of the Great Eastern. at Southern Millwall: Drunken Dock and the Land of Promise, pp. 466–480, Survey of London volumes 43 and 44, edited by Hermione Hobhouse, 1994. Great Eastern and Cable Laying Brief description of Great Eastern First voyage of Great Eastern, in The Engineer, 16 September 1859. Images of Great Eastern at the English Heritage Archive Maritimequest SS Great Eastern Photo Gallery Victorian-era passenger ships of the United Kingdom Shipbuilding in London Steamships of the United Kingdom Steamships Sailing ships of the United Kingdom Six-masted ships Ships built in Millwall Ships designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel Cable ships of the United Kingdom 1858 ships Jules Verne Passenger ships of the United Kingdom Ships with box type boilers 1858 establishments in England Maritime incidents in September 1859 Maritime incidents in August 1862 Maritime incidents in May 1887

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironic%20%28song%29

Ironic (song)

"Ironic" is a song by Canadian singer Alanis Morissette. It was released in February 1996 as the third single from her third studio album, Jagged Little Pill (1995). It was written by Morissette and Glen Ballard, and was produced by him. "Ironic" is a song written in the key of B major, and includes a moderate tempo of eighty-five beats per minute. The lyrics present several situations that are described as "ironic"; this has led to debate as to whether any of these actually match the accepted meaning of irony. For six weeks, the track topped the Canadian RPM Top Singles chart. It also reached the top five in Australia, New Zealand, and Norway. In the United States, the song reached number four on April 13, 1996, and since then it has been her highest-charting single on the Billboard Hot 100. "Ironic" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The song won the Juno Award for Single of the Year, and received two Grammy Award nominations in 1997, for Record of the Year and Best Short Form Music Video. French director Stéphane Sednaoui filmed the music video. In it, Morissette drives through a winter landscape, and she plays multiple roles as her passengers. MTV nominated the music video for six MTV Video Music Awards in 1996, winning three of them. The music video was listed on VH1's "Greatest Music Videos" list and was parodied by DBA Flip, Allison Rheaume, Rusty and "Weird Al" Yankovic. In September 2001, following the September 11 attacks, "Ironic" was labeled inappropriate due to its lyrics by American mass media company Clear Channel Communications. The song was included on the set list of Morissette's Jagged Little Pill World Tour (1995), and her compilation albums MTV Unplugged (1999), The Collection (2005), among others. The song was covered by Mexican duet Jesse & Joy for their album Esta Es Mi Vida Sesiones (2007), and by American band Four Year Strong for their cover album Explains It All (2009). Writing and composition "Ironic" was written by Alanis Morissette and Glen Ballard, and produced by the latter for her third studio album, Jagged Little Pill (1995). In an interview with Christopher Walsh of Billboard, Ballard explained how he and Morissette met, and how "Ironic" was written. He commented: "I'm telling you, within 15 minutes we were at it—just writing. 'Ironic' was the third song we wrote. Oh God, we were just having fun. I thought 'I don't know what this is—what genre it is—who knows? It's just good". According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, it is a song set in the time signature of common time, composed in a moderate tempo of eighty-five beats per minute. It is set in the key of B major with Morissette's vocal range from the tone of E5 to B5, and "Ironic" chord progression starts with the sequence of Emaj7–F♯6–Emaj7–F♯6, before changing to F♯–Badd9–F♯–G♯m7 in the chorus. Linguistic dispute The song's usage of the word ironic attracted media attention; according to Jon Pareles of The New York Times, it gives a distinct "unironic" sense in its implications. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, irony is "a state of affairs or an event that seems deliberately contrary to what was or might be expected; an outcome cruelly, humorously, or strangely at odds with assumptions or expectations". Thus, lyrics such as "It's a free ride when you've already paid" and "A traffic jam when you're already late" are not ironic. Morissette said: "For me the great debate on whether what I was saying in 'Ironic' was ironic wasn't a traumatic debate. I'd always embraced the fact that every once in a while I'd be the malapropism queen. And when Glen and I were writing it, we definitely were not doggedly making sure that everything was technically ironic." In 2014, Michael Reid Roberts wrote a defense of the song for Salon, saying that it cites situational ironies: the "state of affairs or event[s] that seems deliberately contrary to what one expects and is often wryly amusing as a result". Michael Stevens of the YouTube channel Vsauce devoted time to the discussion of irony in the 2014 episode "Dord". In this video, Stevens considers the difference between the typically cited "situational" irony, versus "dramatic" irony. According to him, the irony of the song may not necessarily be in the situations themselves, but rather in the dramatic irony – when someone is unaware of the significance of the event while others are: the situations aren't ironic themselves, but life itself is ironic. Comedian Ed Byrne performed a skit in which he jokingly attacked the song for its lack of ironies: "The only ironic thing about that song is it's called 'Ironic' and it's written by a woman who doesn't know what irony is. That's quite ironic." Satirists Berger and Wyse parodied the song in one segment of their cartoon strip The Pitchers. In that episode, a superhero named "Irony Man" compared his superpowers to lyrics from Morissette's song, causing his cohorts to rename him "The Man from Alanis". In December 2009, the comedy website CollegeHumor released a spoof video of the song called "Actually Ironic", featuring actress Sarah Natochenny, in which Patrick Cassels amended the lyrics in a form that would be appropriately ironic. For example, "it's like rain on your wedding day, to the Egyptian sun god Ra." The CollegeHumor spoof was similarly replicated in July 2013 with a song called, "It's Finally Ironic" by sisters Rachael and Eliza Hurwitz, from New York City, who published their version on YouTube. The sisters adjusted the lyrics to reflect irony (e.g., "it's a black fly in your chardonnay, that was specifically purchased to repel black flies") and sing the line "We fixed it for you, Alanis. You're welcome." throughout their video. In his 2014 song "Word Crimes", "Weird Al" Yankovic references Morissette's lyrics by singing "Irony is not coincidence", and the music video for the song shows a fire truck burning (depicted as "Irony") compared with rain during a wedding (which is described as "Weather"). Morissette herself poked fun at her grammar mistakes during a 2013 performance of "Semicolon" with The Lonely Island on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. In it, Morissette cut off their song to explain that their use of hashtag rap to demonstrate the function of a semicolon is incorrect, to which they respond that her critiquing their grammar is "ironic". Morissette further poked fun at herself in a 2015 performance of an updated version "Ironic" on The Late Late Show with James Corden, in which she added the line "It’s singing 'Ironic', when there are no ironies" to the song. Reception Critical response Jaime Gill from Dot Music commented on the original version of "Ironic", on his review of Jagged Little Pill Acoustic (2005), that "[Jagged Little Pill] gave us pop's greatest parlour game, with spot the genuine irony in 'Ironic'" and calling the song "pretty" and "catchy". Additionally, he noted that the acoustic version “actually sounds more relaxed and engaging without the hoary loud guitars of the original". Even though Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic marked the track as one of the "All Media Guide track pick" of the album, in a separate review, from the same website, the CD single release was rated with two-and-a-half out of five stars. Pareles noted that in verses of "Ironic", and another song from the album ("Mary Jane"), "it's easy to envision Morissette on the stage of a club, singing wry couplets backed by acoustic guitar". He also commented in another article he wrote, that the song was actually "unironic". British magazine Music Week rated it four out of five, noting that it "builds into another powerful anthem with beautiful echoes of The Cocteau Twins. It could see her break into the Top 20 for the first time." Dave Brecheisen of PopMatters felt that the acoustic version of "Ironic", was much worse than the original version. The single won the Juno Award for Single of the Year at the 1997 ceremony, and in the same year it was nominated for a Grammy Award, in the category of Record of the Year. Chart performance In Canada, "Ironic" debuted on the RPM Singles Chart at number 95 on the issue dated January 8, 1996. Twelve weeks later the track topped the chart, on April 1, 1996, staying there for six weeks, being replaced by "Closer to Free" by American band BoDeans. Spending twenty-nine weeks within the top 100, it was last seen on July 22, 1996, at number 81. It spent 14 weeks in the Top 10 and was the number two song of 1996, behind Morissette's own "You Learn" at number one. On other RPM charts, the single topped the Alternative Rock Chart for a single week, spending 11 weeks in the Top 10, finishing 1996 as the number five song for the year on that chart. It reached number six on the Adult Contemporary Chart. In the U.S., the track debuted at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 following its commercial release, becoming the highest debut on the issue ending March 16, 1996. The single eventually reached its peak position, at number four, on April 13, 1996. "Ironic" is currently Morissette's highest-charting hit on the Hot 100 chart. On other US charts, the single became her third number-one hit on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks, where it stayed for three weeks. The song topped the Mainstream Top 40 (Pop Songs) chart, reached number two on the Hot 100 Airplay chart (which includes both pop and rhythmic/crossover radio stations), reached number five on Adult Top 40 chart and peaked at number 28 of the Adult Contemporary chart. In Australia, the song debuted at number 40 on the ARIA Singles Chart. In its eighth week, it peaked at number three on May 12, 1996, where it stayed for two weeks. It was last appeared on the chart on July 21, 1996, at number 37. To date, "Ironic" is her best charting song on the country. In New Zealand, where the song was released as a double A-side with "You Oughta Know", it debuted at number 13 on April 21, 1996, peaked at number three on May 19, and made its last appearance on the chart at number 36 on June 30, staying at total of 11 weeks in the top 50. Like in Australia, "Ironic" became Morissette's highest-peaking single in New Zealand, but only at the time; "Thank U" and "Hands Clean" would chart higher in 1998 and 2002, respectively. The song was generally well-received throughout Europe. In the United Kingdom "Ironic" debuted and peaked at number 11, on April 20, 1996. It left the chart eight weeks later, at number 67. In the Norwegian Singles Charts, it debuted at number 18, rising to number 17 the next week. It rose to number five on its third week, and later peaked at number four, staying there for five weeks. It later dropped one place, and remained there for another two weeks. "Ironic" kept within the chart for seventeen weeks. In Belgium, it reached sixth place on the Ultratop 50 (Flanders region), and ninth place on the Ultratop 50 (Wallonia zone). Promotion Music video The music video for "Ironic" was directed by Stéphane Sednaoui and released on January 23, 1996. In the beginning of the video, Morissette is at a gas station, walking to her automobile (1978 Lincoln Continental Mark V) with a cup of coffee in her hand. Then, she drives her car through a winter landscape, and she begins to sing the song's first verse. When it comes to the chorus, a second Morissette comes in. She is in a green sweater and sits in the backseat on the passenger side. When the first chorus ends, a third Morissette comes in, and she is in a yellow sweater with braided hair, also in the backseat, but on the driver's side. Along the way, the yellow Morissette is singing and eating at the same time, and when it comes to the second verse, a fourth and last Morissette comes in, she is in a red sweater sitting in the front passenger seat. During the second chorus, she climbs out of the window when they are still driving and almost gets knocked out by a bridge, but still manages a smile after doing so. The camera comes back to the driving Morissette, after the breakdown, and she takes off her hat, tosses it into the back seat, and becomes as loud as the other three while singing the song. When Morissette sings the outro, she is still driving through the winter landscape, and suddenly the car breaks down (possibly having run out of gas, which may be "ironic" in itself since the video started with her at a gas station). Morissette (as the driver) gets out of the car, and all her "passengers" have disappeared. In an interview for Vogue in 2015, Morissette revealed that her clothes in the video reflected the personalities of each character. The driver in a red knit beanie was the one in control, "the responsible one". The spunky character, who Morissette refers to as the “quirkster,” wears a yellow sweater with a crown of long swaying braids. Morissette liked the braids so much that she would often wear them on stage. The passenger-seat girl wearing a deep red sweater and pajama-type pants was "the romantic—wistful and thoughtful and also the risk-taker". As for the girl head-banging in the backseat in green sweater, Morissette said; "The girl in green feels the most like the 'whole me'. The green sweater girl—fun and frolic-y. [She] gets into trouble—she's the girl you want with you when you are heading to a water park." Blaine Allan noted in the book Television: Critical Methods and Applications (2002) how Morissette interacts with the watcher. He commented that unlike Britney Spears' "Lucky" music video, where Spears plays dual role of a girl named "Lucky" and her fan, and both appear together in some scenes helped by visual effects, "Ironic" does not utilize them, using solely editing, giving the sense that all the Morissettes interact with each other. Journalist Carol Vernallis also found that Morissette's "chitchat" way of singing the song creates an intimate connection with the viewer. She mentioned the video in her book Experiencing Music Video: Aesthetics and Cultural Context (2004), where she studied how the audience may pay attention to the lyrics of the song in a music video. Vernallis added that "Ironic" music video functions as a limited example of how the meaning of a song's lyrics become "inaccessible" when they are videotaped and televised. Charles Aaron from Spin called "Ironic" music video "neat". The video was nominated for six MTV Video Music Awards in 1996: "Video of the Year", "Best Direction in a Video", "Viewer's Choice", "Best Female Video", "Best New Artist in a Video" and "Best Editing", winning the last three. It was nominated in 1997 for the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. Also, it was listed number eighteen at VH1's 100 Greatest Videos. In late 1996, a parody version of the video was released featuring a 6-year-old Canadian girl named Allison Rheaume, who mimics Morissette's actions and wardrobe while lip syncing to the original song. At the end, her father notices her in the car sitting in the driveway and tells her to stop fooling around. This version of the video, directed by David Rheaume, was played on MTV and was included on Morissette's CD/DVD The Collection (2005). Also in late 1996, the video was spoofed by Jimmy The Cab Driver during a commercial on MTV. Inglewood, CA rapper DBA Flip parodied the video for his 1996 single "It's Friday Night (Just Got Paid)". At the end of the video, Flip's car runs out of gas as he rolls up on an Alanis Morissette lookalike carrying a gas can and wearing one of the jackets from the "You Learn" video. Canadian band Rusty parodied "Ironic" on the version 2 of the music video for their 1997 single "Empty Cell". "Weird Al" Yankovic produced a parody version of the video in 2003 for his television comedy series Al TV, in which he takes the place of the fourth version of Morissette in the front passenger seat. In 2018, Toronto R&B singer Ramriddlz paid tribute to "Ironic" on the music video for his single "Worst Love". Live performances The single was added in the set list for Morissette's concert tour, Jagged Little Pill World Tour (1995). The song was added to the tour's video album Jagged Little Pill Live (1997). Since then, "Ironic" has been included in her albums MTV Unplugged (1999), Feast on Scraps (2002), Live in the Navajo Nation (2002), and The Collection, as well as 1997 Grammys and the MTV Unplugged compilation albums. With "Ironic", Morissette denoted her support for same-sex marriage. In March 2004, Morissette amended a lyric at the fifteenth annual GLAAD Media Awards: "It's meeting the man of my dreams /And then meeting his beautiful husband". She commented to USA Today that her support about same-sex unions "goes a step further than clever lyrics." She remarked that "[her] fantasy would now be to marry some of [her] gay couple friends." Later in June 2004, she said to VH1: "I don't have any gay-couple friends who are formally engaged, but I would be honored to support the gay community in that way ... I did it as a sort of spontaneous thing at a radio station about a month ago with a couple, and my heart was so with them." Morissette recorded an acoustic version of the song with the changed lyric for her iTunes Originals release, in 2004. Another acoustic version was recorded for the album Jagged Little Pill Acoustic, as well for the compilation album Cities 97 Sampler, Volume 16 (2004). Morissette also performed the song with Avril Lavigne at the House of Blues in 2005. Covers and use in media In 2003, Ji-In Cho covered the song for the German version of the Fame Academy talent show, which became a success in the German charts. "Ironic" was covered in 2007 by Mexican duet Jesse & Joy for their album Esta Es Mi Vida Sesiones, and the pop punk band Four Year Strong for their 90s cover album Explains It All (2009). In the 1996 novel Naïve. Super by Norwegian author Erlend Loe, the protagonist watches the video for the song on television and dreams about "meeting an Alanis-girl and living in a house together with her". In a season 4 episode of Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman entitled "Bob and Carol and Lois and Clark" (1996) several characters make joking references to the song not really being about irony at all throughout the episode. In the Jay and Silent Bob comic Chasing Dogma (1998), the character Tricia Jones is singing "Ironic" before Jay steps into the shower. The music of the song was featured in the romantic comedy film I Could Never Be Your Woman (2007), where Saoirse Ronan, as Izzie Mensforth, sings an altered version of the lyrics in a talent show. It also made a predominant appearance as the opener to 2013 comedy film The Internship, starring Owen Wilson and Vince Vaughn, as they sing along to it. In 2015, Morissette appeared on The Late Late Show with James Corden and sang a version of the song with new lyrics "updated" for the technology era, and an homage to the linguistics of the original mentioned above. Track listing CD single, cassette "Ironic"  – 3:49 "You Oughta Know" (acoustic/live from the Grammy Awards)  – 3:48 "Mary Jane" (live)  – 5:52 "All I Really Want" (live)  – 5:22 Special edition maxi single "Ironic" (album version)  – 3:48 "Forgiven" (live)  – 6:09 "Not the Doctor" (live)  – 6:05 "Wake Up" (live)  – 5:05 Personnel Credits adapted from "Ironic" CD single: Alanis Morissette – vocals, producer, writer Glen Ballard – producer, guitar, writer Lance Morrison – bass guitar Rob Ladd – drums and percussion Michael Thompson – organ Basil Fung – guitar Chris Fogel – mixing Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts All-time charts Certifications Release history See also List of Mainstream Top 40 number-one hits of 1996 (U.S.) List of RPM number-one singles of 1996 (Canada) List of RPM Rock/Alternative number-one singles (Canada) Number one modern rock hits of 1996 References External links Boon, Andrew, "The Search for Irony: a textual analysis of the lyrics of Ironic by Alanis Morissette", The Reading Matrix, 5: 129–142 (2005). How we learned to love Alanis Morissette's 'irony' – discussion of the definition of "irony" which is hotly disputed in this song 1990s ballads 1996 singles 1996 songs Alanis Morissette songs Irony Juno Award for Single of the Year singles Maverick Records singles MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video Music videos directed by Stéphane Sednaoui Rock ballads RPM Top Singles number-one singles Songs based on actual events Songs about death Songs about old age Songs written by Alanis Morissette Songs written by Glen Ballard Warner Records singles

428901

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20of%20Shrewsbury

Earl of Shrewsbury

Earl of Shrewsbury () is a hereditary title of nobility created twice in the Peerage of England. The second earldom dates to 1442. The holder of the Earldom of Shrewsbury also holds the title of Earl of Waterford (1446) in the Peerage of Ireland and Earl Talbot (1784) in the Peerage of Great Britain. Shrewsbury and Waterford are the oldest earldoms in their peerages held by someone with no higher title (the oldest earldoms in each peerage being held by the Duke of Norfolk and Duke of Leinster, respectively), and as such the Earl of Shrewsbury is sometimes described as the premier earl of England and Ireland. History First creation, 1074 The first creation occurred in 1074 for Roger de Montgomerie, one of William the Conqueror's principal counsellors. He was one of the Marcher Lords, with the Earl of Hereford and the Earl of Chester, a bulwark against the Welsh; he was granted great powers, and his territory, which extended from Shropshire (of which Shrewsbury is the county town) into Mid-Wales (the county of Montgomeryshire being named after him), was outside the ordinary administration; he was also granted lands across England. Roger was succeeded in 1094 by his younger son Hugh, his elder son Robert of Bellême succeeding to his lands in Normandy. On Hugh's death in 1098 the earldom passed to his brother Robert. The title was forfeit in 1102 after the 3rd Earl, Robert, rebelled against Henry I and joined Robert Curthose's invasion of England in 1101. Second creation, 1442 The title was created for a second time in 1442 when John Talbot, 7th Baron Talbot, an English general in the Hundred Years' War, was made Earl of Shrewsbury in the Peerage of England. He was also made hereditary Lord High Steward of Ireland and, in 1446, Earl of Waterford in the Peerage of Ireland (thus, the two titles have always descended together). John Talbot, the first Earl, was succeeded by his son John, the second Earl, who had already succeeded as seventh Baron Furnivall on his mother's death in 1433. Lord Shrewsbury served as both Lord Chancellor of Ireland and Lord High Treasurer of England. He was killed at the Battle of Northampton in 1460 during the Wars of the Roses. His grandson, the fourth Earl, was Lord Steward of the Household between 1509 and 1538. His son, the fifth Earl, was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration as Lord Talbot in 1533, five years before he succeeded his father. On his death the titles passed to his son, the sixth Earl. Lord Shrewsbury was entrusted with the custody of Mary, Queen of Scots, and also served as Earl Marshal from 1572 to 1590. He married as his second wife the famous Bess of Hardwick. Shrewsbury was succeeded by his son from his first marriage to Lady Gertrude Manners, the seventh Earl. He represented Derbyshire in the House of Commons and served as Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire. He had no sons and on his death in 1616 the baronies of Talbot, Strange of Blackmere and Furnivall fell into abeyance between his three daughters. He was succeeded in the earldoms by his younger brother, the eighth Earl. He was Member of Parliament for Northumberland. He did not have a male heir either and was succeeded by his distant relative, the ninth Earl. He was the great-great-grandson of Sir Gilbert Talbot (died 1518), third son of the second Earl of Shrewsbury. The family bought Barlow Woodseats Hall in 1593 as part of the estate. He was succeeded by his nephew, George, the tenth Earl and Lord of Grafton. He was the son of John Talbot of Grafton. On his death the titles passed to his son, the eleventh Earl. He was killed in a duel with George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. His son, the twelfth Earl, was a prominent statesman. He was one of the Immortal Seven who in 1688 invited William of Orange to invade England and depose his father-in-law James II and later served under William and Mary as Secretary of State for the Southern Department and Secretary of State for the Northern Department. In 1694 he was created Marquess of Alton and Duke of Shrewsbury in the Peerage of England. The Duke was childless and on his death in 1718 the marquessate and dukedom became extinct. He was succeeded in his other titles by his first cousin, the thirteenth Earl. He was the son of the Hon. Gilbert Talbot, second son of the tenth Earl. Lord Shrewsbury was in the Holy Orders of the Church of Rome. On his death the titles passed to his nephew George, the fourteenth Earl (who was the son of the Hon. George Talbot). He was childless and was succeeded by his nephew Charles, the fifteenth Earl (who was the son of Charles Talbot). He began in 1812 the creation of the extensive gardens at Alveton Lodge, Staffordshire (later renamed Alton Towers) which estate had been in the family since the 15th century. When he died the titles were inherited by his nephew John, the sixteenth Earl who was the son of the Hon. John Joseph Talbot. When in 1831 the principal home of the family at Heythrop, Oxfordshire was destroyed by fire he moved the family seat to Alton Towers. The sixteenth Earl was also a noted patron of A W N Pugin. He was succeeded by Bertram, his second cousin once removed, the seventeenth Earl who was the great-grandson of the Hon. George Talbot, younger son of the aforementioned Gilbert Talbot (died 1711), second son of the tenth Earl. Bertram died unmarried at an early age in 1856. By his will he left his estates to Lord Edmund Howard (by Royal Licence from 1876-1922: Talbot), son of the Duke of Norfolk, a will contested by three distant relatives and after a long and expensive legal case the House of Lords ruled in 1860 in favour of Henry John Chetwynd-Talbot, 3rd Earl Talbot, who thus became the eighteenth Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford. He was a descendant of the aforementioned the Hon. Sir Gilbert Talbot (died 1518), third son of the second Earl of Shrewsbury (see the Earl Talbot for earlier history of this branch). He also held the titles of Baron Talbot, of Hensol in the County of Glamorgan, and Viscount of Ingestre, of Ingestre Hall in the County of Stafford. Lord Shrewsbury was an admiral in the Royal Navy and also served in the second Conservative administration of the Earl of Derby as Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms (chief whip in the House of Lords) from 1858 to 1859. His eldest son, the nineteenth Earl, also served as Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms, an office he held from 1874 to 1877 under Benjamin Disraeli. He was succeeded by his son, the twentieth Earl. He caused a scandal in Victorian England by eloping with a married woman, Ellen Miller-Mundy. They were later married. On his death the titles passed to his grandson, the twenty-first Earl. He was the son of Charles John Alton Chetwynd-Talbot, Viscount Ingestre. the peerages are held by the twenty-first Earl's eldest son, the twenty-second Earl, who succeeded in 1980. He is one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sits on the Conservative benches. He is also hereditary Lord High Steward of Ireland and as the holder of this office is allowed to bear a white staff at the Coronation of the British Monarch. Lord Shrewsbury is the senior earl on the Roll in the Peerage of England (the more senior earldom of Arundel being held by the Duke of Norfolk). The earldom of Waterford is sometimes called the "Premier Earldom of Ireland on the Roll", as the oldest Irish earldom, that of Kildare, has been a subsidiary title of the Duke of Leinster for centuries and the Earl held the oldest Irish earldom held by anyone ranked as an Earl. If the Viscount Mountgarret proves his presumed claim to the 1328 earldom of Ormonde, the Earls of Shrewsbury would lose this distinction, but they derive higher precedence from their English earldom in any event. Despite holding three differently named earldoms Lord Shrewsbury is always styled simply "The Earl of Shrewsbury". The seat of the Earls of Shrewsbury was once Alton Towers until it was sold in 1924 by the infant 21st Earl's Trustees. The family seat is still in Staffordshire, near Ashbourne and Uttoxeter. The family crypt is the Shrewsbury Chapel in Sheffield Cathedral. In 2013, it was discovered that the majority of the Shrewsbury coffins had gone missing from the burial chamber. The current Earl has been appointed High Steward of Sheffield Cathedral. The other family crypt – that of the Chetwynd-Talbot Earls of Shrewsbury – is at the Church of St Mary The Virgin, Ingestre, Stafford. Three other members of the Talbot family may also be mentioned. The Hon. John Talbot, son of the first Earl of Shrewsbury by his second wife Margaret Beauchamp, was created Viscount Lisle in 1451. Admiral the Hon. Walter Carpenter (who assumed the surname of Carpenter in lieu of his patronymic Chetwynd-Talbot), second son of the eighteenth Earl, was a naval commander and Member of Parliament. Major-General the Hon. Sir Reginald Talbot, third son of the eighteenth Earl, was a soldier, politician and colonial governor. Titleholders Earls of Shrewsbury, first creation (1074) Roger de Montgomery, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1094) Hugh of Montgomery, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury (died 1098) Robert of Bellême, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury (1052–1113) (forfeit 1102) Earls of Shrewsbury, second creation (1442) John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of Waterford, 7th Baron Talbot, 10th Baron Strange of Blackmere (1387–1453) John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury, 2nd Earl of Waterford, 8th Baron Talbot, 11th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 7th Baron Furnivall (1413–1460) John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, 3rd Earl of Waterford, 9th Baron Talbot, 12th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 8th Baron Furnivall (1448–1473) George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury, 4th Earl of Waterford, 10th Baron Talbot, 13th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 9th Baron Furnivall (1468–1538) Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury, 5th Earl of Waterford, 11th Baron Talbot, 14th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 10th Baron Furnivall (1500–1560) George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, 6th Earl of Waterford, 12th Baron Talbot, 15th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 11th Baron Furnivall (1528–1590) Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury, 7th Earl of Waterford, 13th Baron Talbot, 16th Baron Strange of Blackmere, 12th Baron Furnivall (1552–1616) Edward Talbot, 8th Earl of Shrewsbury, 8th Earl of Waterford (1561–1617) George Talbot, 9th Earl of Shrewsbury, 9th Earl of Waterford (1567–1630) John Talbot, 10th Earl of Shrewsbury, 10th Earl of Waterford (1601–1654) Francis Talbot, 11th Earl of Shrewsbury, 11th Earl of Waterford (1623–1667) Charles Talbot, 12th Earl of Shrewsbury, 12th Earl of Waterford (1660–1718) (created Duke of Shrewsbury in 1694) Duke of Shrewsbury (1694) Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, 12th Earl of Shrewsbury, 12th Earl of Waterford (1660–1718) Earls of Shrewsbury, second creation (1442; reverted) Gilbert Talbot, 13th Earl of Shrewsbury, 13th Earl of Waterford (1673–1743) George Talbot, 14th Earl of Shrewsbury, 14th Earl of Waterford (1719–1787) Charles Talbot, 15th Earl of Shrewsbury, 15th Earl of Waterford (1753–1827) John Talbot, 16th Earl of Shrewsbury, 16th Earl of Waterford (1791–1852) Bertram Arthur Talbot, 17th Earl of Shrewsbury, 17th Earl of Waterford (1832–1856) Henry John Chetwynd-Talbot, 18th Earl of Shrewsbury, 18th Earl of Waterford, 3rd Earl Talbot (1803–1868) Charles John Chetwynd-Talbot, 19th Earl of Shrewsbury, 19th Earl of Waterford, 4th Earl Talbot (1830–1877) Charles Henry John Chetwynd-Talbot, 20th Earl of Shrewsbury, 20th Earl of Waterford, 5th Earl Talbot (1860–1921) Charles John Alton Chetwynd-Talbot, Viscount of Ingestre (1882–1915) John George Charles Henry Alton Alexander Chetwynd-Talbot, 21st Earl of Shrewsbury, 21st Earl of Waterford, 6th Earl Talbot (1914–1980) Charles Henry John Benedict Crofton Chetwynd Chetwynd-Talbot, 22nd Earl of Shrewsbury, 22nd Earl of Waterford, 7th Earl Talbot (born 1952) The heir apparent is the present holder's son James Richard Charles John Chetwynd-Talbot, Viscount Ingestre (born 1978). The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son George Henry Charles John Alton Chetwynd-Talbot (born 2013). Line of succession John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford (1413–1460) Sir Gilbert Talbot (c. 1452–c.1518)Sir John TalbotSir John Talbot (d. 1581) Sherrington Talbot (1577–1642) William Talbot (d. 1686) Rt. Rev. William Talbot (1658–1730) Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot (1685–1737) Hon. John Talbot (c. 1712–1756) John Chetwynd-Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot (1749–1793) Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 2nd Earl Talbot (1777–1849) Henry Chetwynd-Talbot, 18th Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford, 3rd Earl Talbot (1803–1868) Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 19th Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford, 4th Earl Talbot (1830–1877) Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 20th Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford, 5th Earl Talbot (1860–1921) Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, Viscount Ingestre (1882–1915) John Chetwynd-Talbot, 21st Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford, 6th Earl Talbot (1914–1980) Charles Chetwynd-Talbot, 22nd Earl of Shrewsbury and Waterford, 7th Earl Talbot (b. 1952) (1). James Chetwynd-Talbot, Viscount Ingestre (b. 1978) (2). Hon. George Henry Charles John Alton Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 2013) (3). Hon. Edward William Henry Alexander Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 1981) (4). Hon. Paul Alexander Anthony Bueno Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 1957) (5). Harry Alexander Alton Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 1985) (6). Jack Anthony Alton Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 1987) (7). Rory Arthur Alton Chetwynd-Talbot (b. 1995) Rev. Hon. Arthur Chetwynd-Talbot (1805–1884) Charles Arthur Talbot (1834–1869) Arthur Hervey Talbot (1863–1927) Douglas Hervey Talbot (1882–1927) Brian Harvey Talbot (1916–2008) male desc. in succession Hervey Arthur Talbot (1838–1884) Arthur Aston Talbot (1881–1918) Patrick Edward Aston Talbot (1913–1994) male desc. in succession Rev. Arthur Henry Chetwynd-Talbot (1855–1927) John Arthur Chetwynd-Talbot (1905–1993) John Edward Chetwynd-Talbot (1934–2019) male desc. in succession Hon. John Chetwynd-Talbot (1806–1852) John Gilbert Talbot (1835–1910) Sir George John Talbot (1861–1938) Thomas George Talbot (1904–1992) male desc. in succession Hon. Sir Wellington Patrick Manvers Chetwynd-Talbot (1817–1898) Gilbert Edward Chetwynd-Talbot (1876–1950) Patrick Gilbert Murray Chetwynd-Talbot (1905–1979) male desc. in succession Edward Hugh Frederick Chetwynd-Talbot (1909–1998) male desc. in succession Hon. Gerald Chetwynd-Talbot (1819–1885) Charles Alexander Price Chetwynd-Talbot (1842–1903) Charles Fleming Chetwynd Chetwynd-Talbot (1879–1933) Charles John Huyshe Chetwynd Chetwynd-Talbot (1910–1991) male desc. in succession Gilbert Patrick Chetwynd Chetwynd-Talbot (1886–1958) Christopher Patrick Chetwynd-Talbot (1922–2011) male desc. in succession Rev. Hon George Talbot (d. 1782) Very Rev. Charles Talbot (1769–1823) Adm. Sir Charles Talbot (1801–1876) Charles William Talbot-Ponsonby (1843–1927) Edward Frederick Talbot-Ponsonby (1872–1946) John Arthur Talbot-Ponsonby (1907–1969) male desc. in succession Charles George Talbot-Ponsonby (1874–1937) Edward Fitzroy Talbot-Ponsonby (1916–1996) male desc. in succession Frederick William Talbot-Ponsonby (1879–1930) Evelyn John Talbot-Ponsonby (1915–1997) male desc. in succession Francis Arthur Bouverie Talbot (1851–1916) Sir Cecil Ponsonby Talbot (1884–1970) John Talbot (1925–2011) David John Talbot (1960–2018) male desc. in succession George Talbot (1809–1871) FitzRoy Somerset Talbot (1837–1906) George Reginald FitzRoy Talbot (1870–1931) Granville FitzRoy Talbot (1908–1978) male desc. in succession Family tree Properties owned by the Earls of Shrewsbury (second creation) The family seat now is Wanfield Hall, near Kingstone, Staffordshire. Previous properties include: Alveston Hall hunting lodge (see Alton Towers below). Alton Castle, owned by the Earls since the 15th-century; rebuilt in the Gothic-revival style by the 16th Earl; sold to the Sisters of Mercy in 1919. Alton Towers, built on the site of Alveston Hall in 1811–14 as the family seat; sold in 1924. Barlow Woodseats Hall, bought in 1593; sold in the mid-1600s. Grafton Manor, seat of John Talbot of Grafton's son George before inheriting the title; sold in 1934. Heythrop Park, developed as the family seat in 1700–1705; burnt down in 1831 and sold in 1870. Ingestre Hall, inherited by marriage to the Chetwynd family in 1748; sold to Sandwell Metropolitan Borough Council. Shrewsbury Place or Shrewsbury House, Isleworth bought by kinsman Sir John Talbot, 1678, passed to the Protestant Duke of Shrewsbury (died 1718), and to the Roman Catholic George Talbot (died 1733), often known in his lifetime as Earl of Shrewsbury. His widow continued to live at Isleworth until her death in 1752, and it was as her chaplain that the first recorded priest ministered in Isleworth. The house was a catholic boys school by 1770 and demolished by 1810. Arms See also Earl Talbot Baron Talbot Viscount Lisle Baron Furnivall Baron Strange of Blackmere Countess of Shrewsbury Notes Secondary sources Earldoms in the Peerage of England Earl Forfeited earldoms in the Peerage of England Noble titles created in 1442 Noble titles created in 1074

428905

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pukekohe

Pukekohe

Pukekohe is a town in the Auckland Region of the North Island of New Zealand. Located at the southern edge of the Auckland Region, it is in South Auckland, between the southern shore of the Manukau Harbour and the mouth of the Waikato River. The hills of Pukekohe and nearby Bombay Hills form the natural southern limit of the Auckland region. Pukekohe is located within the political boundaries of the Auckland Council, following the abolition of the Franklin District Council on 1 November 2010. With a population of Pukekohe is the 24th largest urban area in New Zealand, and the third largest in the Auckland Region behind Auckland itself and Hibiscus Coast. Pukekohe is a rural service town for the area formerly known as the Franklin District. Its population is mainly of European descent, with significant Māori and ethnic Indian and East Asian communities. There are also a notable number of people of South African and Dutch descent. The fertile volcanic soil and warm moist climate supports a large horticultural and dairy farming industry; the Pukekohe long keeper onion is well known internationally. Geology Pukekohe and the surrounding areas are a section of the South Auckland volcanic field, which erupted between 550,000 and 1,600,000 years ago. History Māori history The traditional Māori name for Pukekohe Hill, Pukekohekohe ("Hill of Kohekohe") refers to Dysoxylum spectabile, also known as the New Zealand mahogany tree, which used to be a prominent part of the native bush on in the area. The area was important to Waiohua tribes including Ngāti Tamaoho, Ngāti Te Ata and Te Ākitai, due to the strategic views from the hill and the high quality soil. The northern slopes of the hill were home to some of the largest croplands (māra kai) for the Tāmaki Māori people who settled here. Much of the population around Pukekohe migrated south during the Musket Wars in the 1820s due to the threat from Ngāpuhi and other northern tribes, gradually returning from the mid-1830s. In modern times, the two main iwi of the area are Ngāti Tamaoho and Ngāti Te Ata. Waikato Tainui has a strong presence. European settlement and the New Zealand Wars On 7 December 1843, the New Zealand Crown purchased sections of the Franklin District including Pukekohe from local Māori for the sum of £150 and several items including 181 blankets, two tea kettles, a horse brush, six silk handkerchiefs, a water pot, 13 axes, two saucepans, a box of pipes and 788 pounds of tobacco. When European settlers arrived, Māori provided them with food supplies, and individual farmers purchased small blocks of land which they cleared by hand. In 1853, the Crown established Te Awa nui o Taikehu, a reserve the Crown created for Te Ākitai Waiohua during land sales around modern-day Pukekohe. By 1856, European settlements had been well established in the north and western reaches of Pukekohe. On 9 July 1863, due to fears of the Māori King Movement, Governor George Grey proclaimed that all Māori living to the South of Auckland needed to swear loyalty to the Queen and give up their weapons. Most people refused due to strong links to Tainui, leaving for the south before the Government's Invasion of the Waikato. Small numbers of people remained, in order to tend to their farms and for ahi kā (land rights through continued occupation). A major battle of the Waikato War was fought at Pukekohe East on 14 September 1863. The battle involved 11 armed Pākehā (European New Zealanders) settlers, who were converting the Pukekohe East church into a redoubt and approximately 200–300 Māori, mainly from the Waikato area. Although surprised and severely outnumbered, the settlers held off the Kīngitanga fighters until troops from the 18th Royal Irish Regiment arrived. No settlers were killed or injured while 30 Māori were killed with an unknown number wounded. 6 bodies were found near the church and 24 were later found buried in the bush. The church still exists today and the bullet holes are still visible. According to Te Huia Raureti, tribes that took part in the raid came from Ngāti Maniapoto, some other upper Waikato tribes, and Ngāti Pou of lower Waikato. On the even of the raid on Pukekohe East, a war council had ordered members of the taua (war party) to avoid looting the property of settlers. Despite this order, future Ngāti Maniapoto chief Wahanui Huatare and several other members raided a settler's house. This angered other members of the war party, who regarded it as a bad omen. Nearly the entire Pukekohe area was abandoned apart from military outposts. Isolated attacks occurred as late as November 1863 after the Battle of Rangiriri. The New Zealand Government confiscated large tracts of land in the aftermath of the invasion in 1865, after which the town of Pukekohe was established, on the northern slopes of its namesake, Pukekohe Hill. In January 1865, the New Zealand Government's Executive Council designated Pukekohe as one of the eight districts in the Waikato region to be confiscated, which amounted to a total of 577,590 acres. On 26 April 1865, the Native Land Court awarded £5,444 in compensation to the Ngatipari tribe, a branch of the Ākitai people, for a block of land known as the "Pukekohe Reserve" or "Pukekohe bloc," which had been confiscated during the Waikato War. The Ngatipari claimants successfully argued that they had not opposed the Crown during the Waikato War and established their claim to the land on the basis of cultivation and ancestral burial grounds. In late 1865, several chiefs sought to have various urupā (burial sites) at Pukekohe and other locations including Patumāhoe, Pōkeno, and Maketū returned to them. The New Zealand Government objected when it emerged that the total area might exceed 200 acres and insisted that the exact locations of graves should be identified and only smaller plots returned to Māori. This case was subsequently referred to the Land Compensation Court. Due to the clearing of dense bush in the Pukekohe area, large areas of fertile, volcanic land became available for growing crops. While onions and potatoes were first grown in Pukekohe as early as the 1850s, large-scale market growing of vegetables did not begin until 1870 in nearby Patumahoe. After horticulturalist John Bilkey planted a successful crop of onions on Pukekohe Hill in 1892, local farmers began cultivating onion patches. The expansion of roads and railway infrastructure during the late 19th century led to the development of market gardens in Pukekohe and the nearby Bombay Hills. In addition to onions and potatoes, other vegetable produce included squash, tomatoes, silverbeet, lettuce, broccoli, cauliflowers, legumes and root vegetables. By 1875, Pukekohe was connected to Auckland by rail with the extension of railway lines to Mercer. People who had lived in Te Awa nui o Taikehu returned to the area in the 1870s, often working as labourers in the market gardens on the former lands of the reserve. 20th century On 10 June 1905, Pukekohe became a town district. By 1907, Pukekohe's town centre consisted of one main street with numerous stores and workshops. Following the completion of the North Island Main Trunk railway line in 1907, Pukekohe's market gardens became a major supplier of agricultural produce for several North Island major population centres including Auckland and Wellington. Due to Auckland's growing population, Pukekohe became an important market gardening area for the Auckland Region. On 1 April 1912, Pukekohe became a borough with its own elected local council. Due to Auckland's growing population during the 19th and 20th centuries, Pukekohe became an important market gardening area for the Auckland Region. In response to the growing presence of Chinese and Indian market growers in Pukekohe, the White New Zealand League was founded in Pukekohe in December 1925 to advance the economic and social interests of European New Zealanders. Its 15 founding members lived in Pukekohe and included Deputy Mayor George Parvin. As a White supremacist group, the League exploited local European growers' fear of economic competition with Asian immigrants and oppose Asian immigration. The League attracted the support of several New Zealand Members of Parliament, 160 local government bodies and newspaper editors including Franklin District MP Ewen McLennan, Thames MP Thomas William Rhodes, the Franklin County Council, the Pukekohe Borough Council, and the Pukekohe Chamber of Commerce. In January 1926, the Pukekohe Borough Council voted to support the League's goals. Mayor John Routly urged European residents not to lease land to Asians. In 1932, 1,400 Pukekohe locals petitioned the New Zealand Parliament to repatriate local Chinese and Indians, whom they claimed were taking jobs from Europeans and Māori. Parliament dismissed the petition in 1934 on the grounds that the petition's allegations had not been proved. The League dissolved in 1937 during the Great Depression. During the early 20th century, several landless Māori from the Waikato migrated to Pukekohe to work in the township's market gardens as itinerant agricultural workers. These Māori came from the Ngatipari, Ākitai, and Ngapuhi iwi (tribes). Since the Māori in Pukekohe had no ancestral ties to the land, they took the symbolic title of rootless Māori and became known as Nga Hau E Wha (People of the Four Winds). Many of these Māori workers and their families lived in substandard accommodation including shacks and sheds with no sanitation or plumbing. These contributed to an array of health problems and diseases among Pukekohe's Māori community. According to University of Auckland medical sociologist Robert Bartholomew, 73% (237) of all Māori deaths aged 14 years and under between 1925 and 1961 were caused by preventable conditions linked to poverty and poor housing such as bronchitis, diphtheria, dysentry, gastroenteritis, malnutrition, measles, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and whooping cough. Between the 1930s and early 1960s, the Pukekohe Borough Council, the Franklin District Council, the Pukekohe Growers Association, and local leaders such as Deputy Mayor Parvin and Mayor Max Grierson blocked attempts by the New Zealand Government and Māori community groups such as the Pukekohe Māori Women's Club to establish public housing for Māori residents. At the time, many European residents were unwilling to live with Māori neighbours while horticultural producers regarded their Māori tenants as a source of cheap labour. Following a measles outbreak in 1938 that ultimately killed 29 Māori children and infants, Māori tenants were temporarily moved into tents. During the Second World War, Māori tenants were housed in army huts as a temporary substitute for shacks and sheds. By the early 1950s, these army huts had deteriorated. In 1951, Māori Affairs Department secured a section of land known as the "Kennelly Block" in North Pukekohe to build houses for Māori tenants. By 1961, 65 Māori homes had been built in the Kennelly Block. In 1961, the Franklin District Council unsuccessfully attempted to restrict Māori housing to North Pukekohe but were blocked by the-then Minister of Māori Affairs Ralph Hanan. In addition to substandard housing, Pukekohe's Māori population experienced discrimination and segregation in accessing education, health services, public toilets, transportation, and local businesses between the 1920s and early 1960s. Several pubs, barbers, and restaurants either refused to serve Māori or maintained separate facilities for Europeans and non-Whites including Māori. Local businesses and banks were unwilling to loan to Māori patrons. Māori riding buses were expected to give up their seats for European customers. The Strand cinema maintained separate seating areas for Māori patrons. During the 1940s and 1950s, Pukekohe Primary School maintained segregated toilets and sports teams for European and Māori students. Māori students were only allowed to use the school's swimming pool on Friday before the water was renewed. In 1952, a segregated Māori-only school called Pukekohe Māori School was established to cate for the Māori community. The school was later revamped in 1965 as the interracial Pukekohe Hill School. According to Bartholomew, discrimination against Māori residents was done on the pretext of health and alleged poor behavior since New Zealand did not have legislation and local by-laws codifying racial segregation and discrimination. 21st century In 2009, several Pukekohe community leaders, school board members, and educators established a community group called "Te Huarahi" to help schools and families improve Māori educational outcomes in Pukekohe and improve knowledge of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 2009, Te Huarahi launched a program to improve the teaching of the Māori language in Pukekohe and called for local leaders to acknowledge that Pukekohe Māori had experienced racism including corporal punishment for speaking their native language. In 2018, the New Zealand Government settled a treaty land claim with Ngāti Tamaoho, whose area includes Pukekohe. The Government also acknowledged that Ngāti Tamaoho had experienced social and economic marginalisation in New Zealand society including "discrimination and segregation at a state-run school in Pukekohe." That same year, Pukekohe Valley School proposed an action plan to gather local Māori history and stories while acknowledging local unease about the town's history of racism. Culture Marae Ngā Hau e Whā Marae is located in the Pukekohe area. It is the tribal meeting grounds of Ngāti Tamaoho and the Waikato Tainui hapū of Ngāi Tai and Ngāti Tamaoho. Demographics Pukekohe covers and had an estimated population of as of with a population density of people per km2. Pukekohe had a population of 23,904 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 3,378 people (16.5%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 6,636 people (38.4%) since the 2006 census. There were 8,031 households, comprising 11,532 males and 12,366 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.93 males per female, with 5,391 people (22.6%) aged under 15 years, 4,605 (19.3%) aged 15 to 29, 9,951 (41.6%) aged 30 to 64, and 3,960 (16.6%) aged 65 or older. Ethnicities were 70.9% European/Pākehā, 19.8% Māori, 9.0% Pacific peoples, 12.2% Asian, and 2.2% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity. The percentage of people born overseas was 24.3, compared with 27.1% nationally. Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 46.3% had no religion, 38.0% were Christian, 1.6% had Māori religious beliefs, 3.0% were Hindu, 1.0% were Muslim, 0.5% were Buddhist and 3.0% had other religions. Of those at least 15 years old, 2,973 (16.1%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 3,876 (20.9%) people had no formal qualifications. 3,411 people (18.4%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 9,291 (50.2%) people were employed full-time, 2,439 (13.2%) were part-time, and 792 (4.3%) were unemployed. Local government Pukekohe had a local government just like other suburbs of Auckland at that time. The local government was called Pukekohe Borough Council, which started in 1912 and merged into Franklin District Council in 1989, eventually being amalgamated into Auckland Council in November 2010. The mayors of Pukekohe Borough Council were: 1912–1912 William Dunn 1912–1915 C. K. Lawrie 1915–1919 Henry Greathead Rex Mason 1919–1921 C. K. Lawrie 1921–1935 John Routly 1935–1938 C. K. Lawrie 1938–1941 John Routly 1941–1950 Maxwell Rae Grierson 1950–1963 S. C. Childs 1963–1974 C. W. J. Lawrie 1974–1989 Max R. Short Since 2010, the Franklin Local Board represents local government in the area. The local board is one of 21 local boards across Auckland. The current Councillor is Bill Cashmore who is also the Deputy Mayor. Local MP is Andrew Bayley, National Party. Education Pukekohe High School is a secondary school (years 9–13) with a roll of . The school opened in 1921 as Pukekohe Technical High School, and was renamed to Pukekohe High School in 1948. Pukekohe Intermediate School is an intermediate school (years 7–8) with a roll of . The school opened in 1966 Pukekohe East School, Pukekohe Hill School and Valley School are contributing primary schools (years 1–6) with rolls of , and students, respectively. Pukekohe East School opened in 1880. Pukekohe Maori School opened in 1952 and was renamed to Pukekohe Hill School in 1966. Valley School opened in 1966. Pukekohe North School is a full primary school (years 1–8) with a roll of . 79 percent of the roll are of Māori heritage, and some classes are taught in the Māori language. The school opened in 1957, although the official opening was in 1958. KingsGate School and St Joseph's School are state integrated full primary schools (years 1–8) with rolls of and students, respectively. KingsGate is an interdenominational Christian school. It opened in 1996. St Joseph's is a Catholic school which opened in 1923. Parkside School is a special school with a roll of . It provides education for students with special needs up to the age of 21. Tamaoho School is a contributing primary school which opened in 2021. All these schools are coeducational. Rolls are as of A significant number of kids leave the area by school bus to attend Kings College, Sacred Heart College, St Kentigern’s, Hamilton Boys HS, Baradene, Hauraki Plains College, St Peter’s Collegiate and Strathallan College. Sports Pukekohe Park Raceway is a motorsports and horse-racing facility. Opened in 1963, this circuit is famous for having hosted the New Zealand Grand Prix 29 times between 1963 and 2000, as well as the V8 International (a round of the V8 Supercars championship) between 2001 and 2007. The V8 Supercars event was moved to Hamilton for five years, but returned to Pukekohe in 2013. Pukekohe RFC represent the town in rugby union. The Counties Manukau Rugby Football Union are based in Pukekohe and play home matches at Navigation Homes Stadium. Pukekohe is home to Pukekohe AFC who are members of the Northern Region Football. Bledisloe Park Sports Centre (overlooking Bledisloe Park grounds) is home to both Pukekohe AFC and Pukekohe Metro Cricket Club. The sports centre is managed by the Bledisloe Park Society Committee. Auckland Metropolitan Clay Target Club, is a clay target shooting club located just outside Pukekohe, offering recreational and competitive target shooting. Puni Mountain Bike Track, located at Puni Memorial Park, has roughly 6–7 km of single-track. Sunset Coast BMX and Puni Rugby Club are also located at Puni Memorial Park. Pukekohe is home to the Franklin Bulls, a basketball team that plays in the New Zealand National Basketball League (NZNBL). Their home court is the Franklin Pool and Leisure Centre, also known as 'The Stockyard'. The town has a golf club and a tennis club. Media Based on King St, Pukekohe, Rural Living is a monthly, lifestyle magazine distributed throughout the Franklin region and accessible online. The magazine's publisher, Times Media, also produces annual magazines, Design & Build Franklin and Settling In, produced by locals for locals. Franklin County News is the local newspaper distributed twice weekly to homes in Pukekohe and surrounding towns, including Waiuku and Tuakau. The Post Newspaper issues almost 22,000 copies weekly on a Tuesday within Franklin and Tuakau and is based in Waiuku. In 2015, the online events calendar and photo news Franklin Life NZ was launched. In 2013, the film Mt. Zion was released in New Zealand, portraying Māori life in 1970s Pukekohe. Transport Pukekohe railway station is on the North Island Main Trunk Railway and is the southernmost station of the Auckland rail network, at the end of the Southern Line. The portion of the line between Papakura and Pukekohe is currently closed for electrification until 2024 after which electric trains will run directly to Pukekohe from the Auckland CBD. A rail replacement bus is currently running between Papakura and Pukekohe while the line is closed. In July 2017, it was announced that the purchase of battery-powered electric trains had been "agreed in principle" by Auckland Council and that an all-electric service would be operational in 2019 (provisionally, subject to conditions), four years after completion of the rest of the region's electrified rail network. However, the purchase of battery-powered trains did not proceed. In 2020, the government announced funding to extend electrification from Papakura to Pukekohe. There are several loop bus services serving central Pukekohe and also connecting to the western and southern townships of Patumahoe, Waiuku, Tuakau and Port Waikato. There are no bus services north of the town (beyond Paerata) and none at all serving travel to the east. Notable people Bill Birch, MP—was a long-time resident Possum Bourne, Rally driver Leslie Comrie, astronomer and pioneer in mechanical computation Andy Dalton, resident and All Blacks captain Simon Doull, cricket representative and radio personality Peter Fa'afiu, diplomat, global director of Amnesty International A. J. Hackett, entrepreneur who popularised bungee jumping Malcolm Hood , All Black Physiotherapist Madonna Harris, resident and sportswoman Michael Marr, entrepreneur, Blake Leader Awardee and awarded Medallion of Entrepreneurship from BGS USA Liam Lawson, F2 Racing Driver raised in Pukekohe Jonah Lomu, All Black, born in Pukekohe, educated at Wesley College Rex Mason, mayor and MP Mick Peck, award-winning magician and entertainer Carl Ruiterman, racing driver Malietoa Tanumafili II, Samoan Head of State—educated at Wesley College Allan Wilson, molecular biologist—grew up in the area References Further reading External links Pukekohe - the heart of Franklin Populated places in the Auckland Region

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakim

Rakim

William Michael Griffin Jr. (born January 28, 1968), better known by his stage name Rakim (), is an American rapper. One half of golden age hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim, he is widely regarded as one of the most influential and skilled rappers of all time. Rakim is considered a transformative figure in hip hop for raising the bar for MC technique higher than it had ever been. Rakim helped to pioneer the use of internal rhymes and multisyllabic rhymes, and he was among the first to demonstrate the possibilities of sitting down to write intricately crafted lyrics packed with clever word choices and metaphors rather than the more improvisational styles and simpler rhyme patterns that predominated before him. Rakim is also credited with creating the overall shift from the more simplistic old school flows to more complex flows. Rapper Kool Moe Dee explained that before Rakim, the term 'flow' wasn't widely used – "Rakim is basically the inventor of flow. We were not even using the word flow until Rakim came along. It was called rhyming, it was called cadence, but it wasn't called flow. Rakim created flow!" Rakim released four albums with DJ Eric B.: Paid in Full (1987), Follow the Leader (1988), Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990) and Don't Sweat the Technique (1992). He has released three solo albums: The 18th Letter (1997), The Master (1999) and The Seventh Seal (2009). Paid in Full was named the greatest hip hop album of all time by MTV in 2006, while Rakim himself was ranked No. 4 on MTV's list of the Greatest MCs of All Time. Steve Huey of AllMusic stated that "Rakim is near-universally acknowledged as one of the greatest MCs – perhaps the greatest – of all time within the hip-hop community". The editors of About.com ranked him No. 2 on their list of the 'Top 50 MCs of Our Time (1987–2007)'. In 2012, The Source ranked him No. 1 on their list of the "Top 50 Lyricists of All Time". Early life Rakim is the nephew of the late R&B singer and actress Ruth Brown. He grew up in Wyandanch, New York on Long Island. He wrote his first rhyme at seven years old, about the cartoon character Mickey Mouse. He initially aspired to play professional football, and was a quarterback on his high school football team. However, after being introduced to local DJ Eric B. by his friend Alvin Toney, he began writing lyrics to fit Eric's instrumentals and chose instead to focus on a career in music. Then known as Kid Wizard, he made his first recordings live at Wyandanch High School in the year 1985. Rakim was initially introduced to the Nation of Islam in 1986; he later joined The Nation of Gods and Earths (also known as the 5 Percent Nation) and adopted the Arabic name Rakim Allah. He also chose to use “Rakim Allah” as his stage name, although it was most often shortened to simply “Rakim”. During his career he has been nicknamed the "God MC" because of his acclaimed status as an MC and a reference to the "Allah" in his stage name, which is the Arabic word for God. Career Pairing with Eric B. (1985–1992) First meeting in 1985, Eric B. and Rakim went on to release four studio albums before their separation in 1992. The duo were described by journalist Tom Terrell of NPR as "the most influential DJ/MC combo in contemporary pop music period", while the editors of About.com ranked them as No. 4 on their list of the 10 Greatest Hip-Hop Duos of All-Time. They were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2011, although they did not make the final selection. 1986–87: Beginnings and classic debut After Rakim responded to Eric B.'s search for "New York's top MC", Eric B.'s friend and roommate Marley Marl allowed them to use his home studio. The first tracks they recorded—"Eric B. Is President" and "My Melody"—were released as a single/b-side on the independent Zakia Records in 1986. After Def Jam Recordings founder Russell Simmons heard the single, the duo were signed to Island Records and began recording the album in Manhattan's Power Play Studios in early 1987. On July 7, 1987, the duo released their debut album, Paid in Full, on the Island-subsidiary label 4th & B'way Records. The album peaked at No. 58 on the Billboard 200 chart and produced five singles: "Eric B. Is President", "I Ain't No Joke", "I Know You Got Soul", "Move the Crowd", and "Paid in Full". 1988–89: Sophomore peak While its singles attained moderate success, Follow the Leader performed better on music charts than Eric B. & Rakim's debut album and reached number 22 on the U.S. Billboard Pop Albums chart. It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments in excess of 500,000 copies in the United States. Released during hip hop's "golden age", the album was well received by critics and has since been recognized by music writers as one of the most groundbreaking and influential hip hop albums of all time. American author William Jelani Cobb wrote of the album's significance, "On the heels of Paid in Full, Eric B. & Rakim delivered a full clip of album titled Follow the Leader in 1988. Featuring a broader spectrum of sounds than the James Brown samples that had defined the initial release, Follow the Leader saw Rakim at his most lyrically fierce, issuing deft and death threats on such tracks as 'Microphone Fiend,' 'Lyrics of Fury,' and the nearly felonious 'No Competition.' The release marked the high point in the collaboration between the two and prefaced the long slide they faced in the 1990s." 1990–92: Final albums and dissolution Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em, released in 1990, was Eric B. & Rakim's third album. This album saw the duo's sound develop further, with Rakim adopting a deeper, more aggressive tone of voice, as well as more mature and serious subject matter. Musically, the production ranges from smoother soulful tracks such as "In the Ghetto" to the hard-edged assault of the title track. Though it could not support singles as popular as the duo's previous albums, it is considered by many to be the duo's most coherent album. It is one of the few albums to have received a "five-mic" rating from The Source. In 1998, the album was selected as one of The Sources 100 Best Rap Albums. The back cover features a dedication to the memories of Rakim's father William and producer Paul C., who had worked on many of the album's tracks before his murder in July 1989. His protégé Large Professor completed his work. Neither receive credit in the album's notes. In 1992, Eric B & Rakim released their fourth and final album, Don't Sweat the Technique. The title track was a minor radio hit. "Casualties of War" was also released as a single. "Know the Ledge" first appeared in the film Juice under the title "Juice (Know the Ledge)". However, Eric B. refused to sign MCA's release contract, fearful that Rakim would abandon him. This led to a long, complicated court battle involving the two musicians and MCA. The legal wrangling eventually led to the duo dissolving completely. Solo-career (1993–present) 1993–2003: Legal issues, solo debut, and Aftermath stint After his breaking up his partnership with Eric B. in early-1993, Rakim kept a low profile, only making one notable appearance on the soundtrack to the 1993 film Gunmen. A reshuffling in MCA caused Rakim to be dropped from the label in 1994. As Rakim continued to struggle with legal problems, he secured a deal with Universal Records and began recording his solo debut album The 18th Letter in 1996. In November 1997, the album The 18th Letter was released. Expectations were high for Rakim, as the album debuted at #4 on the Billboard 200 and was certified Gold by the RIAA. In June 1999, Rakim appeared on three tracks of "The Seduction of Claude Debussy" by Art of Noise. AllMusic's Keith Farley notes that "the album charts the artistic use of sampled breakbeats – pioneered by the Art of Noise themselves – with nods to '80s hip-hop plus their '90s equivalent, drum'n'bass." In November 1999, Rakim released The Master, which received good reviews but sold poorly. Rakim was signed to Dr. Dre's Aftermath Entertainment record label in 2000, for work on an album tentatively titled Oh, My God. The album underwent numerous changes in artistic direction and personnel and was delayed several times. While working on the album, Rakim made guest appearances on four Aftermath projects, including the hit single "Addictive" by Truth Hurts and its remix (which featured a different Rakim verse from the main version), the Dr. Dre-produced "The Watcher Part 2" by Jay-Z, and Eminem's 8 Mile soundtrack album with the track "R.A.K.I.M". However, Rakim left the label in 2003 and Oh, My God was indefinitely shelved. After Rakim eventually left Aftermath Entertainment, he stated that the reason he departed the label was because of creative differences with Dr. Dre. Discussing the period later, Rakim discussed how he was seeking to write conscious material, while Dr. Dre was encouraging him to pursue gangsta rap narratives instead. 2007–2009: The Seventh Seal Rakim retreated to his Connecticut estate to work leisurely on music. Not having released an album since 1999, he eschewed touring in favor of infrequent gigs. Rakim was able to retain the tracks he had made with Dr. Dre and, in 2006, announced that he would release a new studio album, The Seventh Seal. The album was delayed into 2009; instead, he followed up with a live album, The Archive: Live, Lost & Found, in 2008. In an interview with Billboard in 2007, when asked about story behind The Seventh Seals title, Rakim said, In another interview with Billboard in 2009, he stated, The Seventh Seal was released on November 17, 2009, after several delays on Rakim's own Ra Records, TVM, and SMC Recordings and distributed through Fontana and Universal Music Group. Considered a comeback album after a ten-year gap between releases, the album features the two singles: "Holy Are You", which was released on July 14, 2009, and "Walk These Streets" which was released on October 7, 2009. It features production from several renowned hip hop artists, including Nottz, J. Wells, Needlz, Jake One, and Nick Wiz. The album sold 12,000 copies in the United States by November 22, 2009, according to SoundScan. Upon its release, The Seventh Seal received generally mixed or average reviews from most music critics; it holds an aggregate score of 59/100 at Metacritic. 2011–present: Fourth studio-album In 2011, Rakim performed Paid in Full in its entirety at the Blue Note Jazz Club in New York City, in honor of the album's 25th anniversary. He was backed by The Roots. In 2012, Rakim announced that he and Eric B. would release a 25th anniversary edition of their 1987 album Paid in Full, which would contain new tracks recorded by Eric B. & Rakim, by the end of 2012; Rakim announced he would release a new solo album by the end of 2012. He performed at the annual Roots' Picnic in Philadelphia in June. In an interview with The Detroit Free Press he announced he was in the studio with Pharrell Williams working on a new album set to be released in 2013, saying the first single will be released before the end of the year. On September 24, 2013, he released a collaborative single with DMX entitled "Don't Call Me". In 2014, Rakim is featured on the collaborative single with American rock band Linkin Park, titled "Guilty All the Same". The song was released on March 6, 2014, by Warner Bros. Records as the first single from their sixth studio album, titled The Hunting Party. He contributed his rhymes during the bridge for the main version of the song; however, he is not featured on the radio edit of the song. The song was officially released on March 7, 2014, for digital download. On April 27, 2015, Rakim announced he was working on a new album and planned to release it in the middle or end of 2015. He said "This is one of those albums where I can have fun. My last album, The Seventh Seal, was somewhat of a conscious album. I wanted to make a statement on that album." In late-June 2018, a new song, "King's Paradise", was released on Luke Cage: Season 2 (Original Soundtrack Album). Rakim performed the song for the first time on NPR's Tiny Desk Concerts series along with former A Tribe Called Quest member Ali Shaheed Muhammad and producer Adrian Younge. Reunion with Eric B. (2016–present) On October 20, 2016, it was announced via Twitter that Rakim had reunited with Eric B. after 23 years. The duo teased a potential reunion tour the next morning, hosting a poll for the fans to give their opinion on what city Eric B. & Rakim should start the tour. Four locations were the potential candidates: New York City, Las Vegas, London, and Australia. Since the announcement of the reunion, fans have speculated if the two will drop a new studio album in the near future. Artistry Rakim's rhyming deviated from the simple rhyme patterns of early 1980s hip hop. His free-rhythm style ignored bar lines and had earned comparisons to jazz pianist Thelonious Monk. The New York Times Ben Ratliff wrote that Rakim's "unblustery rapping developed the form beyond the flat-footed rhythms of schoolyard rhymes". While many rappers developed their technique through improvisation, Rakim was one of the first to demonstrate advantages of a writerly style, as with for instance his pioneering use of internal rhymes and multisyllabic rhymes. Unlike previous rappers such as LL Cool J, KRS-One, and Run-D.M.C., who delivered their vocals with high energy, Rakim employed a relaxed, stoic delivery. According to MTV, "We'd been used to MCs like Run and DMC, Chuck D and KRS-One leaping on the mic shouting with energy and irreverence, but Rakim took a methodical approach to his microphone fiending. He had a slow flow, and every line was blunt, mesmeric." Rakim's relaxed delivery results from his jazz influences; he had played the saxophone and was a John Coltrane fan. Artists and critics often credit Rakim with creating the overall shift from the more simplistic old school flows to more complex flows. Kool Moe Dee says, "any emcee that came after 1986 had to study Rakim just to know what to be able to do. [...] Rakim, in 1986, gave us flow and that was the rhyme style from 1986 to 1994. [...] From that point on, anybody emceeing was forced to focus on their flow." Kool Moe Dee explains that before Rakim, the term 'flow' wasn't widely used – "Rakim is basically the inventor of flow. We were not even using the word flow until Rakim came along. It was called rhyming, it was called cadence, but it wasn't called flow. Rakim created flow!" He adds that while Rakim upgraded and popularized the focus on flow, "he didn't invent the word". Rakim's subject matter often covered his own rapping skills and lyrical superiority over other rappers. AllMusic editor Steve Huey comments that "the majority of his lyrics concern his own skills and his Islamic faith." He also notes Rakim for his "complex internal rhymes, compounding, literate imagery, velvet-smooth flow, and unpredictable, off-the-beat rhythms." Pitchfork writer Jess Harvell described his rapping as "authoritative, burnished, [and] possessing an unflappable sense of rhythm". Legacy Paid in Full was released during the period that became known as golden age hip hop. Alex Ogg considered it the duo's magnum opus in his book The Men Behind Def Jam. Rakim's rapping set a blueprint for future rappers and helped secure East Coast hip hop's reputation for innovative lyrical technique. William Jelani Cobb stated in his book To the Break of Dawn that his rapping had "stepped outside" of the preceding era of old school hip hop and that while the vocabulary and lyrical dexterity of newer rappers had improved, it was "nowhere near what Rakim introduced to the genre". The New York Times Dimitri Ehrlich, who described the album as "an artistic and commercial benchmark", credited Rakim for helping "give birth to a musical genre" and leading "a quiet musical revolution, introducing a soft-spoken rapping style". Allmusic's Steve Huey declared Paid in Full one of hip hop's most influential albums and "essential listening" for those interested in the genre's "basic musical foundations". MTV ranked it at number one in "The Greatest Hip-Hop Albums of All Time", stating it raised the standards of hip hop "both sonically and poetically" and described it as "captivating, profound, innovative and instantly influential". The album is broken down track-by-track by Rakim in Brian Coleman's book Check the Technique. Rolling Stone magazine listed it at number 227 on "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time", calling it "Ice-grilled, laid-back, diamond-sharp: Rakim is a front-runner in the race for Best Rapper Ever, and this album is a big reason why." Similarly, Blender magazine included the album in its "500 CDs You Must Own Before You Die". Time magazine listed it as one of the eighteen albums of the 1980s in its "All-TIME 100" albums; editor Alan Light acknowledged the record for changing the "sound, flow, and potential" of hip hop and that if Rakim is "the greatest MC of all time, as many argue, this album is the evidence". Jess Harvell of Pitchfork complimented Rakim for an "endless display of pure skill" and described the album as "laidback and funky", but believed it contained "too much filler to get a free 'classic' pass". Pitchfork placed Paid in Full at number fifty-two in its "Top 100 Albums of the 1980s"; editor Sam Chennault wrote that Rakim inspired a generation of MCs and "defined what it meant to be a hip-hop lyricist". The rappers who have used the unique rapping style employed by Rakim and attribute it as inspiration include GZA, Ghostface Killah, and Raekwon (from the Wu-Tang Clan), Tupac, Nas, Kool G. Rap, Jay-Z, The Notorious B.I.G., Eminem, 50 Cent, and many more. On July 11, 1995, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum. As of December 1997, it has sold over a million copies. Discography Studio albums Solo The 18th Letter (1997) The Master (1999) The Seventh Seal (2009) With Eric B. & Rakim Paid in Full (1987) Follow the Leader (1988) Let the Rhythm Hit 'Em (1990) Don't Sweat the Technique (1992) See also References Sources Cobb, William Jelani (2006). To the Break of Dawn: A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic. New York University Press. . Further reading External links 1968 births Living people African-American male rappers American male rappers African-American songwriters Aftermath Entertainment artists East Coast hip hop musicians Hardcore hip hop artists Five percenters Island Records artists MCA Records artists People from Wyandanch, New York Rappers from New York (state) Universal Records artists Songwriters from New York (state) 21st-century American rappers 21st-century American male musicians 21st-century African-American musicians 20th-century African-American people American male songwriters