Datasets:

devrim

/

wiki-long-subset

like 0

423779

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve%20Davis

Steve Davis

Steve Davis (born 22 August 1957) is an English retired professional snooker player who is currently a commentator, DJ, electronic musician, and author. He is best known for dominating professional snooker during the 1980s, when he reached eight World Snooker Championship finals in nine years, won six world titles, and held the world number one ranking for seven consecutive seasons. He was runner-up to Dennis Taylor in one of snooker's most famous matches, the 1985 World Championship final, whose dramatic black-ball conclusion attracted 18.5 million viewers, still the largest British television audience for any broadcast after midnight and any broadcast on BBC Two. In addition to his six world titles, Davis won the UK Championship six times and the Masters three times for a total of 15 Triple Crown titles, placing him behind only Ronnie O'Sullivan (21) and Stephen Hendry (18). During the 1987–88 season, he became the first player to win all three Triple Crown events in a single season, a feat only two other players—Hendry and Mark Williams—have matched. He still holds the record for most professional titles overall, with 84 individual wins, or 98 including team and pro-am competition . His career total of 28 ranking titles places him fourth behind O'Sullivan (39), Hendry (36), and John Higgins (31). The first player to make an officially recognised maximum break in professional competition—at the 1982 Classic—Davis was also the first to earn £1 million in career prize money. Davis was named the BBC's Sports Personality of the Year in 1988 and remains the only snooker player to win the award. He won his last major title at the 1997 Masters, aged 39, but continued to compete at a high level and was still a top-16 ranked player at age 50. He made his last Crucible appearance in 2010, aged 52, when he defeated the defending world champion John Higgins to become the oldest world quarter-finalist since 1983. As of 2023, Davis's 30 Crucible appearances are second only to O'Sullivan's 31. He retired at the end of the 2015–16 season, after 38 seasons on the professional tour, but remains active as a commentator and analyst for BBC's snooker coverage. Outside snooker, Davis competed in nine-ball pool tournaments, most notably representing Europe in the Mosconi Cup eleven consecutive times between 1994 and 2004. A keen chess and poker player, he served as president of the British Chess Federation between 1996 and 2001 and competed in televised poker tournaments. A fan of progressive rock, he has an ongoing career as a radio broadcaster, club DJ, and musician; with Kavus Torabi and Michael J. York, he co-founded the electronic music band the Utopia Strong. He has authored or co-authored books on snooker, chess, cooking, and music, as well as three autobiographies. In 2013, he featured as a contestant on I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. He was made an MBE in the 1988 Birthday Honours and an OBE in the 2000 New Year Honours. Career Early career (1970–1979) Davis was born on 22 August 1957 in Plumstead, London, England. Davis's father Bill, a keen player, introduced him to snooker at the age of 12, and took him to play at his local working men's club. Bill gave Steve an instructional book: How I Play Snooker by the unrelated Joe Davis. They studied the book, Davis later basing his technique on it during the 1970s. He began playing at the Lucania Snooker Club in Romford. The club manager brought his talent to the attention of Barry Hearn (chairman of the Lucania chain of snooker halls) when Davis was 18, and Hearn became his friend and manager. Paid £25 a match by Hearn, Davis toured the United Kingdom and participated in challenge matches against established professionals such as Ray Reardon, John Spencer and Alex Higgins. Around this time he was nicknamed "Nugget" because, according to Hearn, "you could put your case of money on him and you knew you were going to get paid." Davis won the English Under-19 Billiards Championship in 1976. One of his last wins as a snooker amateur was against Tony Meo, another future professional, in the final of the 1978 Pontins Spring Open. He defended his title a year later, defeating future rival Jimmy White 7–4 in the final. Davis applied in 1978 to become a professional and was initially rejected, before being accepted with effect from 17 September 1978, becoming the youngest of the professional players. He made his professional television debut on Pot Black, where he played against Fred Davis. He played in his first World Snooker Championship in 1979, having won two qualifying matches, but lost 11–13 to Dennis Taylor in the first round proper. Early success (1980–1984) At the 1980 World Snooker Championship he reached the quarter-finals, defeating Patsy Fagan and defending champion Terry Griffiths before losing to Alex Higgins 9–13. He won his first major title that year, the 1980 UK Championship, beating Griffiths 9–0 in the semi-finals and Higgins 16–6 in the final. After winning his first title, he won the Wilson's Classic in 1980, the Yamaha Organs and English Professional in 1981, and was the bookmakers' favourite to win the 1981 World Snooker Championship despite being seeded 13th. Davis reached the final by defeating White in the first round, Higgins in the second round, Griffiths in the quarter-finals and defending champion Cliff Thorburn in the semi-final. In the final, he won 18–12 against Doug Mountjoy to take his first world championship. Davis completed a 9–0 whitewash victory over Dennis Taylor in the International Open final and retained the UK Championship with a 16–3 win over Griffiths in the final, winning five events in 1981. In January 1982, Davis compiled the first televised maximum break at the Classic at Queen Elizabeth Hall in Oldham against John Spencer. As Lada were sponsoring the event, they offered Davis a car for completing the break. He reached the final, but lost 8–9 to Griffiths in the final. However, later that month Davis defeated Griffiths 9–5 in the Masters final, to win his first title. His 18-month period of dominance ended at the 1982 World Snooker Championship, where he lost 1–10 to Tony Knowles in the first round. Despite this, he finished the season as the world number one for the first time. Davis lost to Griffiths in the quarter-finals of the 1982 UK Championship later that year. After those two defeats, he won the World Doubles Championship with partner Tony Meo. He overcame Thorburn 18–6 in the 1983 World Snooker Championship, regaining the title with a in the final. Davis led 7–0 against Higgins in the 1983 UK Championship final, but lost on a 15–16. At the 1984 World Snooker Championship, he was the first player to retain his title at the Crucible Theatre – the event's venue since 1977 – by defeating Jimmy White 18–16 in the final, winning his third world championship. Davis also won the 1984 UK Championship, beating Higgins 16–8 in the final. 1985 World Snooker Championship At the 1985 World Snooker Championship, Davis defeated Neal Foulds, David Taylor, Griffiths and Reardon en route to the championship final, where his opponent was Dennis Taylor. Davis won all of the frames in the first , and the first of the evening session, to lead 8–0 but Taylor recovered to trail 7–9. Taylor levelled the match for the first time at 11–11; after Davis took the lead again, Taylor fought back a second time from 12–15 to level at 15–15 and a third time from 15–17 to 17–17, forcing a deciding frame. With the scores close, Taylor potted the final to leave the . With Davis leading 62–59 in the frame at that point, the player who potted the black ball would win the championship. After several failed attempts to pot it by each player, Taylor potted the ball to win the title. The final was watched by 18.5 million viewers, setting all-time records for BBC Two and for a post-midnight audience on British television. The final, later called the "black ball final", was voted the ninth-greatest sporting moment of all time in a 2002 Channel 4 poll; Davis's disbelief and Taylor's triumphant, pointing finger have been replayed many times on television. Later World Snooker Championship victories (1985–1989) Davis and Taylor met again in the final of the 1985 Grand Prix, but this time Davis won in a deciding frame. At 10 hours 21 minutes, it was the longest one-day final in snooker history. Davis trailed Willie Thorne 8–13 in the 1985 UK Championship final. Thorne missed a off the spot, which would have given him a 14–8 lead; Davis won the frame and seven of the next eight to win 16–14. Davis also won the 1986 British Open, with a 12–7 win over Thorne. At the 1986 World Championship, Davis defeated White 13–5 in the quarter-finals and Thorburn 16–12 in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was Joe Johnson, who started the tournament as an outsider to win, with odds of 150–1. Davis lost the match, 12–18. At the end of 1986, he beat Foulds 16–7 to retain the 1986 UK Championship. Davis began 1987 by winning the Classic 13–12 against defending champion Jimmy White. At the 1987 World Snooker Championship, he defeated Griffiths 13–5 in the quarter-final and White 16–11 in the semi-final. Meeting Johnson again in the final, he established a 14–10 lead after three sessions. Johnson reduced Davis's lead to 14–13, but Davis took four of the next five frames to win the match 18–14 and regain the title, his fourth world championship. In December he retained his UK title with a 16–14 win against White in the final. Davis retained the Classic in 1988 before claiming his second Masters title: in the final he completed a 9–0 whitewash of Mike Hallett, the only such result in the event's history. He also won the World Cup with England and secured his fourth Irish Masters title. In that year's World Championship Davis defeated Hallett 13–1, Tony Drago 13–4 and Thorburn 16–8 en route to the final, where he met Griffiths. Davis established a 5–2 lead after the first session, but Griffiths levelled at 8–8 after the second. On the second day of the match, Davis took ten out of thirteen frames to win his fifth world title 18–11. He won the first ranking event of the 1988–89 snooker season, a 12–6 victory over White in the International Open. During the same match, Davis became the first player to make three consecutive century breaks in a major tournament. In October, he won the Grand Prix final 10–6 against Alex Higgins and held the World, UK, Masters, Grand Prix, Classic and Irish Masters titles simultaneously. His four-year unbeaten run in the UK Championship ended in December with a 3–9 semi-final loss to Hendry. Davis did not win another major title until the 1989 World Championship, where he beat Hendry 16–9 in the semi-finals before the most decisive victory in a world final of the modern era: an 18–3 win against John Parrott, for his sixth world championship. He retained the Grand Prix in October, beating Dean Reynolds 10–0 in the final – the first whitewash in a ranking-event final. By the end of the 1980s, Davis was snooker's first millionaire. Last ranking event win (1990–1995) Davis began the 1990s by winning the Irish Masters for the fifth time, defeating Taylor 9–4. Davis was denied an eighth consecutive appearance in the 1990 World Snooker Championship final by Jimmy White, who won their semi-final 16–14. He was succeeded as world number one by new world champion Stephen Hendry, at the end of the 1989–90 snooker season, Davis having held the spot for seven consecutive seasons. The following season, Davis reached the final of the UK Championship again and played Hendry, losing on a deciding frame 15–16. Davis won the Irish Masters again, defeating Parrott 9–5 in the final. At the world championship, Davis reached the semi-final but lost to Parrott 16–10. Davis won the Classic defeating Hendry 9–8, and then won the Asian Open beating Alan McManus 9–3. He did not win a match at the 1992 World Snooker Championship, however, as he was beaten 4–10 by Peter Ebdon, the first time he had lost in the opening round in nine years. He won the European Open in 1993 where he completed a 10–4 victory against Hendry in the final. Davis won a seventh Irish Masters event in 1993, where he defeated McManus 9–4. At the 1993 World Snooker Championship, Davis defeated Ebdon, who had defeated him the year previously 10–3, but lost again to McManus in the second round 13–11. Davis won his eighth (and final) Irish Masters event in 1994 with a deciding frame win over McManus. Davis progressed past the second round for the first time in three years at the 1994 World Snooker Championship, defeating Dene O'Kane, Steve James and Wattana but was defeated by Hendry 9–16 in the semi-final. Over the next two seasons, Davis won consecutive Welsh Open titles. At the 1994 event, he completed three consecutive whitewash 5–0 victories, and won the final 9–6 over McManus. The following season at the 1995 event, he defeated John Higgins 9–3 in the final. This victory was his last ranking title of his career. Masters champion for the last time (1996–2000) In 1996, Davis reached the quarter-finals of both the Masters and world championship, losing to McManus and Ebdon, respectively. The following year, at the 1997 Masters, Davis reached the final, defeating McManus, Ebdon and Doherty. Trailing O'Sullivan 4–8 in the final, Davis won six frames in a row, securing a 10–8 victory. The win was Davis's last fully professional title of his career, his third Masters title. At the world championship later that year, Davis defeated David McLellan in the opening round, before losing to Doherty 3–13. He also reached the second round in the 1998 event, where he defeated Simon Bedford, but lost to Williams 6–13. For the 1998–99 season Davis's best result was reaching the quarter-finals at the 1998 UK Championship, the first time he had progressed past the third round in five years, but lost to Paul Hunter. He also reached the same stage at the 1999 Welsh Open, but lost to Williams. However, at the 1999 World Snooker Championship, he was unable to win a match, losing in the first round on a deciding frame to Joe Perry. He did reach the quarter-finals of the 1999 British Open in 1999–2000, but only won one match at the 2000 World Snooker Championship, defeating Graeme Dott, but losing to Higgins 11–13. After this loss, Davis fell out of the top 16 in the world rankings for the 2000–01 season for the first time since 1980 and would not play in the Masters for the first time since he first qualified. Fall out of the top 16 (2000–2005) Davis's best result during the season was a quarter-final appearance at the 2001 Irish Masters losing to O'Sullivan. Davis failed to qualify for the 2001 World Snooker Championship, losing 6–10 to Andy Hicks in the last qualifying round. This was the first time Davis would be absent from the event since his debut in 1979. After the loss, he contemplated retirement, but said that it would be the "easy thing to do". Since he still enjoyed the challenge of professional play he continued into the 2001–02 snooker season and reached the semi-finals of the 2002 LG Cup and the quarter-finals of the 2003 Irish Masters the following season. However, Davis was unable to qualify for the 2002 World Snooker Championship, losing 8–10 to Robin Hull in the final round of qualification. Despite this, his previous results were enough to regain his place in the top 16 for the 2003–2004 season, starting ranked 11th in the world. Despite not progressing past the third round in any other events, Davis reached the final at the 2004 Welsh Open. This was nine years after he last won a ranking event at the 1995 Welsh Open. He defeated Mark King, Higgins, Milkins and Marko Fu and met O'Sullivan in the final. In the best of 17 frames match, he led 8–5, but lost 8–9. He reached the quarter-finals of the 2005 World Snooker Championship, losing to eventual winner Shaun Murphy. Later career (2005–2010) Davis reached his 100th major career final at the 2005 UK Championship in York, his first appearance in the event's final since 1990. He beat defending champion Stephen Maguire and Hendry before he lost 6–10 to Ding Junhui in the final. Davis brushed off suggestions of retirement before the World Championships, and reached the second round where he lost to Murphy. His performances during the 2006–07 season, including reaching the 2006 UK Championship quarter-finals and the Welsh Open semi-finals, ensured that Davis was still a top-16 player at the age of 50. Although Davis dropped out of the top sixteen a year later, he reached successive quarter-finals at the Shanghai Masters and Grand Prix in 2008. At the 2009 World Snooker Championship, Davis lost 2–10 to Neil Robertson in the first round. At the 2009 UK Championship, he defeated Michael Judge 9–7 to set up a first-round match against Hendry which he lost 6–9. He qualified for the 2010 World Snooker Championship, his 30th time at the event, by defeating Adrian Gunnell 10–4. In the first round, Davis beat Mark King 10–9, and at 52, he was the oldest player to win a match at the Crucible since Eddie Charlton defeated Cliff Thorburn in 1989. In the second round, against defending champion John Higgins, Davis won 13–11, a win commentator Clive Everton called "the greatest upset in the 33 years the Crucible has been hosting the championship." This made him the oldest world quarter-finalist since Charlton in 1983. In the quarter-final match against Australian Neil Robertson, Davis lost 5–13. Despite having his best run at the World Championship for five years and reaching the quarter-finals for only the second time since 1994, this was his last appearance at the Crucible; he failed to qualify for the tournament again before his retirement. O'Sullivan equalled Davis's record of 30 Crucible appearances in 2022. Davis participated in the Players Tour Championship in 2010; his best result was at the Paul Hunter Classic, where he reached the quarter-finals before losing 1–4 to Shaun Murphy. He finished 67th on the Order of Merit. He reached the final of the 2010 World Seniors Championship, losing 1–4 to Jimmy White. He narrowly reached the last qualifying round of the 2011 World Snooker Championship by defeating Jack Lisowski 10–9 before losing 2–10 to Stephen Lee. Retirement (2010–2016) Davis began the 2011–12 season ranked world number 44, his lowest rank since turning professional. Davis reached the final of the 2011 World Seniors Championship before losing 1–2 to Darren Morgan. He participated in the 2011–12 Players Tour Championship; his best result was in the Warsaw Classic, where he reached the semi-finals before losing 3–4 to Ricky Walden, finishing at number 26 on the Order of Merit. He qualified for the 2011 UK Championship by defeating Ian McCulloch and Andrew Higginson, but lost 1–6 in the first round to O'Sullivan. He reached the last 16 of the Welsh Open before losing 0–4 to Murphy. Davis did not qualify for the World Snooker Championship 7–10 to Ben Woollaston. He qualified for the 2012 Shanghai Masters, before losing 4–5 to Ricky Walden. He qualified for the final stages of the 2012 UK Championship, before losing 2–6 to Carter. He again participated in the Players Tour Championship; his best results were in the Kay Suzanne Memorial Trophy and the Scottish Open, where he reached the last 16 before losing 3–4 to John Higgins and 1–4 to Ding Junhui. He placed 52nd on the tour's Order of Merit. He finished the season in the qualifying stage of the World Championship, losing 7–10 to Maflin. He won his first World Seniors Championship in 2013 by defeating Nigel Bond, 2–1. After being beaten by Craig Steadman 8–10 in the second round of the 2014 World Snooker Championship qualification, Davis finished the season outside the top 64 on the money list and dropped off the main professional tour after 36 years. Davis received an invitational tour card for tournaments in the 2014–15 season. He played in the 2014 Champion of Champions event after qualifying with the 2013 World Seniors Championship, losing 1–4 to Mark Selby in the group semi-final. Davis entered the 2016 World Snooker Championship qualifiers, and lost to Fergal O'Brien in his final professional match. During a live 17 April 2016 BBC broadcast, he announced his retirement from professional snooker, citing the recent death of his father as the main reason. Davis entered the Crucible Theatre holding the World Championship trophy, and received a standing ovation from the audience. During his career he won over £5.5 million in prize money. As of 2021, he continues to play exhibitions, and is a pundit and commentator for the BBC's snooker coverage of Triple Crown events. Other sports From 1994 to 2007, Davis regularly participated in professional nine-ball pool events; he was instrumental in creating the Mosconi Cup, an annual nine-ball pool tournament contested between teams representing Europe and the United States. He represented Europe in the tournament eleven times, and was a member of the victorious 1995 and 2002 teams; his victory against the US's Earl Strickland clinched the 2002 competition for Europe. In 2001, Davis reached the final of his first pool event at the World Pool League before losing 9–5 to Efren Reyes. Sky Sports commentator Sid Waddell gave him the nickname "Romford Slim", calling him Britain's answer to American pool player Rudolf "Minnesota Fats" Wanderone. Davis dislikes blackball pool as played on English-style tables in British pubs and clubs, considering it a "Mickey Mouse game" when played with a smaller cue ball than the other balls, although he is happy with the game when played with uniform balls. At the 2000 WPA World Nine-ball Championship, Davis was seeded 63rd. In the round of 64, he trailed second seed and reigning world champion Efren Reyes 2–8, but won the match 9–8. He defeated two other former world champions, Ralf Souquet 9–6 in the last 32 and Kunihiko Takahashi 11–6 in the last 16, but lost 7–11 in the quarter-finals to Corey Deuel. He reached the last 16 of the 2003 WPA World Nine-ball Championship in Cardiff, Wales, where he faced three-time champion Strickland. The match was notable for the behaviour of its players. Strickland accused members of the crowd of bias towards Davis; when warned by referee Michaela Tabb, he told her to "shut up". He complained after Davis took a second toilet break (when only allocated one), and Davis later admitted that the second break was gamesmanship against his opponent. Strickland won the match, and proceeded to the semi-finals. Davis has become a proficient poker player, with successful appearances at televised tournaments; they included an appearance at the final table of the 2003 Poker Million with Jimmy White, who eventually won. He finished 579th at event 41 of the 2006 World Series of Poker, winning $20,617. At event 54 of the 2008 World Series of Poker, Davis finished 389th and won $28,950. He finished 131st, winning $5,491, at event 56 of the 2010 World Series of Poker. At event 22 of the 2011 Grand Poker Series, Davis finished eighth and won $2,049. A keen chess player, he served as president of the British Chess Federation from 1996 until 2001. Davis co-authored Steve Davis Plays Chess, a 1995 book. In other media Davis has become known for his coolness and conduct in high-pressure situations. His initial lack of emotional expression and monotonous interview style earned him a reputation as boring, and the satirical television series Spitting Image nicknamed him "Interesting". Davis has since played on this image, and says it helped him gain public acceptance. He co-authored the 1988 book How to Be Really Interesting with Geoff Atkinson, a comedy writer who had been a key part of Spitting Image's writing team. Davis has worked with a series of video games. He appeared in a spoof online promotion for the Nintendo DS game World Snooker Championship: Season 2007–08, parodying a Nicole Kidman Brain Training advertisement, and worked with the World Snooker Championship franchise and Virtual Snooker. He also gave his name to two video games, Steve Davis Snooker in 1984 and Steve Davis World Snooker in 1989. In 2010, Davis played himself on The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret; other television appearances include the Christmas 1981 episode of The Morecambe & Wise Show. Davis has published a number of other books. Five relate to snooker: Successful Snooker (1982), Frame and Fortune (1982), Steve Davis: Snooker Champion (1983), Matchroom Snooker (1988) and The Official Matchroom 1990 Snooker Special. He co-authored two chess books in 1995 with David Norwood: Steve Davis Plays Chess and Grandmaster Meets Chess Amateur. Davis wrote three 1994 cookbooks: Simply Fix – the Steve Davis Interesting Cookbook No 1 – Interesting Things to Do With Meat, Simply Fix – The Steve Davis Interesting Cookbook No 2 – Interesting Things to Make with Poultry, and Simply Fix – the Steve Davis Interesting Cookbook No 3 – Interesting Things to Make Using Vegetables. His third autobiography, Interesting, was published in 2015. Davis also co-produced a music book with Kavus Torabi titled Medical Grade Music in 2021. He participated in the thirteenth series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2013, finishing in eighth place. The Rack Pack, a 2016 BBC television film about professional snooker during the 1970s and 1980s focusing on Davis's rivalry with Alex Higgins, featured Will Merrick as Davis. Music When in the sixth form at school, Davis began listening to progressive rock and was introduced to the Canterbury scene, which immediately fascinated him. Interviewed in 2020, Davis said, "I loved what bands like Soft Machine and Henry Cow were doing – it was challenging and very complex." Regarding Robert Wyatt, he said, "...one album in my collection that I would strong urge everyone to get is Rock Bottom. It's the type of album that you have to hear when you're smashed out of your face. It is just an incredible record. Davis is a fan of French progressive rock band Magma, and produced a London concert so he could see them, which directly caused their re-formation. He has a record collection with around 2,000 albums. Davis joined Brentwood community radio station Phoenix FM in 1996, broadcasting a variety of soul and rock shows during the next ten years online and on FM under a Restricted Service Licence. When the station went full-time on FM in March 2007, he hosted The Interesting Alternative Show. As a result of his broadcasts, Davis was a guest presenter on BBC Radio 6 Music in 2011. He branched out into club work in 2015, and has regular slots at London bars and nightclubs. Davis performed with Kavus Torabi at the 2016 Glastonbury Festival; their collaboration led to the formation of the Utopia Strong, an electronic music band whose debut album was released on 13 September 2019. In March 2023, Davis undertook a UK tour with the Utopia Strong in support of The Steve Hillage Band. He played analogue modular synthesiser on two free-form pieces each night totalling 30 mins. He joined Chas & Dave and several other snooker stars (as the Matchroom Mob) on "Snooker Loopy", a 1986 novelty record which was a Top 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart. A year later they released "Romford Rap", a follow-up single which reached number 91 on the UK charts. In September 2021 Davis appeared in a music video for a track titled "Lily" from the upcoming Richard Dawson and Circle collaborative album. Legacy Davis won a record 84 professional titles and was the runner-up in 38 events, with 28 of these as ranking event victories. His modern-era record of six world titles has been broken by both Stephen Hendry and Ronnie O'Sullivan, and his six UK Championship titles has been bettered only by O'Sullivan. Davis compiled 338 competitive centuries during his career. He was coached by Frank Callan for much of his career, who also represented Hendry in the 1990s. In 2011, Davis was inducted into World Snooker's new Hall of Fame with seven other former world champions. In the book Masters of the Baize, a detailed comparison and ranking of snooker professionals, Luke Williams and Paul Gadsby rated Davis as the third-greatest snooker player of all time (behind Joe Davis and Hendry). Davis was one of the first professional players to play in China, touring through the 1980s. This, along with highly lucrative off-table endorsements, both set up by Hearn, allowed him to become the United Kingdom's highest paid sportsperson in the later half of the 1980s. During the 2010 world championship, to mark the anniversary of the 1985 world championship final, Davis appeared with Taylor before the beginning of the first semi-final to stage a humorous re-enactment of their historic final frame; Taylor entered the arena wearing a pair of comically oversized glasses, and Davis arrived sporting a red wig. Personal life and honours In 1988, Davis became the only snooker player named as the BBC Sports Personality of the Year, and was made an MBE. He was made an OBE in 2000, and has been honorary president of the Snooker Writers' Association. Although he was on the board of Leyton Orient F.C., he has been a Charlton Athletic F.C. fan most of his life. He divorced his first wife Judith in 2005 after 15 years of marriage. They had two sons: Greg (born in 1991) and Jack (born in 1993). In 2012, Greg Davis entered the Q-School with the aim of winning a place on the professional snooker tour, but failed to do so. Performance and rankings timeline Career finals Ranking finals: 41 (28 titles) Non-ranking finals: 81 (56 titles) Team finals: 12 (10 titles) Pro-am finals: 4 (4 titles) Pool tournament wins • Mosconi Cup (1995, 2002) See also Notes References Further reading External links The Interesting Alternative Show on Phoenix FM 1957 births People from Plumstead Sportspeople from the Royal Borough of Greenwich Living people Snooker players from London Masters (snooker) champions Trick shot artists English players of English billiards English pool players English sports broadcasters English radio DJs DJs from London English male writers BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Officers of the Order of the British Empire Snooker writers and broadcasters World number one snooker players Poker players from London English writers BBC sports presenters and reporters Articles containing video clips Sportspeople from Romford UK champions (snooker) Sportspeople from Essex Sportspeople from Brentwood, Essex Winners of the professional snooker world championship

423830

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konica%20Minolta

Konica Minolta

is a Japanese multinational technology company headquartered in Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, with offices in 49 countries worldwide. The company manufactures business and industrial imaging products, including copiers, laser printers, multi-functional peripherals (MFPs) and digital print systems for the production printing market. Konica Minolta's Managed Print Service (MPS) is called Optimised Print Services. The company also makes optical devices, including lenses and LCD film; medical and graphic imaging products, such as X-ray image processing systems, colour proofing systems, and X-ray film; photometers, 3-D digitizers, and other sensing products; and textile printers. It once had camera and photo operations inherited from Konica and Minolta but they were sold in 2006 to Sony, with Sony's Alpha series being the successor SLR division brand. History Company history Konica Minolta was formed by a merger between Japanese imaging firms Konica and Minolta, announced on 7 January 2003 with the corporate structure completing the re-organization in October 2003. Different group companies, such as the operations in the headquarters and national operating companies, began the process around the same time, however the exact dates vary for each group company. Konica Minolta uses a "Globe Mark" logo that is similar to but slightly different from that of the former company. It also uses the same corporate slogan as the former Minolta company: "The Essentials of Imaging". On 19 January 2006 the company announced that it was quitting the camera business due to high financial losses. SLR camera service operations were handed over to Sony starting on 31 March 2006 and Sony has continued development of cameras that are compatible with Minolta autofocus lenses. Originally, in the negotiations, Konica Minolta wanted cooperation with Sony in camera equipment production rather than a sell-out deal, but Sony vehemently refused, saying that it would either acquire everything or leave everything that had to do with the camera equipment sector of KM. Konica Minolta withdrew from the photography business on 30 September 2006. Three thousand seven hundred employees were laid off. Konica Minolta closed down its photo imaging division in March 2007. The color film, color paper, photo chemical and digital mini-lab machine divisions have ceased operations. Dai Nippon Printing purchased Konica's Odawara factory, with plans to continue to produce paper under Dai Nippon's brand. CPAC acquired the Konica chemical factory. Konica expanded its business presence and currently sells its products in the Americas, Asia Pacific, Europe, Middle East and Africa. Camera history Manual focus 35mm film SLRs Konica and Minolta have been competitors in the 35 mm SLR market since the development of the manual-focus (MF) SRT and other models in the mid-1960s. Minolta positioned most of its cameras to compete in the amateur market, though it did produce a very high quality MF SLR in the XD-11. Konica left the SLR market in 1987. Minolta's last MF SLR cameras were the X370 and X700. Shanghai Optical Co. (Seagull) purchased tools and production plant from Minolta at different times, making some X300 series for Minolta branding, and continues to release MD mount film SLRs compatible with the old system under the Seagull name. Autofocus 35mm film SLRs Until the sale of Konica Minolta's Photo Imaging unit to Sony in 2006, Konica Minolta produced the former Minolta range of 35 mm autofocus single-lens reflex cameras, variously named "Minolta Maxxum" in North America, "Minolta Dynax" in Europe, and "Minolta Alpha" in Japan and the rest of Asia. This range was introduced in 1985 with the Minolta Maxxum 7000, and culminated with the professional (1997) later made in a titanium body (9Ti) and technically advanced 7 (1999). The final Minolta 35 mm SLR AF cameras were the Maxxum 50 and 70 (Dynax 40 and 60), built in China. Digital cameras Konica Minolta had a line of digital point and shoot cameras to compete in the digital photography market. Their Dimage line (originally styled as Dimâge, later as DiMAGE) included digital cameras and imaging software as well as film scanners. They created a new category of "SLR-like" cameras with the introduction of the DiMAGE 7 and DiMAGE 5. These cameras mixed many of the features of a traditional SLR camera with the special abilities of a digital camera. They had a mechanical zoom ring and electronic focus ring on the lens barrel and used an electronic viewfinder (EVF) showing 100 per cent of the lens view. They added many high level features such as a histogram and made the cameras TTL-compatible with Minolta's final generation of flashes for film SLRs. The controls were designed to be used by people familiar with SLR cameras, however the manual zoom auto-focus lens was not interchangeable. The model 5 had a 1/1.8-inch sensor with 3.3 megapixels, and the fixed zoom was equal to a 35–250 mm (relative to 24×36mm format). The Dimage 7, later 7i, 7Hi and A1 had 5-megapixel sensors for which the same lens provided 28–200 mm equivalent coverage. The later A2 and A200 increased the sensor resolution to 8 megapixels. The Dimage 5 and 7 original models were more sensitive to infrared light than later models, which incorporated more aggressive IR sensor filters, so have become popular for infrared photography. The A1/A2/A200 integrated a sensor-based, piezoelectrically actuated anti-camera-shake system. Before the closure of the Photo Imaging unit, the Dimâge lineup included the long-zoom Z line, the E/G lines (the G series finally incorporating former Konica models), the thin/light X line, and the advanced A line. The DiMAGE G500 was a five-megapixel compact digital camera manufactured by Konica Minolta in 2003. It comes in a stainless steel case, 3x zoom lens with a retractable barrel, and dual Secure Digital and MagicGate card slots, the camera has a 1.3-second startup time. Digital SLRs Minolta made some early forays into digital SLRs with the RD-175 in 1995 and the Minolta Dimâge RD 3000 in 1999 but were the last of the large camera manufacturers to launch a successful digital SLR camera using a current 35 mm AF mount in late 2004. The RD-175 was based on the Maxxum/Dynax 505si 35 mm film SLR and used three different ½-inch CCD image sensors—two for green and one for red and blue—supplied with images by a light splitting mechanism using prisms mounted behind the lens. The RD 3000 used Minolta V-mount APS format lenses and again used multiple CCDs—this time two 1.5 MP ½-inch sensors stitched to give a 2.7 MP output image. It was not until late 2004 (after the merger with Konica) that they launched the Dynax/Maxxum/α 7D, a digital SLR based on the very successful Dynax/Maxxum 7 35 mm SLR body. The unique feature of this camera is that it features an in-body Anti-Shake system to compensate for camera shake. However, by 2004 Canon and Nikon had a whole range of digital SLR cameras and many serious photographers had already switched, thus leading Konica Minolta to withdraw from the market and transfer assets to Sony. The only two Konica Minolta digital SLRs to reach production before the company's withdrawal were the Dynax/Maxxum 7D and the Dynax/Maxxum 5D (which is an entry-level model that shared the 7D's sensor and Anti-Shake technology). In early 2006 Sony announced its Sony α (Alpha) line of digital SLRs, (based on Konica Minolta technology) and stated they were scheduled to launch production in the summer of 2006. The Sony Alpha 100, announced on June 6, 2006, is generally agreed to have been a Konica Minolta design based on the 5D with minimal Sony input. The range of 21 Sony lenses announced at that time also included only revisions of earlier Minolta designs, or models which had been in development, rebadged and with minor cosmetic changes. The Sony Alpha DSLR range utilizing the 'A'-mount has remained compatible with all Minolta AF system lenses, and most accessories, from 1985 onwards. In 2000 Minolta announced the introduction of Super Sonic Motor (SSM) focusing to a limited number of new lenses. This dispensed with a mechanical drive between camera and lens, but only SLRs made from 1999 onwards (the Dynax/Maxxum 7 and later) were compatible, the professional Dynax 9 requiring a factory upgrade to operate. Sony announced a program in 2008 to fit more future lenses with SSM and these designs may, therefore, not be compatible with 1985–1999 SLR bodies. Business equipment history Multifunctional devices For some time after the merger between Konica and Minolta, both product lines continued to be sold, while research and development efforts were underway to create new products. The first Konica Minolta badged products were almost entirely "Konica" or "Minolta" products however, as they were the next generation products being produced by both companies before the merger. These products included MFPs such as the Konica Minolta bizhub C350 (a "Minolta" design, also badged as the Konica 8022 and Minolta CF2203), and Konica Minolta 7235 (A "Konica" design). Successive models included greater integration between the two sets of technologies, and current products such as the bizhub C451 (pictured below in this article) contain many technologies from both histories. Some products such as the bizhub 501 are more noticeably an engine design from one company rather the other, however the system itself, including operation, features and RIP technologies are i Printers As the printer operations of the former Konica company were limited to "printer models" of MFP models, or re-badged printers from other manufacturers, while the printer operations of the former Minolta company were strong since the purchase of QMS (completed in 2000 after increasing influence and shareholding by Minolta), printer operations were initially not affected greatly by the Konica Minolta merger. In the 1980s QMS made the KISS laser printer, the most inexpensive then available at $1995. Due to the increased complexity of both MFP and printer devices, Konica Minolta increased technology sharing between the two lines of products. In many regions, this has led to the integration of the Printer products company into the Business equipment products company. Business companies Konica Minolta has spun off business units into separate companies. Konica Minolta Business Technologies, Inc. The Konica Minolta Business Technologies division develops multifunction printers, copiers, computer printers, facsimile machines, microfilm systems and related supplies. The divisional head office is in Tokyo, with regional offices in Worldwide headquarters are also located in: Germany (Konica Minolta Europe), USA (Konica Minolta Business Solutions USA), New Zealand (Konica Minolta Business Solutions New Zealand), Australia (Konica Minolta Australia) and China (Konica Minolta China). These headquarters are responsible for sales and support of the Konica Minolta companies in each country within their region, including distributors and the dealer networks. In an effort to improve profitability in a declining printer market, Konica Minolta Business Solutions begins to acquire enterprise content management (ECM) service and software solution providers. The division has approximately 19,600 employees. Multi-functional peripherals (MFPs) Pursuing advanced imaging markets Konica Minolta's digital multi-functional peripherals (MFPs), branded the "bizhub" series, are equipped with multiple functions (copying, printing, faxing, scanning), and can integrate into any corporate network environments. They allow users to consolidate the administration of office equipment connected to a network by using a series of network management software programs and even to manage and share both scanned data and computer-generated data. Konica Minolta Printing Solutions Advanced generation of compact, lightweight and high-performance color laser printers. The market for color laser printers continues to expand, fuelled by the rapid shift of business documents from monochrome to color. Konica Minolta's color laser printers—branded the "Magicolor" series and using toner technology inherited from QMS/Qume include what was then the world's smallest and lightest color laser printer with 2400 dpi photographic quality, the Magicolor 2430DL of 2005. This printer also offered direct output from digital cameras using PictBridge and EXIFII Print Order Management technology, via USB. The Magicolor series covers from entry level home/office models like the 2430s successors, to large print stations for corporate environments. As of May 2007 Printing Solutions (Europe) business was merged with Konica Minolta Business Solutions (Europe) as part of radical reforms within the company. Konica Minolta Opto, Inc. Konica Minolta Opto, Inc. develops optical components, units, and systems. Konica Minolta Medical & Graphic, Inc. Konica Minolta Medical & Graphic, Inc. is involved in the manufacturing, sale, and related services of film and processing equipment for medical and graphic imaging. The company is located in Grand Rapids, MI, and manufactures and distributes both conventional and digital graphic arts supplies including: analog and digital films, graphics arts papers, conventional and CTP printing plates, processing chemicals, film and plate processors, imagesetters, platesetters, digital color proofers and software. The company serves the printing and publishing, corporate communications and newspaper industries. Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. Konica Minolta Sensing offer products, software, and services utilizing light control and measurement technology within four main product areas: Color Measurement, Display Measurement, 3D measurement and Medical Measurement. Color Measurement: Spectrophotometers and tristimulus colorimeters (Chroma Meters) for measuring reflected and transmitted color of objects. These are used in industrial fields and other areas for color quality control, grading by color, and CCM applications on a wide variety of subjects, including automotive parts, paint, plastic, textiles, construction materials and foods, and correcting vision problems. Spectroscopy: Spectroscopy equipment for laboratory and scientific work across the uv/visible/nir spectrum. Spectroscopy equipment can be used for restoring aged or ancient artwork, analyzing the color of food and beverages, and measuring blood alcohol content. Display Measurement: Display colour analysers, spectral colorimeters, and spectral radiometers for testing display performance and quality, examining and adjusting white balance and contrast, and precisely measuring display chroma, brightness and balance. Subjects include various types of TVs and computer displays (plasma, LCD), as well as other displays (mobile phones, digital cameras, car navigation equipment). 3D Measurement: 3D digitizers scan three-dimensional objects and import the 3D data to computers. The data can be used for medical applications, academic research, 3D archiving, archeological studies, and computer graphics production, as well as for industrial applications such as reverse engineering, design verification, and quality inspection. Medical Measurement: Products for non-invasive measurements of physiological values. These include pulse oximeters which determines oxygen saturation in the blood and compact jaundice meters that can test newborn babies for jaundice without taking blood samples. Konica Minolta Healthcare Americas, Inc Konica Minolta Healthcare Americas, Inc., formerly known as Konica Minolta Medical Imaging USA, Inc., is a business unit of Konica Minolta, Inc., and is headquartered in Wayne, NJ. The unit provides digital radiography, ultrasound imaging, healthcare IT and services to hospitals, imaging centers, clinics and private practices across the US, Canada and Latin America. In July 2017, the company acquired Aliso Viejo, California-based genetic testing firm Ambry Genetics, for a reported US$1 billion. Print shops (Kinko's Japan and Kinko's Korea) In 2012, Konica Minolta bought the Japanese operations of FedEx Kinko's. The deal consisted of the sale of 61 printing offices across Japan. Subsequently, in 2013, Konica Minolta bought FedEx Kinko's operations in South Korea. The Kinko's operations in both countries were later rebranded to remove a reference to FedEx, but retained the Kinko's name. In Japan, the Kinko's stores in Kyushu, Chugoku and Shikoku regions are continued to be operated by GA Creous, a subsidiary of General Asahi. Sponsorships Konica Minolta's sponsorships include: CNN Heroes (2014 Oct - 2014 Dec) Redlands Konica Minolta Art Prize (1996–present) See also Tower Hotel (Niagara Falls), previously called "Minolta Tower" References Specific references General references Dynax 4/Dynax 3/Maxxum 4 Instruction Manual Maxxum 5D Brochure Robert E. Mayer, Minolta Classic Cameras (a Magic Lantern Guide) Konica Minolta Corporate Profile 2005 External links Japanese companies established in 2003 Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Computer printer companies Electronics companies of Japan Electronics companies established in 2003 Manufacturing companies established in 2003 Japanese brands Lens manufacturers Midori-kai Multinational companies headquartered in Japan Photography companies of Japan

423849

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport%20terminal

Airport terminal

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from an aircraft. Within the terminal; passengers purchase tickets; transfer their luggage; go through security. The buildings that provide access to the airplanes (via gates) are typically called concourses. However, the terms "terminal" and "concourse" are sometimes used interchangeably, depending on the configuration of the airport. Smaller airports have one terminal while larger airports have several terminals and/or concourses. At small airports, the single terminal building typically serves all of the functions of a terminal and a concourse. Some larger airports have one terminal that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways, sky-bridges, or tunnels (such as Denver International Airport, modeled after Atlanta's, the world's busiest), or Orlando International Airport (modeled after Tampa's). Some larger airports have more than one terminal, each with one or more concourses (such as New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport, which has five, and London's Heathrow Airport and Chicago's O'Hare International Airport, which both have four). Still other larger airports have multiple terminals each of which incorporate the functions of a concourse (such as Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport or Philadelphia International Airport). According to Frommers, "most airport terminals are built in a plain style, with the concrete boxes of the 1960s and 1970s generally gave way to glass boxes in the 1990s and 2000s, with the best terminals making a vague stab at incorporating ideas of "light" and "air"'. However, some, such as Baghdad International Airport and Denver International Airport, are monumental in stature, while others are considered architectural masterpieces, such as Terminal 1 at Charles de Gaulle Airport, near Paris, the main terminal at Washington Dulles in Virginia, or the TWA Flight Center at New York's JFK Airport. A few are designed to reflect the culture of a particular area, some examples being the terminal at Albuquerque International Sunport in New Mexico, which is designed in the Pueblo Revival style popularized by architect John Gaw Meem, as well as the terminal at Bahías de Huatulco International Airport in Huatulco, Oaxaca, Mexico, which features some palapas that are interconnected to form the airport terminal." When London Stansted Airport's new terminal opened in 1991, it marked a shift in airport terminal design since Norman Foster placed the baggage handling system in the basement in order to create a vast open interior space. Airport architects have followed this model since unobstructed sightlines aid with passenger orientation. In some cases, architects design the terminal's ceiling and flooring with cues that suggest the required directional flow. For instance, at Toronto Pearson's Terminal 1 Moshe Safdie included skylights for wayfinding purposes. History In the early history of air flight, airlines checked in their passengers at downtown terminals, and had their own transportation facilities to the airfield. For example, Air France checked in passengers at the Invalides Air Terminal (Aérogare des Invalides) from 1946 to 1961, when all passengers started checking in at the airport. The Air Terminal continued in service as the boarding point for airline buses until 2016. Chicago's O'Hare International Airport's innovative design pioneered concepts such as direct highway access to the airport, concourses, and jetbridges; these designs are now seen at most airports worldwide. Designs Due to the rapid rise in popularity of passenger flight, many early terminals were built in the 1930s–1940s and reflected the popular art deco style architecture of the time. One such surviving example from 1940 is the Houston Municipal Airport Terminal. Early airport terminals opened directly onto the tarmac: passengers would walk or take a bus to their aircraft. This design is still common among smaller airports, and even many larger airports have "bus gates" to accommodate aircraft beyond the main terminal. Pier A pier design uses a small, narrow building with aircraft parked on both sides. One end connects to a ticketing and baggage claim area. Piers offer high aircraft capacity and simplicity of design, but often result in a long distance from the check-in counter to the gate (up to half a mile in the cases of Kansai International Airport or Lisbon Portela Airport's Terminal 1). Most large international airports have piers. Satellite terminals A satellite terminal is a building detached from other airport buildings, so that aircraft can park around its entire circumference. The first airport to use a satellite terminal was London Gatwick Airport. It used an underground pedestrian tunnel to connect the satellite to the main terminal. This was also the first setup at Los Angeles International Airport, but it has since been converted to a pier layout. The first airport to use an automatic people mover to connect the main terminal with a satellite was Tampa International Airport, which is the standard today. The world's largest satellite terminal is Terminal S1 and S2 at Shanghai Pudong International Airport. The 622,000 square meter 90 gate terminal is connected to the main terminal by a high capacity people mover using conventional subway trains. Other examples include the following: Montreal's Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport has terminal section called Aeroquai connected by walkways and it's used mostly for short haul regional domestic flights and some International departures when there's no gates available. Paris's Charles de Gaulle Airport (Terminal 1), Geneva International Airport and London Gatwick Airport (South Terminal) have circular satellite terminals, connected by walkways. Lisbon Internacional Airport (Terminal 2) has a small rectangular satellite terminal, connect by a free shuttle service (accessible by Terminal 1, every 10 minutes). Orlando International Airport and Pittsburgh International Airport have multi-pier satellite terminals. Zurich Airport's Midfield Terminal (Concourse E) is connected to the main terminal via an underground Skymetro. London Gatwick Airport's Pier 6 (North Terminal) connects to the main terminal via one of the world's longest over-taxiway bridges. Its span was recently exceeded in length by a new pedestrian bridge at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport. At Logan International Airport in Boston, Terminal A has two sections of gates, one of which is a satellite terminal connected by an underground walkway. Denver International Airport, Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, and Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport have linear satellite terminals connected by central passages. This design originated with Atlanta and was selected for the Denver airport terminals when the new airport in Denver was built. The linear satellite terminals are connected by automatic people movers. Atlanta's is called the Plane Train. In the Atlanta and Cincinnati airports, underground moving walkways also connect the linear satellite terminals. At Denver there is an indoor bridge from the main terminal to the first satellite terminal, but there is no walkway to the remaining satellite terminals. Terminal 1 at O'Hare International Airport has two concourses: Concourse B is directly adjacent to the airport access road, while Concourse C is a satellite building connected by an underground walkway lit with a neon light show, and an airy and very slow-tempo version of United Airlines' theme music "Rhapsody in Blue". Terminal 8 at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York has two concourses: one main concourse, and a satellite concourse connected to the main concourse by an underground walkway. London Stansted Airport has one main terminal building with three linear satellite terminals all connected to the main terminal by an automated people mover. The airport is currently expanding by adding another satellite building. Kuala Lumpur International Airport has a cross-shaped satellite terminal which is used for international flights. Cancun International Airport Terminal 2 is an irregular terminal with two concourses, Main building and Satellite building, the latter one being the satellite terminal. Seattle-Tacoma International Airport has two rectangular satellite terminals connected by automatic people movers. The new international terminal is complete with the world's longest passenger bridge spanning an active runway, exceeding that at London's Gatwick airport. Jinnah International Airport in Karachi has one main terminal, divided into two concourses: the Jinnah East Satellite Concourse, used for international flights, and the Jinnah West Satellite Concourse, used for domestic and some international flights. Both satellite concourses are connected to the main terminals by pedestrian walkways. Harry Reid International Airport in Las Vegas has an X-shaped satellite terminal, named Concourse D, that is connected by two automatic people movers - one from Terminal 1 (which houses Concourses A, B, and C) and one from Terminal 3 (which houses Concourse E). In addition, despite being part of Terminal 1, Concourse C is connected to the rest of the terminal by an automatic people mover. Concourse D is connected to Terminal 3 by an underground walkway that is only used for international arrivals. Mariano Escobedo International Airport is the first and only airport in Mexico which has a completely satellite terminal. Terminal A is connected from the main building to the satellite building via tunnels. Terminal 5 at London Heathrow Airport has two satellite terminals, 5B, and 5C, connected via an underground people mover. Rome Fiumicino Airport has one satellite terminal, called T3G, connected by a Bombardier Innovia APM 100. Madrid–Barajas Airport has one linear satellite terminal, named T4S, which is connected to the Terminal 4 main building by an automated people mover. Both midfield terminals at Washington Dulles International Airport use this design, with Concourses A, B, and C being connected to the main terminal by the AeroTrain, and Concourse D via a mobile lounge service. There is also an underground walkway from the main terminal to Concourse B. Munich Airport has one satellite terminal, named Satellite Terminal 2 (commonly known as in German), which is connected to the Terminal 2 by an underground automated people mover. Terminal E at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport has a small satellite concourse, accessed by an underground pedestrian walkway. The Terminal E Satellite currently has 9 gates, but in April 2018, it was announced by DFW Airport and American Airlines that the 9 mainline gates would be converted into 15 regional gates, along with updating interior fixtures such as carpet, elevators, escalators and moving walkways. American plans to have renovations completed and be fully moved into the terminal in Spring 2019. Terminal B also has a satellite concourse, albeit with ten mainline gates. Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok, Thailand has a satellite terminal in its Phase II extension which is currently under construction and it is due for completion by 2022. Chennai International Airport started construction of satellite terminal which is slated for completion by 2022. Semicircular terminals Some airports use a semicircular terminal, with aircraft parked on one side and cars on the other. This design results in long walks for connecting passengers, but greatly reduces travel times between check-in and the aircraft. Airports designed around this model include Charles de Gaulle Airport (terminal 2), Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai (old terminal 2), Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Seoul's Incheon International Airport, Jakarta's Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (terminal 1 & 2), Toronto Pearson Airport, Kansas City Airport, Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta International Airport, Rio de Janeiro–Galeão International Airport and Sapporo's New Chitose Airport. Other A particularly unusual design was employed at Berlin Tegel Airport's Terminal A. Consisting of an hexagonal-shaped ring around a courtyard, five of the outer walls were airside and fitted with jet bridges, while the sixth (forming the entrance), along with the inner courtyard, was landside. Although superficially resembling a satellite design insofar as aircraft could park around most of the structure, it was in fact a self-contained terminal which unlike a satellite did not depend on remote buildings for facilities such as check-in, security controls, arrivals etc. Especially unique were its exceptionally short walking distances and lack of any central area for security, passport control, arrivals or transfer. Instead, individual check-in counters are located immediately in front of the gate of the flight they serve. Checked-in passengers then entered airside via a short passage situated immediately to the side of the check-in desk, passed (for non-Schengen flights) a single passport control booth (with officers sat in the same area as check-in staff), followed by a single security lane which terminated at the gate's waiting area behind. Pairs of gates shared the same seating area, with small kiosks for duty-free and refreshments making up the only airside commercial offerings. Thus, other than the adjacent gate, passengers could not move around the terminal airside and there was no central waiting lounge and retail area for departures. Individual rooms for arrivals, likewise serving a pair of gates, each contained a single baggage carousel and were alternately situated in between each pair of departure gates on the same level, such that the entrance/exit of each jet bridge lied at the boundary of the two areas. Two or three passport control booths were located close to the end of the jet bridge for arriving passengers (causing passengers to queue into the bridge and plane itself) and passengers left the arrivals area unsegregated from departing passengers into the same landside ring-concourse, emerging next to the check-in desks. This allowed both arriving and departing passengers immediate access to the courtyard on the same level, where short-stay parking and taxi-pickup were located. Vehicles could enter and exit via a road underpass underneath the terminal building entrance. For flights using jet-bridges and passengers arriving or leaving by private transport, this resulted in extremely short walking distances of just a few tens of metres between vehicles and the plane, with only a slightly longer walk for public transport connections. A downside of this design is a lack of any provision for transfer flights, with passengers only able to transit landside. Another rarer terminal design is the mobile lounge, where passengers are transported from the gate to their aircraft in a large vehicle which docks directly to the terminal and the aircraft. Washington Dulles International Airport, Mexico City International Airport, and Mirabel International Airport have used this design. Hybrid layouts also exist. San Francisco International Airport and Melbourne Airport use a hybrid pier-semicircular layout and a pier layout for the rest. Common-use facility A common-use facility or terminal design disallows airlines to have its own proprietary check-in counters, gates and IT systems. Rather, check-in counters and gates can be flexibly reassigned as needed. This is used at Boston Logan International Airport's Terminal E. Records This table below lists the top airport terminals throughout the world with the largest amount of floor area, with usable floor space across multiple stories of at least . Ground transportation Many small and mid-size airports have a single, two, or three-lane one-way loop road which is used by local private vehicles and buses to drop off and pick up passengers. A large hub airport often have two grade-separated one-way loop roads, one for departures and one for arrivals. It may have a direct rail connection by regional rail, light rail, or subway to the downtown or central business district of the closest major city. The largest airports may have direct connections to the closest freeway. The Hong Kong International Airport has ferry piers on the airside for ferry connections to and from mainland China and Macau without passing through Hong Kong immigration controls. Zones Pre-Security (landside) Check-in counters Immigration Centre ( For International Travel) Retail stores and restaurants Baggage claim Post Security (airside) Duty-free shops Immigration centre ( For International Travel) Retail stores and restaurants Airport lounges Airport customs See also Airport rail link Environmental impact of aviation International zone References External links pt:Aeródromo#Conceitos

423882

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalie%20Cole

Natalie Cole

Natalie Maria Cole (February 6, 1950 – December 31, 2015) was an American singer, songwriter, and actress. She was the daughter of singer and jazz pianist Nat King Cole. She rose to prominence in the mid-1970s, with the release of her debut album Inseparable (1975), along with the song "This Will Be (An Everlasting Love)", and the album's title track. Its success led to her receiving the Grammy Award for Best New Artist at the 18th Annual Grammy Awards, for which she became the first African-American recipient, as well as the first R&B act to win the award. The singles "Sophisticated Lady" (1976), "I've Got Love on My Mind", and "Our Love" (1977) followed. After releasing several albums, she departed from her R&B sound and returned as a pop singer on the 1987 album Everlasting, along with her cover of Bruce Springsteen's "Pink Cadillac". In the 1990s, she sang traditional pop by her father, resulting in her biggest success, Unforgettable... with Love, which was certified 7× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Unforgettable... with Love won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year, for which Cole became the first African-American woman to win the award. Throughout her lifetime, Cole received nine Grammy Awards, was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award, and sold over 30 million records worldwide. She was awarded the Howie Richmond Hitmaker Award from the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1999, and has been inducted into the National Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame (2021), and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Early life Natalie Cole was born at Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles, California, to American singer and jazz pianist Nat King Cole and former Duke Ellington Orchestra singer Maria Hawkins Ellington, and raised in the affluent Hancock Park district of Los Angeles. Regarding her childhood, Cole referred to her family as "the black Kennedys" and was exposed to many great singers of jazz, soul and blues. Cole sang on her father's 1960 Christmas album The Magic of Christmas and later started performing at age 11. Cole grew up with an older adopted sister, Carole "Cookie" Cole (1944–2009) (her mother Maria's younger sister's daughter), adopted brother Nat "Kelly" Cole (1959–1995), and younger twin sisters Timolin and Casey (born 1961). Through her mother, Cole was a grandniece of educator Charlotte Hawkins Brown. Her paternal uncle Freddy Cole was a singer and pianist with numerous albums and awards. Cole enrolled in Northfield School for Girls, an elite New England preparatory school (since 1971 known as Northfield Mount Hermon School after merging with another school) before her father died of lung cancer in February 1965. Soon afterwards she began having a difficult relationship with her mother. Cole attended The Buckley School, a private school in Sherman Oaks, California, and then enrolled in the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She transferred briefly to University of Southern California where she pledged the Upsilon chapter of Delta Sigma Theta sorority. She later transferred back to the University of Massachusetts, where she majored in Child Psychology and minored in German, graduating in 1972. Music career Early career Cole grew up listening to a variety of music that included Aretha Franklin and Janis Joplin. After graduation in 1972 she began singing at small clubs with her band, Black Magic. Clubs initially welcomed her because she was Nat King Cole's daughter, only to be disappointed when she began singing cover versions of R&B and rock songs. With the assistance of Chuck Jackson and Marvin Yancy, a songwriting and producing duo, she recorded some songs in a studio in Chicago that was owned by Curtis Mayfield. Her demo tapes led to a contract with Capitol, resulting in the release of Cole's debut album, Inseparable, which included songs that reminded listeners of Aretha Franklin. Franklin later contended that songs such as "This Will Be", "I Can't Say No", and others were offered to her while she was recording the album You but she had turned them down. Released in 1975, the album became an instant success thanks to "This Will Be", which became a top ten hit and won her a Grammy Award for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. A second single, "Inseparable", also became a hit. Both songs reached number-one on the R&B chart. Cole also won Best New Artist at the Grammy Awards for her accomplishments, making her the first African-American artist to attain that feat. The media's billing of Cole as the "new Aretha Franklin" started a rivalry between the two singers. The feud boiled over at the 1976 Grammy Awards when Cole beat Franklin in the Best Female R&B Vocal Performance category, a category which Franklin had won eight times before losing to Cole. Stardom Becoming an instant star, Cole responded to critics who predicted a sophomore slump with Natalie, released in 1976. The album, like Inseparable, became a gold success thanks to the funk-influenced cut "Sophisticated Lady" and the jazz-influenced "Mr. Melody". Cole released her first platinum record with her third release, Unpredictable, mainly thanks to the number-one R&B hit "I've Got Love on My Mind". Originally an album track, the album's closer, "I'm Catching Hell", nonetheless became a popular Cole song during live concert shows. Later in 1977, Cole issued her fourth release and second platinum album, Thankful, which included another signature Cole hit, "Our Love". Cole was the first female artist to have two platinum albums in one year. To capitalize on her fame, Cole starred on her own TV special, which attracted such celebrities as Earth, Wind & Fire, and also appeared on the TV special, "Sinatra and Friends". In 1978, Cole released her first live album, Natalie Live! In early 1979, the singer was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. That same year, she released two more albums, I Love You So and the Peabo Bryson duet album, We're the Best of Friends. Both albums reached gold status in the U.S., reflecting her continuing popularity. Detour and resurgence Following the release of her eighth album, 1980's Don't Look Back, Cole's career began to take a detour. While Cole scored an adult contemporary hit with the soft rock ballad "Someone That I Used to Love" off the album, the album itself failed to go gold. In 1981, Cole's personal problems, including battles with drug addiction, began to attract public notice, and her career suffered as a result. In 1983, following the release of her album I'm Ready, released on Epic, Cole entered a rehab facility in Connecticut and stayed there for a period of six months. Following her release, she signed with the Atco imprint Modern Records and released Dangerous, which started a slow resurgence for Cole in terms of record sales and chart success. In 1987, she changed to EMI-Manhattan Records and released the album Everlasting, which returned her to the top of the charts thanks to singles such as "Jump Start (My Heart)", the top ten ballad, "I Live for Your Love", and her dance-pop cover of Bruce Springsteen's "Pink Cadillac". That success helped Everlasting reach one million in sales and become Cole's first platinum album in ten years. In 1989, she released her follow-up to Everlasting, Good to Be Back, which produced the number seven hit "Miss You Like Crazy", which became her biggest hit in the United Kingdom by reaching number two on the UK Singles Chart. While the album failed to reach Gold certification in the US, it achieved international success by becoming her only top ten album in the UK, and later being certified Gold there. Cole released her bestselling album with 1991's Unforgettable... with Love on Elektra Records, which saw Cole singing songs her famous father recorded, nearly 20 years after she initially had refused to cover her father's songs during live concerts. Cole produced vocal arrangements for the songs, with piano accompaniment by her uncle Ike Cole. Cole's label released an interactive duet between Cole and her father on the title song, "Unforgettable". The song eventually reached number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and number ten on the R&B chart, going gold. Unforgettable...with Love eventually sold more than 7 million copies in the U.S. alone and won several Grammys, including Album of the Year, Record of the Year and Best Traditional Pop Vocal Performance for the top song. Alongside signing for new material with Elektra, she transferred rights of her EMI-Manhattan catalog. Cole followed that success with another album of jazz standards, titled Take a Look, in 1993, which included her recording of the title track in the same styling that her idol Aretha Franklin had recorded nearly 30 years earlier. The album eventually went gold while a holiday album, Holly & Ivy, also became gold. Another standards release, Stardust, went platinum and featured another duet with her father on a modern version of "When I Fall in Love", which helped Cole earn another Grammy for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. In 1995, Cole was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Music from the Berklee College of Music. In 1999, Cole returned to her 1980s-era urban contemporary recording style with the release of Snowfall on the Sahara on June and second Christmas album The Magic of Christmas on October, which recorded with London Symphony Orchestra. A year later, the singer collaborated on the production of her biopic, Livin' for Love: The Natalie Cole Story with Theresa Randle playing Natalie Cole. She also released the compilation Greatest Hits, Vol. 1 to fulfill her contract with Elektra. All albums she recorded for Elektra and EMI-Manhattan are no longer controlled by Warner Music Group; they were sold to Concord Music Group and are available digitally via Craft Recordings division. She changed to Verve Records and released two albums. Ask a Woman Who Knows (2002) continued her jazz aspirations, while Leavin (2006) was an album of pop, rock, and R&B songs. Her version of "Daydreaming" by Aretha Franklin was a minor hit on the R&B chart. In 2008, seventeen years after Unforgettable... with Love, she released Still Unforgettable, which included songs made famous by her father and Frank Sinatra. In April 2012, she appeared on the Pennington Great Performers with the Baton Rouge Symphony Orchestra. Television and film career Cole pursued a career in acting. She appeared several times in concerts or other music related programs, including the 1988 Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute with sidemen Richard Campbell, Jeffrey Worrell, Eddie Cole, and Dave Joyce. In 1990, Cole hosted the TV show Big Break, a talent competition where singers and musicians competed for a $100,000 prize. That year, she and Al Jarreau sang "Mr. President" on the television special Comic Relief special. After Johnny Mathis appeared on a special of Cole's in 1980, the two kept in contact, and in 1992 he invited her to be a part of his television special A Tribute to Nat Cole for the BBC in England. An album of the same name was released. In 1992, following the success of the Unforgettable: With Love album, PBS broadcast a special based on the album. Unforgettable, With Love: Natalie Cole Sings the Songs of Nat "King" Cole received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Program. Cole received a nomination for Outstanding Individual Performance but lost to Bette Midler. In 1993, she was among the guests of honor attending Wrestlemania IX at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas. At the 65th Academy Awards she performed a medley of two Oscar-nominated songs: "Run to You" and "I Have Nothing", both performed by Whitney Houston in the film The Bodyguard. Cole made a number of dramatic appearances on television, including I'll Fly Away, Touched by an Angel, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and Grey's Anatomy. She had the lead role in the TV movie Lily in Winter. She appeared in the Cole Porter biopic De-Lovely. In 2001, she starred as herself in Livin' for Love: the Natalie Cole Story, for which she received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special. On the February 5, 2007, episode of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, Cole sang "I Say a Little Prayer" at a benefit dinner. She sang the national anthem with the Atlanta University Center Chorus at Super Bowl XXVIII. In 2013, she was a guest on Tina Sinatra's Father's Day Special on Sirius Radio. The program included Deana Martin, Monica Mancini, and Daisy Torme reminiscing about their famous fathers. Personal life Cole was married three times. She married Marvin Yancy, songwriter, producer, and former member of the 1970s R&B group The Independents on July 31, 1976. She had a son, Robert Adam "Robbie" Yancy (October 14, 1977 – August 14, 2017); he was a musician who toured with her. Marvin was her producer, and an ordained Baptist minister who helped reintroduce her to religion. Under his influence, Cole changed from a lapsed Episcopalian to become a devout Baptist. Cole and Yancy were divorced in 1980; Yancy died of a heart attack in 1985, aged 34. In 1989, Cole married record producer and former drummer for the band Rufus, Andre Fischer; they were divorced in 1995. In 2001, Cole married Bishop Kenneth Dupree; they divorced in 2004. In 2017, her son Robbie died of a heart attack, aged 39. Cole was active in the Afghan World Foundation cause, supporting Sonia Nassery Cole (no relation). Drug use and recovery In 2000, Cole released an autobiography, Angel on My Shoulder, which described her battle with drugs during much of her life, including heroin and crack cocaine. At one stage of her addiction, Cole worked as a prostitute's tout in order to fund her drug habit. Cole said she began recreational drug use while attending the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She was arrested in Toronto, Canada, for possession of heroin in 1975. Cole spiraled out of control – in this phase of her life there was an incident in which she refused to leave a burning building, and another in which her young son Robert nearly drowned in the family swimming pool while she was on a drug binge. She entered rehab in 1983. Her autobiography was released in conjunction with a made-for-TV movie, Livin' for Love: The Natalie Cole Story, which aired December 10, 2000, on NBC and re-aired October 26, 2011, on Centric TV. Health and death Cole announced in 2008 that she had been diagnosed with hepatitis C, which is a liver disease that is spread through contact with infected blood. Cole attributed having the disease to her past intravenous drug use. Cole explained in 2009 that hepatitis C had "stayed in [her] body for 25 years, and it could still happen to addicts who are fooling around with drugs, especially needles." Four months after starting treatment for hepatitis C, Cole experienced kidney failure and required dialysis three times a week for nine months. Following her appeal for a kidney on the Larry King Show, she was contacted by the organ procurement agency One Legacy, in May 2009. The facilitated donation came from a family requesting that, if there were a match, their donor's kidney be designated for Cole. Cole canceled several events in December 2015 due to illness; her last musical performance was a short set of three songs in Manila. She died at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles on December 31, 2015, at the age of 65. Cole's publicist said the singer's death was the result of congestive heart failure, which her family said was a complication of idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension, which she had been diagnosed with after her kidney transplant in 2009. Her family said in a statement, "Natalie fought a fierce, courageous battle, dying how she lived... with dignity, strength and honor. Our beloved mother and sister will be greatly missed and remain unforgettable in our hearts forever." Cole's funeral was held on January 11, 2016, at the West Angeles Church of God in Christ in Los Angeles. David Foster, Stevie Wonder, Smokey Robinson, Lionel Richie, Chaka Khan, Eddie Levert, Mary Wilson, Gladys Knight, Ledisi, Jesse Jackson, Angela Bassett, Denise Nicholas, Marla Gibbs, Jackée Harry and Freda Payne were among the mourners at the funeral. After the funeral, she was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. Her grave is located in the central lawn area of the 'Court of Freedom' section, Garden of Honor; there is no public access to her grave. Discography Studio albums Inseparable (1975) Natalie (1976) Unpredictable (1977) Thankful (1977) I Love You So (1979) Don't Look Back (1980) Happy Love (1981) I'm Ready (1983) Dangerous (1985) Everlasting (1987) Good to Be Back (1989) Unforgettable... with Love (1991) Take a Look (1993) Holly & Ivy (1994) Stardust (1996) Christmas with You (1998) Snowfall on the Sahara (1999) The Magic of Christmas with the London Symphony Orchestra (1999) Ask a Woman Who Knows (2002) Leavin' (2006) Still Unforgettable (2008) Caroling, Caroling: Christmas with Natalie Cole (2008) Natalie Cole en Español (2013) Filmography Awards and honors Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. Cole received nine awards from 21 nominations. Latin Grammys The Latin Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences. Other awards See also List of Billboard number-one dance hits List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart References External links Natalie Cole biography and updates at Soul Tracks Natalie Cole interview by Pete Lewis, 'Blues & Soul' September 2008 Talk with Audrey interview with Natalie Cole 2012. Talking about her life, her music and her legacy. 1950 births 2015 deaths 20th-century African-American women singers 20th-century American actresses 21st-century African-American women singers 21st-century American actresses Actresses from Los Angeles African-American actresses African-American non-fiction writers African-American pianists African-American women singer-songwriters African-American women writers American film actresses American memoirists American mezzo-sopranos American pop pianists American rhythm and blues singer-songwriters American soul singers American television actresses American voice actresses American women memoirists American women pianists American women pop singers Atco Records artists Ballad musicians Baptists from California Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) Deaths from lung disease Delta Sigma Theta members Elektra Records artists Grammy Award winners Kidney transplant recipients Nat King Cole Northfield Mount Hermon School alumni Singer-songwriters from California Singers from Los Angeles Spanish-language singers of the United States Traditional pop music singers University of Massachusetts Amherst alumni

423941

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20Court%20of%20Justiciary

High Court of Justiciary

The High Court of Justiciary () is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The High Court is both a trial court and a court of appeal. As a trial court, the High Court sits on circuit at Parliament House or in the adjacent former Sheriff Court building in the Old Town in Edinburgh, or in dedicated buildings in Glasgow and Aberdeen. The High Court sometimes sits in various smaller towns in Scotland, where it uses the local sheriff court building. As an appeal court, the High Court sits only in Edinburgh. On one occasion the High Court of Justiciary sat outside Scotland, at Zeist in the Netherlands during the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial, as the Scottish Court in the Netherlands. At Zeist the High Court sat both as a trial court, and an appeal court for the initial appeal by Abdelbaset al-Megrahi. The president of the High Court is the Lord Justice General, who holds office ex officio by virtue of being Lord President of the Court of Session, and his depute is the Lord Justice Clerk. The remaining judges are the Lords Commissioners of Justiciary, who hold office ex officio by virtue of being appointed as Senators of the College of Justice and judges of the Court of Session. As a court of first instance trials are usually heard with a jury of 15 and a single Lord Commissioner of Justiciary; the jury can convict on a majority verdict. In some cases, such as the trial of Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah for the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103, a trial can be heard by a bench of judges alone; sitting without a jury. As an appeal court the hearings are always without a jury, with two judges sitting to hear an appeal against sentence, and three judges sit to hear an appeal against conviction. The High Court will hear appeals from the sheriff courts of Scotland where the trial was under solemn proceedings; the High Court will also hear referrals on points of law from the Sheriff Appeal Court, and from summary proceedings in the sheriff courts and justice of the peace courts. Cases can be remitted to the High Court by the sheriff courts after conviction for sentencing, where a sheriff believes that their sentencing powers are inadequate. The High Court can impose a life sentence but the sheriff has a limit of five years sentencing; both can issue an unlimited fine. As of October 2022, the Lord Justice General was Lord Carloway, and the Lord Justice Clerk was Lady Dorrian, and there were a total of 36 Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. History Justiciar The origins derive from the Justiciar and College of Justice, as well as from the medieval royal courts and barony courts. The medieval Justiciar (royal judge) took its name from the justices who originally travelled around Scotland hearing cases on circuit or 'ayre'. From 1524, the Justiciar or a depute was required to have a "permanent base" in Edinburgh. The King of Scots sometimes sat in judgment of cases in the early King's Court, and it appears that appeals could be taken from the King's Court to the Parliament of Scotland in civil cases but not in criminal ones. In 1532 the College of Justice was founded, separating civil and criminal jurisdiction between two distinct courts. The King's Court was, however, normally the responsibility of the Justiciar. The Justiciar normally appointed several deputes to assist in the administration of justice, and to preside in his absence. A legally qualified clerk advised the Justiciar and his deputes as they were generally noblemen and often not legally qualified. This clerk prepared all the indictments and was keeper of the records. Eventually the influence of the clerk increased until the clerk gained both a vote in the court, and a seat on the bench as the Justice-Clerk. Courts Act 1672 The High Court in its modern form was founded in 1672 by the Courts Act 1672, when five of the Lords of Session (judges of the Court of Session) were added as permanent judges of the Justice Court. Previously the Lord Justice General had appointed deputes to preside in the court. From 1672 to 1887, the High Court consisted of the Lord Justice General, Lord Justice Clerk, and five Lords of Session. The Court Act 1672 also gave statutory effect to the position of the Lord Justice Clerk, and the Lord Justice-General was made president of the Court, and the Justice-Clerk vice-president. During the period when the office of Lord Justice-General was held by noblemen the Lord Justice-Clerk was virtual head of the Justiciary Court. Treaty of Union Article XIX of the Treaty of Union that united Scotland and England into Great Britain preserved the High Court of Justiciary, though now the High Court was subject to the Parliament of Great Britain which could enact "...regulations for the better administration of Justice". Dominic Scullion, writing in the Aberdeen Student Law Review in 2010, identified that the Union of England and Scotland saw an increase in references to English law and cases in the reports of the High Court. However, Scullion identified that it was only in the latter half of the 20th century that the judgments of the High Court were directly influenced by English decisions and precedent. The High Court of Justiciary remained the final authority on all matters of criminal law after the Act of Union, though the Parliament of Great Britain appears to have had appellate jurisdiction through the judicial functions of the House of Lords this appeared to have little effect in practice. In 1713 a case (Magistrates of Elgin v. Ministers of Elgin) was heard by the House of Lords which overturned a decision of the High Court. However, in 1781 the House of Lords resolved that there could be no appeal from the High Court, as no right of appeal had existed beyond the Court beyond the Treaty of Union. 19th Century Unification of judiciary In 1830 the Court of Session Act 1830 united the offices of Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord Justice General, with the person appointed as Lord President assuming the office of Lord Justice General ex officio. In 1834 the five Lords of Session who were appointed as Lords Commissioners of Justiciary were paid an additional allowance of over their basic salary of . A Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to investigate the remuneration and working conditions of the Lords of Session and Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. The Select Committee recommended that all the Lords of Session should be made Lords Commissioners of Justiciary and that the additional allowance be abolished. At the same time the Committee recommended that the basic salary of a Senator be increased to . The membership of the court remained unchanged until 1887 when all of the Senators of the College of Justice were made Lords Commissioners of Justiciary, by the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887. Writing in 1896, Charles Pearson attested that no appeal was competent from the High Court to the House of Lords. Supremacy of High Court The House of Lords made a final determination in the case of Mackintosh v. Lord Advocate (1876) 2 App. Cas. 41 that it had no jurisdiction over criminal appeals, as it had inherited the power of the Parliament of Scotland to hear civil appeals, but that the pre-union Parliament did not have any jurisdiction to hear criminal appeals. 20th Century Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 In 1913, Edwin Keedy, writing in the Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, would affirm that the High Court "is the Supreme Court for the trial of criminal causes". The supremacy of the High Court was affirmed by Section 124 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995, which stated: Scottish devolution Scottish devolution and the establishment of the Scottish Parliament by the Scotland Act 1998 introduced the right to refer points of law to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Such points of law related to human rights compatibility issues or related to devolution issues. Devolution issues are concerned with the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament and the executive functions of the Scottish Government under the Scotland Act 1998. 21st century Scottish Court in the Netherlands From May 2000 until March 2002 the High Court of Justiciary sat as the Scottish Court in the Netherlands to try Abdelbaset al-Megrahi and Lamin Khalifah Fhimah for the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. The Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial required a treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom and Government of the Kingdom of the Netherlands which created extraterritoriality for the Scottish Court, with Camp Zeist in Utrecht (a disused United States Air Force base) made a subject of Scots law. Legal effect was given to the treaty in the United Kingdom by the High Court of Justiciary Order 1998, an Order in Council. The order empowered the Lord Justice Clerk to appoint three Lords Commissioners of Justiciary to sit as bench trial as both trier of fact and for determining any points of law. The High Court had full authority to determine contempt of court relating to the proceedings. Following the conviction, which was upheld on appeal of Abdelbaset al-Megrahi, the Scottish Court in the Netherlands ceased to sit. Subsequent appeals were heard in Scotland. Supreme Court of the United Kingdom The jurisdiction of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in human rights and devolution issues was transferred to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. Such a transfer was not without controversy, as commentators, including the Law Society of Scotland and the Advocate General for Scotland, noted that this notionally placed an English court in a position of superiority to the High Court. In May 2013, the Supreme Court's guidance on its jurisdiction over Scottish appeals stated that: Section 35 of the Scotland Act 2012 modified the procedure for referrals by removing the ability of the Supreme Court to determine the final judgment of the case; in essence a criminal case cannot be remitted to the Supreme Court. The Scotland Act 2012 requires that once the point of law has been decided upon by the Supreme Court, it is for the High Court to resolve the case. An issue can be referred to the Supreme Court either by the Lords Commissioners of Justiciary who are presiding, the Lord Advocate, or the Advocate General for Scotland. Though where two or more Lords Commissioners are presiding they may determine the human rights issue without referral to the Supreme Court. Remit and jurisdiction First instance jurisdiction The High Court has jurisdiction over all crimes in Scotland unless restricted by statute. The High Court has exclusive jurisdiction over serious crimes such as treason, murder, and rape and, in practice, deals with armed robbery, drug trafficking, and sexual offences involving children (over which it shares jurisdiction with the sheriff court). As a court of first instance the court sits regularly in various places in Scotland, with permanent seats in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen. There are sittings when required in Dumbarton, Lanark, Livingston, Paisley and Stirling. Trials in the High Court are usually jury trials, with a single Lord Commissioner of Justiciary presiding (although two or more judges may sit in important or difficult cases) with a jury of fifteen individuals; in Scotland this is known as solemn proceedings. Under the Scottish legal system, the jury can convict on a majority verdict of at least eight jurors, and need not return a unanimous verdict. The Scottish legal system also permits a verdict of 'not proven' as well as verdicts of 'guilty' or 'not guilty'. Juries may add a rider to their verdict as additional commentary on their verdict. The 'not proven' verdict is of the same consequence as 'not guilty', though there remains some confusion and disagreement over the meaning of either verdict. If eight jurors cannot agree on an accused's guilt or on an alternative verdict, then the accused will be acquitted. Cases in the High Court are prosecuted in the public interest by the Lord Advocate, who is usually represented in such cases by Advocates Depute. A private prosecution can be brought before the High Court, but this is very rare and difficult as it requires the concurrence of the Lord Advocate and for the High Court to issue a bill for criminal letters. When families of the victims of the 2014 Glasgow bin lorry crash applied for such a bill, their request was denied by the High Court in 2016 on the basis that there was insufficient evidence. The Lord Justice Clerk, Lady Dorrian, along with Lord Menzies and Lord Drummond Young further concluded that the case did not present special circumstances to enable granting of the bill. Bail can be granted by the High Court to any accused person and "bail is to be granted to an accused person except where there is good reason for refusing bail." The Bail, Judicial Appointments etc. (Scotland) Act 2000, an Act of the Scottish Parliament, had removed the previous restrictions on bail that meant that murder and treason were not ordinarily bailable. However, a person could be bailed when accused of these of crimes on application of the Lord Advocate or by a decision of the High Court itself. The Criminal Proceedings etc. (Reform) (Scotland) Act 2007 did reintroduce restrictions on the granting of bail by requiring exceptional circumstances to be shown when a person is accused of violent, sexual, or drugs offences, and they have a prior conviction for a similar offence. In Scotland, the focus is normally for those who are opposed to bail to convince the courts that bail should not be granted, with the procurator fiscal given guidance to use the nature and gravity of an offence as grounds to oppose bail. Sentencing on conviction by sheriff court Following a conviction under solemn proceedings in a sheriff court, Section 195 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 allows a sheriff to remit the case to the High Court for sentencing, should the sheriff believes their powers of sentencing to be inadequate for the crime committed. A sheriff in solemn proceedings can impose a maximum sentence of up to 5 years imprisonment or an unlimited fine, and the High Court can impose a life sentence (unless a lesser maximum sentence is prescribed by statute) as well as an unlimited fine. Once a case is remitted, the High Court can treat the case as if it had been tried before a Lord Commissioner of Justiciary. Appellate jurisdiction Following the Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1926 (16 & 17 Geo. 5. c. 15), when the Scottish High Court of Justiciary hears criminal appeals, it is known as the Court of Criminal Appeal. The Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927 was passed the following year specifically to deal with the Case of Oscar Slater. The court consists of at least three judges when hearing appeals against conviction and two when hearing appeals against sentence, although more judges may sit when the court is dealing with exceptionally difficult cases or those where important matters of law may be considered. This is known as a full bench. Appeals by right are heard from the High Court of Justiciary (sitting at first instance) and sheriff courts sitting in solemn procedure; with appeals, with leave, on questions of law are heard from the Sheriff Appeal Court. Appeals against sentence or conviction in summary proceedings before the sheriff courts or justice of the peace courts are heard before the Sheriff Appeal Court. The High Court also hears appeals in cases referred to it by the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission. Leave to appeal is granted by a Lord Commissioner of Justiciary in chambers under sections 106 and 107 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 when a person is convicted in solemn procedure in either the High Court or sheriff courts, with the High Court sitting as the Appeal Court. Appeals against convictions or sentence in summary procedure heard in sheriff courts and justice of the peace courts are now heard by the Sheriff Appeal Court. However, referrals on points of law may be heard in the High Court from the Sheriff Appeal Court with the permission of the High Court. Two judges sit to hear an appeal against sentence, and three judges sit to hear an appeal against conviction. The High Court of Justiciary sits as an appeal court in Edinburgh. The High Court, as a collegiate court, has the ability to convene a bench of greater numbers of Lords Commissioners of Justiciary to overturn decisions and precedent established by previous appeals. Such a decision is made by the High Court on its own initiative. It is possible for the entire High Court to sit in determination of an appeal. In exceptional circumstances, a person may petition the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission, who have the authority to refer an appeal back to the High Court of Justiciary, if the Commission determine that a miscarriage of justice has or might have occurred. Under Section 35 of the Scotland Act 2012, the High Court as an Appeal Court will also hear referrals on human rights compatibility issues from the Sheriff Appeal Court, sheriff courts, and from cases being heard at first-instance by a single Lord Commissioner of Justiciary. The High Court can then make a determination on that issue, or it can refer the matter to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Appeals from the High Court Devolution and human rights issues The High Court of Justiciary has the final authority on matters of criminal law in Scotland, and thus no appeal beyond the High Court is possible on the grounds of sentence or conviction. However, it is possible to refer a point of law to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom relating to human rights compatibility issues or relating to devolution issues. Devolution issues are concerned with the legislative competence of the Scottish Parliament and the executive functions of the Scottish Government under the Scotland Act 1998. Such referrals are made to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom under Schedule 6 of the Scotland Act 1998 or Section 288A of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995. For a referral to proceed permission must be granted by two or more Lords Commissioners of Justiciary, or by the Supreme Court itself. The most frequent devolution issues raised related to Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which mandates the right to a fair trial, and the role of the Lord Advocate who is both the chief public prosecutor and a member of the Scottish Government. Under the Scotland Act 1998 the Lord Advocate could do nothing that was incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, and should his actions be deemed incomparable then they were null and void. This led to the case of Cadder v HM Advocate where the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled that the police in Scotland could not question a suspect without granting that person access to a solicitor. This was one case, along with Fraser v HM Advocate, that led the Scottish Government to raise concerns with HM Government that it appeared that "virtually any objection, challenge, or point of law can be characterised as a devolution issue", thus undermining the High Court's final jurisdiction in criminal matters. The Scotland Act 2012 modified provisions around devolution issues by no longer rendering null and void those actions of the Lord Advocate that were incompatible with the European Convention, but still allowing a right to appeal against those actions on grounds of incompatibility. Supreme Court of the United Kingdom The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, and is the highest court in the United Kingdom for civil cases and those matters relating to human rights and devolution. Prior to the establishment of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom devolution issues were decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, whose members were the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (who exercised the judicial functions of the House of Lords.) However, the two bodies were legally and constitutionally separate. Acts of Adjournal The High Court of Justiciary as a Court, or the Lord Justice General, Lord Justice Clerk and Lords Commissioners of Justiciary as a body, have the power to regulate criminal procedure in the criminal courts in Scotland: regulations can be made for the High Court, sheriff courts (summary and solemn procedures), and the justice of the peace courts. Such regulations are promulgated by Acts of Adjournal, which take the form of subordinate legislation as Scottish Statutory Instruments, under powers granted by Section 305 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995. Schedule 6 of the Scotland Act 1998 also grants that Acts of Adjournal can be used to regulate the procedure for referring a question of law relating to a devolution issue to either the High Court or the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. Section 305 of the 1995 Act states: Thus the Lord Justice General, Lord Justice Clerk, and Lords Commissioners of Justiciary have the power to modify and amend primary legislation, where that primary legislation deals with a matter of criminal procedure. The Criminal Courts Rules Council on 8 February 2016 considered Section 288BA of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995 (which prescribes rules for dockets and indictments for sexual offences) and asked the Lord President's Private Office to consider if this could be modified by Act of Adjournal. A draft Act of Adjournal was also prepared in 2011 to amend the 1995 Act as the Rules Council was awaiting primary legislation, and the Rules Council agreed to proceed with the Act of Adjournal. The Act of Adjournal amended the 1995 Act by adding Sections 75C and 137ZB to enable the court to discharge, vary and change the diet (sittings) of a case. Rights of audience Members of the Faculty of Advocates, known as advocates or counsel, and as of 1990 also some solicitors, known as solicitor-advocates, have practically exclusive right of audience rights of audience in the court. Until 1990 only advocates had any right of audience before the High Court, but the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland Act) 1990 allowed solicitors to apply for enhanced rights and become solicitor-advocates. Judges and office holders President and judges The court's president is the Lord Justice General; the second most senior judge is the Lord Justice Clerk; and a further 35 Senators of the College of Justice hold office as Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. The total numbers of judges is fixed by Section 1 of the Court of Session Act 1988, subject to amendment by Order in Council (the last order was made in 2022 and increased the number of judges to 36.) Judges are appointed for life, subject to dismissal if they are found unfit for office, and subject to a compulsory retirement age of 75. The court is a unitary collegiate court, with all judges other than the Lord Justice General and the Lord Justice Clerk holding the same rank and title: Lord Commissioner of Justiciary. There are 36, in addition to a number of temporary judges; these temporary judges can be sheriffs principal, sheriffs, or advocates in private practice. The judges sit also in the Court of Session, where they are known as Lords of Council and Session; in the Court of Session the Lord Justice General is called the Lord President of the Court of Session. Lord Justice General The Lord Justice General is the most senior judge of the High Court of Justiciary. The Lord Justice General will sit as chairperson in the Court of Criminal Appeal. Lord Justice Clerk The Justice Clerk is the second most senior judge of the High Court, and deputises for the Lord Justice General when the latter is absent, or is unable to fulfil his duties, or when there is a vacancy for Lord Justice General. The Lord Justice Clerk will sit as chairperson in the Court of Criminal Appeal. Lords Commissioners of Justiciary Appointment To be eligible for appointment as a Lord Commissioner of Justiciary, or temporary judge, a person must have served at least 5 years as sheriff or sheriff principal; or been an advocate for 5 years, or a solicitor with 5 years rights of audience before the Court of Session or High Court of Justiciary; or been a Writer to the Signet for 10 years (having passed the exam in civil law at least 2 years before application.) Appointments are made by the First Minister of Scotland on the recommendation of the Judicial Appointments Board for Scotland. The Judicial Appointments Board has statutory authority to make recommendations under Sections 9 to 27 of the Judiciary and Courts (Scotland) Act 2008 (as amended by the Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014). Appointments to the Inner House are made by the Lord President and Lord Justice Clerk, with the consent of the Scottish Ministers. Temporary judges can also be appointed by the Scottish Ministers provided that person would also be eligible for appointment as permanent judge of the High Court. Originally the power was granted by Section 35 of the Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Scotland) Act 1990, but the enactment was repealed and replaced by Section 123 of the Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014. Such temporary judges are appointed for a period of 5 years. Section 123 of Courts Reform (Scotland) Act 2014 allows the Lord Justice General to appoint former senators, and former Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to the High Court provided they are under 75 years of age. The tenure of such appointments is determined by the Lord Justice General. Lord Gill, Lord Justice General from 2012–2015, issued guidance in 2013 on the use temporary judges which stipulated that: Further stating that the preference would be to allocate business to temporary judges who were already, had previously been, a judicial office holder (namely, sheriff principal or sheriff); as opposed to using temporary judges who were practising advocates or solicitor-advocates. Lord Gill's guidance allows for such judges to be allocated to any first instance business of the High Court, but requires the approval of the Lord Justice General for their deployment in the Appeal Court. Removal from office The Lord Justice General, Lord Justice Clerk and the Lords Commissioners of Justiciary can only be removed office after a tribunal has been convened to examine their fitness for office. The tribunal is convened at the request of the Lord Justice General (in his capacity as Lord President) or in other circumstances if the First Minister sees fit. However, the First Minister must consult the Lord Justice General (or the Lord Justice Clerk, if the Lord Justice General is under investigation). Should the tribunal recommend their dismissal the Scottish Parliament can resolve that the First Minister make a recommendation to the Monarch. Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary The administration of the court is part of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service, and is led by the Principal Clerk of Session and Justiciary. The Principal Clerk is responsible for the administration of the Supreme Courts of Scotland and their associated staff. the Principal Clerk was Graeme Marwick, who was also Director of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals Service. See also William Roughead, between 1889 and 1949 attended every murder trial of significance held in the Court. List of leading Scottish legal cases Lord Advocate's Reference Notes References External links 1672 establishments in Scotland Scotland Courts and tribunals established in 1672

423943

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesus%20macaque

Rhesus macaque

The rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), colloquially rhesus monkey, is a species of Old World monkey. There are between six and nine recognised subspecies that are split between two groups, the Chinese-derived and the Indian-derived. Generally brown or grey in colour, it is in length with a tail and weighs . It is native to South, Central, and Southeast Asia and has the widest geographic range of all non-human primates, occupying a great diversity of altitudes and a great variety of habitats, from grasslands to arid and forested areas, but also close to human settlements. Feral colonies are found in the United States, thought to be either released by humans or escapees after hurricanes destroyed zoo and wildlife park facilities. The rhesus macaque is diurnal, arboreal, and terrestrial. It is mostly herbivorous, mainly eating fruit, but will also consume seeds, roots, buds, bark, and cereals. Studies show almost 100 different plant species in its diet. Rhesus macaques are generalist omnivores, and have a highly varied and flexible diet. With an increase in anthropogenic land changes, rhesus macaques have evolved alongside intense and rapid environmental disturbance associated with human agriculture and urbanization resulting in proportions of their diet to be altered. It will also eat invertebrates, drink water from streams and rivers, and has specialised cheek pouches where it can temporarily store food. Like other macaques, the rhesus macaque is gregarious, with troops comprising 20–200 individuals. The social groups are matrilineal, whereby a female's rank is decided by the rank of her mother. There has been extensive research into female philopatry, common in social animals, as females tend not to leave the social group. The rhesus macaque communicates with a variety of facial expressions, vocalisations, body postures, and gestures. Facial expressions are used to appease or redirect aggression, assert dominance, and threaten other individuals, and vocalisations may be made to elicit grooming, while moving, or in threatening situations. It spends most of its day feeding and resting; the remainder is occupied with traveling, grooming, and playing. Due to its relatively easy upkeep, wide availability, and closeness to humans anatomically and physiologically, it has been used extensively in medical and biological research on human and animal health-related topics. It has facilitated many scientific breakthroughs including vaccines for rabies, smallpox, and polio and antiretroviral medication to treat HIV/AIDS. A rhesus macaque became the first primate astronaut in 1948, but died during the flight, followed on 14 June 1949 by Albert II, who became the first primate and first mammal in space. It is listed as Least Concern in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, and its tolerance of a broad range of habitats. Etymology The name "rhesus" is reminiscent of the mythological king Rhesus of Thrace, a minor character in the Iliad. However, the French naturalist Jean-Baptiste Audebert, who applied the name to the species, stated: "it has no meaning". The rhesus macaque is also known colloquially as the "rhesus monkey". An archaic name for the rhesus macaque, in use in the 19th century, is "bruh". Taxonomy According to Zimmermann's first description of 1780, the rhesus macaque is distributed in eastern Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, as far east as the Brahmaputra Valley, Barak valley and in peninsular India, Nepal, and northern Pakistan. Today, this is known as the Indian rhesus macaque M. m. mulatta, which includes the morphologically similar M. rhesus villosus, described by True in 1894, from Kashmir, and M. m. mcmahoni, described by Pocock in 1932 from Kootai, Pakistan. Several Chinese subspecies of rhesus macaques were described between 1867 and 1917. The molecular differences identified among populations, however, are alone not consistent enough to conclusively define any subspecies. The Chinese subspecies can be divided as follows: M. m. mulatta is found in western and central China, in the south of Yunnan, and southwest of Guangxi; M. m. lasiota (Gray, 1868), the west Chinese rhesus macaque, is distributed in the west of Sichuan, northwest of Yunnan, and southeast of Qinghai; it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis (R. Swinhoe, 1867), if not with M. m. mulatta. M. m. tcheliensis (Milne-Edwards, 1870), the north Chinese rhesus macaque, lives in the north of Henan, south of Shanxi, and near Beijing. Some consider it as the most endangered subspecies. Others consider it possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta. M. m. vestita (Milne-Edwards, 1892), the Tibetan rhesus macaque, lives in the southeast of Tibet, northwest of Yunnan (Deqing), and perhaps including Yushu; it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta. M. m. littoralis (Elliot, 1909), the south Chinese rhesus macaque, lives in Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei, Guizhou, northwest of Guangdong, north of Guangxi, northeast of Yunnan, east of Sichuan, and south of Shaanxi; it is possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta. M. m. brevicaudus, also referred to as Pithecus brevicaudus (Elliot, 1913), lives on the Hainan Island and Wanshan Islands in Guangdong, and the islands near Hong Kong; it may be synonymous with M. m. mulatta. M. m. siamica (Kloss, 1917), the Indochinese rhesus macaque, is distributed in Myanmar, in the north of Thailand and Vietnam, in Laos, and in the Chinese provinces of Anhui, northwest Guangxi, Guizhou, Hubei, Hunan, central and eastern Sichuan, and western and south-central Yunnan; possibly synonymous with M. m. sanctijohannis, if not with M. m. mulatta. Description The rhesus macaque is brown or grey in color and has a pink face, which is bereft of fur. It has, on average, 50 vertebrae and a wide rib cage. Its tail averages between . Adult males measure about on average and weigh about . Females are smaller, averaging in length and in weight. The ratio of arm length to leg length is 89.6–94.3%. The rhesus macaque has a dental formula of and bilophodont molar teeth. Distribution and habitat Rhesus macaques are native to India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Afghanistan, Vietnam, southern China, and some neighbouring areas. They have the widest geographic ranges of any non-human primate, occupying a great diversity of altitudes throughout Central, South, and Southeast Asia. Inhabiting arid, open areas, rhesus macaques may be found in grasslands, woodlands, and in mountainous regions up to in elevation. They are strong swimmers, and can swim across rivers. Rhesus macaques are noted for their tendency to move from rural to urban areas, coming to rely on handouts or refuse from humans. They adapt well to human presence, and form larger troops in human-dominated landscapes than in forests. Rhesus monkeys live in patches of forest within agricultural areas, which gives them access to agroecosystem habitats and makes them at ease in navigating through them. The southern and the northern distributional limits for rhesus and bonnet macaques, respectively, currently run parallel to each other in the western part of India, are separated by a large gap in the center, and converge on the eastern coast of the peninsula to form a distribution overlap zone. This overlap region is characterized by the presence of mixed-species troops, with pure troops of both species sometimes occurring even in close proximity to one another. The range extension of rhesus macaque – a natural process in some areas, and a direct consequence of introduction by humans in other regions – poses grave implications for the endemic and declining populations of bonnet macaques in southern India. Kumar et al (2013) provides a summary of population distribution and habitat in India. It states that there were sightings of rhesus macaques in all surveyed habitats except semi-evergreen forests. Fossil record Fossilized isolated teeth and mandible fragments from Tianyuan Cave and a juvenile maxilla from Wanglaopu Cave near Zhoukoudian represent the first recognized occurrence of rhesus macaque fossils in the far north of China, and thus the population of rhesus macaques which lived around Beijing decades ago is believed to have originated from Pleistocene ancestors rather than being human-introduced. Fossil mandible fragments from the Taedong River Basin around Pyongyang, North Korea, have also been assigned to this species. Feral colonies Rhesus macaques have also been introduced to other areas, such as the United States, and become feral. The most common area for release has been Florida, with wild ranging other colonies in Puerto Rico and a semi-captive colony established in South Carolina. Around the spring of 1938, a colony of rhesus macaques was released in and around Silver Springs in Florida by a tour boat operator known locally as "Colonel Tooey" to enhance his "Jungle Cruise". Tooey had been hoping to profit from the boom in jungle adventure stories in film and print media, buying the monkeys to be attractions at his river boat tour. Tooey apparently hadn't been aware of rhesus macaques being proficient swimmers, meaning his original plan to keep the monkeys isolated to an island inside the river didn't work. The macaques nevertheless remained in the region thanks to daily feedings by Tooey and the boat tours. Tooey subsequently released additional monkeys to add to the gene pool and avoid Inbreeding. The traditional story that the monkeys were released for scenery enhancement in the Tarzan movies that were filmed at that location is false, as the only Tarzan movie filmed in the area, 1939's Tarzan Finds a Son!, does not contain rhesus macaques. Whilst this was the first colony established and the longest lasting, other colonies have since been established intentionally or accidentally. A population in Titusville, Florida was featured at the now defunct Tropical Wonderland theme park, which coincidentally was at one time endorsed by Johnny Weissmuller, who had portrayed Tarzan in the aforementioned films. This association might have contributed to the misconception the monkeys were associated directly with the Tarzan films. This colony either escaped or was intentionally released, roaming the woods of the area for a decade. In the 1980s a trapper captured several monkeys from the Titusville population and released them in the Silver Springs area to join that population.The last printed records of monkeys in the Titusville area occurred in early 1990s, but sightings continue to this day. Various colonies of rhesus macaque are speculated to be the result of zoos and wildlife parks destroyed in hurricanes, most notably Hurricane Andrew. A 2020 estimate put the number at 550–600 rhesus macaques living in the state; officials have caught more than 1,000 of the monkeys in the past decade. Most of the captured monkeys tested positive for herpes B virus, which leads wildlife officials to consider the animals a public health hazard. Of the three monkey species to have had any lasting presence in Florida, the other two being African Vervet monkeys and South American Squirrel monkeys, the Rhesus macaques have endured the longest and are the only ones to show continual population growth. The species' adaptable nature, generalized diet, and larger size as to reduce the chance of cold stress or predator attack are thought to be reasons for their success. Despite the risks, the macaques have continued to enjoy long-standing support from residents in Florida, strongly disagreeing with their removal. The Silver Springs colony has continued to grow in size and range, being commonly sighted in both the park grounds, the nearby city of Ocala, Florida, and the neighboring Ocala National Forest. Individuals likely originating from this colony have been seen hundreds of kilometers away, in St. Augustine, Florida and St. Petersburg, Florida. One infamous individual, titled the "Mystery Monkey of Tampa Bay", evaded capture for years in the Tampa Bay area, inspiring social media posts and a song to be written about it. Feral colonies have also resulted from research activities. There is a colony of rhesus macaques on Morgan Island, one of the Sea Islands in the South Carolina Lowcountry. They were imported in the 1970s for use in the local labs. Another research colony was established by the Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico on the island of Cayo Santiago, off of Puerto Rico. There are no predators on the island, and humans are not permitted to land, except as part of the research program. Another Puerto Rico research colony was released into the Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge in 1966. they are continuing to do ecological harm, damage crops amounting to $300,000/year and cost $1,000,000/year to manage. Ecology and behavior Rhesus macaques are diurnal animals, and both arboreal and terrestrial. They are quadrupedal and, when on the ground, they walk digitigrade and plantigrade. They are mostly herbivorous, feeding mainly on fruit, but also eating seeds, roots, buds, bark, and cereals. They are estimated to consume around 99 different plant species in 46 families. During the monsoon season, they get much of their water from ripe and succulent fruit. Macaques living far from water sources lick dewdrops from leaves and drink rainwater accumulated in tree hollows. They have also been observed eating termites, grasshoppers, ants, and beetles. When food is abundant, they are distributed in patches, and forage throughout the day in their home ranges. They drink water when foraging, and gather around streams and rivers. Rhesus macaques have specialized pouch-like cheeks, allowing them to temporarily hoard their food. In psychological research, rhesus macaques have demonstrated a variety of complex cognitive abilities, including the ability to make same-different judgments, understand simple rules, and monitor their own mental states. They have even been shown to demonstrate self-agency, an important type of self-awareness. In 2014, onlookers at a train station in Kanpur, India, documented a rhesus monkey, knocked unconscious by overhead power lines, that was revived by another rhesus that systematically administered a series of resuscitative actions. Group structure Like other macaques, rhesus troops comprise a mixture of 20–200 males and females. Females may outnumber the males by a ratio of 4:1. Males and females both have separate hierarchies. Female philopatry, common among social mammals, has been extensively studied in rhesus macaques. Females tend not to leave the social group, and have highly stable matrilineal hierarchies in which a female's rank is dependent on the rank of her mother. In addition, a single group may have multiple matrilineal lines existing in a hierarchy, and a female outranks any unrelated females that rank lower than her mother. Rhesus macaques are unusual in that the youngest females tend to outrank their older sisters. This is likely because young females are more fit and fertile. Mothers seem to prevent the older daughters from forming coalitions against her. The youngest daughter is the most dependent on the mother, and would have nothing to gain from helping her siblings in overthrowing their mother. Since each daughter had a high rank in her early years, rebelling against her mother is discouraged. Juvenile male macaques also exist in matrilineal lines, but once they reach four to five years of age, they are driven out of their natal groups by the dominant male. Thus, adult males gain dominance by age and experience. In the group, macaques position themselves based on rank. The "central male subgroup" contains the two or three oldest and most dominant males which are codominant, along with females, their infants, and juveniles. This subgroup occupies the center of the group and determines the movements, foraging, and other routines. The females of this subgroup are also the most dominant of the entire group. The farther to the periphery a subgroup is, the less dominant it is. Subgroups on the periphery of the central group are run by one dominant male, of a rank lower than the central males, and he maintains order in the group, and communicates messages between the central and peripheral males. A subgroup of subordinate, often subadult, males occupy the very edge of the groups, and have the responsibility of communicating with other macaque groups and making alarm calls. Rhesus social behaviour has been described as despotic, in that high-ranking individuals often show little tolerance, and frequently become aggressive towards non-kin. Top-ranking female rhesus monkeys are known to sexually coerce unreceptive males and also physically injure them, biting off digits and damaging their genitals. Rhesus macaques have been observed engaging in interspecies grooming with Hanuman langurs and with Sambar deer. Communication Rhesus macaques interact using a variety of facial expressions, vocalizations, body postures, and gestures. Perhaps the most common facial expression the macaque makes is the "silent bared teeth" face. This is made between individuals of different social ranks, with the lower-ranking one giving the expression to its superior. A less-dominant individual also makes a "fear grimace", accompanied by a scream, to appease or redirect aggression. Another submissive behavior is the "present rump", where an individual raises its tail and exposes its genitals to the dominant one. A dominant individual threatens another individual by standing quadrupedally and making a silent "open mouth stare" accompanied by the tail sticking straight. During movements, macaques make coos and grunts. These are also made during affiliative interactions, and approaches before grooming. When they find rare food of high quality, macaques emit warbles, harmonic arches, or chirps. When in threatening situations, macaques emit a single loud, high-pitched sound called a shrill bark. Screeches, screams, squeaks, pant-threats, growls, and barks are used during aggressive interactions. Infants "gecker" to attract their mother's attention. Reproduction Adult male macaques try to maximize their reproductive success by entering into sex with females both in and outside the breeding period. Females prefer to mate with males that are not familiar to them. Outsider males who are not members of the female's own troop are preferred over higher-ranking males. Outside of the consortship period, males and females return the prior behavior of not exhibiting preferential treatment or any special relationship. The breeding period can last up to eleven days, and a female usually mates with numerous males during that time. Male rhesus macaques have been observed to fight for access to sexually receptive females and they suffer more wounds during the mating season. Female macaques first breed when they are four years old and reach menopause at around twenty-five years of age. Male macaques generally play no role in raising the young but do have peaceful relationships with the offspring of their consort pairs. Manson and Parry found that free-ranging rhesus macaques avoid inbreeding. Adult females were never observed to copulate with males of their own matrilineage during their fertile periods. Mothers with one or more immature daughters in addition to their infants are in contact with their infants less than those with no older immature daughters, because the mothers may pass the parenting responsibilities to their daughters. High-ranking mothers with older immature daughters also reject their infants significantly more than those without older daughters and tend to begin mating earlier in the mating season than expected based on their dates of parturition the preceding birth season. Infants farther from the center of the groups are more vulnerable to infanticide from outside groups. Some mothers abuse their infants, which is believed to be the result of controlling parenting styles. Self-awareness In several experiments giving mirrors to rhesus monkeys, they looked into the mirrors and groomed themselves, as well as flexed various muscle groups. This behaviour indicates that they recognised and were aware of themselves. Human - rhesus conflict The macaque–human relationships is complex and culturally specific, ranging from relatively peaceful coexistence to extreme levels of conflict. The relationship between rhesus macaques and humans is in constant change, with conflict being shaped by historic changes in social and cultural practices.  The changing perceptions of nature and human-nature relationships is influenced by larger political-economic decisions. When looking at conflict between humans and rhesus macaques there lacks an integrative approach that draws upon multiple fields to provide a more holistic understanding of the emergence and evolution of this conflict. Conflicts can be as a result of rapidly changing agricultural practices, increasing infrastructure to support urbanisation, and emerging economic activities (e.g., tourism, food processing etc.) requiring more clearing of land including forests, and rising numbers of rhesus macaques. The issue is multi-dimensional and has a direct connection to overall economic policy; more specifically the relationship among agricultural, forest and land use policies.  Deeply understanding factors relating to conflict is all the more critical in an uncertain and unpredictable future of climate change that is likely to increase the vulnerability of fragile mountain ecosystems and marginal communities. Conflict between rhesus macaques and humans is at all time high, with areas once forested habitat being converted to industrial agriculture. Specifically looking at Nepal, this process has increased urban infrastructure such as housing and roads that increasingly fragment forest ecosystems. The expansion of monocultures, increased forest fragmentation, degradation of natural habitats and changing agricultural practices have led to a significant increase in the frequency of human-macaque conflict. Crop raiding is one of the biggest visible effects of human-rhesus conflict occurring where rhesus macaques feed on growing crops that directly affected harvest size, and crop health with corn and rice. The estimated financial cost to individual farmer households of macaque corn and rice raiding is approximately US$ 14.9 or 4.2% of their yearly income. This has resulted in farmers and other members of the population viewing macaques inhabiting agricultural landscapes as serious crop pests. Nepal is a significant study area with almost 44% of Nepal's land area containing suitable habitat for rhesus macaques but only having 8% of such suitable area being protected national parks. As well the rating of rhesus macaques as the top ten crop-raiding wildlife species in Nepal adds to such negative perception. Studying crop raiding behaviour is essential to developing effective strategies to manage human-macaque conflict while promoting both primate conservation and the economic well-being of the local community. It is stated that the human-macaque conflict is one of the most critical challenges faced by wildlife managers. Suggestions to mitigate conflict include "prioritizing forest restoration programs, strategic management plans designed to connect isolated forest fragments with high rhesus macaque population densities, creating government programs that compensate farmers for income lost due to crop-raiding, and educational outreach that informs local villagers of the importance of conservation and protecting biodiversity". Mitigation strategies offers the most effective solutions to reduce conflict occurring between rhesus macaques and humans in Nepal. India is another country that is seeing the rise of human-macaque conflict. Macaque-human conflict particularly occurs in the twin hill-states of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh with such conflict being a source of contentious debate in political scenarios, resentment and polarization amongst agriculturalists and wildlife conservationists. In India, crop raiding by rhesus macaques has been identified as the main cause of conflict. In urban areas, rhesus macaques damage property and injure people in house raids in order to access food and provisions, whereas in agricultural areas, they cause financial losses to farmers due to crop depredation. The estimated extent of crop damages in Himachal Pradesh ranges from 10–100% to 40–80% of all crop losses. The financial implications of such damage is estimated at approximately USD$200,000 in agriculture and USD$150,000 in horticulture. Quantification of crop and financial loses is challenging with a potential misrepresentation due to farmer perspectives where perception of perceived losses are potentially higher, than actual losses. This has led to harsh actions against rhesus macaque communities. Another factor in rhesus perception includes economic status, farmer economic stability, cultural attitudes towards the given species and the frequency and intensity of wildlife conflicts. All of the above have resulted in changed in conservation and management with legal rhesus macaque culling issued in 2010. Human-wildlife conflict is also occurring in China, specifically in the area of Longyang District, Baoshan City, Yunnan Province. The peak period of conflict occurs from August-October when wildlife overlaps with humans severely due to the high natural productivity stemming from the warm and humid climate. Factors associated with accessibility and availability of food and shelter appear to be the key drivers of human-macaque conflict, with an overall increase between the years of 2012 and 2021. One key factor of conflict that directly affects the human-macaque relationship is visibility. Visibility of rhesus macaques in agroecosystem dominated areas largely impacts conflict between humans and rhesus macaques. The conspicuous presence of rhesus macaques in and around farms results in farmers believing that macaques cause heavy crop depredations which, in turn, have led to negative perceptions and actions against the species. Whereas visibility in urban areas can result in a positive relationship, areas include around temples, and tourist areas where their dietary needs are largely met by food provisioning.   Towards the end of March 2018, it was reported that a monkey had entered a house in the village of Talabasta, Odisha, India and kidnapped a baby. The baby was later found dead in a well. Though monkeys are known to attack people, enter homes and damage property, this reported behaviour was unusual. Population management tools Managing conflict between humans and rhesus macaques is a difficult challenge. As mentioned previously, there are many factors that go into why conflict occurs. This nuanced relationship requires thoughtfulness in management practices. Behaviour and population management are the two main areas of management that humans will look into to try and minimize conflict, protect wildlife, and promote co-existence. When looking at and altering behaviour, crop raiding is potentially the most significant behaviour change that is crucial in reducing conflict rates. One example is the implementation of guards in agricultural settings to chase off intruding monkeys using dogs, slingshots, and firecrackers. This method is non-lethal and can alter behavioural patterns of crop raiding monkeys. Another strategy that farmers can employ is to plant alternative, buffer crops which are unattractive to monkeys in high-conflict zones, such as along the edges of macaque habitats. In urban settings, planting food trees within city periphery and country parks aim to discourage macaques from entering nearby residential areas for food. Better establishing tourism and urban behaviour in areas that have population of rhesus macaques as means to facilitate better relationship. In areas of tourism human behaviour is necessary to prevent conflict. One method of this is to introduce public education programs as well as  restrict visitors to specific viewing platforms, with the goal to minimize physical proximity. An important aspect is enforcing no feed regulations that only allow provisioning to be performed by trained staff at scheduled times. Regulating visitor behaviours that provoke aggressive responses from macaques, including noise regulation greatly benefits conflict reduction. Replacing food conditioned behaviours established by human visitors and further human education will greatly aid in returning co-existence between rhesus macaques and humans. A method of population management is translocation. Translocation of problem macaques in urban rhesus communities in India has been employed as a non-lethal solution to human–macaque conflicts. Translocation can be seen as a short term fix due to the fact that they have the potential to return, and other rhesus macaques populations may take their place. As well translocation can be inappropriate when there is a lack of suitable habitat to move animals because of anthropogenic habitat modification. Before translocation occurs there must be a cost benefit appraisal of relative costs should be done to quantify the resources it will take. An in depth understanding of issues prior to translocation is vital for positive effects to occur. Recognizing landscape health and productivity is the first step before making management decisions. Another tool of population management is found in sterilisation and/or contraceptive programmes that represent an alternative management practice. Fertility control looks to be a feasible management tool for reducing human–macaque conflict because it avoids the extermination of the animals and avoids costs and problems associated with translocation. Although there is potential for sterilization and general fertility control to be positive, there is limited research and understanding of the long-term effects of sterilization programs and its effectiveness. In science The rhesus macaque is well known to science. Due to its relatively easy upkeep in captivity, wide availability, and closeness to humans anatomically and physiologically, it has been used extensively in medical and biological research on human and animal health-related topics. It has given its name to the Rh factor, one of the elements of a person's blood group, by the discoverers of the factor, Karl Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener. The rhesus macaque was also used in the well-known experiments on maternal deprivation carried out in the 1950s by controversial comparative psychologist Harry Harlow. Other medical breakthroughs facilitated by the use of the rhesus macaque include: development of the rabies, smallpox, and polio vaccines creation of drugs to manage HIV/AIDS understanding of the female reproductive cycle and development of the embryo and the propagation of embryonic stem cells. The U.S. Army, the U.S. Air Force, and NASA launched rhesus macaques into outer space during the 1950s and 1960s, and the Soviet/Russian space program launched them into space as recently as 1997 on the Bion missions. Albert II became the first primate and first mammal in space during a U.S. V-2 rocket suborbital flight on 14 June 1949, and died on impact when a parachute failed. Another rhesus monkey, Able, was launched on a suborbital spaceflight in 1959, and was among the first living beings (along with Miss Baker, a squirrel monkey on the same mission) to travel in space and return alive. On 25 October 1999, the rhesus macaque became the first cloned primate with the birth of Tetra. January 2001 had the birth of ANDi, the first transgenic primate; ANDi carries foreign genes originally from a jellyfish. Though most studies of the rhesus macaque are from various locations in northern India, some knowledge of the natural behavior of the species comes from studies carried out on a colony established by the Caribbean Primate Research Center of the University of Puerto Rico on the island of Cayo Santiago, off Puerto Rico. No predators are on the island, and humans are not permitted to land except as part of the research programmes. The colony is provisioned to some extent, but about half of its food comes from natural foraging. Rhesus macaques, like many macaques, carry the herpes B virus. This virus does not typically harm the monkey, but is very dangerous to humans in the rare event that it jumps species, for example in the 1997 death of Yerkes National Primate Research Center researcher Elizabeth Griffin. Genome sequencing Work on the genome of the rhesus macaque was completed in 2007, making the species the second nonhuman primate whose genome was sequenced. Humans and macaques apparently share about 93% of their DNA sequence and shared a common ancestor roughly 25 million years ago. The rhesus macaque has 21 pairs of chromosomes. Comparison of rhesus macaques, chimpanzees, and humans revealed the structure of ancestral primate genomes, positive selection pressure and lineage-specific expansions, and contractions of gene families. "The goal is to reconstruct the history of every gene in the human genome," said Evan Eichler, University of Washington, Seattle. DNA from different branches of the primate tree will allow us "to trace back the evolutionary changes that occurred at various time points, leading from the common ancestors of the primate clade to Homo sapiens," said Bruce Lahn, University of Chicago. After the human and chimpanzee genomes were sequenced and compared, it was usually impossible to tell whether differences were the result of the human or chimpanzee gene changing from the common ancestor. After the rhesus macaque genome was sequenced, three genes could be compared. If two genes were the same, they were presumed to be the original gene. The chimpanzee and human genome diverged 6 million years ago. They have 98% identity and many conserved regulatory regions. Comparing the macaque and human genomes, further identified evolutionary pressure and gene function. Like the chimpanzee, changes were on the level of gene rearrangements rather than single mutations. Frequent insertions, deletions, changes in the order and number of genes, and segmental duplications near gaps, centromeres and telomeres occurred. So, macaque, chimpanzee, and human chromosomes are mosaics of each other. Some normal gene sequences in healthy macaques and chimpanzees cause profound disease in humans. For example, the normal sequence of phenylalanine hydroxylase in macaques and chimpanzees is the mutated sequence responsible for phenylketonuria in humans. So, humans must have been under evolutionary pressure to adopt a different mechanism. Some gene families are conserved or under evolutionary pressure and expansion in all three primate species, while some are under expansion uniquely in human, chimpanzee, or macaque. For example, cholesterol pathways are conserved in all three species (and other primate species). In all three species, immune response genes are under positive selection, and genes of T cell-mediated immunity, signal transduction, cell adhesion, and membrane proteins generally. Genes for keratin, which produce hair shafts, were rapidly evolving in all three species, possibly because of climate change or mate selection. The X chromosome has three times more rearrangements than other chromosomes. The macaque gained 1,358 genes by duplication. Triangulation of human, chimpanzee, and macaque sequences showed expansion of gene families in each species. The PKFP gene, important in sugar (fructose) metabolism, is expanded in macaques, possibly because of their high-fruit diet. So are genes for the olfactory receptor, cytochrome P450 (which degrades toxins), and CCL3L1-CCL4 (associated in humans with HIV susceptibility). Immune genes are expanded in macaques, relative to all four great ape species. The macaque genome has 33 major histocompatibility genes, three times those of human. This has clinical significance because the macaque is used as an experimental model of the human immune system. In humans, the preferentially expressed antigen of melanoma (PRAME) gene family is expanded. It is actively expressed in cancers, but normally is testis-specific, possibly involved in spermatogenesis. The PRAME family has 26 members on human chromosome 1. In the macaque, it has eight, and has been very simple and stable for millions of years. The PRAME family arose in translocations in the common mouse-primate ancestor 85 million years ago, and is expanded on mouse chromosome 4. DNA microarrays are used in macaque research. For example, Michael Katze of University of Washington, Seattle, infected macaques with 1918 and modern influenzas. The DNA microarray showed the macaque genomic response to human influenza on a cellular level in each tissue. Both viruses stimulated innate immune system inflammation, but the 1918 flu stimulated stronger and more persistent inflammation, causing extensive tissue damage, and it did not stimulate the interferon-1 pathway. The DNA response showed a transition from innate to adaptive immune response over seven days. The full sequence and annotation of the macaque genome is available on the Ensembl genome browser. Conservation status The rhesus macaque is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List and estimated to exist in large numbers; it is tolerant of a broad range of habitats, including urban environments. Rhesus macaques have the largest natural range of any non-human primate which contributes to the conservation status of "least concern". The Thai population is locally threatened. In addition to habitat destruction and agricultural encroachment, pet releases of the different species into existing troops are diluting the gene pool and putting its genetic integrity at risk. Despite the wealth of information on their ecology and behaviour, little attention has been paid to their demography or population status, which can pose a risk for future rhesus macaque population. Rhesus macaques increased population stress on other species, having extended their distributional limits by approximately 3,500 km2 in Southeastern India. The increased area of rhesus macaques has been caused by human intervention tactics whereby village translocation occurs from urban conflict ridden areas. This influx has led to the widespread establishment of the rhesus macaque, accompanied by the disappearance of the bonnet macaque in these areas. See also Girneys References External links ARKive: images and movies of the rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta Brain maps and brain atlases of rhesus macaque Primate Info Net: Macaca mulatta Factsheet University of Michigan Museum of Zoology's Animal Diversity Web: Macaca mulatta Macaca mulatta Genome Rhesus Play Film analysis of agonistic play by Donald Symons (UCSB) on DVD View the Macaque genome in Ensembl. Animal models Fauna of Yunnan rhesus macaque rhesus macaque Mammals of Afghanistan Mammals of Bangladesh Mammals of Bhutan Mammals of China Mammals of Hong Kong Mammals of India Mammals of Laos Mammals of Myanmar Mammals of Nepal Mammals of Pakistan Mammals of Thailand Mammals of Vietnam Monkeys in India Primates of Asia Space-flown life Taxa named by Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann

423951

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Badr

Battle of Badr

The Battle of Badr ( ), also referred to as The Day of the Criterion (, ) in the Qur'an and by Muslims, took place on 15 March 624 CE (Ramadan 19, 2 AH), near the present-day city of Badr, Al Madinah Province in Saudi Arabia. Muhammad, commanding an army of his Sahaba, defeated an army of the Quraysh led by Amr ibn Hishām, better known among Muslims as Abu Jahl. The battle marked the beginning of the six-year war between Muhammad and his tribe. Before the battle, the Muslims and the Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624. Initially receiving no significant opposition from the people of Mecca, who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, Muhammad began attacking their beliefs, causing tensions. Some time later, Muhammad brought his followers to migrate to Medina after successfully negotiating with the Banu Khazraj (the tribe his great-grandmother was from) and the Banu Aws to mediate their tribal conflicts. In that city, he took a keen interest in raiding Meccan trade caravans and plundering their goods. Prior to the battle, he had just obtained rich plunder from a caravan raided by his men at Nakhla. Later, he learned that a large Meccan caravan transporting abundant goods was returning from the Levant. He then sent over 300 men to intercept it at Badr, taking them seven days to get there. Abu Sufyan, who led the caravan, got wind of his plan and sent messengers on a fast journey to Mecca for help. In response to the request, Amr ibn Hisham set out, bringing a force reportedly numbering about 950 men, and encamped near Badr behind a hill out of sight of Muhammad’s position. At the time when the caravan had safely escaped using another route, a number of the Quraysh army chose to withdraw, but the rest remained after being persuaded by Amr. In the evening, Muhammad became aware of their presence after capturing their water-carrier drawing water from the wells of Badr. He then ordered his army to cover up the wells with sand, leaving only one for him and his men, thus forcing the Quraysh to fight for the water. The battle began with duels between the warriors of both sides, which caused the deaths of many leading Meccans, including Amr himself. The battle then continued with a general melee which turned into the flight of the Meccans. Muhammad himself did not take part in the battle, as he spent much of the time praying in a shelter nearby. This defeat was disastrous for the Quraysh people; a number of their experienced and influential men were killed, their prestige was shaken, and their old enemies, such as the Hawazin, started aiming at them again. While on Muhammad's side, this victory drew all eyes to him; he used this victory as evidence of his prophethood. Support from inside and outside Medina for his next raids grew, as did those who wanted to participate and to convert to his religion. Background At the beginning of his prophetic mission in his hometown Mecca, Muhammad did not encounter serious opposition until he attacked the beliefs of the local Quraysh. As the relationship with the Meccans grew increasingly worse, Muhammad brought his followers to emigrate (Hijrah) to Medina after successful negotiations with Banu Aws and Khazraj to mediate their tribal conflicts. In Medina, Muhammad received a divine revelation that authorized the Muslims to launch attacks on the polytheists without being attacked first, and he targeted the Meccan trade caravans for plunder. Muslim historians give no particular motive for these attacks. According to Peters, F. E., these raids were probably Muhammad's immediate response to his people's poverty in the new territory because they lacked agricultural knowledge and money for commerce. Following his successful raid on a caravan at Nakhla and gaining a large amount of plunder, on March 15, 624, it came to Muhammad's ears that a large trading caravan belonging to the Quraysh was on its way from Gaza to Mecca. It was probably a number of smaller caravans that narrowly survived the Muslim attacks in the north and then joined together for greater security. It is reported that the merchandise on these caravans was worth 1,000 camels and 50,000 dinars. Almost all the people of Mecca had a share in it. It was escorted by 70 men and led by Abu Sufyan. Concerned about a potential Muslim raid on their caravan, Abu Sufyan decided to scout ahead to the wells of Badr. After conversing with a local, he discovered two men had recently stopped for water. Investigating where they rested, he identified their origin from Medina by analyzing the camel droppings. Consequently, he redirected the caravan to avoid Badr, despite the cost of depriving them of water. As a safety measure, he also sent a rider to hurry to Mecca. Upon arrival, the messenger tore his shirt, cut his camel's nose in despair, and cried: Battle Muslim march to Badr Muhammad was able to gather an army of 313–317 men. Sources vary upon the exact number, but the generally accepted number is 313. This army consisted of 82 Muhajirun, 61 men from the 'Aws and 170 men from the Khazraj. They were not well-equipped for a major conflict nor prepared. They only had two horses, and those belonged to Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr. The entire army had 70 camels, meaning that they had one camel for two to three men to ride alternatively. Muhammad shared a camel with 'Ali ibn Abu Talib and Marthad ibn Abi Marthad al-Ghanawi. The guardianship and administration of Medina was entrusted with Ibn Umm Maktum, but later with Abu Lubaba ibn 'Abd al-Mundhir. Muhammad handed a white standard to Mus‘ab ibn 'Umair al-Qurashi al-'Abdari. The army was divided into two battalions: one of the 82 Muhajirun and the other of the 231 Ansar. The flag of the Muhajirun was carried by 'Ali ibn Abu Talib, while that of the Ansar was carried by Sa'd ibn Mu'adh. az-Zubayr commanded the right flank, while al-Miqdad commanded the left; the rear of the army was commanded by Qays bin Abi Sa'sa'ah. With Muhammad in the lead, the army marched out along the main road to Mecca from the north. At Safra', he dispatched Basbas al-Juhani and 'Adi al-Juhani to scout for the Quraish. The future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care of his sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of Muhammad, who later died from illness. Salman al-Farsi also could not join the battle, as he was still not a free man. Qurayshi advance toward Badr All of the clans of the Quraish except the Banu 'Adi quickly assembled an excited army of around 1300 men, 100 horses and a large number of camels. Moving swiftly towards Badr, they passed the valleys of 'Usfan, Qadid and al-Juhfah. At al-Juhfah, another messenger from Abu Sufyan informed them of the safety of their merchandise and wealth. Upon receiving this message, the Makkan army expressed delight and showed a desire to return home. Abu Jahl was not interested in returning and insisted on proceeding to Badr, and holding a feast there to show the Muslims and the surrounding tribes that they were superior. Despite Abu Jahl's threat and insistence, the Banu Zahrah, numbering around 300, broke away from the army and returned to Mecca, on the advice of Al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq. Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, also attempted to break away but were threatened by Abu Jahl to stay. Many of the Qurayshi nobles, including Abu Jahl, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, 'Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, and Umayyah ibn Khalaf, joined the Meccan army. Their reasons varied: some were out to protect their financial interests in the caravan; others wanted to avenge Ibn al-Hadrami, a guard killed in one of the caravan ambushes at Nakhlah; finally, a few must have wanted to take part in what was expected to be an easy victory against the Muslims. Amr ibn Hishām is described as shaming Umayyah ibn Khalaf into joining the expedition. Plans of action Muslim council near Badr Muhammad held a council of war to review the situation and decide on a plan-of-action. According to some Muslim scholars, the following verses of Al Anfal, Q8:5-6, were revealed in response to some Muslims fearing the encounter. Abu Bakr was the first to speak at the meeting and he reassured Muhammad. 'Umar was next. Then, al-Miqdad ibn 'Amr got up and said:"O Messenger of Allah! Proceed where Allah directs you to, for we are with you. We will not say as the Children of Israel said to Musa: "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will stay here;" rather we shall say: "Go you and your Lord and fight and we will fight along with you." By Allah! If you were to take us to Birk al-Ghimad, we will still fight resolutely with you against its defenders until you gained it."Muhammad then praised him and supplicated for him, but the three who had spoken were of the Muhajirun, who only constituted around one-third of the Muslim men in Medina. Muhammad wanted the opinion of the Ansar, who were not committed to fighting beyond their territories in the Pledges of 'Aqabah. Muhammad then indirectly asked the Ansar to speak, which Sa'd ibn Mu'adh understood and asked for permission to speak. Muhammad immediately gave him permission to speak and Sa'd said:"O Prophet of Allah! We believe in you and we bear witness to what you have brought is the Truth. We give you our firm pledge of obedience and sacrifice. We will obey you most willingly in whatever you command us, and by Allah, Who has sent you with the Truth, if you were to ask us to throw ourselves into the sea, we will do that most readily and not a man of us will stay behind. We do not deny the idea of encounter with the enemy. We are experienced in war and we are trustworthy in control. We hope that Allah will show you through our hands those deeds of bravery which will please your eyes. Kindly lead us to the battlefield in the Name of Allah."Muhammad, impressed with his loyalty and spirit of sacrifice, ordered the march towards Badr to continue. Muslim plan of action By Sunday, 11 March (15 Ramadan), both armies were about a day's march from Badr. Muhammad and Abu Bakr had conducted a scouting operation and managed to locate the camp of the Quraish. They came across an old Bedouin nearby from whom they managed to find out the exact strength of their army and their location. In the evening, Muhammad dispatched 'Ali, az-Zubayr and Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas to scout for the Makkans. They captured two Meccan water-bearers at the wells of Badr. Expecting them to say they were with the caravan, the Muslims were horrified to hear them say they were with the main Quraishi army. Unsatisfied with their answer, while Muhammad was praying, some of the Muslims beat the two boys into lying, an action that Muhammad strictly condemned later. Muhammad then extracted the details of the Makkans from the boys. The next day Muhammad ordered a march to Badr and arrived before the Meccans. When the Muslim army arrived from the east, Muhammad initially chose to encamp at the first well he encountered. al-Hubab ibn al-Mundhir, however, asked him if this choice was from divine instruction or Muhammad's own opinion. When Muhammad responded in the latter, Hubab suggested that the Muslims occupy the well closest to the Quraishi army, and block off or destroy the other ones. Muhammad accepted this decision and the plan was carried out at midnight. Muhammad had also given strict orders to not begin an attack without his sole permission. Muhammad spent the whole night of 12 March (16 Ramadan) praying near a tree. The Muslim army enjoyed a refreshing night of sleep, again believed by Muslims, to be a blessing from Allah. Meccan plan of action While little is known about the progress of the Quraishi army from the time it left Mecca until its arrival just outside Badr, several things are worth noting: although many Arab armies brought their women and children along on campaigns both to motivate and care for the men, the Meccan army did not. The Quraish apparently made little or no effort to contact the many allies they had scattered throughout the Hejaz. Both facts suggest the Quraish lacked the time to prepare for a proper campaign in their haste to protect the caravan. Besides, it is believed they expected an easy victory. Since Muhammad's army had either destroyed or taken all the wells in the city, a few Makkans approached the well controlled by Muslims to draw out water. All were shot except Hakim ibn Hizam, who later accepted Islam. At midnight on 13 March (17 Ramadan), the Quraish broke camp and marched into the valley of Badr. 'Umayr ibn Wahb al-Jumahi made a survey of the Muslim position and reported 300 men keen on fighting to the last man. After another scouting mission, he reported that the Muslims were not going to be reinforced, nor were they planning any ambushes. This further demoralized the Quraish, as Arab battles were traditionally low-casualty affairs, and set off another round of bickering among the Quraishi leadership. However, according to Arab traditions Amr ibn Hishām quashed the remaining dissent by appealing to the Quraishis' sense of honor and demanding that they fulfill their blood vengeance. The duels The battle began with al-Aswad bin 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi, one of the men from Abu Jahl's clan, the Banu Makhzum, swearing that he would drink from the well of the Muslims or otherwise destroy it or die for it. In response to his cries, Hamza ibn 'Abdul-Muttalib, one of Muhammad's uncles, came out and they began fighting in a duel. Hamza struck al-Aswad's leg before dealing him another blow that killed him. Seeing this, three men protected by armor and shields, Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, alongside his brother, Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah and son, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, emerged from the Makkan ranks. Three of the Madani Ansar emerged from the Muslim ranks, only to be shouted back by the Meccans, who were nervous about starting any unnecessary feuds and only wanted to fight the Muhajirun, keeping the dispute within the tribe. So Hamza approached and called on Ubaydah ibn al-Harith and 'Ali ibn Abu Talib to join him. The first two duels between 'Ali and al-Walid and Hamza and Shaybah were quick with both managing to kill their opponents swiftly. After the fight between Ali and Walid, Hamza looked at 'Ubaydah to find him seriously wounded. He then fell upon and killed Shaybah. Ali and Hamza then carried Ubaydah back into the Muslim lines. He died later due to a disease. A shower of arrows from both sides followed these duels and this was followed by several other duels, most of which were won by the Muslims. The Makkans now took the offensive and charged upon the Muslim lines. The Makkan charge and Muslim counter-attack As the Makkans charged upon the Muslims, Muhammad kept asking Allah, stretching his hands toward the Qibla:"O Allah! Should this group (of Muslims) be defeated today, You will no longer be worshipped."Muhammad kept reciting his prayer until his cloak fell off his shoulders, at which point Abu Bakr picked it up and put it back on his shoulders and said:"O Prophet of Allah, you have cried out enough to your Lord. He will surely fulfil what He has promised you."Muhammad gave the order to carry out a counterattack against the enemy now, throwing a handful of pebbles at the Makkans in what was probably a traditional Arabian gesture while yelling "Defaced be those faces!" or "Confusion seize their faces." The Muslim army yelled in reply, "Yā manṣūr amit!" meaning "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!" and rushed the Qurayshi lines. The Makkans, understrength and unenthusiastic about fighting, promptly broke and ran. Muslims attribute their fear of fighting and fleeing from the battlefield to divine intervention, with the Qur'an stating in Chapter 8, verse 12, that Allah sent thousands of angels (mala'ikah) to strengthen the ranks of Muslims. The battle itself only lasted a few hours and was over by early afternoon. The Qur'an describes the force of the Muslim attack in many verses, which refer to thousands of angels descending from Heaven at Badr to terrify the Quraish. It also describes how Iblis, the Leader of the Jinn, mentioned to have taken the form of Suraqa ibn Malik, fled the battlefield upon seeing the angels. Muslim sources take this account literally, and there are several ahadith where Muhammad discusses the Angel Jibreel and the role he played in the battle. Modern non-Muslim historians, such as Richard A. Gabriel, attribute the victory and the subsequent triumph over the Quraysh to Muhammad's strategic and military prowess. Aftermath Imprisonment of captives and their ransom As the Quraysh fled in panic, Muhammad's forces began to collect captives. He ordered the search for Abu Jahl, his former childhood friend who had become an adversary. A Muslim named Abdullah ibn Mas'ud discovered him, barely clinging to life from his wounds. Ibn Mas'ud then placed his foot on his neck and inquired, "Are you Abu Jahl?" Upon confirmation, he grasped the dying man's beard and decapitated his head. Holding it up, he then cast it at Muhammad's feet, who jubilantly exclaimed, "The head of the enemy of God. Praise God, for there is no other but He!" Muhammad then ordered a large pit to be dug. The deceased Quraysh numbering 50–70, were cast into it, while Muhammad recited over them, "O people of the pit, have you found that what God threatened is true? For I have found that what my lord promised me is true." His companions were surprised and asked if he spoke to the dead. Muhammad assured them that those corpses heard what he said. Muhammad's party gained booty that, while not as extensive as Abu Sufyan's caravan, was still considerable: 150 camels, 10 horses, a substantial amount of weaponry and protective gear, assorted possessions of the fleeing individuals, as well as some goods the Meccans brought along in the hopes of conducting business along the way. The Muslims also acquired a number of captives. One of them was Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, who, according to some sources, had been Muhammad's secret agent in Mecca. Umar wanted all the captives killed, but Abu Bakr and others suggested exchanging them for ransom, for besides them being their kinsmen, the revenue from the ransom would strengthen the Muslims. Muhammad chose that ransom must be requested first, and afterwards, they could execute anyone for whom no one was prepared to pay. As Muhammad and his troops made their way back to Medina, they encountered a congregation of Muslims at Rawha, all eager to welcome them back. However, one of the victors, Salama ibn Salama, was heard to grumble: "Why do you congratulate us? By God, we were only up against bald old women; we cut their throats like the camels offered up for sacrifice with their feet tied together." Muhammad smiled and said, "Yes, but nephew, they were the chiefs!" The Muslims obtained a large amount of ransom money for the captives. Nevertheless, several Islamic traditions report that later on, Muhammad received a divine revelation stating that Umar's recommendation to kill the captives was actually the right one. Muhammad added that if God's punishment were to descend from the heavens—due to them having released the captives for ransom—only Umar would be spared. Casualties Despite scholars estimating Meccan casualties at around 70, only the names of the more prominent ones are known. However, the names of the 14 Muslims who were killed during the course of the war or later (due to injuries sustained during the war) are all known. Meccan casualties Well-known Meccans who were killed during the battle included Amr ibn Hishām, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, 'Utbah ibn Rabi'ah, Shaybah ibn Rabi'ah, al-Walid ibn 'Utbah, al-Aswad bin and 'Abdul-Asad al-Makhzumi. Nadr ibn al-Harith and 'Uqbah ibn Abū Mu‘ayṭ were also killed, though the circumstances of their deaths are unclear. According to some sources the last two were killed during fighting in the field of battle at Badr and subsequently buried in a pit, while Safiur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri writes that these two were taken as prisoners and subsequently executed by Ali. Muslim casualties Implications The Battle of Badr was extremely influential in the rise of two men who determined the course of Arabian history in the next century. The first was Muhammad, who was transformed overnight from a Meccan outcast into the leader of a new community and city-state at Medina. Marshall Hodgson adds that Badr forced the other Arabs to "regard the Muslims as challengers and potential inheritors to the prestige and the political role of the [Quraish]." Shortly thereafter he expelled the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the Jewish tribes in Medina for assaulting a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion for breaking the peace treaty. The tribe is also known for having threatened Muhammad's political position. At the same time 'Abd Allah ibn Ubayy, Muhammad's chief opponent in Medina, found his own position seriously weakened. He was only able to mount limited challenges to Muhammad. The other major beneficiary of the Battle of Badr was Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, safely away from the battle leading the caravan. The death of Amr ibn Hisham, as well as many other Quraishi nobles, gave Abu Sufyan the opportunity, almost by default, to become chief of the Quraish. As a result, when Muhammad marched into Mecca six years later, it was Abu Sufyan who helped negotiate its peaceful surrender. Abu Sufyan subsequently became a high-ranking official in the Muslim Empire, and his son Mu'awiya later went on to found the Umayyad Caliphate. In later days, the battle of Badr became so significant that Ibn Ishaq included a complete name-by-name roster of the Muslim army in his biography of Muhammad. In many hadiths, veterans who fought at Badr are identified as such as a formality, and they may have even received a stipend in later years. The death of the last of the Badr veterans occurred during the First Fitna. Legacy In the Quran, the battle is referred to as Yawm al-Furqan (; ). The story of the Battle of Badr has been passed down in Islamic history throughout the centuries, before being combined in the multiple biographies of Muhammad that exist today. It is mentioned in the Quran, and all knowledge of the battle comes from traditional Islamic accounts, recorded and compiled sometime after the battle. There is little evidence beside these and there are no written descriptions of the battle prior to the 9th century, and as such, the historicity and authenticity of the battle are debated by contemporary historians. "Badr" has become popular among Muslim armies and paramilitary organizations. "Operation Badr" was used to describe Egypt's offensive in the 1973 Yom Kippur War as well as Pakistan's actions in the 1999 Kargil War. Iranian offensive operations against Iraq in the late 1980s were also named after Badr. During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the rebel leadership stated that they selected the date of the assault on Tripoli to be the 20th of Ramadan, marking the anniversary of the Battle of Badr. The Battle of Badr was featured in the 1976 film The Message, the 2004 animated movie Muhammad: The Last Prophet, the 2012 TV series Omar and the 2015 animated movie Bilal: A New Breed of Hero. Further reading Al Mubarakpuri, Safiur Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet ‌‍ﷺ. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers. Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2000). The History of Islam. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers. Abu Khalil, Shauqi (2003). Atlas of the Qur'an: Places. Nations. Landmarks. Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers See also Islamic military jurisprudence Muslim–Quraysh War Military career of Muhammad Pre-Islamic Arabia List of expeditions of Muhammad Footnotes References Books and articles Online references External links Comprehensive Timeline of the Battle of Badr Battle of Badr, 17th Ramadan 624 A.D The first battle of Islam at Badr: Islamic Occasions Network Tafsir (Sura 8: verse 11 to 18) – Battle of Badr: Analysis of Qur'anic verses by Irshaad Hussain. Badr Campaigns led by Muhammad Angelic apparitions Muhammad in Medina

423976

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0-4-0

0-4-0

Under the Whyte notation for the classification of steam locomotives, represents one of the simplest possible types, that with two axles and four coupled wheels, all of which are driven. The wheels on the earliest four-coupled locomotives were connected by a single gear wheel, but from 1825 the wheels were usually connected with coupling rods to form a single driven set. The notation 0-4-0T indicates a tank locomotive of this wheel arrangement on which its water and fuel is carried on board the engine itself, rather than in an attached tender. In Britain, the Whyte notation of wheel arrangement was also often used for the classification of electric and diesel-electric locomotives with side-rod-coupled driving wheels. Under the UIC classification used in Europe and, in more recent years, in simplified form in the United States, a 0-4-0 is classified as B (German and Italian) if the axles are connected by side rods or gearing and 020 (French), independent of axle motoring. The UIC's Bo classification for electric and diesel-electric locomotives indicates that the axles are independently motored, which would be under the Whyte notation. Overview 0-4-0 locomotives were built as tank locomotives as well as tender locomotives. The former were more common in Europe and the latter in the United States, except in the tightest of situations such as that of a shop switcher locomotive, where overall length was a concern. The earliest 0-4-0 locomotives were tender engines and appeared as early as c. 1802. The 0-4-0 tank engines were introduced in the early 1850s. The type was found to be so useful in many locations that they continued to be built for more than a century and existed until the end of the steam era. Richard Trevithick's Coalbrookedale (1802), Pen-y-Darren (1804) and Newcastle (1805) locomotives were of the 0-4-0 type, although in their cases the wheels were connected by a single gear wheel. The first 0-4-0 to use coupling rods was Locomotion No. 1, built by Robert Stephenson and Company for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. Stephenson also built the Lancashire Witch in 1828, and Timothy Hackworth built Sans Pareil which ran at the Rainhill Trials in 1829. The latter two locomotives later worked on the Bolton and Leigh Railway. A four-wheeled configuration, where all the wheels are driving wheels, uses all the locomotive's mass for traction but is inherently unstable at speed. The type was therefore mainly used for switcher locomotives (United States) or shunter locomotives (United Kingdom). Because of the lack of stability, tender engines of this type were only built for a few decades in the United Kingdom. They were built for a longer period in the United States. The possible tractive effort of an 0-4-0 within normal axle load limits was not enough to move large loads. By 1900, they had therefore largely been superseded for most purposes by locomotives with more complex wheel arrangements. They nevertheless continued to be used in situations where tighter radius curves existed or the shorter length was an advantage. Thus, they were commonly employed in dockyard work, industrial tramways, or as shop switchers. The wheel arrangement was also used on specialised types such as fireless locomotives, crane tank locomotives, tram engines and geared steam locomotives. It was also widely used on narrow gauge railways. Usage Australia In New South Wales, Dorrigo Steam Railway and Museum has preserved twelve 0-4-0 steam locomotives and eight 0-4-0 diesel locomotives, a total of twenty examples, all on the one site. Austria In Tyrol, Achensee Railway operates three 0-4-0 geared steam cog locomotives on their 1 meter narrow gauge tourist railway and has one on display. The locomotives were originally built by Wiener Lokomotivfabrik, but one has been rebuilt from scavenged parts. Angola The Catumbela Sugar Estate in Angola operated a narrow gauge line on the estate. One of their locomotives, Rührthaler Maschinen-Fabrik 963 of 1929, was later rebuilt with a diesel engine. Finland Finland had the E1 and Vk4 classes with an 0-4-0 wheel arrangement. The E1 was a class of only two locomotives, numbered 76 and 77. The Vk4 was also a class of only two locomotives, built by Borsig Lokomotiv Werke (AEG) of Germany in 1910. The Vk4s were used at a fortress, and were eventually also used in dismantling the fortress, after which one locomotive went into industrial use and was scrapped in 1951. The other was sold to the Finnish Railways and nicknamed Leena. It became No. 68 and is now the oldest working broad gauge locomotive in Finland, being preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum. Indonesia The Samarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Maatschappij or SCS imported 27 cape gauge 0-4-0T SCS Class 100 locomotives between 1908 and 1911, originally to operate services from Kalibrodi-Samarang to Tanggung and Yogyakarta. They were built by Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany. They were a modern locomotive design for the time, equipped with a superheater. The largest allocation of SCS 100s were in Tegal, Central Java for services to Purwokerto. Some were later converted to tram engines and worked in Tegal and Purwokerto. After Japanese occupation and Indonesian Independence, these locomotives were renumbered to B52 class. All 27 locomotives were in existence at the end of 1960, but by 1970 only 15 units remained. Two locomotives have been preserved, B5212 at the Transportation Museum of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah and B5210 at the Ambarawa Railway Museum. New Zealand The NZR A class of 1873 consisted of three engine types of similar specification but differing detail. They were British and New Zealand-built and several were preserved. Philippines The only examples of this type in the Philippines were the five Manila class light-duty tank locomotives built by Hunslet Engine Company for the Manila Railway. They were ordered in 1885 for the Tranvía system until they were used on the Ferrocarril de Manila a Dagupan in the 1890s. After being retired from the Manila Railroad in 1927, Manila was sold to the newly-formed Central Azucarrera de Tarlac, where it was made into a tank-tender locomotive until the 1980s. The locomotive was scrapped by 1991. South Africa Brunel gauge In 1847, the government of the Cape Colony established harbour boards at its three major ports, Table Bay, Port Elizabeth and East London. While railway lines were laid at all these harbours, trains were for the most part initially hauled by oxen or mules. The first steam locomotives to see service at these harbours were Brunel gauge engines which were placed in service on breakwater construction at Table Bay Harbour in 1862 and East London Harbour in 1874. At Table Bay Harbour a third Brunel gauge 0-4-0T locomotive was acquired from Fletcher, Jennings & Co. in 1874 to haul tip-wagons from the Victoria Basin excavation site to the breakwater which was being constructed simultaneously. The East London Harbour's construction locomotives were 0-4-0 vertical boiler engines, similar in appearance to the American Grasshopper type. Four of them were acquired from Alexander Chaplin & Co. between 1873 and 1880, although the first one was only placed in service in 1874. A fourth locomotive was added at Table Bay Harbour in 1879, a 0-4-0 well-tank engine, also built by Fletcher, Jennings. Three 0-4-0 saddle-tank locomotives entered breakwater construction service in Table Bay Harbour, two in 1881 and one more in 1893, built by Black, Hawthorn & Co. Standard gauge In September 1859 Messrs. E. & J. Pickering, contractors to the Cape Town Railway and Dock Company for the construction of the Cape Town-Wellington railway line, imported a small broad gauge 0-4-0 side-tank steam locomotive from England for use during the construction of the railway. This was the first locomotive in South Africa. In 1874 the locomotive was rebuilt to a 0-4-2T configuration before it was shipped to Port Alfred, where it served as construction locomotive on the banks of the Kowie river and was nicknamed Blackie. It has been declared a heritage object and was plinthed in the main concourse of Cape Town station. The first railway locomotive to run in revenue earning service in South Africa was a small broad gauge 0-4-0WT well tank engine named Natal, manufactured by Carrett, Marshall and Company of Leeds. It made its inaugural run from Market Square to Point station in Durban during the official opening of the first operating railway in South Africa on Tuesday, 26 June 1860. In 1865, the Natal Railway Company obtained a saddle-tank locomotive with a wheel arrangement from Kitson and Company. This was the Natal Railway's second locomotive and was named Durban. In 1878, while construction work by the Kowie Harbour Improvement Company was underway at Port Alfred, the Cape Government Railways acquired one broad gauge (Saddle Tank) locomotive named Aid from Fox, Walker and Company of Bristol for use as construction locomotive on the east bank of the Kowie river. Cape gauge During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a number of 0-4-0 tank- and saddle-tank locomotives were imported into South Africa, many of them for use in harbours. Many of these locomotives came into South African Railways (SAR) stock in 1912, but were never classified. In 1873 and 1874, three Cape gauge saddle-tank locomotives, built by Manning Wardle, were placed in service by the Cape Government Railways, two on the Midland System in 1873 and the third on the Western System in 1874. They were the first Cape gauge locomotives to enter service in South Africa. In 1874, a third saddle-tank locomotive, also built by Manning Wardle, was delivered to the Midland System of the CGR in Port Elizabeth. The locomotive was of a smaller design than the earlier locomotives of 1873. Between 1875 and 1882, six saddle-tank locomotives with domeless boilers and three with domes were placed in service on all three systems of the CGR. They were all designated First Class when a classification system was adopted. In 1881, two Cape gauge saddle tank locomotives with a 0-4-0 wheel arrangement were placed in service by Teague and Company, who operated Teague's Tramway at the Kimberley diamond mine. In 1885 one was sold to the mine and the other to the CGR for use during the construction of a temporary rail bridge across the Orange River at Norvalspont. In the process the CGR locomotive, nicknamed Coffee Pot, became the first locomotive to run across the border between the Cape Colony and the Orange Free State. Thirteen saddle-tank locomotives were acquired by the Table Bay Harbour Board from Black, Hawthorn and Company, Chapman and Furneaux and Hawthorn Leslie and Company between 1881 and 1904. Eleven survived to come into SAR stock in 1912, but were not included in the renumbering schedules or classified. In 1889 the Nederlandsche-Zuid-Afrikaansche Spoorwegmaatschappij (NZASM) obtained its first six locomotives for use on the new line which was being constructed from Johannesburg to Boksburg, one 13 Tonner and five very similar 14 Tonners. In 1889 and 1890 the NZASM obtained three 10 Tonner tramway locomotives for use on the new line from Johannesburg to Boksburg which became known as the Randtram line. In 1891 five saddle-tank locomotives were imported, built by Neilson and Company for the Natal Government Railways (NGR). One was later sold to the Pretoria-Pietersburg Railway (PPR), where it was named Natal, while two more went to the Durban Harbour. The remaining two were later included in the NGR's Class K. In 1912, four of these locomotives survived, including the ex-PPR locomotive, to be taken onto the SAR roster as obsolete unclassified locomotives. Between 1894 and 1902 eight saddle-tank locomotives were acquired by the Port Elizabeth Harbour Board for shunting service at the Port Elizabeth Harbour, four built by Black, Hawthorn in 1894 and 1895, two by Chapman and Furneaux in 1900 and two by Hudswell, Clarke in 1902. In 1902 the Harbours Department of the Natal Government placed a single saddle-tank locomotive in service as harbour shunter in Durban Harbour. It was built by Hudswell, Clarke and named Congella. In 1903, a single 0-4-0ST locomotive, built by New Lowca Engineering, was delivered to the Port Elizabeth Harbour Board. After the Harbour Boards were disbanded, some locomotives entered SAR harbour service as previously owned. Two locomotives named Stormberg and Thebus were originally built by Hudswell Clarke for the South African Public Works Department in 1903. They were acquired by the SAR in 1916, but were named instead of being classified and numbered. The CGR acquired a single self-contained Railmotor with a 0-4-0T+4 wheel arrangement for low-volume passenger service. The railmotor was a 0-4-0 side-tank locomotive with a passenger coach as an integral part of the locomotive itself, with a four-wheeled bogie under the coach end. In 1907, the Central South African Railways also acquired a single self-contained Railmotor with a 0-4-0T+4 wheel arrangement. In 1929, the South African Railways acquired a single self-contained Clayton railmotor with a 0-4-0+4 wheel arrangement for low-volume passenger service. The vehicle was a vertical boilered steam locomotive with a passenger coach which was an integral part of the locomotive itself. In 1941, long after the Harbour Boards had ceased to exist, a contractor's locomotive which had been imported for use on the Foreshore land reclamation project in Cape Town was bought by the SAR for use as dock shunter in Table Bay Harbour. It had been built in 1909 by Orenstein & Koppel and on the SAR it was numbered SAR-H&NW no. 69. Narrow gauges Between 1886 and 1888, three well-tank condensing locomotives were placed in service by the Cape Copper Mining Company on its Namaqualand Railway between Port Nolloth and O'okiep in the Cape Colony. They were the first condensing steam locomotives to enter service in South Africa. They were later rebuilt as conventional well-tank locomotives. In 1899, Rand Mines acquired two narrow gauge tank steam locomotives from Avonside Engine Company and in 1900 a similar locomotive was delivered to Reynolds Brothers Sugar Estates in Natal. In 1915, when an urgent need arose for additional narrow gauge locomotives in German South West Africa during the First World War, these three locomotives were purchased second-hand by the South African Railways. In 1900 the British War Office placed two Sirdar class 0-4-0T tank steam locomotives in service on a narrow gauge line near Germiston in the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, where the Royal Engineers had established a siege park during the Second Boer War. The locomotives were built by Kerr, Stuart and Company. At the end of the war, the two Sirdar locomotives were sold to a farmer, who used them on a firewood line between Pienaarsrivier and Pankop, until the line and locomotives were taken over by the Central South African Railways (CSAR). In 1912, when these locomotives were assimilated into the SAR, they were renumbered with an "NG" prefix to their numbers. When a system of grouping narrow gauge locomotives into classes was eventually introduced by the SAR somewhere between 1928 and 1930, they were designated . In 1902, the CGR placed a single narrow gauge tank steam locomotive in service on the Avontuur branch, built by Manning Wardle, classified Type C and named Midget. In 1912, this locomotive was assimilated into the South African Railways and renumbered. It was sold to the West Rand Consolidated Mines near Krugersdorp in 1921. A single small five-ton locomotive, built by Krauss & Company, was purchased by the CGR c. 1903 and placed in service as construction engine on the narrow gauge Avontuur branch out of Port Elizabeth. United Kingdom Tank locomotives The tank engine versions of the wheel arrangement began to appear in the United Kingdom in the early 1850s, with the first significant class being six saddle tanks designed by Robert Sinclair for the Caledonian Railway. By 1860 the type was very popular and it continued to be built in significant numbers for both mainline and industrial railways, almost to the end of steam traction. Hudswell Clarke were supplying industrial saddle tanks until at least 1947, and both Barclay and Robert Stephenson and Hawthorns until 1949. An interesting variation on this theme were the traction engine-based railway locomotives built by Aveling and Porter. The last British Railways 0-4-0ST dock shunters were built by Horwich Works as late as 1955 and survived until 1966. A locomotive based on these also appears in one of Mario Kart 8'''s Rainbow Road tracks. Tender locomotives During the 1840s, the wheel arrangement was widely used by Edward Bury on the bar-framed locomotives built for the London and Birmingham Railway. However, with the exception of a few isolated examples used by the smaller companies such as the Cambrian Railways, the Furness Railway and the Taff Vale Railway, and four examples built by Edward Fletcher (engineer) of the North Eastern Railway between 1854 and 1868, the 0-4-0 tender locomotive had been largely superseded on Britain's mainline railways by 1850. United States Tank locomotives An early example of the 0-4-0 vertical boiler type was the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Atlantic No. 2, built in 1832 by Phineas Davis and Israel Gartner. In the United States, the 0-4-0 tank locomotive was principally used for industrial railway purposes. Tender locomotives In the United States, the Best Friend of Charleston was the first locomotive to be built entirely within the United States. It was built in 1830 for the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company by the West Point Foundry of New York. The John Bull was built by Robert Stephenson and Company for the Camden and Amboy Railroad in New Jersey in 1831, but was later rebuilt as a 2-4-0. The Pennsylvania Railroad kept producing classes long after all other major railroads had abandoned development of the type, building their final A5s class into the 1920s. The A5s'' was a monster among , larger than many designs, with modern features found on few others of its type, such as superheating, power reverse, and piston valves. The Pennsy continued to build the type because it had a large amount of confined and tight industrial track, more than most other railroads had. 0-4-0 diesel locomotives The wheel arrangement was also used on a number of small 0-4-0DM diesel-mechanical shunters produced by John Fowler & Co. and other builders in the 1930s and earlier. Similarly, it was perpetuated on a number of diesel-mechanical and diesel-hydraulic classes between 1953 and 1960 (see the List of British Rail modern traction locomotive classes). Many of these were later sold for industrial use. There are 0-4-0DE diesel-electric locomotives too, although small in number. The smallest diesel switchers, such as the EMD Model 40, were of this arrangement. 0-4-0 diesel-mechanical shunters are also Polish PKP class SM02 and PKP class SM03 and narrow gauge WLs40/50. References 4,0-4-0

423998

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government%20structure%20of%20Communist%20Czechoslovakia

Government structure of Communist Czechoslovakia

The government of Czechoslovakia under Marxism–Leninism was in theory a dictatorship of the proletariat. In practice, it was a one-party dictatorship run by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, the KSC. In the 1970s and 1980s the government structure was based on the amended 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia, which defined the country as the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. The Constitutional Act on the Czechoslovak Federation (1968) transformed the country into a federal state and stipulated the creation of two constituent republics, with separate government structures for the Czech Socialist Republic, located in Prague, and the Slovak Socialist Republic, situated in Bratislava. These republic governments shared responsibility with the federal government in areas such as planning, finance, currency, price control, agriculture and food, transportation, labor, wages, social policy, and the media. The central government, located in Prague, had exclusive jurisdiction over foreign policy, international relations, defense, federal stockpiles, federal legislation and administration, and the federal judicial system. Government institutions in Czechoslovakia performed legislative, executive, and judicial functions. The Constitution clearly defined the responsibilities for making and implementing policy held by each branch of government. In reality, however, all decisions of state were made by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Government bodies existed purely, to administer the party program. Legislative branch The highest legislative institution was the Federal Assembly, which Chapter 3 of the 1960 Constitution recognized as "the supreme organ of state power and the sole statewide legislative body." The Federal Assembly was divided into two equal chambers, the Chamber of the People and the Chamber of the Nations. The Chamber of the People reflected a system of proportional representation: in 1986 it included 134 deputies from the Czech Socialist Republic and 66 deputies from the Slovak Socialist Republic. The Chamber of Nations had 150 members, 75 from each republic. Deputies were selected through popular elections and served five year terms of office; all 350 served concurrently. After an election each chamber met to select its own presidium consisting of three to six members. Together, the chambers elected the forty-member Presidium of the Federal Assembly, which served as the legislative authority when the assembly was not in session. A joint session of the Federal Assembly selected its chairman and vice chairman. Alois Indra served as chairman from 1971 to 1989. The Federal Assembly met in regular session at least twice a year, in the spring and fall. Legislation presented to the assembly at these sessions had to be approved by both chambers and in some cases requires a majority vote by both the Czech and the Slovak deputies in the Chamber of the Nations. Constitutionally, the Federal Assembly had exclusive jurisdiction in all matters of foreign policy, fundamental matters of domestic policy, the economic plan, and supervision of the executive branch of government. In practice, as was the case in all other Communist countries, its function was largely confined to rubber-stamping decisions already made by the KSC. Laws in Czechoslovakia were decided at the highest level of the KSC. They were then presented to the Federal Assembly for approval, which almost always came unanimously. Executive branch The executive branch of government consisted of the president, the prime minister, a number of deputy prime ministers, and the federal ministers. According to the 1960 Constitution, the president was elected by the Federal Assembly to a five-year term of office. In practice, the president was first selected by the KSC leadership and then "officially" voted into office by the Federal Assembly. As head of state, the president represented the nation in diplomatic affairs, received and appointed envoys, convened the Federal Assembly, and signed laws into force. He was commander in chief of the armed forces and was empowered to appoint or remove the premier, other members of the executive, and other high civilian and military officials. There was no vice president; rather, the Constitution provided that if the presidential office became vacant, the premier would be entrusted with the president's duties until the Federal Assembly elects a new president. The prime minister, the deputy prime ministers (numbering ten in 1987), and the federal cabinet ministers were collectively termed "the government," which is constitutionally defined as "the supreme executive organ of state power." All were chosen by the Central Committee of the KSC and formally appointed by the president. If both chambers of the Federal Assembly voted to censure any or all members of the government, the president was obliged to remove those members. The premier, deputy premiers, and ministers collectively formed the Presidium of the Government of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. This Presidium supervised and controlled the activities of the federal ministries, commissions, and other departments. These Presidium functions appeared to correspond to the purpose of the government as stated in the Constitution, which was to ensure the implementation of laws enacted in the Federal Assembly and to coordinate, direct, and control activities in the federal ministries and other federal offices. Federal ministers were important administrators, but they lacked the political weight of their counterparts in most non-communist countries. The number of ministries and the division of responsibilities among them have varied over time. In August 1986 there were thirteen federal ministries: agriculture and food; communication; electrotechnical industry; finance; foreign affairs; foreign trade; fuels and power; general engineering; interior; labor and social affairs; metallurgy and heavy engineering; national defense; and transportation. In addition, five individuals held positions that granted them ministerial status. These included the minister-chairmen of the Federal Price Office and the People's Surveillance Commission, the chairman of the State Planning Commission, and the minister-deputy chairmen of the State Planning Commission and the State Commission for Research and Development and Investment Planning. These ministerial and ministerial-level positions within the government paralleled similar organs within the KSC, where policy was actually formed before it was enacted by federal government officials. Judicial branch The highest judicial organ at the federal level was the Supreme Court of Czechoslovakia. Supreme Court judges were elected by the Federal Assembly to serve ten-year terms of office. The Federal Assembly also selected a chairman and vice chairman of the Supreme Court. If the chairman was from the Czech Socialist Republic, the vice chairman must have been from the Slovak Socialist Republic, and vice versa. The two republics must have been represented by an equal number of Supreme Court judges. Petitions for breach of law against decisions of the republic supreme courts were heard in the Supreme Court at the federal level. In addition to serving as the nation's final court of appeals, the Supreme Court of Czechoslovakia examined the legality of decisions of the federal government and, in general, ensured the uniform interpretation of the laws. It also heard requests for recognition of foreign judgments in Czechoslovakia. The decisions of the Supreme Court emanate from "benches", which comprised the Supreme Court chairman and selected professional judges. The Supreme Court also acted as the final court of appeal in military cases, although below the Supreme Court level military cases are handled in military courts, which were distinct from civil courts. Below the Supreme Court of Czechoslovakia were the Supreme Court of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Supreme Court of the Slovak Socialist Republic. Below the supreme court of each republic were regional and district courts: District courts (one in each administrative district) were the courts of general civil jurisdiction and limited criminal jurisdiction and are presided over by one professional judge and two lay judges (there were no juries in the Czechoslovak judicial system). Regional courts (one in each administrative kraj) are located in the capitals of each of Czechoslovakia's ten kraje and in Prague. They functioned as appellate courts and also had jurisdiction over trials in serious criminal cases where imprisonment exceeding five years may be imposed. Regional and district professional judges were chosen by the Czech National Council and the Slovak National Council; lay judges were chosen by district national committees. The Supreme Court of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Supreme Court of the Slovak Socialist Republic serve as appellate courts for their respective regional courts and also heard petitions for breach of law against decisions by the lower courts. The supreme courts of the two republics decided in panels of three professional judges. Another powerful arm of the judiciary was the Office of the Prosecutor. The general prosecutor, a federal officer, was appointed and removed by the president. In addition to the federal office, an Office of the Prosecutor existed for each republic. The republic office was administered by the republic Ministry of Justice. Prosecutors were responsible for supervising the observance of laws and legal regulations by public bodies and individual citizens. The Office of the Prosecutor was responsible for prosecuting both criminal and civil cases. Prosecutors might recommend modification or repeal of laws, and they had the right to summon citizens to appear before them. Lower levels Republic levels The administrative units of Czechoslovakia's two republics were, in each instance, a unicameral legislative body called the national council, an executive branch known as the government, and a judiciary consisting of a supreme court and an office of the prosecutor. Like its corresponding federal government unit, the Federal Assembly, the national council was described as the highest organ of state power in the republic, whereas the government was the "supreme executive authority." The 1968 constitutional amendments that created the two republican or, "national," governmental units initiated a truly federal system of government, which flourished briefly. Since that time, revisions of and deviations from the 1968 amendments have made the two national governments clearly subordinate to the federal governmental structure in Prague. This was apparent both in legislation, such as a 1971 law that authorized the federal government to interfere with and invalidate republican government initiatives, and in the interlocking responsibilities of certain officials within the two levels of government. For example, the premier of each republic was a deputy premier in the federal government, and the chairman of each national council was a member of the Presidium of the Federal Assembly. Because of the numerical superiority of the Czech population, the Czech National Council had 200 representatives and the Slovak National Council only 150. Except for the difference in the number of deputies, the provisions of the federal Constitution applied equally to the national councils of each republic: deputies were elected to five-year terms of office; the national councils had to hold at least two sessions annually; and each national council elected its own presidium (fifteen to twenty-one members in the Slovak National Council and up to twenty-five members in the Czech National Council), which was empowered to act when the full national council was not in session. In each of the two republics the executive branch consists of a premier, three deputy premiers, and a number of ministers. Both the Czech and the Slovak governments had ministers of agriculture and food, construction, culture, development and technology, education, finance, forestry and water resources, health, industry, interior, justice, labor and social affairs, and trade. The chairmen of the State Planning Commission and the People's Control Commission also held ministerial status in each republic; the government of the Czech Socialist Republic included, in addition, two ministers without portfolio. Regional and local levels Below the level of the republics (the national administrations), in the 1970s and 1980s, Communist Czechoslovakia was divided into regions kraje, districts okresy, and communities (i. e. towns, villages etc.). The principal organs of government at these levels, known as national committees, functioned in accordance with the principle of the so-called democratic centralism. The 1968 Constitutional Law of Federation specified that the national governments directed and controlled the activities of all national committees within their respective territories. The system of national committees was established at the close of World War II by the then-existing provisional government and was used by the communists as a means of consolidating and extending their control. On the local level, the membership of the national committees consisted of from fifteen to twenty-five persons. National committees on the higher levels were proportionately larger: national committees at the district level had from 60 to 120 members, and national committees at the kraje level had between 80 and 150 members. National committee members were popularly elected for five-year terms of office. Each national committee elected a council from among its membership. The council, composed of a chairman, one or more deputy chairmen, a secretary, and an unspecified number of members, acted as the coordinating and controlling body of the national committee. To expedite the work of the national committee, the council established commissions and other subcommittees and could issue decrees and ordinances within its area of jurisdiction. The national committees on the local level were assigned particular areas of jurisdiction, including maintaining public order and organizing the implementation of the political, economic, and cultural tasks assigned by the KSC and the federal government. The Constitution charged the national committees with the responsibility of organizing and directing the economic, cultural, health, and social services in their areas. The committees had also to "ensure the protection of socialist ownership" and see that the "rules of socialist conduct are upheld." Elections Elections in Czechoslovakia were held not to offer the electorate an opportunity to participate in a democratic choice of their government representatives but to confirm the representatives chosen by the KSC hierarchy. The 1960 constitution guaranteed multicandidate (but not multiparty) elections by requiring that the number of candidates to the National Assembly be greater than the number of posts. VoThe July 1971 electoral law lengthened the time between elections from four to five years (1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, and so forth) and designated that they take place in the fall, so that each election comes shortly after the party congress in the spring. The 1971 law replaced a 1967 electoral law that allowed the electorate to participate in the choice of candidates; the 1967 law was never applied because the 1968 elections were postponed by the August invasion. The November 1971 elections, then, were the first to be held since 1964. In these and subsequent elections, the National Front—nominally a coalition of all parties, but in truth controlled by the Communists—proposed single slates of candidates for the Federal Assembly, the two national councils, and the regional, district, and municipal national committees. The voter only had the option to cross out (disapprove) or not cross out (approve) the name of any or all official candidates nominated by the National Front. Polling booths are rarely used, and voting was often carried out collectively by the work force of each enterprise or by other groups of the population. The 1971 elections were preceded by a concerted effort by a group of dissidents calling themselves the Socialist Movement of Czechoslovak Citizens to urge citizens to boycott the elections or cross off official names in protest of the undemocratic character of the 1971 election law. Official election results, nevertheless, showed that 99.5 percent of the 10.3 million eligible voters did cast ballots, and of these, some 99.8 percent voted for the official candidates. Following the election, rumors circulated that, in fact, up to 10 percent of the population had not voted and that between 10 and 25 percent of the voters had crossed out official names. Whatever the case, after the election some 200 persons associated with the Socialist Movement of Czechoslovak Citizens were arrested. Trials were held during July and August 1972, at which 47 persons were sentenced to a total of 118 years in prison. In elections held in May 1986, Czechoslovak officials reported that 99.4 percent of registered voters participated in the Federal Assembly elections, and 99.9 percent of the total vote cast went to National Front candidates. Similar results were reported in the elections for the Czech National Council and the Slovak National Council and in the lower-level national committees. References External links RFE Czechoslovak Unit, Blinken Open Society Archives, Budapest Czechoslovak Socialist Republic Politics of Czechoslovakia

424008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/0-6-0

0-6-0

is the Whyte notation designation for steam locomotives with a wheel arrangement of no leading wheels, six powered and coupled driving wheels on three axles, and no trailing wheels. Historically, this was the most common wheel arrangement used on both tender and tank locomotives in versions with both inside and outside cylinders. In the United Kingdom, the Whyte notation of wheel arrangement was also often used for the classification of electric and diesel-electric locomotives with side-rod coupled driving wheels. Under the UIC classification, popular in Europe, this wheel arrangement is written as C if the wheels are coupled with rods or gears, or Co if they are independently driven, the latter usually being electric and diesel-electric locomotives. Overview History The 0-6-0 configuration was the most widely used wheel arrangement for both tender and tank steam locomotives. The type was also widely used for diesel switchers (shunters). Because they lack leading and trailing wheels, locomotives of this type have all their weight pressing down on their driving wheels and consequently have a high tractive effort and factor of adhesion, making them comparatively strong engines for their size, weight and fuel consumption. On the other hand, the lack of unpowered leading wheels have the result that 0-6-0 locomotives are less stable at speed. They are therefore mostly used on trains where high speed is unnecessary. Since 0-6-0 tender engines can pull fairly heavy trains, albeit slowly, the type was commonly used to pull short and medium distance freight trains such as pickup goods trains along both main and branch lines. The tank engine versions were widely used as switching (shunting) locomotives since the smaller 0-4-0 types were not large enough to be versatile in this job. and larger switching locomotives, on the other hand, were too big to be economical or even usable on lightly built railways such as dockyards and goods yards, precisely the sorts of places where switching locomotives were most needed. The earliest 0-6-0 locomotives had outside cylinders, as these were simpler to construct and maintain. However, once designers began to overcome the problem of the breakage of the crank axles, inside cylinder versions were found to be more stable. Thereafter this pattern was widely adopted, particularly in the United Kingdom, although outside cylinder versions were also widely used. Tank engine versions of the type began to be built in quantity in the mid-1850s and had become very common by the mid-1860s. Early examples 0-6-0 locomotives were among the first types to be used. The earliest recorded example was the Royal George, built by Timothy Hackworth for the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1827. Other early examples included the Vulcan, the first inside-cylinder type, built by Charles Tayleur and Company in 1835 for the Leicester and Swannington Railway, and Hector, a Long Boiler locomotive, built by Kitson and Company in 1845 for the York and North Midland Railway. Derwent, a two-tender locomotive built in 1845 by William and Alfred Kitching for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, is preserved at Darlington Railway Centre and Museum. Suffixes For a steam tank locomotive, the suffix usually indicates the type of tank or tanks: 0-6-0T - side tanks 0-6-0ST - saddle tank 0-6-0PT - pannier tanks 0-6-0WT - well tank Other steam locomotive suffixes include 0-6-0VB - vertical boiler 0-6-0F - fireless locomotive 0-6-0G - geared steam locomotive For a diesel locomotive, the suffix indicates the transmission type: 0-6-0DM - mechanical transmission 0-6-0DH - hydraulic transmission 0-6-0DE - electric transmission Usage All the major continental European railways used 0-6-0s of one sort or another, though usually not in the proportions used in the United Kingdom. As in the United States, European 0-6-0 locomotives were largely restricted to switching and station pilot duties, though they were also widely used on short branch lines to haul passenger and freight trains. On most branch lines, though, larger and more powerful tank engines tended to be favoured. Australia In New South Wales, the Z19 class was a tender type with this wheel arrangement. The Dorrigo Railway Museum collection includes seven Locomotives of the 0-6-0 wheel arrangement, including two Z19 class (1904 and 1923), three 0-6-0 saddle tanks and two 0-6-0 side tanks. In Victoria, the Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company operated four 0-6-0WT (well tank) goods locomotives; one of their 2-2-2WT passenger locomotives ("Titania", which became Victorian Railways number 34 in 1860) was converted to an in 1872. On the Victorian Railways system there were O, P, Q, old R, Belgian R, new R, RY, T, U, Nos.103 & 105 (unclassed), old V, X, and Y class 0-6-0 tender locomotives, as well as a solitary Z class 0-6-0T (tank) engine. Three types of 0-6-0 Diesel shunting locomotives were also used by the Victorian Railways, the F, M, and W classes. Finland Tank locomotives used by Finland were the VR Class Vr1 and VR Class Vr4. The VR Class Vr1s were numbered 530 to 544, 656 to 670 and 787 to 799. They had outside cylinders and were operational from 1913 to 1975. Built by Tampella, Finland and Hanomag (Hannoversche Maschinenbau AG), they were nicknamed Chicken. Number 669 is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum. The Vr4s were a class of only four locomotives, numbered 1400 to 1423, originally built as 0-6-0s by Vulcan Iron Works, United States, but modified to 0-6-2s in 1951–1955, and re-classified as Vr5. Finland's tender locomotives were the classes C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and C6. The Finnish Steam Locomotive Class C1s were a class of ten locomotives numbered 21 to 30. They were operational from 1869 to 1926. They were built by Neilson and Company and were nicknamed Bristollari. Number 21, preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum, is the second oldest preserved locomotive in Finland. The eighteen Class C2s were numbered 31 to 43 and 48 to 52. They were also nicknamed Bristollari. The C3 was a class of only two locomotives, numbered 74 and 75. The thirteen Class C4s were numbered 62 and 78 to 89. The fourteen Finnish Steam Locomotive Class C5s were numbered 101 to 114. They were operational from 1881 to 1930. They were built by Hanomag in Hannover and were nicknamed Bliksti. No 110 is preserved at the Finnish Railway Museum. The C6 was a solitary class of one locomotive, numbered 100. Indonesia Skirt tank locomotives The colonial government of the Dutch East Indies ordered Nederlandsch Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (NIS) to build a 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) railway line connecting Yogyakarta to Magelang around 47 km (29 miles), which was the important city for the economic and defense sectors in Central Java and finished in 1898. By 1903–1907, they continued to build the line from Magelang to Secang–Ambarawa–Temanggung–Parakan because there were tobacco plantations. Just after the line finished, the NIS ordered around 12 units of 0-6-0T (skirt tank) locomotives from Sachsische Maschinenfabrik (Hartmann), Germany and came in 1899-1908 and they were classified as NIS Class 250 (NIS 250–262), these locomotives were used to haul mixed freight and passenger trains. By 1914, NIS Class 251, 253, 255, 256, 257 were moved to Solo (Purwosari)–Boyolali (23 km / 14 miles) line and Solo–Wonogiri–Baturetno (51 km / 32 miles) line for sugarcane freight and passenger transports, both of the lines were purchased by NIS from the Solosche Tramweg Maatschappij (SoTM) or Solo Tramway Company. They also acquired a 0-6-0T which had been operated by SoTM with similar characteristic and performance also its manufacturer which then completed its skirt tanks collection to 13 units and renumbered as NIS Class 259. At first, these 0-6-0Ts were saturated steam and the tanks are located at both low sides of boiler near the wheels, they have a water capacity of 3 m³ and their length is 7,940 mm and they used inside cylinders. The driving wheels of the locomotive has a distinctive feature, using the 'Golsdorf' wheel movement systems. By this, all wheels (first wheel, second and third wheel) would only shift left/right following the rail track. Wheels with the 'Golsdorf' system are suitable for railroads with a large bend radius. This system was patented by Austrian railway engineer Karl Golsdorf. By 1924–1931, the NIS Class 250, 252, 254, 258 and 259 were converted and equipped with superheater technology and cylinder with piston valve. During Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies in 1942, all of Dutch East Indies private or state owned railway locomotives were renumbered based on Japanese numberings, while the NIS Class 250s were renumbered to C16, C17 and C18 and still used after Indonesian Independence by Djawatan Kereta Api (DKA) or Department of the Railways of Railways of the Republic of Indonesia until the era of Perusahaan Jawatan Kereta Api (PJKA) or Railway Bureau Company, out of 13 locomotives only C16 03, C17 04 and C18 01 are preserved in Ambarawa Railway Museum. Side tank locomotives Nederlandsch Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (NIS) was known operating its 4 ft 8 ½ in (1,435 mm) gauge between Samarang–Vorstenlanden (Solo and Yogyakarta), Brumbung–Gundih and Kedungjati–Ambarawa all of which had been built in the 1870s. NIS expanded its rail network in Jogja (another term of Yogyakarta) by building branch lines between Yogyakarta–Brosot–Sewugalur in 1895 and Yogyakarta–Pundong in 1919. The line construction in and around Jogja was also to serve the freight transports of sugarcane from many sugar mills that operating in the royal land of Yogyakarta Sultanate. NIS imported another 10 new 0-6-0Ts as standard-gauge runner on Samarang–Vorstenlanden and came in 2 batches in 1910 and 1912 from Werkspoor, N.V., Netherlands. The first batch engines were classified as NIS 151–156, those on second batch were NIS 157–160 and equipped with steam brake. These locomotives often worked on southern lines of Jogja. Since Japanese occupation in 1942, the entire of NIS standard-gauge lines were converted to 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge which made almost NIS standard gauge locomotives were found derelict. All of NIS 151–160 were also scrapped after Indonesian Independence, while the last one of them was found derelict in Pengok Workshop, Yogyakarta in 1974. In 1901, the Staatsspoorwegen (SS) acquired 24 units of 0-6-0Ts from Solo Vallei Waterwerken or Solo Valley Waterworks after they sold it due to debts as a result of swelling funds for the construction of irrigation canal dams on the banks of the Bengawan Solo and then, SS classified them as SS Class 500 (501-524). Not quite a long, a local private tramway company named Pasoeroean Stoomtram Maatschappij (PsSM) bought 2 units from SS to assist their sugar-freight transports to the port there along with their Hohenzollern 0-4-0Tr engines in 1905 and 1908. The remaining owned by the SS were renumbered as SS Class 24–45 and used to aid mainline and rural tramlines, especially in East Java between Garahan–Banyuwangi line using as transport for construction materials and metal bridge girders. After that, they were used as yard shunter and short harbor works at Banyuwangi and Panarukan. While 2 units of Solo Vallei which were acquired by PsSM renumbered to PsSM 6 Louisa (former SS 506) and PsSM 7 Marie (former SS 516), by 1911 they also purchased brand new of the same type PsSM 8 Nella. These locomotives were manufactured by John Cockerill & Cie., Belgium. After Japanese occupation, the SS Class 24–45 were renumbered as C13 class and PsSM 6–8 were reclassified as C22 class, the C13s were brought by Japanese throughout Java while the C22s were brought to Mojokerto as yard shunt duties. From all of these locomotives, not a single one remains. All of them were scrapped around the 1970s. In addition to operating trams for transportation facilities in the city of Semarang, Central Java, the private tramway company of Semarang-Joana or Semarang-Joana Stoomtram Maatschappij (SJS) was also extending the construction of their 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) lines to the east, which connected to Rembang, Blora and Cepu. The line of Semarang–Demak–Kudus–Rembang (197 km / 122 miles) was built in 1883–1900, while the Rembang–Blora–Cepu line (70 km / 43 miles) was completed in 1902. The line to Cepu was used for oil transportation and by this area there are fairly extensive teak forests. To serve the freight or passenger transportation on those lines, the SJS ordered 12 '0-6-0T' locomotives from Sächsische Maschinenfabrik (Hartmann) and came in 1898–1902 and classified as SJS Class 100 (101-112). Originally these locomotives had a funnel-shaped chimney, but was later replaced by a straight one and also equipped with a sand box which it made of brass. During Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, all of SJS Class 100s were renumbered to C19 and still used up today. After World War II ended, 2 units of C19 locomotives were moved from Java to West Sumatra at the Padang locomotive depot to meet the needs of rail transportation in West Sumatra. At the end of its service period around 1973, the C19 locomotive was used to haul the molasses tank wagons around Probolinggo–Pajarakan. From 12 of them, only C19 12 or SJS 112 is preserved at the Transportation Museum of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta. In 1895–1896, two private-owned tramway company named Modjokerto Stoomtram Mij. (Mdj.SM) and Babat Djombang Stoomtram Mij. (BDSM) received the permit concession from the colonial Dutch government to build the line of Porong–Gunung Gangsir–Bangil–Pandaan–Japanan–Mojokerto and Sidoarjo–Tarik–Mojokerto–Jombang which were connected to Staatsspoorwegen (SS) lines. In addition, the BDSM was also built their line of Babat–Jombang to serve sugarcane freight transports which was connected to Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Mij. (NIS) line at the Soerabaia NIS (Surabaya Pasar Turi), Babat and Cepu railway stations. The Mdj. SM completed their line construction in 1899, while BDSM completed in 1902 and 1913. To serve their rail transports, The Mdj. SM imported 4 locomotives in 1907–1926 (classified as MSM 11, 12, 15 and 16) and BDSM imported 2 of them in 1903 and 1903 (classified as BDSM 9 &10) from Georg Krauß, Germany. BDSM was defunct in 1916 due to the company's financial difficulties, so all of its assets including their two 0-6-0T units were acquired by SS (became SS 113 &114). After Japanese occupation, they were classified as C21 class. From 6 of them only 2 remained, the C21 02 of BDSM in INKA, Madiun and C21 03 of Mdj. SM in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. Well Tank locomotives Type C2-Lts later classified as NIS 106 and NIS 107 were the first generation of 0-6-0WT operated by NIS from Hanomag, Germany and came in 1901. These C2-Lts were wood and coal burners and had a maximum speed of 40 kilometres per hour (24.8 miles per hour). These locomotives often worked on southern lines of Jogja. Since Japanese occupation in 1942, the entire of NIS standard-gauge lines were converted to 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge which made almost NIS standard gauge locomotives were found derelict. Just before occupation, NIS 106 and 107 were converted became armored locomotive by J. C. Jonker who was the former head of NIS traction depot. The last known NIS 106 was re-gauged to 1,067 mm and operating as short harbor works in Semarang in July 1945 before being scrapped by Japanese. The chassis of NIS 107 still be found in front of SMK Negeri 2 Yogyakarta (state vocational school), while the most parts of it had been stripped down by the Japanese. New Zealand In New Zealand the 0-6-0 design was restricted to tank engines. The Hunslet-built M class of 1874 and Y class of 1923 provided 7 examples, however the F class built between 1872 and 1888 was the most prolific, surviving the entire era of NZR steam operations, with 88 examples of which 8 were preserved. Philippines This wheel arrangement was first introduced in 1905. Most of the preserved steam locomotives in the country are of this type as they were popular among sugarcane plantation, sawmill and coal mine owners. Tank and tank-tender locomotives The first operators of the type were the Manila Railway with its 0-6-0T Cabanatuan class, named after the now-defunct branch line towards Cabanatuan. Two of these locomotives were built, No. 777 Cabanatuan and No. 778 Batangas. It was followed by the 0-6-2ST Cavite class of 1906, after also defunct Naic branch of the PNR South Main Line. This was later known as the V class. No. 777 Cabanatuan and No. 1007 Dagupan (originally Cavite) are in display in front of the Philippine National Railways headquarters at Tutuban station in Tondo, Manila. This type was also used by the 3 ft gauge railways in Negros Island. Central Azucarera de Bais operated 3 tank locomotives. The De La Rama conglomerate of Bago, Negros Occidental led by Esteban de la Rama (1866–1947) had Locomotive No. 2. Other operators include Ma-Ao Sugar Central, the National Coal Company in which used this locomotive as a 0-6-0STT tank tender, and San Carlos Milling Company No. 4 of 1919. Tender locomotives The Hawaiian-Philippine Company of Silay, Negros Occidental operates three 0-6-0 tender locomotives and are the last active steam locomotives in the country. The three locomotives are No. 2 Peter Francis Davies of 1919, No. 5 The Isabella Curran of 1920 and No. 7 Edwin H. Herkes of 1928. These are still used for its heritage railway service after the rail freight service was terminated in 2021. No. 7 was later renamed as the second Isabella Curran. Aside from these, the company also had two more locomotives of the same arrangement that were most likely scrapped. Other known operators of tender locomotives include Central Azucarera de Bais with its Baldwin-built also numbered No. 7, North Negros Sugar Company, San Carlos No. 5 of 1926, and Tabacalera Central No. 5 of 1927. Out of these, only the Tabacalera Central No. 5 uses the 3 ft 6 in gauge lines being operated in Tarlac while the other units use the 3 ft gauge. South Africa Cape gauge In 1876, the Cape Government Railways (CGR) placed a pair of 0-6-0 Stephenson's Patent permanently coupled back-to-back tank locomotives in service on the Cape Eastern system. They worked out of East London in comparative trials with the experimental Fairlie locomotive that was acquired in that same year. The Natal Harbours Department placed a single saddle-tank locomotive in service in 1879, named John Milne. The Natal Government Railways placed a single locomotive in shunting service in 1880, later designated Class K, virtually identical to the Durban Harbour's John Milne and built by the same manufacturer. In 1882, two 0-6-0 tank locomotives entered service on the private Kowie Railway between Grahamstown and Port Alfred. Both locomotives were rebuilt to a 4-4-0T wheel arrangement in 1884. In 1890, the Nederlandsche-Zuid-Afrikaansche Spoorweg-Maatschappij of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (Transvaal Republic) placed six 18 Tonner 0-6-0ST locomotives in service on construction work. In 1896 and 1897, three 26 Tonner saddle-tank locomotives were built for the Pretoria-Pietersburg Railway (PPR) by Hawthorn, Leslie and Company. These were the first locomotives to be obtained by the then recently established PPR. Two of these, named Nylstroom and Pietersburg, came into SAR stock in 1912 and survived into the 1940s. In 1901, a single 0-6-0T harbour locomotive built by Hudswell, Clarke was delivered to the Harbours Department of Natal. It was named Edward Innes and retained this name when it was taken onto the SAR roster in 1912. Two saddle-tank locomotives were supplied to the East London Harbour Board in 1902, built by Hunslet. Both survived until the 1930s, well into the SAR era. In 1904, a single saddle tank harbour locomotive, named Sir Albert, was built by Hunslet for the Harbours Department of Natal. It came into SAR stock in 1912 and was withdrawn in 1915. Narrow gauges In 1871, two gauge tank locomotives, built by the Lilleshall Company of Oakengates, Shropshire in 1870 and 1871, were placed in service by the Cape of Good Hope Copper Mining Company. Named John King and Miner, they were the first steam locomotives to enter service on the hitherto mule-powered Namaqualand Railway between Port Nolloth and the Namaqualand copper mines around O'okiep in the Cape Colony. In 1902, Arthur Koppel, acting as agent, imported a single 0-6-0 narrow gauge tank steam locomotive for a customer in Durban. It was then purchased by the Cape Government Railways and used as construction locomotive on the Avontuur branch from 1903. In 1912, this locomotive was assimilated into the South African Railways and in 1917 it was sent to German South West Africa during the First World War campaign in that territory. South West Africa Between 1898 and 1905, more than fifty pairs of Zwillinge twin tank steam locomotives were acquired by the Swakopmund-Windhuk Staatsbahn (Swakopmund-Windhoek State Railway) in Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika (DSWA, now Namibia). Zwillinge locomotives were a class of small Schmalspur (narrow gauge) tank steam locomotives that were built in Germany in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As indicated by their name Zwillinge (twins), they were designed to be used in pairs, semi-permanently coupled back-to-back at the cabs, allowing a single footplate crew to fire and control both locomotives. The pairs of locomotives shared a common manufacturer's works number and engine number, with the units being designated as A and B. By 1922, when the SAR took control of all railway operations in South West Africa (SWA), only two single Illinge locomotives survived to be absorbed onto the roster of the SAR. In 1907, the German Administration in DSWA acquired three Class Hc tank locomotives for the narrow gauge Otavi Mining and Railway Company. One more entered service in 1910, and another was obtained by the South African Railways in 1929. In 1911, the Lüderitzbucht Eisenbahn (Lüderitzbucht Railway) placed two Cape gauge 0-6-0T locomotives in service as shunting engines. They were apparently no longer in service when all railways in the territory came under the administration of the South African Railways in 1922. Switzerland During the Second World War, Switzerland converted some 0-6-0 shunting engines into electric-steam locomotives. United Kingdom The 0-6-0 inside-cylinder tender locomotive type was extremely common in Britain for more than a century and was still being built in large numbers during the 1940s. Between 1858 and 1872, 943 examples of the John Ramsbottom DX goods class were built by the London and North Western Railway and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. This was the earliest example of standardisation and mass production of locomotives. Of the total stock of standard-gauge locomotives operating on British railways in 1900, around 20,000 engines, over a third were 0-6-0 tender types. The ultimate British was the Q1 Austerity type, developed by the Southern Railway during the Second World War to haul very heavy freight trains. It was the most powerful steam design produced in Europe. Similarly, the 0-6-0 tank locomotives became the most common locomotive type on all railways throughout the 20th century. All of the Big Four companies to emerge from the Railways Act, 1921 grouping used them in vast numbers. The Great Western Railway, in particular, had many of the type, most characteristically in the form of the pannier tank locomotive that remained in production well past railway nationalisation in 1948. When diesel shunters began to be introduced, the 0-6-0 type became the most common. Many of the British Railways shunter types were , including Class 03, the standard light shunter, and Class 08 and Class 09, the standard heavier shunters. United States In the United States, huge numbers of 0-6-0 locomotives were produced, with the majority of them being used as switchers. The USRA 0-6-0 was the smallest of the USRA Standard classes designed and produced during the brief government control of the railroads through the USRA during the First World War. 255 of them were built and ended up in the hands of about two dozen United States railroads. In addition, many of the railroads (and others) built numerous copies after the war. The Pennsylvania Railroad rostered over 1,200 0-6-0 types over the years, which were classed as class B on that system. The United States 0-6-0s were generally tender locomotives. During the Second World War, no fewer than 514 USATC S100 Class 0-6-0 tank engines were built by the Davenport Locomotive Works, for use by the United States Army Transportation Corps in both Europe and North Africa. Some of these remained in service long after the war, having been purchased or otherwise adopted by the countries where they were used. These included Austria, Egypt, France, Iraq, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. The fourteen SR USA Class engines purchased by the British Southern Railway in 1946 remained in service well into the 1960s. Designed to be extremely strong but easy to maintain, these engines had a very short wheelbase that allowed them to operate on dockyard railways. References External links Building a 1/8 scale Live Steam 0-6-0 locomotive This site includes a full 1914 factory drawing of a Finnish 0-6-0 switcher.

424072

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okhrana

Okhrana

The Department for Protecting the Public Security and Order (), usually called the Guard Department () and commonly abbreviated in modern English sources as the Okhrana () was a secret-police force of the Russian Empire and part of the police department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) in the late 19th century and early 20th century, aided by the Special Corps of Gendarmes. Overview Formed to combat political terrorism and left-wing revolutionary activity, the Okhrana operated offices throughout the Russian Empire, as well as satellite agencies in a number of foreign countries. It concentrated on monitoring the activities of Russian revolutionaries abroad, including in Paris, where the Okhrana agent Pyotr Rachkovsky (1853–1910) was based (1884–1902) before returning to service in Saint Petersburg (1905–1906). The Okhrana deployed multiple methods, including covert operations, undercover agents, and "perlustration"—the reading of private correspondence. The Okhrana's Foreign Agency also served to monitor revolutionary activity. The Okhrana became notorious for its agents provocateurs, including Jacob Zhitomirsky (born 1880, a leading Bolshevik and close associate of Vladimir Lenin), Yevno Azef (1869–1918), Roman Malinovsky (1876–1918) and Dmitry Bogrov (1887–1911). The Okhrana tried to compromise the labour movement by setting up police-run trade unions, a practice known as zubatovshchina. The Communists blamed the Okhrana in part for the Bloody Sunday event of January 1905, when Tsarist troops killed hundreds of unarmed protesters who were marching during a demonstration organized by Father Gapon.) and with the participation of Pyotr Rutenberg. Many historians, such as the German historian Konrad Heiden and the Russian historian Mikhail Lepekhine maintain that Matvei Golovinski, a writer and Okhrana agent, fabricated the first edition of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903). The organization also fabricated documentation connected with the antisemitic Beilis trial of 1913. Suspects captured by the Okhrana were passed to the judicial system of the Russian Empire. The Okhrana was perpetually underfunded and understaffed; before 1914 it had just 49 employees split between seven offices and never had more than 2,000 informants at any one time. It never received more than 10% of the total police budget. Use of torture Despite the reforms in the early 19th century, the practice of torture was never truly abolished. Possibly, the formation of the Okhrana led to increasing use of torture, due to the Okhrana using methods such as arbitrary arrest, detention and torture to gain information. Claims persisted the Okhrana had operated torture chambers in places like Warsaw, Riga, Odessa and in a majority of the urban centres. History Forerunners of the Okhrana as a Russian security service included the Secret Prikaz () (1654–1676), the (1686–1726), the (1731–1762), the (1762–1801), and the Third Section of His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery (1826–1880). The first special security department was the Department on Protecting the Order and Public Peace under the Head of St. Petersburg, set up in 1866 after a failed assassination attempt on Emperor Alexander II, with a staff of 12 investigators. Its street address, Fontanka, 16, was publicly known in the Russian Empire. After another failed assassination attempt, on August 6, 1880, the Emperor, acting on proposals made by Count Loris-Melikov, established the Department of State Police under Ministry of the Interior (MVD) and transferred part of the Special Corps of Gendarmes and the Third Section of the Imperial Chancellery to the new body. The position of Chief of Gendarmes was merged with that of the Minister, and Commander of the Corps was assigned as a Deputy of the Minister. Still, these measures did not prevent the assassination of Alexander II in March 1881. In an attempt to implement preventive security measures, Emperor Alexander III () immediately set up two more Security and Investigation (охранно-розыскные) secret-police stations, supervised by Gendarme officers, in Moscow and Warsaw; they became the basis of the later Okhrana. The Imperial Gendarmerie still operated as security police in the rest of the country through their Gubernial and Uyezd Directorates. The Emperor also established the Special Conference under the MVD (1881), which had the right to declare a State of Emergency Security in various parts of the Empire (which was actively used in the time of 1905 Revolution) and subordinated all of the imperial police forces to the Commander of the Gendarmes (1882). The rise of the socialist movements led to the integration of security forces. From 1898 the Special Section (Особый отдел) of the Department of Police succeeded the Gendarmes in the role of gaining information from domestic and foreign agents and "". Following the Socialist-Revolutionary Party's assassination of MVD Minister Dmitry Sipyagin on April 2, 1902, the new Minister Vyacheslav von Plehve gradually relieved the Directorates of Gendarmes of their investigation power in favor of Security and Investigation Stations (Охранно-розыскное отделение) under respective Mayors and Governors (who as a matter of fact were subordinate to the MVD Minister). Pre-1905 The Okhrana used many seemingly unorthodox methods in the pursuit of its mission to defend the Tsarist monarchy; indeed, some of the Okhrana's activities even contributed to the wave of domestic unrest and revolutionary terror that they were intended to quell. Perhaps most paradoxical of all was the Okhrana's collaboration with revolutionary organizations. Early Okhrana agents to work alongside revolutionaries included Lieutenant-Colonel Georgy Sudeykin of the St. Petersburg Special Section, who, in 1882, set up an illegal printing operation to publish the revolutionary People's Will literature with Okhrana funds. Sudeykin and his colleague, a revolutionary-turned-police-informant named Sergey Degayev, passed drafts of the publication through Okhrana censors before printing. This episode marked the beginning of the Okhrana's efforts to surreptitiously observe, but also influence and undermine, revolutionary movements. This focus on infiltrating and influencing revolutionary groups, rather than merely identifying and arresting their members, intensified with the innovations of one Okhrana bureau chief, Sergey Zubatov. While P.I. Rachkovsky, as head of the Okhrana's Foreign Agency, had long ordered Okhrana agents to infiltrate and influence revolutionary movements abroad, Zubatov brought these tactics to a new level by setting up Okhrana-controlled trade unions, the foundation of police socialism. Perhaps recognizing the same discontent among factory workers that the Bolsheviks sought to exploit to start a revolution, Zubatov hoped the unions would mollify factory workers with improvements in working conditions and thus prevent workers from joining revolutionary movements that threatened the monarchy. To this end, Zubatov set up the Moscow Mechanical Production Workers' Mutual Aid Society in May 1901. After Zubatov became head of the Special Section in 1902, he expanded his trade unions from Moscow to St. Petersburg and to Southern Russia. Zubatovite trade unions achieved moderate success at channeling workers' political agitations away from revolutionary movements and toward labor improvements, especially in the cities of Minsk and Odessa, with one high-ranking official noting that many revolutionaries and workers were joining the unions. However, Zubatov, if not police socialism, became discredited in the summer of 1903 after the Okhrana officer in charge of the Odessa union allowed a strike to get out of hand, causing a mass movement which paralyzed the region. Although the police-run unions continued to operate after Zubatov's ousting, without Okhrana funding, they proved more a liability than an asset. The Assembly of Working Men, a police-run union with about 6,000–8,000 members, formed by the alleged Okhrana agent Father Georgy Gapon, sparked the Bloody Sunday massacre of January 1905, a milestone in the Revolution of 1905 when union members marched peacefully on the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg and were fired upon by Imperial soldiers. The Okhrana complemented police socialism and other projects to prevent the conditions in which revolutionary movements could take hold by pursuing initiatives to curtail the activities of existing organizations. Yevno Azef, the notorious Okhrana provocateur who became the head of the Socialist Revolutionary Fighting Organization (SRFO), epitomized the Okhrana's inscrutable practice of revolutionary-group infiltration. While the Okhrana managed to imbed many of its agents in revolutionary organizations, the police preferred to slowly gather intelligence and to attempt to interfere with revolutionary work surreptitiously rather than to arrest known revolutionaries immediately. This policy led to numerous dubious acts on the part of police spies, who needed to participate in revolutionary activities to avoid suspicion, as when Yevno Azef, as head of the SRFO, ordered the assassination of V. K. Plehve on July 15, 1904. The Revolution of 1905 For over twenty years, the Okhrana had focused on interfering with the activities of relatively small, and distinct, revolutionary groups. The Revolution of 1905, characterized by seemingly spontaneous marches and strikes, exposed the Okhrana's inefficacy at controlling mass popular movements. Not only did the Okhrana lack the capacity to prevent the mass movements of 1905, or even to contain them once they began, the Okhrana's misguided attempts may even have worsened the unrest. D. F. Trepov, the Assistant Minister of the Interior in charge of police affairs, and P. I. Rachkovsky, now in charge of all domestic political-police operations, attempted to mount an aggressive offensive against those they believed to be responsible for the unrest, namely zemstvo employees, in May 1905, but backed down three months later. In October of that year, Trepov again attempted a violent repression of the revolution, only to call off the effort for lack of manpower. Since these attempts at repression never reached fruition, they only served to aggravate the already enraged Russian populace and to deepen their distrust of the Imperial government. Trepov's replacement by P.N. Durnovo in late-October ushered in a period of even more vicious repression of the revolutionaries. Indicative of this new period is the head of the St. Petersburg Special Section, A.V. Gerasimov's, strike on the St. Petersburg Soviet. To Emperor Nicholas II's delight, Gerasimov arrested delegates of the Soviet en masse on December 3, 1905. Along with this repression and the end of the Revolution of 1905 came a shift in the political police's mentality; gone were the days of Nicholas I's white-gloved moral police: post-1905 the political police feared that the Russian people were as eager to destroy them as to depose the Emperor. Following the outbreak of the 1905 Revolution and assassination of Plehve, Pyotr Stolypin, as the new MVD Minister and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, set up a nationwide net of Security Stations. By 1908 there were 31 Stations, and more than 60 by 1911. Two more Special Sections of the Department of Police were organized in 1906. The centralized Security Section of the Department of Police was created on February 9, 1907; it was located at 16, Fontanka, St. Petersburg. The exposure of Yevno Azef (who had organized many assassinations, including that of Plehve) and Dmitri Bogrov (who assassinated Stolypin in 1911) as Okhrana double agents put the agency's methods under great suspicion; the organisation was further compromised by the discovery of many similar double agents-provocateur. In Autumn 1913, all of the Security Stations except the original Moscow, St Petersburg and Warsaw ones were dismissed. The start of World War I in 1914 marked a shift from anti-revolutionary activities of the Department of Police to counter-intelligence; however, the efforts of the department were poorly synchronised with counter-intelligence units of the General Staff and of the Army. The 1917 Russian Revolution (February Revolution and October Revolution) Just as the Okhrana had once sponsored trade unions to divert activist energy from political causes, so too did the secret police attempt to promote the Bolshevik party, as the Bolsheviks seemed a relatively harmless alternative to more violent revolutionary groups. Indeed, to the Okhrana, Lenin seemed to actively hinder the revolutionary movement by denouncing other revolutionary groups and refusing to cooperate with them. To aid the Bolsheviks at the expense of other revolutionaries, the Okhrana helped Roman Malinovsky (a police spy who had managed to rise within the Bolshevik hierarchy and gain Lenin's trust) in his bid to become a Bolshevik delegate to the Duma in 1912. To this end, the Okhrana sequestered Malinovsky's criminal record and arrested other candidates for the seat. According to the transcribed recollections of Nikolay Vladimirovich Veselago, a former Okhrana officer and relative of the director of the Russian police department Stepan Petrovich Beletsky, both Malinovsky and Joseph Stalin reported on Lenin as well as on each other although Stalin was unaware that Malinovosky was also a penetration agent. Malinovsky won the seat and led the Bolshevik delegation in the Fourth Duma until 1914, but even with the information Malinovsky and other informants provided to the Okhrana, the police were unprepared for the rise of Bolshevism in 1917. Although the secret police had agents within the Bolshevik organization, other factors contributed to the Okhrana's inefficacy at averting the events of 1917. Among these factors was the ban on police spies within the military promulgated by the Deputy Minister of the Interior Vladimir Dzhunkovsky, who found the practice dishonorable and damaging to morale. While the beginning of World War I in 1914 moved the Okhrana's attentions initially from countering revolutionaries to countering German espionage, the focus quickly shifted back as it was revealed that the Germans were heavily funding Russian revolutionary groups in order to destabilize the Russian Empire. Despite the renewed attention, the Russian Revolution of 1917 took the secret police, and the country, by surprise. Indeed, the Okhrana's persistent focus on revolutionary groups may have resulted in the secret police not fully appreciating the deep-seated popular unrest brewing in Russia. The revolutionaries identified the Okhrana as one of the main symbols of Tsarist repression, and its headquarters were sacked and burned on 27 February 1917. The newly formed Provisional Government then disbanded the whole organization and released most of the political prisoners held by the Tsarist regime. Revelations of the Okhrana's earlier abuses heightened public hostility towards the secret police after the 1917 February Revolution and made it very dangerous to be a political policeman. That fact, along with the St. Petersburg Soviet's insistence on the dissolution of the regular Tsarist police force, as well as of the political police, meant that the Okhrana quickly and quietly disappeared. Successor organisations Some Okhrana functionaries continued their activities in the civil-war period (1917-1923) within the White Armies, notably in the (). After the 1917 October Revolution the government of the RSFSR under Vladimir Lenin replaced the Okhrana with a Soviet security organisation - the much larger and more efficient Cheka in December 1917, supplemented by the GRU (military intelligence) from October–November 1918. The Cheka and its successor organizations (notably the GPU and the OGPU) eventually became the KGB (1954–1991) after the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in March 1953. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the KGB split into the FSK (later reorganized into the FSB in 1995) and the SVR. See also Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies Petrograd Military Revolutionary Committee (October–December 1917) Cheka (1917–1922) GPU (1922–1923) OGPU (1923–1934) NKVD (1934–1943) NKGB (1943–1946) MGB (1946–1954) KGB (1954–1991) FSK (1991–1995) FSB (1995–present) SVR (1991–present) Notes References Jonathan Daly, Autocracy under Siege: Security Police and Opposition in Russia, 1866–1905 (DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998). Jonathan Daly, The Watchful State: Security Police and Opposition in Russia, 1906–1917 (DeKalb, Ill.: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004). Catherine Evtuhov, Stephen Kotkin; The Cultural Gradient: the transmission of ideas in Europe, 1789–1991; Rowman & Littlefield, 2003 Charles A. Ruud, Sergei A. Stepanov; Fontanka 16: The Tsars' Secret Police; McGill-Queen's University Press (paperback, 2002) Paris Okhrana 1885–1905 CIA historical review program (Approved for release 22 September 1993) External links Guide to the Okhrana Records and photographs of activities and suspects online at the Hoover Institution Archives. Official history of the MVD of Russia: 1857–1879 1880–1904 1905–1916 (in Russian) "Okhrana" in Spartacus Educational encyclopedia Okhrana: The Paris Operations of the Russian Imperial Police 1881 establishments in the Russian Empire 1917 disestablishments in Russia Branches of the secret services of the Russian Empire Government agencies established in 1881 Organizations disestablished in 1917 Secret police

424093

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s%20in%20music

1990s in music

Popular music in the 1990s saw the continuation of teen pop and dance-pop trends which had emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. Furthermore, hip hop grew and continued to be highly successful in the decade, with the continuation of the genre's golden age. Aside from rap, reggae, contemporary R&B, and urban music in general remained extremely popular throughout the decade; urban music in the late-1980s and 1990s often blended with styles such as soul, funk, and jazz, resulting in fusion genres such as new jack swing, neo-soul, hip hop soul, and g-funk which were popular. Similarly to the 1980s, rock music was also very popular in the 1990s, yet, unlike the new wave and glam metal-dominated scene of the time, grunge, Britpop, industrial rock, and other alternative rock music emerged and took over as the most popular of the decade, as well as punk rock, ska punk, and nu metal, amongst others, which attained a high level of success at various points throughout the years. Electronic music, which had risen in popularity in the 1980s, grew highly popular in the 1990s; house and techno from the 1980s rose to international success in this decade, as well as new electronic dance music genres such as rave, happy hardcore, drum and bass, intelligent dance, and trip hop. In Europe, techno, rave, and reggae music were highly successful, while also finding some international success. The decade also featured the rise of contemporary country music as a major genre, which had started in the 1980s. The 1990s also saw a resurgence of older styles in new contexts, including third wave ska and swing revival, both of which featured a fusion of horn-based music with rock music elements. North America Rock Alternative rock With the breakthrough of bands such as Nirvana and the popularity of the grunge and Britpop movements in the 1990s, alternative rock entered the musical mainstream and many alternative bands became commercially successful during the 1990s. By the start of the 1990s, the music industry was enticed by alternative rock's commercial possibilities and major labels actively courted bands including Alice in Chains, Pearl Jam, Jane's Addiction, Dinosaur Jr, and Nirvana. In particular, R.E.M.'s success had become a blueprint for many alternative bands in the late 1980s and 1990s to follow; the group had outlasted many of its contemporaries and by the 1990s had become one of the most popular bands in the world. Mazzy Star had a top 40 hit with "Fade into You" (1993) and Smash Mouth recorded hits "Walkin' on the Sun" (1997) and "All Star" (1999). The Red Hot Chili Peppers became an important band in the rise of alternative rock with their album Blood Sugar Sex Magik. Combining funk rock with more conventional rock music, the Red Hot Chili Peppers were able to achieve mainstream success, culminating with the release of their 1999 album Californication. Some of the top mainstream American alternative rock bands of the 1990s included Hootie and The Blowfish, Collective Soul, Creed, Nirvana, Alice in Chains, Dinosaur Jr, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Green Day, Weezer, Live, 311, The Wallflowers, Toad the Wet Sprocket, R.E.M., The Offspring, Matchbox Twenty, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Soul Asylum, Liz Phair, The Lemonheads, Soundgarden, Counting Crows, Spin Doctors, dc Talk, Goo Goo Dolls, Third Eye Blind, Smash Mouth, The Smashing Pumpkins, 4 Non Blondes, Beck, The Breeders, The Cranberries, Gin Blossoms, Foo Fighters, Sublime, Marcy Playground, No Doubt, Hole, Cake, Blind Melon, Eels, Stone Temple Pilots, Garbage, and Pearl Jam. These bands were variously influenced by ska, punk, pop, metal, and many other musical genres. Alternative metal During the early 1990s a new style of alternative music emerged, which combined elements of alternative rock with heavy metal. This new genre, dubbed "alternative metal", is considered a precursor to the nu metal movement of the late 1990s. This style was typified by bands such as Tool, Helmet and Jane's Addiction. Other bands including Faith No More, Living Colour, Primus, Red Hot Chili Peppers and Rage Against the Machine also blended funk and hip hop elements, creating subgenres of this style such as funk metal and rap metal. Grunge A subgenre of alternative rock, grunge bands were popular during the early 1990s. Grunge music, and its associated subculture, was born out of the Pacific Northwest American states of Washington and Oregon in the 1980s. They delivered a more direct, less polished rock sound. Artists such as Nirvana, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains and Pearl Jam brought alternative rock to popularity in 1991. Nirvana's Nevermind reached the Billboard number one, and Pearl Jam's Ten reached number two a year later. During the mid-1990s, many grunge bands broke up or became less visible. The death of Kurt Cobain in early 1994, as well as the touring problems for Pearl Jam marked the decline of the genre. By the end of 1996, Soundgarden had broken up and Alice in Chains had played their final live shows with lead singer Layne Staley. Post-grunge At the same time as the original grunge bands went into decline, major record labels began signing and promoting bands that were emulating the genre. The term post-grunge was coined to describe these bands, who emulated the attitudes and music of grunge, particularly thick, distorted guitars, but with a more radio-friendly commercially oriented sound. In 1995, former Nirvana drummer Dave Grohl's new band, the Foo Fighters, helped popularize the genre and define its parameters, becoming one of the most commercially successful rock bands in the US, aided by considerable airplay on MTV. Some of the most successful post-grunge acts of the 90s were Candlebox, Bush, Collective Soul, Creed, Matchbox Twenty, Our Lady Peace, Foo Fighters, Everclear, Live and others. The genre would have another wave of successful acts throughout much of the early part of the next decade which includes bands like Nickelback, Lifehouse, 3 Doors Down, and more. Although, some of those bands were formed during the late 1990s, many would not see a commercial breakthrough until the early years of the following decade. Indie rock Following the immense success of alternative rock in the 1990s, the term "indie rock" became associated with the bands and genres that remained underground. Bands like Sonic Youth and Pixies set the stage for the rise of indie rock in the underground scene, with bands such as Pavement, Archers of Loaf, Sleater-Kinney, Built to Spill, Modest Mouse, Yo La Tengo, The Breeders, Superchunk, Dinosaur Jr., Cat Power, Guided by Voices, Sebadoh, The Jesus Lizard, Liz Phair, and The Flaming Lips gaining popularity throughout the decade. The B-52's made a comeback with their 1994 cover of Meet the Flintstones. Ska punk By the late 1990s, mainstream interest in third wave ska bands such as Reel Big Fish, The Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Sublime, and No Doubt waned as other music genres gained momentum. Skate punk and pop punk Punk rock in the United States underwent a resurgence in the early to mid-1990s. Punk rock at that time was not commercially viable, and no major record label signed a punk rock band until Green Day's breakthrough in 1994. Both these factors contributed to the emergence of a number of independent record labels, often run by people in bands in order to release their own music and that of their friends. The independent labels Lookout! Records, Fat Wreck Chords and Epitaph Records achieved commercial success. Skate punk broke into the mainstream in the mid-1990s, initially with the Northern California-based skate punk band Green Day and in the late 1990s with the Southern California-based pop punk band Blink-182 as well who all achieved massive worldwide commercial success. Green Day's album Dookie (1994) sold 10 million copies in the United States and another 10 million copies worldwide. Soon after the release of Dookie, The Offspring released the album Smash. The album sold over 14 million copies worldwide, setting a record for most albums sold on an independent label. In 1996, Weezer released its sophomore album Pinkerton, which became a major influence for many 2000s emo bands, although failing to reach the commercial success of the band's debut Weezer (Blue Album). Rancid's Let's Go and NOFX's Punk in Drublic were also released during this period and both of them went gold as well. By the end of the year, Dookie and Smash had sold millions of copies. The commercial success of these two albums attracted major label interest in skate/pop punk, with bands such as Bad Religion being offered lucrative contracts to leave their independent record labels. In 1999, Blink-182 made a breakthrough with the release of Enema of the State, which sold over 15 million copies worldwide receiving multi-platinum status in the United States, Canada, Australia, Italy, New Zealand and platinum status in Europe and the United Kingdom. Green Day are seen as the biggest act in punk rock whilst Weezer and Blink-182 are seen to have the most influence on later bands like Fall Out Boy and All Time Low. Heavy metal Many subgenres of metal developed outside of the commercial mainstream during the 1980s. In the early 1990s the thrash metal genre achieved break-out success, mainly due to the massive success of Metallica's eponymous 5th album which was released in 1991 and brought thrash metal to the mainstream for the first time. Metallica's success was followed by Megadeth's Countdown to Extinction (1992) which hit number 2, Anthrax, Pantera, and Slayer cracked the top 10, and albums by regional bands such as Testament and Sepultura entered the top 100. In the later half of the decade industrial metal became popular. The top mainstream American industrial metal bands of the 1990s included Nine Inch Nails, Marilyn Manson, White Zombie, KMFDM, Ministry, and Fear Factory. Death Metal gained momentum in the early 1990s as well, with acts such as Death, Deicide, Morbid Angel, Cannibal Corpse and Obituary among others. The Second wave of Black Metal gained popularity with leading force in Norway in Mayhem, Burzum and Darkthrone. Pop rock In the 1990s, there was a revival of the singer-songwriter movement of the 1970s. This movement lasted up to about 2004 with artists like Norah Jones, Dido and Sarah McLachlan. Important artists of this movement include Mariah Carey, Alanis Morissette, Tori Amos, Fiona Apple, Liz Phair, Amy Grant, Meredith Brooks, Juliana Hatfield, Edwin McCain, Duncan Sheik, Jewel, Natalie Merchant, Tracy Chapman, k.d. lang, Tal Bachman, Shawn Mullins, Sheryl Crow and Lisa Loeb. A famous album of the movement was the multi-platinum 1995 album Jagged Little Pill by Alanis Morissette as well as Sheryl Crow's 1993 album Tuesday Night Music Club and her 1996 eponymous album. Canadian artist Tom Cochrane got hit "Life is a Highway", Marc Cohn had "Walking in Memphis", and 4 Non Blondes released hit "What's Up". The trend ended in the late 1990s with Lynda Thomas, who became the first idol of the "teen pop-rock" movement, which later in the 2000s reached its highest level of popularity with later singers such as Avril Lavigne, Kelly Clarkson, P!nk, Hilary Duff, Miley Cyrus, Aly & AJ, and Ashlee Simpson. Also in the 1990s, artists such as Jeff Buckley, Dave Matthews, Shania Twain, Bryan Adams, Elliott Smith, Melissa Etheridge, as well as Sheryl Crow borrowed from the singer-songwriter tradition to create new acoustic-based rock styles. Hard rock Third wave glam metal artists such as Firehouse, Warrant, Extreme, Slaughter, and Skid Row experienced their greatest success at the start of the decade, but these bands' popularity waned after 1992 or so. Mötley Crüe and Poison, who were hugely popular in the 1980s, released successful albums in 1989 and 1990, respectively, and continued to benefit from that success in the early part of the decade. The Black Crowes ushered in a more classic rock 'n' roll sound with their successful debut in 1990. More well-established hard rock artists such as Guns N' Roses, Van Halen, Def Leppard, Ozzy Osbourne, and Tom Petty released successful albums and remained very popular in the first half of the decade, while Aerosmith, Bon Jovi, and Metallica maintained their popularity throughout the entire decade, largely by re-inventing themselves with each new album and exploring different sounds. Kiss released what was claimed to be a reunion album with the original four members in the late 1990s, but it was later revealed Ace Frehley and Peter Criss had very limited performances on the album. Pop British girl group Spice Girls managed to break the US market, becoming the most commercially successful British group in North America since The Beatles. Their impact brings about a widespread invasion of teen pop acts to the US charts which had been predominantly dominated by grunge and hip hop prior to the success of the group. Between 1997 and 2000, American teen pop singers and groups including Backstreet Boys, *NSYNC, 98 Degrees, Hanson, Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Jessica Simpson, Mandy Moore, Jennifer Lopez and Destiny's Child became popular, following the lead of the Spice Girls by targeting early members of Generation Y. At the end of the decade, Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera had huge successes with their hit singles, "...Baby One More Time" and "Genie in a Bottle" and respective debut albums which remain among the best selling of all time. Britney Spears's single/ album went onto the top of the US charts in early 1999. "Womanizer" (Jive) was the second No. 1 hit for Spears after her debut single, " ... Baby One More Time." Spears has the longest gap between No. 1 hits since Cher's "Believe" claimed pole position in March 1999, just 10 days shy of 25 years after "Dark Lady" landed in first place. Madonna's Erotica, was released in 1992 and became one of her most controversial releases. In February 1998, Madonna released the critically acclaimed Ray of Light, which has sold over 16 million copies worldwide. Cyndi Lauper released her first mature album Hat Full of Stars (1993), which leaves complete the image of her first two albums, but was highly praised by critics even though it did not achieve commercial success. Larry Flick of Billboard called Janet Jackson's The Velvet Rope "[t]he best American album of the year and the most empowering of her last five." Released in October 1997, The Velvet Rope debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. In August 1997, the album's lead single, "Got 'til It's Gone", was released to radio, peaking at number 12 on the Billboard Rhythmic Airplay Chart. The single sampled the Joni Mitchell song "Big Yellow Taxi", and featured a cameo appearance by rapper Q-Tip. "Got 'til It's Gone" won the 1997 Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video. The album's second single "Together Again", became her eighth number one hit on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, and placing her on par with Elton John, and The Rolling Stones. The single spent a record 46 weeks on the Hot 100, as well as spending 19 weeks on the UK singles chart. "I Get Lonely" peaked at number three on the Hot 100. The Velvet Rope sold over ten million albums worldwide and was certified three times platinum by the RIAA. Celine Dion achieved worldwide success during the decade after releasing several best-selling English-language albums, such as Falling into You (1996) and Let's Talk About Love (1997), which were both certified diamond by the RIAA. Dion also scored a series of international number-one hits, including "Beauty and the Beast" (1991), "If You Asked Me To" (1992), "The Power of Love" (1993), "Think Twice" (1994), "Because You Loved Me" (1996), "It's All Coming Back to Me Now" (1996), "All by Myself" (1996), "I'm Your Angel" (1998) and "That's the Way It Is" (1999). In December 1997, Dion released the single "My Heart Will Go On" from the Titanic soundtrack. With worldwide sales estimated at 18 million copies, it is one of the best-selling singles of all time and became the second-best-selling single by a female artist in history. Adult contemporary In the early 1990s, Mariah Carey's hit singles such as "Vision of Love" (1990) and "Love Takes Time" (1990), and Whitney Houston's "All the Man That I Need" (1990) and "I Will Always Love You" (1992) topped the radio charts for the adult contemporary format. Contemporary R&B Whitney Houston's quiet storm hits included "All the Man That I Need" (1990) and "I Will Always Love You" (1992), later became the best-selling physical single by a female act of all time, with sales of over 20 million copies worldwide. Her 1992 hit soundtrack The Bodyguard, spent 20 weeks on top of the Billboard 200, sold over 45 million copies worldwide and remains the best-selling soundtrack album of all time. According to the RIAA, Houston is the best-selling female R&B artist of the 20th century. In the 1990s, Mariah Carey's career originated in quiet storm, with hit singles such as "Vision of Love" (1990) and "Love Takes Time" (1990). Her albums Music Box (1993) and Daydream (1995) are some of the best-selling albums of all time, and had R&B/HipHop influences. Richard J. Ripani wrote that Carey and Houston, "both of whom rely heavily on the gospel music vocal tradition, display an emphasis on melisma that increased in R&B generally over the 1980s and 1990s." Beyoncé quoted Carey's "Vision of Love" to make her want to sing, as did many other popular artist. Also during the early 1990s, Boyz II Men re-popularized classic soul-inspired vocal harmonies. Michael Jackson incorporated new jack swing into his 1991 album Dangerous, with sales over 35 million, and was one of the best selling albums of the decade. The popularity of ballads and R&B led to the development of a radio format called Urban adult contemporary. Popular African-American contemporary R&B artists included Mariah Carey, Mark Morrison, Faith Evans, 112, D'Angelo, Lauryn Hill, Whitney Houston, En Vogue, Toni Braxton, Boyz II Men, Macy Gray, Mary J. Blige, Dru Hill, Vanessa Williams, Groove Theory, Bell Biv Devoe, Jodeci, Janet Jackson, Diana King, Tony! Toni! Tone!, Brownstone, Shanice, Usher, SWV, Silk, 702, Aaliyah, Keith Sweat, TLC, Xscape, Brandy, Monica, Mýa, Total, Tevin Campbell and R.Kelly. In contrast to the works of Boyz II Men, Babyface and similar artists, other R&B artists from this same period began adding even more of a hip hop sound to their work. The synthesizer-heavy rhythm tracks of new jack swing was replaced by grittier East Coast hip hop-inspired backing tracks, resulting in a genre labelled hip hop soul by producer Sean Combs. The style became less popular by the end of the 1990s, but later experienced a resurgence. During the mid-1990s, Mary J. Blige, Mariah Carey, Faith Evans, TLC, Xscape, Whitney Houston and Boyz II Men brought contemporary R&B to the masses. Jackson's self-titled fifth studio album janet. (1993), which came after her historic multimillion-dollar contract with Virgin Records, sold over 20 million copies worldwide. Houston, Boyz II Men and Carey recorded several Billboard Hot 100 No. 1 hits, including "Exhale (Shoop Shoop)", "One Sweet Day", a collaboration between Boyz II Men and Carey, which became the longest-running No. 1 hit in Hot 100 history. Carey, Boyz II Men and TLC released albums in 1994 and 1995—Daydream, II, and CrazySexyCool respectively – that sold over ten million copies, earning them diamond status in the U.S. Beginning in 1995, the Grammy Awards enacted the Grammy Award for Best R&B Album with II, and Boyz II Men became the first recipient. The award was later received by TLC for CrazySexyCool in 1996. Mariah Carey's duet with Boyz II Men "One Sweet Day" was pronounced song of the decade, charting at number one on the decade-end chart. Carey became Billboard's most successful female artist of the decade, and one of the most successful R&B acts of the 1990s. R&B artists such as Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston, R.Kelly and Mariah Carey are some of the best selling music artists of all time, and especially in the 1990s brought Contemporary R&B to a worldwide platform. Neo-soul In the mid-1990s, neo soul, which added 1970s soul influences to the hip hop soul blend, arose, led by artists such as D'Angelo, Erykah Badu, Lauryn Hill, and Maxwell. Lauryn Hill and Missy Elliott further blurred the line between R&B and hip hop by recording both styles. D'Angelo's Brown Sugar was released in June 1995. Although sales were sluggish at first, the album was eventually a hit, due in large part to "Lady," a top-ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 charts, peaking at No. 10. The album earned platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America, for shipments of one million copies in the U.S., while its total sales have been estimated within the range of 1.5 million to over two million copies. While the album was certified platinum in the United States, indicating shipments of one million units, its total sales were adversely reported by several publications with estimations ranging from 1.5 to 2 million units. The album helped give commercial visibility to the burgeoning Neo soul movement of the 1990s, along with debut albums by Maxwell, Erykah Badu, and Lauryn Hill. The album was a critical success as well and appeared on many critics' best-of lists that year. Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998) remains her only studio album; it received critical acclaim, some suggesting it was the greatest neo-soul album of all time. It debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and sold 19 million copies worldwide, spawning the singles "Doo Wop (That Thing)", "Ex-Factor", and "Everything Is Everything". At the 41st Grammy Awards, the album earned her five Grammy Awards, including the Album of the Year. Soon after, Hill dropped out of the public-eye, mainly because of her dissatisfaction with the music industry. Hip hop The decade is notable for the extension of the rap music scene from New York City, the center of hip hop culture throughout the 1980s, to other cities like Los Angeles, Atlanta, Houston, the Bay Area, Miami, Chicago, and Memphis. Dr. Dre's 1992 album The Chronic provided a template for modern gangsta rap. In addition to The Chronic, Dre introduced a new artist known as Snoop Dogg which allowed for the success of Snoop's album, Doggystyle, in 1993. Due to the success of Death Row Records, West Coast hip hop dominated hip hop during the early 1990s, alongside The Notorious B.I.G. on the East Coast. Hip hop became the best selling music genre by the mid-1990s. High-selling rap albums released in the 1990s include The Chronic by Dr. Dre, Illmatic by Nas, All Eyez on Me by Tupac, Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers) by Wu-Tang Clan, Ready To Die by Notorious B.I.G., Ridin' Dirty by UGK, 19 Naughty III by Naughty by Nature, and Doggystyle by Snoop Dogg. In 1998, Lauryn Hill released her debut album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. In 1999, The Miseducation was nominated for 10 Grammys, winning five (which at the time was unheard of for a hip-hop artist) and eventually went on to sell over 19 million copies worldwide. The early 1990s was dominated by female rappers, such as Queen Latifah and hip hop trio Salt-N-Pepa. The late 1990s saw the rise of successful female rappers and a turn in East Coast hip hop, with the debuts of Lil' Kim (with Hard Core) and Foxy Brown (with Ill Na Na), due to their use of excessive raunchy and provocative lyrics. In the early 1990s, the hip-hop/dance group C+C Music Factory also saw huge success, especially with the song "Gonna Make You Sweat (Everybody Dance Now)". By the end of the 1990s, attention turned towards dirty south and crunk, with artists such as Outkast, Trick Daddy, Trina, Three 6 Mafia, Master P, Juvenile, Missy Elliott and Lil Wayne. The mid-1990s were marked by the deaths of the West Coast-based rapper Tupac and the East Coast-based rapper The Notorious B.I.G., which conspiracy theorists claim were killed as a result of the East Coast–West Coast hip hop rivalry. Samples and interpolations of old songs in hip hop songs were common in the 1990s as a way to celebrate the end of the 2nd millennium and the 20th century by going retro. Many of the following songs include samples from older songs: "U Can't Touch This" by MC Hammer; "Jump Around" by House of Pain; "Mo Money Mo Problems" and "Big Poppa" by Notorious B.I.G.; "It Was a Good Day" by Ice Cube; "Regulate" by Warren G and Nate Dogg; "I'll Be Missing You" by Puff Daddy featuring Faith Evans and 112; "Ain't No Nigga" by Jay-Z featuring Foxy Brown; "Killing Me Softly" by The Fugees; "Feel So Good" by Mase; "Hey Lover" by Boyz II Men featuring LL Cool J; "C.R.E.A.M." by Wu-Tang Clan; "Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" by Dr. Dre featuring Snoop Dogg; "No Diggity" by BLACKstreet; "Gangsta's Paradise" by Coolio featuring L.V.; "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)" by Missy Elliott; "I Wish" by Skee-Lo; "People Everyday" and "Tennessee" by Arrested Development; "The Humpty Dance" by Digital Underground; Tupac's "Do for Love", "I Get Around", and "California Love"; and Will Smith's "Men in Black", and "Wild Wild West". Some of the most prominent rap artists of the 1990s include Bone Thugs-N-Harmony, Tupac, Notorious B.I.G., Nas, Ice Cube, Dr. Dre, LL Cool J, Eazy-E, Wu-Tang Clan, Vanilla Ice, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes, Cypress Hill, Warren G, Coolio, Big Pun, OutKast, The Fugees, Naughty by Nature , Mobb Deep, A Tribe Called Quest, Puff Daddy, Will Smith, DMX, Master P, Jay-Z and Eminem. Electronic music With the explosive growth of computers, music technology and consequent reduction in the cost of equipment in the early 1990s, it became possible for a wider number of musicians to produce electronic music. Even though initially most of the electronic music was dance music, the genre developed in the 1990s as musicians started producing music which was not necessarily designed for the dance-floor but rather for home listening (later on referred to as "Electronica") and slower-paced music which was played throughout chillout rooms—the relaxation sections of the clubs (later on referred to as "downtempo", "chill-out music" and "ambient music"). Since we don't really know what was the first electronic music computer generated track ever made, in the USA we can find in the intro of Pink Floyd's "Dark Side of the Moon" released in 1973, a fully completed music track using only computers and machines. At the same time, in Germany, Kraftwerk is recognized as the very first band creating music only with machines and computers. Kraftwerk were the pioneers of what is electronic music nowadays. Then, the electronic music scene exploded in the world, with at the front line, Chicago for House Music, and Detroit the Techno. In the late 1990s, Madonna had success with her album Ray of Light which experimented with electronica sounds. Moby achieved international success in the ambient electronica scene after releasing his critically acclaimed album Play in 1999 which produced an impressive eight hit singles (including his most popular songs "Porcelain", "Natural Blues" and "Why Does My Heart Feel So Bad?"). Electronic dance music was highly successful throughout the decade in Europe, particularly in Britain, Germany and Italy. Outdoor raves were popular at the start of the decade in the UK, before the government introduced its Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, leading to a higher number of superclubs opening. Among the most successful were Ministry of Sound and Cream. Before the ban, popular genres at these raves included breakbeat hardcore and techno, though in the mid-1990s these genres splintered into separate scenes, such as happy hardcore, jungle and drum and bass, the latter of which received mainstream recognition through artists such as Goldie and Roni Size. Other notable British genres that emerged during the decade include progressive house, big beat, vocal house, trip hop and UK garage (or speed garage). The latter genre developed in London in the late 1990s and continued to be successful through to the early 2000s. DJ Culture also gained momentum during the 1990s. DJs such as Sasha, John Digweed, Paul Oakenfold, Ferry Corsten and Pete Tong became big names in the business, which was made desirable by magazines such as Mixmag and Muzik. Italy ended the 1980s with Italo house, before becoming one of many countries to release Eurodance and Hi-NRG. Both genres were commercially successful across the world, with artists such as 2 Unlimited, La Bouche and Captain Hollywood promoting the genre. Countries such as Germany and Belgium, however, developed harder, darker styles of music, namely gabber, hard trance and techno. Trance emerged in the early 1990s and by the end of the decade had penetrated most of Europe, with artists such as ATB, Ferry Corsten, WestBam and Paul Van Dyk gaining huge commercial and underground success. European trance remained popular until the early 2000s. Goa became famed for its goa trance parties and Ibiza became the Number 1 clubbers' holiday destination. Country music The popularity of country music exploded in the early 1990s. The stage had been set in 1989 with the debuts of several performers who proved to be profoundly influential on the genre during the 1990s and beyond. Most notable of that group was Garth Brooks, who shattered records for album sales and concert attendance throughout the decade. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million U.S. shipments. Brooks recorded primarily in a honky-tonk style, although he frequently combined elements of soft rock and arena rock in his songs. His songs sometimes explored social themes, such as domestic violence (in "The Thunder Rolls") and racial harmony ("We Shall Be Free)", while others – such as "Friends in Low Places" — were just good-time songs with traditional country themes of heartbreak, loneliness and dealing with those emotions. Other performers who rose in popularity during the early 1990s were neo-traditionalists Clint Black and Alan Jackson and southern rock influenced Travis Tritt. Mary Chapin Carpenter had a folk-style about her, while Lorrie Morgan (daughter of the late George Morgan, himself a country legend) blended elements of country and pop, and occasionally operatic sounds in songs such as "Something in Red." Trisha Yearwood was one of the top new singers of 1991, while Diamond Rio blended traditional and bluegrass styles and Brooks & Dunn provided a driving honky-tonk sound. Tom Cochrane also saw huge success with his signature song "Life Is a Highway". During the early-to-middle part of the decade, several recordings were influenced by the popularity of line dancing, including "Boot-Scootin' Boogie" by Brooks & Dunn and "Achy Breaky Heart" by Billy Ray Cyrus. This influence was so great that Chet Atkins was quoted as saying "The music has gotten pretty bad, I think. It's all that damn line dancing." A steady stream of new artists began their careers during the mid- and late-1990s. Many of these careers were short-lived, but several went on to long-lived, profitable careers. The most successful of the new artists were Yearwood, Shania Twain, LeAnn Rimes, Lee Ann Womack, Martina McBride, Kenny Chesney, Collin Raye, Faith Hill, and Tim McGraw, while Lonestar and Dixie Chicks were the most successful new groups. Twain's Come on Over album became the best-selling album released by a female of any genre. Yearwood became the first woman in more than 25 years to have her debut single top the Billboard Country Singles chart in 1991 with her single "She's in Love with the Boy". Yearwood's debut album also became the first by a female country act to sell over 1 million copies, eventually going double platinum. Among artists whose success continued from the 1980s, Reba McEntire was the most successful of the female artists, selling more than 30 million albums during the decade, gaining eight number-one hit singles on the U.S. Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart and six number one albums internationally, including her best-selling album, Greatest Hits Vol. 2, which was released in September 1993 and has sold over an international amount of 10 million copies to date. George Strait, a neo-traditionalist whose national success began in the early 1980s, enjoyed success as both a radio artist (17 No. 1 songs) and as a movie star (1992's Pure Country). Alabama, the most successful country band of the 1980s, continued their run of popularity with sell-out concerts and best-selling albums, while topping the country chart five times. Among older artists having big hits, Conway Twitty was one of the most successful, scoring two Top 3 hits with "Crazy in Love" and "I Couldn't See You Leaving", while Eddie Rabbitt had a No. 1 hit with "On Second Thought." Dolly Parton had a No. 1 hit (with relative newcomer Ricky Van Shelton) on "Rockin' Years" in 1991 and had several top 15 hits. Although his 1990s singles never reached the top 20 (excepting for a duet single with Randy Travis), George Jones (who had been around since the 1950s) regularly recorded and released critically acclaimed material, including the semi-autobiographical "Choices." The Oak Ridge Boys continued their run of success with a No. 1 hit ("No Matter How High") and several other top 40 hits; in 1995, upon the departure of William Lee Golden's replacement Steve Sanders, Golden reunited with longtime band members Duane Allen, Joe Bonsall and Richard Sterban, and the group has remained intact since then. While the Oak Ridge Boys' contemporaries The Statler Brothers were no longer reaching the top 40, the veteran group remained highly popular with fans and their new albums continued to sell well. Other artists reaching the top 10 of the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart were Waylon Jennings, Anne Murray, and Kenny Rogers. Pop-influenced country music began growing in popularity, particularly after Twain and Hill rose in popularity in the latter half of the 1990s. In 1998, Hill's "This Kiss" and Twain's "You're Still the One" both reached the top 10 of the Billboard Hot 100, in addition to peaking at No. 1 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Rimes had a multi-million selling hit with "How Do I Live" (a song successfully covered by Yearwood), while Lonestar also had a huge crossover hit with "Amazed." Although the occurrence of country crossing over to the pop charts goes back as far as the start of the Billboard charts in 1940, some critics began to be troubled by a trend toward what they perceived as pop music marketed as country; they contended that radio was concentrating more on newer music while ignoring the more traditional styles of older artists such as Merle Haggard, George Jones, and others who continued to record and release new material. Johnny Cash and producer Rick Rubin once purchased a full-page advertisement in Billboard magazine – after Cash's album Unchained won a Grammy for Best Country Album, despite a lack of support from radio – showing a young Cash displaying his middle finger and sarcastically "thanking" radio for supporting the album. The criticism of pop-influenced and non-traditional styles in country music, however, dated back to the 1970s although it had quieted down comparably during the 1980s. In the 1990s, alternative country came to refer to a diverse group of musicians and singers operating outside the traditions and industry of mainstream country music. In general, they eschewed the high production values and pop outlook of the Nashville-dominated industry, to produce music with a lo-fi sound, frequently infused with a strong punk and rock & roll aesthetic, bending the traditional rules of country music. Lyrics were often bleak, gothic or socially aware. Other initiators include Old 97's, Steve Earle, Uncle Tupelo, Son Volt, Ryan Adams, My Morning Jacket, Blitzen Trapper, and Drive-By Truckers. A number of notable artists in country music died during the decade, including Twitty, Webb Pierce, Dottie West, Tennessee Ernie Ford, Roger Miller, Roy Acuff, Charlie Rich, Minnie Pearl, Faron Young, John Denver, Carl Perkins, Grandpa Jones, Tammy Wynette, Eddie Rabbitt, Gene Autry, Roy Rogers, Rex Allen and Hank Snow. Jazz Swing revival During the 1990s, concurrent with third wave ska, swing music made a resurgence in the form of swing revival, which brought the jazz form into the pop charts. Reaching its commercial zenith around the time of the movie Swingers, whose soundtrack featured numerous 1990s swing bands, the movement was exemplified by bands such as Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, Cherry Poppin' Daddies, Squirrel Nut Zippers, and the Brian Setzer Orchestra. The highest-charting song of the genre would have been "Jump, Jive an' Wail" by the Brian Setzer Orchestra, which peaked at No. 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the U.S. in 1998, and won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals in 1999. Europe Rock Madchester In the late 1980s/early 1990s, a counter-culture movement rose from the Manchester club scene that came to be known as Madchester. Happy Mondays and the Stone Roses were the pre-eminent bands. Britpop In the early 1990s, a counter-culture movement rose in Britain, called Britpop by the music press, rejecting the themes of disenfranchised youth coming out of America in favor of songs written specifically about the experiences of the British youth. Although the movement was heavily influenced by 1960s, 1970s and 1980s British rock, there was very little that musically defined the Britpop bands beyond the intensely British lyrical themes. Britpop bands such as Blur, Suede, Kula Shaker, Pulp, Ash, Ocean Colour Scene, Elastica, Supergrass, the Verve and Oasis regularly topped the singles and album charts throughout the decade. Oasis were the biggest band of the Britpop era at the forefront of alternative rock, as their second album (What's the Story) Morning Glory? became the second highest selling studio album of all time in the UK. "Wonderwall" peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart, and number 8 on the US Billboard Hot 100. Their era-defining concerts at Knebworth Park, playing to 250,000 people over two nights, broke records for attendance and ticket applications. In addition to this, they made a significant impact on the US market, achieving three top 5 albums in that country. The Britpop phenomena ran out of steam by the end of the 1990s with most of its most successful bands splitting up or fading away, although bands that rose from the rubble of predecessors Oasis were Travis, Coldplay and Keane. Post-Britpop From about 1997, Britpop as a movement began to dissolve, and emerging bands began to avoid the Britpop label while still producing music derived from it. Many of these bands tended to mix elements of British traditional rock (or British trad rock), particularly the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and Small Faces with American influences, including post-grunge. Post-Britpop bands like Coldplay, Travis, Stereophonics and Feeder achieved much wider international success than most of the Britpop groups that had preceded them, and were some of the most commercially successful acts of the late 1990s. Shoegaze Shoegaze is an indie and alternative rock subgenre distinguished by an ethereal blend of obscured vocals, guitar distortion and effects, feedback, and overwhelming volume. The album Loveless (1991) by My Bloody Valentine is widely regarded as the genre's defining release; other notable shoegaze bands include Slowdive, Ride, Lush, Pale Saints, and Chapterhouse. "The Scene That Celebrates Itself" was a loose label given to shoegaze bands and other affiliated bands in London in the early 1990s. Most shoegaze artists followed in the footsteps of My Bloody Valentine and bands like Dinosaur Jr., the Jesus and Mary Chain, and Cocteau Twins on their late 1980s recordings. Other trends The Irish Celtic folk rock band the Corrs achieved international success during the late 1990s with a series of hit recordings which established them as international stars and helped prolong a successful career that continued into the 2000s. The Scottish rock duo The Proclaimers achieved success with "I'm Gonna Be (500 Miles)". Pop Pop music and dance music became popular throughout the 1990s. Popular European pop artists of the 1990s included Seal, M People, 2 Unlimited, and Ace of Base. During the 1990s, some European managers created their own boy band acts, beginning with Nigel Martin-Smith's Take That and East 17, which competed with Louis Walsh's Irish bands Westlife and Boyzone. In 1996, the male saturated market was turned on its head by one of the most successful and influential pop acts of the decade, the Spice Girls. The group achieve nine number one singles in the UK and US, including "Wannabe", "2 Become 1" and "Spice Up Your Life". The group, unlike their British boy band predecessors, manage to break America and achieve the best-selling album of 1997 in the US. More girl groups began to emerge such as All Saints, who had five number one hits in the UK and two multi-platinum albums. By the end of the century, the grip of boy bands on the charts was faltering, but proved the basis for solo careers like that of Robbie Williams, formerly of Take That, who achieved six number one singles in the UK between 1998 and 2004. Additional popular European teen pop acts of the 1990s included Ace of Base, Aqua and A*Teens. The German singer Lou Bega also achieved success with his cover of "Mambo No. 5" Ballad songs were popular during this decade, and popular European artists included George Michael, Robert Palmer, Sade, Sinéad O'Connor, the Cranberries, Lisa Stansfield and Roxette. Danish pop/soft rock band Michael Learns to Rock, fronted by singer/songwriter/keyboardist Jascha Richter, were well known for their ballads, particularly in Asia with songs such as "The Actor", "Sleeping Child", "That's Why (You Go Away)", and "Paint My Love". In summer 1996, the Spanish music duo Los del Río popularized the dance craze "Macarena" with their summer hit "Macarena". The song was featured prominently in many other countries during the mid-1990s. In October 1998, the American artist Cher released her Euro disco album Believe, which was extremely popular and sold more than 10 million copies worldwide. Electronic music With the explosive growth of computers music technology and consequent reduction in the cost of equipment in the early 1990s, it became possible for a wider number of musicians to produce electronic music. The popularity of house, techno and rave in the early part of the decade lead to the boom of the more commercial Eurodance genre. Popular European Eurodance acts of the decade included Toy-Box, Daze, Jonny Jakobsen, Alexia, Alice Deejay, Rednex, Haddaway, Captain Jack, Captain Hollywood Project, Basic Element, Solid Base, Daze, Gigi D'Agostino, Vengaboys, 2 Unlimited, Cappella, Eiffel 65, Corona, Culture Beat, DJ Bobo, Dr. Alban, T.H. Express, Ice MC, La Bouche, 2 Brothers on the 4th Floor, Twenty 4 Seven, Leila K, Fun Factory, Masterboy, Mr. President, Pandora, Magic Affair, Maxx, Loft, Sash!, BKS, Snap!, Playahitty, Love Inc., Real McCoy, Urban Cookie Collective, Scatman John, Paradisio and Whigfield. Eventually the popularity of the Eurodance genre lead to the huge popularity of the trance genre in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The 1990s also saw the development and refinement of IDM (intelligent dance music), which borrowed from forms such as techno, drum and bass and acid house music and introduced more abstract elements, including heavy use of digital signal processing. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, popular electronic genres of the 1990s included breakbeat hardcore, drum and bass/jungle, big beat and UK garage. Among the most commercially successful electronic acts in the 1990s of these scenes were artists such as the Prodigy, the Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, Aphex Twin, Autechre, Boards of Canada, Squarepusher, Leftfield, LFO, Massive Attack, Portishead, Underworld and Faithless. Notable 1990s UK garage acts included the Dreem Teem, Tuff Jam, Grant Nelson, 187 Lockdown, R.I.P. Productions/Double 99, Dem 2, Artful Dodger and Sunship. Acid jazz saw a rise in popularity in the early part of the decade, with acts such as Jamiroquai, Incognito, the Brand New Heavies, Us3, the James Taylor Quartet, Stereo MCs, Ronny Jordan, Galliano, and Corduroy, as well as some American acts such as Digable Planets and Buckshot LeFonque. The arrival of Massive Attack in the early 1990s lead to a new style of slow electronic music dubbed trip hop and influenced groups such as Portishead, Björk, Tricky, Morcheeba and Thievery Corporation. Latin America Pop Puerto Rico became a merengue stronghold in the early 1990s, with acts such as Elvis Crespo, Olga Tañon and Grupo Mania topping the charts throughout Latin America. Latin boys band and vocal pop groups were storming up the charts in Mexico and Central America. Mexican boy band Magneto spawned hits in the early 1990s but split in 1996. In 1995, their successors, Mercurio continued making top hits like Bye Bye Baby and Explota Corazón. MDO, a Puerto Rican boy band also hoarded the charts with songs like No Puedo Olvidarme de Ti. Mexican pop groups Onda Vaselina and Kabah spanned several hits in the Latin American charts and made history in the Mexican charts. Jeans, Mexican pop girl group rose to fame in late 1996 and 1997 and continued until the 2000s. Then-21-year-old singer Luis Miguel rediscovered the bolero circa 1991, echoing back to the trios of the 1940s with his album Romance, making him the biggest international Latin star until the late 1990s. From early to mid-1990s successful acts such as Selena Quintanilla-Pérez, Thalía, Lynda Thomas, Chayanne, Paulina Rubio and arguably the most successful and influential, Gloria Trevi, became the first 1990s music idols in Latin America, subsequently appeared other successful singers and pop groups, including No Mercy, Shakira, Fey and Enrique Iglesias, they also achieved international success. Colombian rock singer Shakira, Puerto Rican-American actress Jennifer Lopez, and Spanish singer Enrique Iglesias began to rise into the top of the pop charts by the end of the decade, following Selena's assassination. Ricky Martin eclipsed Luis Miguel as the top Latin star when he performed "The Cup of Life" during the 1999 Grammy Awards, earning him the award for Best Latin Pop Performance. He released his English-language debut album less than half a year later, which featured the international hit, opening track "Livin' La Vida Loca". Rock Surge of newfound interest in Spanish-language rock, led by bands like Soda Stereo, Héroes del Silencio, Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, Maná, La Ley, Café Tacuba or Los Tres which gained large international following during this period. Others would follow their footsteps. Along with the rise of Spanish rock came "rock alternativo", a Spanish equivalent to alternative rock headed by bands like Los Piojos, Babasónicos and Attaque 77. The "rolinga" or "stone rock" genre also emerged from "rock alternativo", popularized and headed throughout the entire decade by Viejas Locas. The stone-rock genre would remain popular in the 2000s with the Viejas Locas' vocalist, Pity Álvarez's other band Intoxicados. Salsa During the 1990s, salsa spread from the Caribbean region all over Latin America sharing the dance music niche with cumbia. During this period salsa became also increasingly popular as dance music in the US and Europe. Beginning in 1990, the salsa romantica that began in the 1980s becomes a standard in tropical music thanks to chart-topping stars mainly from Puerto Rico such as Marc Anthony, Jerry Rivera, Tito Rojas, Víctor Manuelle and Gilberto Santa Rosa. Cumbia In the 1990s, the popularity of cumbia waned in favour of other styles such as salsa but remained relatively strong. In Argentina, Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia and other countries as well synthesizers and elements of electronic music were incorporated into cumbia music, giving birth to cumbia sonidera, cumbia andina mexicana and cumbia villera. The blending of chicha music and cumbia in Peru also gained large popularity. Oceania Pop and rock In Australia and New Zealand, the bands INXS and Crowded House, who had risen to international fame in the 1980s, continued their success into the 1990s. However, INXS saw a decline in popularity after the release of 1993's Full Moon, Dirty Hearts, which did not even reach the US Top 50 and on 22 November 1997, a few months after the release of the band's tenth studio album Elegantly Wasted, lead singer Michael Hutchence was found dead in a Sydney hotel room. Crowded House released two further albums, 1991's Woodface and 1994's Together Alone, which were both successful internationally, but disbanded in 1996 after playing their 'Farewell to the World' concert at the steps of the Sydney Opera House. Their greatest hits compilation album Recurring Dream, released in 1996, debuted at number one in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom and reached the Top 20 in several European territories. Notable 1990s Australian rock bands include Silverchair, Savage Garden, Bachelor Girl, Powderfinger, and The Living End. In New Zealand, hip hop group OMC's single "How Bizarre" became the most successful New Zealand song in history, reaching number one in several music charts around the world, including Australia, Canada, Ireland, South Africa and Austria. The nineties saw a surge in popularity of alternative rock music in New Zealand, especially the popularity of alternative rock bands from the independent music label Flying Nun Records. Successful alternative rock bands of this era include Straitjacket Fits, Headless Chickens and The Chills. Headless Chickens provided Flying Nun with their first number one New Zealand single in 1994 with their song "George". Australian singer Kylie Minogue, who quickly rose to fame in the late 1980s, continued to be popular throughout the decade, most notably with songs "Confide in Me" and "Where the Wild Roses Grow", which she recorded with Nick Cave. Her younger sister Dannii, launched her music career becoming successful in Australia and the United Kingdom with hits such as "Love and Kisses", "This Is It", and "All I Wanna Do". The 1990s also saw the emergence of pop/rock singer Natalie Imbruglia who gained a worldwide popularity with a cover of Ednaswap's song Torn, pop singer Peter Andre, pop band Human Nature, Tina Arena and R&B/hip-hop artists CDB and Deni Hines. Asia Japanese rock In 1998, Supercar released its influential debut album Three Out Change. Characterized as having "almost foundational importance to 21st century Japanese indie rock", Supercar remained active through 2005 with their later albums containing more electronic rock. Around the same time, bands such as Quruli and Number Girl had begun heavily influencing Japanese alternative rock. Music critic Ian Martin wrote that, along with Supercar, these groups had demonstrated that "Japanese rock bands could take on the British and American alternative bands of the 1990s at their own game ... and in doing so, they had laid the new ground for Japanese rock to develop in its own way from this point on." J-pop Tokyo-based noise rock band Melt-Banana became an international touring cult act as well as the Boredoms. J-Pop was a major trend in the late 1990s. The Japanese record label Avex Trax produced a string of top-charting J-pop artists, including Namie Amuro, Ayumi Hamasaki, and the band Every Little Thing. Hikaru Utada, only 16 at the time, scored her signature hit in 1999 with "Automatic", which was later covered by Hong Kong singer Kelly Chen. Also in 1999, DA PUMP, a four-member boyband, had a hit with "Crazy Beat Goes On!", featured in the soundtrack of the year's film blockbuster, Star Wars Episode 1: The Phantom Menace. "Give me a shake", by girl-band MAX, was also a chart-topper in 1999. J-pop in the 1990s was significant because of its irresistible inclusion of English lyrics in the songs. Titles of most songs were also often in English. Notable examples include "Feeling good – it's paradise" by DA PUMP and "Give me a shake" by MAX. Other J-pop artists, such as Hokkaido two-girl band Kiroro, rarely included English lyrics in their songs. Some non-Japanese-speaking artists, such as Taiwan's Vivian Hsu, also crossed over successfully into J-pop; Hsu's band Black Biscuits had a hit single in 1999 in both Japanese and Taiwanese Mandarin with "Bye bye". Taiwanese singer A-mei recorded a Japanese song on her 1999 album May I hold you, lover?. Asian pop The 1990s saw a revival of interest in local music in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Malaysia, and Singapore. In these four regions alone, local artists outsold foreign artists, especially during the late 1990s. Three big Taiwanese rockers were household names throughout the 1990s. In 1997, it was Wu Bai; in 1998, the two-piece band Power Station; and in 1999, the veteran pub guitarist/singer Dick Cowboy. Wu was known for his versatile ability to sing and write songs in Hokkien ("Number one in the world", "Back to hometown", "Lonely tree, lonely bird") as well as Taiwanese Mandarin ("Wanderer's love song", "Crying woman"), and also his poetic lyrics. His compositions were also recorded by other artists such as Hong Kong's Jacky Cheung ("If this is not love"), Wakin Chau ("Crying woman"), and Andy Lau ("Number one in the world", "Lone star tear"), and Taiwan's Tarcy Su ("Lazy Man's Diary", "Passive", "Yellow Moon"). Power Station, a Taiwanese aboriginal duo from the Paiwan tribe, were well known for their long hair, pitch-perfect two-part vocal harmonies, branded guitars/basses, and electrifying rock anthems. Members Yu Chiu-Hsin and Yen Chih-Lin also enjoyed success as singers of numerous television opening (and occasionally ending) themes throughout 1998 and 1999; they won the Best Theme Song award at the 1999 Star Awards for their song "I can endure the hardship", opening theme song to the award-winning drama series Stepping Out. Dick Cowboy had been a singer in various pubs in his youth, and was especially known for his covers of songs by A-mei, Phil Chang, and Jeff Chang. In 1999, at the age of 40, his original composition "Forget me or forget him" propelled him to superstardom. High-voiced male singers were fashionable in Taiwanese pop music in the 1990s. Jeff Chang was the foremost of these. His album Intuition (1998) contained the title track, which is his biggest single to date. Singer-songwriter Panda Hsiung, whose voice was very similar to Chang's, had his biggest hit with his original composition "Incomprehensible memories" in 1998, which was featured on the soundtrack of the drama, Legend of the Eight Immortals. Panda also had a string of hits throughout 1998 and 1999, including "I Wander Alone", "River of the Blues", "Snowbird", and "The Match Girl". Other popular Taiwanese male singers with exceptionally high voices during the 1990s included Chang Yu Sheng, Terry Lin, and Chyi Chin. The Eurodance craze found its way into the Asian pop market with such singers as Yuki Hsu. Her first big hit, recorded in 1999 when she was only 20, was "Who is bad?", a cover of Jonny Jakobsen's "Calcutta (Taxi taxi taxi)". Similarly, J-pop became popular in Taiwan and Hong Kong after their songs were translated into Chinese, for instance Kelly Chen's "Automatic ", a cover of the Hikaru Utada original; and Rene Liu's "Later", a remake of the Kiroro original. Hong Kong's Four Heavenly Kings – Aaron Kwok, Andy Lau, Jacky Cheung, and Leon Lai – were the undisputed solo artists from Hong Kong in the 1990s. Cheung was also nicknamed the "God of Songs" during this period. Young Hong Kong singers Daniel Chan, Ronald Cheng, and Gigi Leung had their big breaks in the 1990s. Chan's "Only you in my heart", on the album of the same name, was released in 1997 when Chan was only 22; the song was later selected as the opening theme song of Singaporean TV series, From the Medical Files . Chan would also continue to sing a few television opening/ending themes in 1998, including "Lonely nights I'm not lonely" (from Stand by me), "When dreams are discovered" and "Does your heart hurt" (both from A Piece of Sky). Cheng's album I Really Can was released in 1999 and was his biggest seller to date; his other successful albums included You Are Not My Dearest Lover (1997) and Don't Love Me (1996). Leung's album Fresh (1999), along with its title track, was a bestseller upon its release, and the title track remains her signature song. Julie Su Rui of Taiwan and Anita Mui of Hong Kong, both of them established veteran singers, also had comeback albums in this period. Su's album Love Comes This Way was released in 1998, and Mui's Intimate Lover, in 1992. In late 1999, two Hong Kong veteran singers had chart-topping albums. Jordan Chan's album A Bigger Star contained the song "I Don't Have Such Fate"; while William So's album Loving Someone Is So Hard contained "You + Me + Heartbroken", a re-recording of his signature song "Sadder as We Kiss" with new lyrics. Other Asian singers who had chart-toppers in the 1990s included, among others: From Hong Kong: Wakin Chau, Sally Yip, Andy Hui, Samuel Tai, David Lui and Sammi Cheng; From Taiwan: Tarcy Su, CoCo Lee, A-mei, Chao Chuan, Richie Ren and Phil Chang; From Malaysia: Eric Moo, Ah Gu and Auguste Kwan; From Singapore: Kit Chan, Mavis Hee and Fann Wong. The 1990s also saw the death of Taiwanese countertenor singer Chang Yu Sheng, who died in a car accident late in 1997. His protege, aboriginal singer A-mei, recorded the song "Hearing You, Hearing Me" in his memory. Legacy In December 1999, Billboard magazine named Mariah Carey as the Artist of the Decade in the United States. In 1999, Selena was named the "top Latin artist of the '90s" and "best-selling Latin artist of the decade" by Billboard, for her fourteen top-ten singles in the Top Latin Songs chart, including seven number-one hits. The singer also had the most successful singles of 1994 and 1995, "Amor Prohibido" and "No Me Queda Más". Reflecting on the decade's musical developments in Christgau's Consumer Guide: Albums of the '90s (2000), music critic Robert Christgau said the 1990s were "richly chaotic, unknowable", and "highly subject to vagaries of individual preference", yet "conducive to some manageable degree of general comprehension and enjoyment by any rock and roller." A 2022 study from research group Luminate revealed that 60% of American music listeners born in the 1990s listened to music from the decade they were born, compared to 53% of those born in the 2000s, 52% of those born in the 1980s, 41% of those born in the 1970s, and 35% of those born in the 1960s. See also 1970s in music 1980s in music 2000s in music References External links 90s Music – Grunge to Pop and Everything in Between 90s Music Videos – Music Videos from the 1990s 90s Music Hits 90's HITS - 90s HITS 1990s decade overviews

424096

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s%20in%20music

2000s in music

For music from a year in the 2000s, go to 00 | 01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | 05 | 06 | 07 | 08 | 09 This article is an overview of the major events and trends in popular music in the 2000s. In American culture, various styles of the late 20th century remained popular, such as rock, pop, metal, hip hop, R&B, EDM, country and indie. As the technology of computers and internet sharing developed, a variety of those genres started to fuse in order to see new styles emerging. Terms like "contemporary", "nu", "revival", "alternative", and "post" are added to various genre titles in order to differentiate them from past styles, with nu-disco and post-punk revival as notable examples. The popularity of teen pop carried over from the 1990s with acts such as *NSYNC, Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, and Christina Aguilera dominating the charts in the earlier years of the decade. Previously established pop music artists such as Michael Jackson and Madonna made a comeback in the early 2000s with successful releases such as Invincible and Music. Contemporary R&B was one of the most popular genres of the decade (especially in the early and mid-2000s), with artists like Usher, Alicia Keys, Beyoncé, and Rihanna. In 2004, the Billboard Year-End Hot 100 had 15 of its top 25 singles as contemporary R&B. The decade was dominated by the garage rock revival and the birth of a new indie rock style. In this decade, grime was a genre invented in the UK, while chillwave became popular in the United States in the latter part of the decade. In Britain, Britpop, post punk revival and alternative rock were at the height of their popularity with acts such as Coldplay, The Libertines, Oasis, Travis, Dido, Blur, The Hives, Björk, and Radiohead, which still continued at the top of the major charts in the rest of the world since the 1990s. Hip hop music achieved major mainstream status after the 1990s including Atlanta, Houston, New Orleans mainstream success. Popular rap movements of the 2000s include crunk, snap, hyphy, and alternative hip hop. Despite the hip hop dominance, such as Southern hip hop which lasted for most of the decade (particularly the middle years), rock music was still popular, notably alternative rock, and especially genres such as post-grunge, post-Britpop, nu metal, pop punk, emo, post-hardcore, metalcore, and in some cases indie rock; the early and mid-2000s saw a resurgence in the mainstream popularity of pop rock and power pop. Even though the popularity among the mainstream audience dipped slightly, country music continued to rise in sales, having a strong niche in the music industry. The genre saw the rise of new front-runners like Taylor Swift, Carrie Underwood, and Miley Cyrus, who was able to score top hits on all-genre Billboard charts, apart from the country charts, by appealing to a wider audience outside the genre. Electronic music was also popular throughout the decade; at the beginning of the 2000s, genres such as trance, chillout, house, indietronica, and Eurodance (in Europe) were popular. By the end of the decade, late 1980s/early 1990s inspired dance-oriented forms of electronic music such as synthpop, electropop, and electro house had become popular. By the end of the decade, a fusion between hip hop and electronic dance similar to the freestyle music of the late 1980s and early 1990s, known as hip house and electrohop also grew successful. In many Asian musical markets, with the increase of globalization, music became more Westernized, with influences of pop, hip hop, and contemporary R&B becoming ever-present in Eastern markets. American and European popular music also became more popular in Asia. Genres such as J-pop and K-pop remained popular throughout the decade, proliferating their cultural influence throughout the East and Southeast of Asia. In other parts of Asia, including India, Indian pop music, closely linked to Bollywood films and filmi music, was popular alongside Western pop music. In Latin America, whilst R&B, hip hop, and pop rock did have influence and success, Latin-based pop music remained highly popular. Reggaetón became a definitive genre in 2000s Latin music, as well as salsa and merengue. Subgenres fusing Latin music such as merengue and reggaetón with hip hop and rap music became popular from the middle of the decade onwards. In the mid-2000s, Narcocorrido music initially becomes a regional musical preference in many parts of Mexico and the southwestern United States. By 2006-2007 the genre had racked up sales averaging over $2 million per year beginning in 2005. No other regional Mexican music genere had garnered more sales and radio play as did Narcocorridos during this era. The continued development of studio recording software and electronic elements was observed throughout this decade. One such example is the usage of pitch correction software, such as auto-tune that appeared in the late 1990s. The internet allowed for unprecedented access to music and made it possible for artists to distribute their music freely without label backing. Innumerable online outlets and sheer volume of music also offers musicians more musical influences to draw from. North America Hip hop Hip hop dominated popular music in the early 2000s. Artists such as Eminem, Outkast, Black Eyed Peas, T.I., 50 Cent, Kanye West, Nelly, Common, Nas, Jay-Z, Busta Rhymes, Puff Daddy, Snoop Dogg, Missy Elliott, M.I.A., Lil' Kim, Gorillaz, Jeezy, Lil Wayne, Timbaland, The Game, and Ludacris were among the dominant mainstream hip hop artists to have represented the hip hop genre for the decade. Distinct regional differences also developed outside the hip hop/rap strongholds of the 1990s, New York City and Los Angeles. Though the Los Angeles style of the 1990s waned, gangsta rap continued to be popular through the 2000s, and more commercially oriented party rap dominated the charts. The emergence of hip-hop from the south and the Midwest was starting to take place, and by the end of the decade, hip-hop was starting to spread internationally.During the 2000s, Eminem, who is perhaps best known for being one of the few successful white rappers in the music industry, enjoyed a massive commercial success and maintained commercial relevance by attempting to be controversial and subversive. According to Billboard, two of Eminem's albums are among the top five highest-selling albums of the 2000s. After the release of his album Relapse, Eminem became the best-selling rapper of all time and the top selling artist of the decade across all genres. "Ringtone rap", which is rap music that was made popular for ringtones, which includes more "laid back" and "silly" elements along with repetitive hooks, became very popular in the later part of the 2000s. In late 2005, the Southern hip hop subgenre reached the peak of its popularity, especially its sub-subgenres of crunk and snap music (which started the dance craze movement in hip hop from 2005 to 2009). The number one selling crunk artist as well as paving the way to its popularity was Lil Jon who shot to fame in 2003, with his group The East Side Boyz. Then snap music became a staple for the remainder of the decade in hip hop with artists such as, Dem Franchize Boyz, D4L, Yung Joc, Soulja Boy, Unk, Jibbs, Da BackWudz, Purple Ribbon All-Stars, V.I.C., GS Boyz, the Fast Life Yungstaz, New Boyz, and Cali Swag District, to name a few. These artists have all contributed to starting some dance craze accompanied to one of their songs, with the most popular being Soulja's "Crank Dat" move, which gained popularity throughout 2007 and 2008. By the end of the decade this sound began to decline in popularity as well as the dance-crazes that came along with them, as pioneer hip hop artists and hip hop purists such as Ice-T and Nas denouncing the crunk and snap craze, with Nas's 2006 song "Hip Hop Is Dead" brought dislike to the new path hip hop was directing. By early 2000, the hyphy movement became popular in Northern California, specifically the Bay Area. Bay Area artists like Mac Dre, Keak Da Sneak, E-40, The Pack, and Too Short were prominent hyphy rappers. Hyphy culture included the use of party drugs like ecstasy, slang terms like "Go dumb" and "yadadamean", Ghost Riding, and Sideshows. By mid-2008, the sound began to fade as indie rap and alternative began to come in with artists such as Kid Cudi and The Cool Kids, who fused hip hop with electro and hipster influences. This trend continued on into the early 2010s. Alternative hip hop, almost unknown in the mainstream, except for a few crossover acts, evolved throughout the decade with the help of artists such as Mos Def, Lupe Fiasco, The Roots, MF Doom, Aesop Rock, and Common, who achieved unheard-of success for their field. Throughout the 2000s, alternative hip hop continued its philosophical, positive, and complex lyrical subject matter, while denouncing materialism, fashion, and money. This subgenre also includes spoken word and a branch of slam poetry. The subgenre could be said to be related to both the old school hip-hop culture of the 1980s and 1990s, and the indie rock and hipster subcultures. By 1999, more 2000s styled glam started coming in, along with dirty south and crunk, with artists such as Mannie Fresh, Cam'ron, Lil Jon, Ludacris, Trina, Three 6 Mafia, Ying Yang Twins, Bubba Sparxxx, Neptunes, and Jay-Z. Auto-Tune became popular by mid-2007, with R&B artist T-Pain starting the craze. Auto-Tune was popular in the earlier part of the decade as well (primarily in 2000 and 2001), but then only called "synthesizer" and it was used casually as just an effect. Artists such as Daft Punk, Eiffel 65, *NSYNC, 98 Degrees, Taio Cruz, Willa Ford, and even Faith Hill have used Auto-Tune in their songs. It was first known as the "Cher effect" since it was used in the song "Believe" by Cher in 1998. The Black Eyed Peas began utilizing Auto-Tune and electropop–dance in their most successful album to date, The E.N.D., which spawned five top ten hit singles: "Boom Boom Pow", "I Gotta Feeling", "Meet Me Halfway", "Imma Be", and "Rock That Body". Due to hip-hop's increased moulding with pop music, some, such as rapper Nas have declared the death of the genre. Rock Pop rock In the early 2000s, there was a resurgence of interest in pop rock and power pop. This was kickstarted in the year 2000 with the success of Blink-182's song "All the Small Things" and Nine Days' song "Absolutely (Story of a Girl)", both of which peaked at No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. The trend kicked off the brief musical careers of Ryan Cabrera, Ashley Parker Angel, Teddy Geiger, Evan and Jaron, The Click Five, Jet, and Snow Patrol throughout the early and mid-2000s. This also paved the way for a second wave of pop punk bands such as Good Charlotte, New Found Glory, and Sum 41, who made use of humor in their videos and had a radio-friendly tone to their music. Later pop-punk bands such as Simple Plan, The All-American Rejects, and Fall Out Boy had a sound that had been described as closer to late 1970s and early 1980s hardcore, with similarities to the band Cheap Trick, while still achieving considerable commercial success. In addition, some of the most successful pop-punk bands of the 1990s, such as Green Day, Blink-182, Weezer, and The Offspring continued their success during the early 2000s. In the early 2000s, the power pop and pop rock trend also spread to women musicians. Michelle Branch became successful in 2001 with her song "Everywhere". Her success continued with her second album singles "Are You Happy Now?" and "Breathe". Kelly Clarkson was also another prominent female artist of this movement, rivaling the success of Avril Lavigne. The first winner on the hit reality TV show American Idol, Clarkson started off her musical career with contemporary R&B hit songs such as "A Moment Like This" and "Miss Independent" and catapulted to cultural icon status in the mid-2000s with aggressive songs such as "Since U Been Gone" and "Behind These Hazel Eyes". Clarkson strayed away from this sound in the late 2000s but continued to make pop rock hits. Other female pop rock and power pop artists who experienced Top 40 success in the 2000s included Alanis Morissette, Liz Phair, Ashlee Simpson, and Stacie Orrico. Pop punk After the breakthrough of punk rock in the 1990s, by the 2000s the genre had evolved more into pop punk due to major label records taking interest and signing on bands such as Blink-182. Green Day kick-started the 2000s with the release of their sixth studio album Warning in 2000 to lukewarm success. The following year, Blink-182 released their fourth studio album Take Off Your Pants and Jacket in 2001 which went on to sell 14 million copies worldwide. It was a commercial and critical success, debuting at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 within its first week of release and securing the status of the pop punk trio as one of biggest bands of the genre. Also in that year, Canadian band Sum 41 released their debut album All Killer No Filler, which went platinum in the United States. The second-wave bands dominated the pop punk genre in the early years with bands like Good Charlotte, New Found Glory, Simple Plan, and Sum 41 receiving platinum status and gaining large fan bases worldwide. In 2002, Avril Lavigne became popular in the pop punk scene thanks to her pop punk-based sound, and was arguably the most prominent artist to take this new direction in pop music, with hits such as "Complicated" and "Sk8er Boi". In 2003, Blink-182 released their self-titled album blink-182, which demonstrated a darker and more mature tone than previous albums. This was mainly due to the side-project Box Car Racer. Even so, the album was yet another commercial and critical success. It was to be their last album released before taking an indefinite hiatus in 2005. The band would reunite four years later. After their 1994 breakthrough, Green Day's fame was fading, mainly due to rising popularity of other bands like Good Charlotte and Sum 41. Realizing this, they retreated to the studio and produced their seventh studio album American Idiot released in 2004. It saw a significant sales boost, selling 14 million copies worldwide and awarding the band 3 Grammy awards. Fall Out Boy's From Under the Cork Tree gained commercial success in 2005 and put the band on the pop punk map. Fall Out Boy's follow-up album Infinity on High went No.1 on the Billboard 200 in 2007. The last successful pop punk album of the decade was Green Day's eighth studio album 21st Century Breakdown released in 2009 which achieved their best chart performance to date by reaching number one on the album charts of various countries as well as winning a Grammy, including the U.S. Billboard 200, the European Top 100 Albums, and the UK Albums Chart. Post-grunge Post-grunge continued to be popular in the 2000s, with the genre reaching its peak in the early years of the decade. Artists include Foo Fighters, Creed, Alter Bridge, Nickelback, Lifehouse, Incubus, Hoobastank, 3 Doors Down, Puddle of Mudd, Our Lady Peace, Switchfoot, Shinedown, Three Days Grace, Staind, Seether, and Daughtry. These bands took post-grunge into the 21st century with considerable commercial success, at times abandoning the angst and anger of the original movement for more conventional anthems, narratives, ballads and romantic songs. Nu metal During the early 2000s, a new wave of metal began with interest in the newly emerging genre nu metal and genres of a similar style such as rap metal and the later mainstream success rap rock. The popularity of nu metal music carried over from the late 1990s, where it was introduced by early work from bands such as Korn, Deftones, Limp Bizkit, Slipknot, Incubus, Coal Chamber, and Rage Against the Machine into the early 2000s with the similar genre, rap rock, bringing in a wave of monster-hit artists such as System of a Down, Evanescence, P.O.D, Staind, Papa Roach, and Disturbed. The success of Korn's third studio album, Follow the Leader and Limp Bizkit's Significant Other and Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water, brought nu metal to the mainstream. Limp Bizkit's Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water would sell over 1,050,000 in its first weekmaking it the highest selling rock record with first week sales ever. Linkin Park's debut album Hybrid Theory, released in 2000, sold over 24 million copies worldwide. Beginning in 2002, nu metal rapidly began to lose mainstream appeal. Since then, many bands have changed to other genres of music, such as post-grunge (Staind), heavy metal (Slipknot, Disturbed, Drowning Pool), and alternative rock (Linkin Park, Papa Roach). Metalcore By 2004, the up-and-coming genre metalcore was dominated by bands such as Killswitch Engage, Underoath, Bullet for My Valentine, Trivium, and most successfully Avenged Sevenfold, all of whom releasing successful albums. The rise of metalcore led to increased popularity and exposure of nearly every other subgenre of heavy metal including death metal, black metal, and thrash. In 2002, heavy metal saw a new subgenre called deathcore, which would gain moderate success from 2005 to present day. Hard rock/Heavy metal AC/DC released Stiff Upper Lip in 2000 and Black Ice in 2008. Guns N' Roses released the long-awaited Chinese Democracy in 2008 after over a decade of work by Axl Rose. Metallica released two albums in the 2000s, St. Anger in 2003 and Death Magnetic in 2008. Aerosmith released the platinum-selling Just Push Play in 2001 followed by the blues-infused Honkin' on Bobo in 2004; the band also toured every year of the decade except 2008. Bon Jovi released five albums during the decade: Crush (2000), Bounce (2002), Have a Nice Day (2005), Lost Highway (2007), and The Circle (2009). Crush fared best, going double platinum, and spawning the hit "It's My Life", while Have a Nice Day and Lost Highway also launched Top 40 singles, went platinum, and saw the band mix hard rock with country. Bon Jovi's Lost Highway Tour was the highest-grossing tour of 2008. Emo Emo broke into mainstream culture in the early 2000s with the platinum-selling success of Jimmy Eat World's Bleed American. The new emo had a far greater appeal amongst adolescents than its earlier incarnations. In the following years, use of the term "emo" expanded beyond the music world, becoming associated with fashion, hairstyle, and other aesthetic attributes of culture. Later in the decade, the term "emo" was applied by critics and journalists to a variety of artists, including multi-platinum acts such as Fall Out Boy and My Chemical Romance and disparate groups such as Paramore and Panic! at the Disco, although some artists branded as such rejected the label. Despite its success, the emo genre never quite surpassed post-grunge in popularity during the 2000s. Garage rock, post-punk and new wave revival In the early 2000s, a new group of bands emerged into the mainstream which drew primary inspiration from post–punk and new wave and were variously characterized as part of a garage rock, post–punk, or new wave revival. Because the bands came from across the globe, cited diverse influences (from traditional blues, through new wave to grunge), and adopted differing styles of dress, their unity as a genre has been disputed. There had been attempts to revive garage rock and elements of punk in the 1980s and 1990s and by 2000 scenes had grown up in several countries. The Detroit rock scene included The Von Bondies, Electric Six, The Dirtbombs, and The Detroit Cobras and that of New York which included Radio 4, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and The Rapture. Social networking sites such as Myspace and PureVolume enabled amateur artists to promote their music, and thanks to the internet, many underground unsigned artists become discovered and well known amongst alternative subcultures. The revival hit a peak in 2003–04. Franz Ferdinand from Scotland, also became popular with their debut album in 2004. Though drawing on an indie sound, none of the groups were derivative in a way that could be described as retro. In 2004, Las Vegas-based alternative rock band The Killers released their successful debut album Hot Fuss, spawning hits like "Mr. Brightside" and "All These Things That I've Done". New York-based act The Bravery became popular the following year. Three of the most successful bands from these scenes were The Strokes, who emerged from the New York club scene with their debut album Is This It (2001); The White Stripes, from Detroit, with their third album White Blood Cells (2001); and Interpol from New York, with their debut album Turn On the Bright Lights (2002). They were christened by the media as the "The" bands, and dubbed "The saviors of rock 'n' roll", because of their connections with the indie rock underground, leading to accusations of hype. Other popular "The" bands were The Hives, The Vines, and The Darkness; as well as Jet, whose 2003 smash-hit "Are You Gonna Be My Girl" catapulted to the top of the charts and was frequently used in commercials primarily for music products such as the Apple iPod. Canadian punk band, Sum 41 poked fun at the start of the "The" band craze in their music video for "Still Waiting" in 2003 off the album Does This Look Infected? (2002). Will Sasso makes a cameo in the video, coining the band as "The Sums". Indie rock During the mid-2000s, bands such as Modest Mouse, Death Cab for Cutie and Arcade Fire released indie rock albums that broke into the mainstream and gave indie rock recognition. The late 2000s also saw more indie rock bands such as MGMT, Spoon, Interpol, Tegan and Sara, Wilco, The Decemberists, The White Stripes, The Strokes, Animal Collective, Bright Eyes, Rilo Kiley, She & Him, The New Pornographers, Feist, Cat Power, Grizzly Bear, Arcade Fire, The Shins, The Killers, and Vampire Weekend gain popularity around the world, including in the United States, thanks to the rise of independent internet music blogs. The rising popularity of Internet radio also contributed to high album sales for Indie rock bands, despite little to no mainstream radio play. By the end of the decade several of these bands released albums that topped the Billboard 200. This trend has been viewed as heralding a new era for rock in the wake of an era of pop dominance by the likes of Lady Gaga and Katy Perry. Pop Teen pop continued to be an extremely popular genre in the early 2000s with success of teenage pop singers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera. Spears' "Oops!... I Did It Again" and Aguilera's "Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You)" became huge hits in the year 2000. By 2001 and 2002, however, the teen-pop trend faded due to modern R&B and hip-hop influenced music that later dominated throughout the middle of the decade. Spears' 2001 album Britney and Aguilera's 2002 album Stripped are examples of teen pop artists transitioning from teen pop to more grown-up, modern R&B influenced records.Boy bands maintained their popularity during the beginning of the decade, but their popularity also faded, with the exception of Backstreet Boys, who continued their popularity post–2005, (after a short hiatus between 2002 and 2004). As the typical "boy band" sound was no longer mainstream, they began to transition to more of an adult contemporary, soft-rock and ballad styles of music for the remainder of the decade. By 2003, records by boy bands were very sparse on the Billboard Hot 100, and some members of boy bands left to pursue other projects and solo endeavors, such as Jesse McCartney from Dream Street, Nick Lachey from 98 Degrees, and most successfully Justin Timberlake from NSYNC, whose foray into Blue-eyed soul R&B/Pop spawned a successful solo career. A new strain of boy bands, such as V Factory, Varsity Fanclub, The Click Five, NLT, and the Jonas Brothers, emerged at the end of the decade, but this new generation of boy bands did not reach the glamor and success of those of the 1990s and early 2000s. Other girl groups included Danity Kane (2005–09), Dream (2000–03), and Sugababes, along with shorter-term girl groups such as No Secrets, A Girl Called Jane, Girlicious, and Paradiso Girls. Pop rock artist Pink, who would go on to be one of the biggest pop singers of the 2000s, released her debut album Can't Take Me Home in 2000, her second studio album Missundaztood, and later, her I'm Not Dead album in which features "Stupid Girls" and "Who Knew". Her following album, Funhouse, released in 2008 also included "So What" and "Sober". Pink's song, "You Make Me Sick", which debuted January 6, 2001, reached No. 33 on the Hot100 list. "Family Portrait" got up to No. 20, debuting on November 16, 2002. Singer Anastacia achieved worldwide commercial success with singles such as "Not That Kind", "I'm Outta Love", "Paid My Dues", "One Day in Your Life", and "Left Outside Alone". She was highly successful in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Asia, South Africa, and South America, but had only minor success in her native United States. She is one of the fastest and biggest-selling artists of the new millennium. In 2001, triple-threat entertainer Jennifer Lopez debuted at No. 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart with her J.Lo album and in addition her film, The Wedding Planner, opened at No. 1 at the box office at the same time making her the first actress and singer in history to have both a film and an album at No. 1 in the same week.In 2006, Shakira with "Hips Don't Lie" became the first South American woman, also one of the few women ever to have a No. 1 single on the official charts of the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Latin charts. The song is regarded as the best-selling single of the decade, and one of the best-selling singles of all time. Her massive crossover success in 2001 generated many global smash hits throughout the decade like "Whenever, Wherever", "La Tortura", "Hips Don't Lie", "Beautiful Liar", and "She Wolf". Shakira also broke the record for the highest-selling Spanish-language album in the United States with Fijación Oral, Vol. 1. Artists such as Madonna, Janet Jackson, Anastacia, Kylie Minogue, Mariah Carey, and Nelly Furtado experienced revived success. Justin Timberlake shot to stardom with his debut solo album, Justified (2002). In 2005, Cher ended her 3-year-long Farewell Tour which became the highest grossing female and solo tour at that time. Madonna enjoyed success throughout the decade. Her albums Music (2000) and Confessions on a Dance Floor (2005) are among the best-selling of the decade. Both were universally acclaimed by critics. The first was also nominated for five Grammy Awards while the second won one. Madonna also had four highly successful tours in the 2000s. The Re-Invention Tour which grossed $125 million in just 56 shows making it the highest grossing of 2004, the Confessions Tour went on to gross over $190 million in 60 shows becoming the highest-grossing tour by a female ever. Her final tour in 2008/09 was Sticky and Sweet Tour which became the highest grossing female tour and the highest grossing solo tour of all-time making $408 million in 85 shows. Justin Timberlake released his sophomore studio album FutureSex/LoveSounds in 2006, producing the chart-topping singles "SexyBack", "My Love", and "What Goes Around... Comes Around", and winning four Grammy Awards for the record. Fergie released her first solo album in 2006 called The Dutchess. The album produced five top five singles in the United States, including three No. 1 hits on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, "London Bridge", "Big Girls Don't Cry", and "Glamorous", as well as the No. 2 single "Fergalicious" and the No. 5 single "Clumsy". All five of the aforementioned singles have sold over 2 million digital downloads each in the United States, thus setting a new record in the digital era for the most multi-platinum singles from one album. The Dutchess sold over 6 million copies worldwide becoming one of the most successful albums of the era. While predominantly focusing on R&B music during this time, Beyoncé also ventured into a pop sound with her third studio album I Am... Sasha Fierce in 2008, producing the top-ten singles "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" at No. 1, "If I Were a Boy" at No. 3, "Halo" at No. 5, and "Sweet Dreams" at No. 10. The album and its accompanying songs won five Grammy Awards, helping Beyoncé set a record for the most Grammy Awards won by a female artist in one night. Lady Gaga took the latter part of the decade by storm and revived the electronic influence of pop music that had not been prominent since 2000. Her debut album, The Fame (2008), reached No. 1 in Canada, Austria, Germany, United Kingdom and Ireland and topped the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart. Its first two singles, "Just Dance" and "Poker Face", became international No. 1 hits, topping the Hot 100 in the United States as well as other countries. The album later earned a total of six Grammy Award nominations and won awards for Best Electronic/Dance Album and Best Dance Recording. By the fourth quarter of 2009, she had released an extended play The Fame Monster, with the global chart-topping lead single "Bad Romance". In 2001, Michael Jackson, one of popular music's most successful artists of all-times, released his final studio album Invincible, though it did not receive a lot of exposure compared to previous releases. In 2009, the album was voted by readers of Billboard as the Best Album of the Decade. Michael Jackson died in June 2009, creating the largest public mourning since the death of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. Children's music rose significantly in sales, especially with Disney (The Cheetah Girls, High School Musical, Hannah Montana: The Movie, and The Jonas Brothers among others). All The Cheetah Girls, High School Musical and Hannah Montana: The Movie albums were among the best-sellers of 2006 and 2007 and reached the No. 1 position, left many artists produced by Disney in the 2000s, The Cheetah Girls, Hilary Duff, Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato, Jonas Brothers, Raven-Symoné, the best-selling artists of the decade. The musical style of the 1980s influenced pop music to some extent in the later stages of the decade, especially around late 2009, as seen in Rihanna's hit "SOS" (a sampling of Soft Cell's "Tainted Love"), Lumidee's "She's Like the Wind" and Flo Rida's "Right Round", a reworking of the Dead or Alive hit "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)". Other hits include Aaron Carter's cover of Bow Wow Wow's "I Want Candy", and Britney Spears' covers of "My Prerogative" and "I Love Rock 'n' Roll". Pop rock groups such as Metro Station, The Veronicas, and Owl City also displayed 1980s influences. Beyoncé's hit "Sweet Dreams" was not a direct sampling of a 1980s pop hit but Anne Hagerty of Billboard magazine was quoted as saying, "this track will fit right on a Michael Jackson or Madonna instrumental." Alien Ant Farm successfully covered Michael Jackson's "Smooth Criminal", and Fall Out Boy came out with their own cover of "Beat It", later on. Bowling for Soup also had a hit with "1985", a nostalgic ode to the 1980s. 1980s pop star Cyndi Lauper released several albums, experimenting with different styles, like adult contemporary, pop, pop rock, electronic music and blues. These were critically acclaimed and received several nominations for Grammy Award, and Lauper saw significant sales throughout the decade. Adult contemporary The radio format called adult contemporary music (primarily "soft rock" or "lite-rock"), began to somewhat decrease in popularity starting in the late 1990s (due to the increasing popularity of Top 40 music) into January 2000 until September 11, 2001. After 9/11, popularity for Adult Contemporary Music (as well as Contemporary Christian Music crossovers) increased trifold during the grieving process, when the 25–44 Conservative Female Demographic favored listening to songs with appropriate, positive and uplifting lyrics containing love and hope. Upon the eventual return to normalcy after 9/11, the popularity of Adult Contemporary music held steady until about 2003, when Billboard began to change their chart formats. This led to adult contemporary stations to program their music "not-as-soft" or "cheesy" as they used to and ended up substituting the words "soft-rock" with "lite-rock", which has a more modern-edged connotation. Yet, AC stations remained careful to not cross the Adult Top 40 format line. Because of all these changes, AC Stations slowly increased in popularity. In the late 2000s, artists like Coldplay, Daughtry, The Fray, Gavin Rossdale Sara Bareilles, Colbie Caillat, Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Kelly Clarkson, Alicia Keys, and Leona Lewis were finding more success crossing over onto the Adult Contemporary charts. AC veterans such as Celine Dion, Rod Stewart, Phil Collins, The Eagles, Cyndi Lauper, Alanis Morissette and Sheryl Crow continued to release music only on the Adult Contemporary formats. There are three songs which experienced longevity atop the chart, "Love Song" by Sara Bareilles, "Bubbly" by Colbie Caillat, and "Breakaway" from Kelly Clarkson spent a longevity 20 weeks atop the chart. Alicia Keys is considered the most successful R&B singer of the decade with 30 million records sold worldwide. Keys scored hits in the U.S. charts with seven songs on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and four songs on the Billboard 100. She shares a record with Britney Spears, being the only two female singers to have their first four albums debuting in first place in the chart Billboard Hot 200. Beyoncé would become the third female singer to accomplish this feat in 2011. Norah Jones is considered the greatest jazz singer of the decade with 37 million records sold worldwide. Her debut album Come Away With Me with sold 10 million copies in the U.S. and 20 million worldwide. Jones continued her success with her second album, Feels like Home. It became the biggest selling album in one week with 1.9 million copies sold. She released two more bestselling albums in the 2000s, had 3 albums debut in the Billboard 200, and won eight Grammys with her debut album and 12 Grammys in total during the decade. Contemporary R&B The continued popularity of contemporary R&B was seen during this decade in the global success of established artists such as Beyoncé, both as a solo artist, and with the help of Destiny's Child, Mariah Carey, Jennifer Lopez, Mary J. Blige, Craig David and Usher, whose careers began in the 1990s and continued in the dawn of the new millennium. The year 2001, in particular its summer, has been described as a golden age for contemporary R&B and urban soul music, with artists such as Janet Jackson, Jill Scott, Mariah Carey and Destiny's Child, who paved the way for Alicia Keys, Blu Cantrell, and the revival of Aaliyah. Beyoncé was ranked the 4th Artist of the 2000s decade by Billboard, and was listed the most successful female artist of the 2000s, as well as the top radio artist of the 2000s. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), also recognized Knowles as the top certified artist of the 2000s. Beyoncé, Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland, better known as Destiny's Child is the most successful female R&B group of all time, selling over 50 million records worldwide during the 2000s. The group has many chart topping singles worldwide, such as "Survivor", "Say My Name", "Bootylicious", "Independent Women Part 1" and "Jumpin' Jumpin'". Janet Jackson was awarded the American Music Awards' Award of Merit in March 2001 for "her finely crafted, critically acclaimed and socially conscious, multi-platinum albums". She became the inaugural honoree of the "mtvICON" award, "an annual recognition of artists who have made significant contributions to music, music video and pop culture while tremendously impacting the MTV generation." Jackson's seventh album, All for You, was released in April 2001, debuting at No. 1 on the Billboard 200. Selling 605,000 copies, All for You had the highest first-week sales total of her career. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated "[Jackson's] created a record that's luxurious and sensual, spreading leisurely over its 70 minutes, luring you in even when you know better", and Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented, "[a]s other rhythm and blues strips down to match the angularity of hip-hop, Ms. Jackson luxuriates in textures as dizzying as a new infatuation." The album's title-track, "All for You", debuted on the Hot 100 at No. 14, the highest debut ever for a single that was not commercially available. Teri VanHorn of MTV dubbed Jackson "Queen of Radio" as the single made radio airplay history, "[being] added to every pop, rhythmic and urban radio station that reports to the national trade magazine Radio & Records" in its first week. The single peaked at number one, where it topped the Hot 100 for seven weeks. It received the 2001 Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording. The second single, "Someone to Call My Lover", which contained a heavy guitar loop of America's "Ventura Highway", peaked at No. 3 on the Hot 100. All for You was certified double platinum by the RIAA and sold more than 9 million copies worldwide.Usher was named the number-one Hot 100 artist of the 2000s decade and the 2nd most successful artist of the 2000s decade. He released the album Confessions which went on to become the best-selling album of 2004 and the second best-selling album of the 2000s. He also had the overall total most No. 1 singles of the decade with seven going top. Confessions is now certified Diamond by the RIAA. Other emerging acts from the early 2000s include Ashanti, Rihanna, Trey Songz, Cupid, DJ Casper, Ne-Yo, Sisqó, Chris Brown, Bobby V, Keyshia Cole, Pretty Ricky, B2K, Jaheim, Musiq Soulchild, Fantasia, and Ciara. Singer Mary J. Blige topped the Billboard Hot 100 in 2001 with her smash single, "Family Affair", taken from hit album No More Drama. She scored a big hit with, "Be Without You", which peaked at No. 3 on the Hot 100. During the 2000s decade, Mary released five platinum albums. Billboard magazine ranked Blige as the most successful female R&B artist of the past 25 years. The magazine also lists "Be Without You" as the top R&B song of the 2000s, as it spent an unparalleled 15 weeks atop the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. After experiencing a dominant run of success throughout the 1990s, Mariah Carey experienced a commercial lull with Glitter and Charmbracelet, the first two albums she released in the 2000s. However, she made an astounding comeback in 2005 with the release of The Emancipation of Mimi, which debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The album included the No. 1 singles "We Belong Together", which shattered airplay records and was named the Song of the Decade by Billboard, and "Don't Forget About Us", as well as "Shake It Off", which peaked at No. 2 (it was blocked from the No. 1 spot by "We Belong Together", making Carey the first female artist in Billboard history to occupy the top two spots on the Hot 100 as a lead artist). Additionally, Carey's 2008 album E=MC² spawned her 18th chart-topper, "Touch My Body", with which she surpassed Elvis Presley to become the solo artist with the most Hot 100 No. 1 songs in history. R&B artist Robin Thicke topped the R&B Charts with his hit single "Lost Without U". He was the first white artist to top these charts since George Michael. His album The Evolution of Robin Thicke went on to be certified platinum by the RIAA. Country Country music sales continued to rise, as the Billboard 200 all-genre album chart frequently had albums recorded by country music artists listed; several of those titles were certified double platinum or better, indicating the genre continued to have a strong niche in the music industry. In 2002, The Statler Brothers retired from music. Jimmy Fortune struck out on his own as a solo artist with the help of The Oak Ridge Boys and continues to record music and tour today. One of the most successful new artists of the decade was Carrie Underwood. In 2005, the Checotah, Oklahoma, native became the first American Idol winner to record primarily country music, instead of pop, rap or rhythm and blues. By the end of the decade, Underwood had amassed eight No. 1 songs on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, along with numerous awards from the Country Music Association, Academy of Country Music and others. Country pop, a subgenre which has its roots in the Nashville Sound of the late 1950searly 1960s, continued to flourish in popularity. The most prominent act was Shania Twain, with her album Up!, released in 2002. Top performers in the genre included Dixie Chicks, Lonestar, Martina McBride, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Keith Urban and Rascal Flatts. In the middle of the decade, an informal group of singers and songwriters called the MuzikMafia formed to promote their mesh of honky-tonk and outlaw brand of country music; the most prominent members were "Big" Kenny Alphin and John Rich (of the duo Big & Rich) and Gretchen Wilson, who enjoyed success in the middle part of the decade.Many non-country artists enjoyed success in the country music during the 2000s. The most successful of these artists has been former Hootie & the Blowfish lead singer Darius Rucker, who had three No. 1 hits in 2008–09: "Don't Think I Don't Think About It", "It Won't Be Like This for Long" and "Alright". The Eagles, a California-based country-rock group, had their first major success on the Hot Country Songs chart in more than 30 years in 2007–08 with the songs "How Long" and "Busy Being Fabulous". Pop-rock singers Michelle Branch and Jessica Harp formed The Wreckers and had two top 10 hits, including the No. 1 hit "Leave the Pieces". Other non-country artists who had success in the genre were Kid Rock, Sheryl Crow, Robert Plant, Jewel, Jessica Simpson, Bon Jovi and Miley Cyrus. In the late 2000s, teenager Taylor Swift became the first country act to enjoy widespread mainstream popularity since the 1980s. Her self-titled debut studio album produced several top-ten hits on Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, while her second album Fearless spawned two of Swift's biggest international hits"Love Story" and "You Belong with Me"both reached the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 (and atop several of the Hot 100 component charts) after topping the Hot Country Songs chart. At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, Swift became the first country artist in history to win a VMA award, with "You Belong with Me". The self-titled album became the longest charting album of the 2000s decade on the Billboard 200 chart, across all music genres. Fearless topped the same chart for 11 weeks, a feat that has not been matched by another country album since then. In 2016, Billboard wrote that "the country landscape is much different today, thanks in part to Swift and her insistence on following a game plan that many considered unorthodox", noting the favorable views toward country music since her debut, and reported that following her rise to fame, labels have become more interested in signing young country singers and artists who write their own music. Not everyone celebrated the success of artists such as Underwood and Swift, reflecting the continued discontent and debate over what constituted "real" country music, a debate that had been on and off since the 1970s. Despite the fact that country music songs had long been crossing over to pop radio (and charting since the start of the Billboard charts in 1940), some critics continued to state opinions that the pop-oriented sound was little more than repackaged pop music. In 2009, legendary country music artist George Jones proclaimed that "they've (the new artists) stolen our identity. ... They had to use something that was established already, and that's traditional country music. So what they need to do really, I think, is find their own title, because they're definitely not traditional country music." In addition, several forums, including the classic country-oriented Pure Country Music Web site, regularly included posts that were openly critical of artists such as Swift and Rascal Flatts. Songs such as "Murder on Music Row" (by George Strait and Alan Jackson) and "Too Country" (by Brad Paisley) gained widespread acceptance and radio airplay, despite criticism in the lyrics over the eschewing of traditional sounds by radio programmers. However, traditional country music retained a large following during the decade, thanks to the ongoing successes of veteran artists such as Strait, Jackson, Reba McEntire, Brooks & Dunn, Toby Keith and Kenny Chesney, and newer artists such as Paisley, Blake Shelton and Billy Currington. McEntire's success came with two albums hitting No. 1 on the all-genre Billboard 200 albums chart (Reba: Duets and Keep On Loving You), and at the end of the decade had her biggest hit of her career ("Consider Me Gone"). Rogers, Parton and Willie Nelson, all artists who had No. 1 country hits as far back as the early 1970s, all had No. 1 songs during the 2000s decade. In addition, veteran songwriters such as Bill Anderson and Bobby Braddock also enjoyed continued success with newly written songs. Late in the decade, newcomers such as Jamey Johnson and Miranda Lambert were widely hailed for their songwriting and performance talents. The legendary group Alabama retired from touring in 2004 after nearly a quarter century of mainstream success, primarily during the 1980s and 1990s. Its band memberscousins Randy Owen, Teddy Gentry and Jeff Cook; and drummer Mark Herndonremained active performers and recorded a successful series of albums containing gospel and traditional old-time songs. Many legendary country music figures died during the decade. Some of the more prominent names included Pee Wee King, Chet Atkins, Waylon Jennings, June Carter Cash, Johnny Cash, Skeeter Davis, Buck Owens, Hank Thompson, Porter Wagoner, Eddy Arnold, Jerry Reed, Vern Gosdin and Hank Locklin. Electronic music In Europe, trance music and house music started to gain popularity in the 2000s, prominently progressive trance and progressive house where popular throughout the 2000s. Hard house became the next big craze after trance in 2001, with a certain amount of cross-over between the two genres (in some cases creating hard trance tracks), but this style diminished in as the decade later wore on. As a kind of backlash, ambient, chillout music achieved mainstream popularity in the early 2000s, with a successful market of chillout compilations and the genre even making it into television commercials and soundtracks. Popular electronic artists of the decade included Deadmau5, LCD Soundsystem, Owl City, Kaskade, and Marshmello. Disco house and funky house, popular in the late 1990s, continued to be successful through to the mid-2000s before the sound of electro house developed in late 2006. The electro sound began to merge with other genres such as hip hop as the decade drew to a close. From 2007, dance music started gaining popularity in North America with dance-pop hits by artists such as the pop singer Rihanna's song "Don't Stop the Music" and "Disturbia". Hilary Duff in her album Dignity has changed her style from pop rock to the more contemporary electropop, to go with the current trends. In 2008 and 2009, electropop and nu-disco increased in popularity in North America, replacing hip-hop and R&B as the dominant genres of music. Artists like Britney Spears, Beyoncé, and Lady Gaga brought this style to great popularity towards the end of 2008 with their hits such as Britney's "Womanizer", Beyoncé's "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" and Gaga's "Poker Face". Furthermore, Madonna's singles such as "Hung Up" (No. 1 in 45 countries) and "4 Minutes" (No. 1 in 32 countries) become huge dance hits. Pop duo Aly & AJ explored electropop and 1980s new wave influences in their second album Insomniatic. In addition, some of the most successful electronica American artists and DJs in the 1990s, such as Moby and The Crystal Method, also continued their success during the 2000s. Jazz In the 2000s, straight-ahead jazz continued to appeal to a core group of listeners. Well-established jazz musicians, such as Dave Brubeck, Wynton Marsalis, Sonny Rollins, Wayne Shorter and Jessica Williams, continue to perform and record. In the 2000s, a number of young musicians emerged, including the pianist Jason Moran, vibraphonist Stefon Harris, trumpeter Roy Hargrove, and bassist Christian McBride. In addition, a number of new vocalists have achieved popularity with a mix of traditional jazz and pop/rock forms, such as Diana Krall, Norah Jones, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, and Jamie Cullum. Norah Jones and Diana Krall, due to their massive international success during the 2000s are considered the first and second most successful female jazz singers of the decade, respectively. Diana Krall has topped the Music Billboards multiple times in the year 2000. The week of April 15, 2000, Krall's album When I Look in Your Eyes reached number one, followed by Al Jarreau's Tomorrow Today and Kenny G's Classics in the Key of G. Norah Jones was named the top jazz artist of the 2000–2009 decade by Billboard. Jones had many albums come out in the 2000s decade, including jazz and adult contemporary. These include Come Away with Me in 2002, New York City in 2003, and Feels Like Home in 2004. Reggae Dancehall The early 2000s saw the success of older and newer charting acts such as Baha Men, Sean Kingston, Elephant Man, Akon, and Sean Paul, who has achieved mainstream success in the U.S. and has produced several top 10 Billboard hits, including "Gimme the Light", "We Be Burnin'", "(When You Gonna) Give It Up to Me", and "Break It Off" (a duet with Rihanna). He has also had several No. 1 singles, "Get Busy", "Temperature" and "Baby Boy" (a duet with Beyoncé). Reggaetón Reggaetón gained mainstream exposure and massive popularity in North America during the mid-2000s. Reggaetón blends West-Indian music influences of reggae and dancehall with those of Latin America, such as bomba, plena, salsa, merengue, latin pop, cumbia and bachata as well as that of hip hop, contemporary R&B, and electronica. The influence of this genre has spread to the wider Latino communities in the United States, as well as the Latin American audience. Shakira has sold more than 100 million copies in the 21st century. Christian music Christian music continued to gain popularity after its success in the 1990s with acts such as Jars of Clay and Audio Adrenaline. Relient K's work in the pop punk/pop rock scene earned them three albums certified goldThe Anatomy of the Tongue in Cheek, Two Lefts Don't Make a Right...but Three Do, and Mmhmmand a Grammy nomination. Skillet recorded two Grammy-nominated albumsCollide and Comatoseand achieved Platinum-selling status with Awake, and Gold with Comatose. Europe Rock Post–Britpop act Coldplay saw major success in European album charts during the decade. Coldplay had with No. 1 albums and a U.S. No. 1 single with "Viva la Vida", the first English band to do so since The Beatles. British Indie rock and indie pop returned to popularity in the mid–late 2000s with artists such as Arctic Monkeys, Franz Ferdinand, Belle and Sebastian, Amy Winehouse, Kaiser Chiefs, Keane, The Libertines, Editors, Lily Allen, Kate Nash, Florence And The Machine, and The Ting Tings achieving substantial chart success. Post–punk bands such as Bloc Party, Foals and Editors also saw some popularity. Britpop act Oasis also remained popular in the 2000s, spawning four No.1 albums in the UK until the disbandment of the group in autumn 2009. U2 continued their popularity into the 2000s, releasing three critically acclaimed albums, and were credited with influencing many prominent acts of the decade such as Coldplay and Muse. In the early and mid-2000s, British Indie rock groups such as The Libertines, Arctic Monkeys, Bloc Party and Kaiser Chiefs witnessed commercial and chart success not seen by guitar music since Britpop in the 1990s. Regional indie rock scenes such as New Yorkshire also appeared at this point in the decade. Indie music itself increased in popularity due to the increased commercialization of alternative, and major labels begin marketing indie bands with mainstream appeal. American indie/rock band The Killers also became very popular in Britain with their singles "Mr. Brightside", "When You Were Young", and "Smile Like You Mean It". Radiohead enjoyed further success in the 2000s, moving away from their experimental sound of the Kid A/Amnesiac era to a more "typical" Alternative rock sound. Muse saw a similar level of commercial acclaim, with the rock trio releasing three chart-topping albums. The late 2000s (entering into the early 2010s) saw the revival and influence of synthpop music, also known as 'new urban' pop. Notable acts include Hot Chip, Junior Boys, Little Boots and La Roux. The late 2000s also saw acts such as Irish rock band The Script have international success. The era also saw solo success for singer-songwriters, including David Gray, Dido, James Blunt, James Morrison, KT Tunstall and Amy Macdonald. Alternative rock The eponymous debut album of Gorillaz, created by Damon Albarn in 2001, sold over seven million copies and earned them an entry in the Guinness Book of World Records as the Most Successful Virtual Band. Pop Girl groups Sugababes, Girls Aloud and t.A.T.u. spanned successful careers throughout most of the decade, while 1990s act Spice Girls announced their breakup in 2001 and later reformed in 2007. S Club 7 broke up in 2003, after five years of considerable chart success. Blue also knew success in the 2000s. Irish singer Enya continued to enjoy steady success during the 2000s; her 2000 album A Day Without Rain sold 15 million copies and she was named the world's best selling female artist of 2001. Audience-voted reality talent shows became very popular with UK TV audiences in the 2000s. Such programs included Popstars, Pop Idol, Fame Academy and The X Factor, and many contestants progressed onto mainstream chart success. The Eurovision Song Contest also retained its important status within European music. 1980s female pop stars Madonna and Kylie Minogue enjoyed a large presence on the European music scene, both having numerous hits in the 2000s including "Music", "Hollywood", "Hung Up", and "Celebration" for Madonna, and "Spinning Around", "Can't Get You Out of My Head", "Slow", and "In My Arms" for Kylie. Britney Spears retained a huge impact throughout the continent and was one of the most successful artists of the decade in that region. In 2004, Moldovan pop music trio O-Zone's hit single "Dragostea Din Tei" witnessed major European and international success. Later in the decade, Romanian pop/dance singer Inna spawned a European hit single with "Hot" and became the first Romanian internationally known female star in modern history. When American boy band Backstreet Boys returned to the music scene in 2005 with a more adult rock sound, some of their 1990s contemporaries from Europe followed. Take That reunited in 2006 without Robbie Williams and managed to recreate their earlier success. Bands such as Boyzone also experienced second-time success, whilst others of the same era such as 5ive and East 17 did not and subsequently disbanded. The Irish boy band Westlife were very successful and emerged as the top selling Irish group of the decade with 44 million records sold and a number of record-breaking hit singles and albums. Soul British soul in the 2000s was dominated by women singers. Joss Stone, Natasha Bedingfield, Corinne Bailey Rae, Estelle, Amy Winehouse, Adele and Duffy enjoyed success in the American charts. Corinne Bailey Rae released her debut album, Corinne Bailey Rae, in February 2006, and became the fourth female British act in history to have her first album debut at number one. At the 50th Grammy Awards in 2008, Amy Winehouse won five awards, tying the then record for the most wins by a female artist in a single night and becoming the first British woman to win five Grammys. Electronic music The popularity of the Eurodance genre in the 1990s led to the considerable popularity of the trance genre in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Popular artists of the decade included ATB, Ian Van Dahl, Alice Deejay, BT, Fragma, Lasgo, iiO, Sylver, Groove Coverage, Robert Miles, Tiësto, Armin van Buuren, Paul van Dyk, Paul Oakenfold, John Digweed and Safri Duo. Popular electronic artists of the decade in other electronic genres included Fatboy Slim, the Chemical Brothers, the Prodigy, Groove Armada, Basement Jaxx, Daft Punk, Massive Attack, Röyksopp, Pendulum, Justice, Portishead, Björk, Goldfrapp, M83, Orbital, Boards of Canada, Autechre, Above & Beyond, Günther, Eric Prydz, DJ Shadow, Scooter, Underworld, Aphex Twin, Squarepusher, the Crystal Method, deadmau5, the Knife, Fever Ray, Ladytron, Lamb, Zero 7 and David Guetta. Media commentators did however observe during the 2000s that electronic dance music had returned somewhat to the "underground", with mainstream commercial interest in the genre waning following its peak in the 1990s. This was symbolized in the Brit Awards' decision in 2004 to remove its "Best Dance Act" category. Electro, as well as house, became mainstream in the dance music scene in the middle of the decade, replacing the mainstream of more jazzy and Latin influenced sounds from the beginning of the decade. Electro house artists such as Benny Benassi, Bob Sinclar and MSTRKRFT gained popularity in clubs around the world. Dubstep and bassline house achieved more mainstream success within the dance music scene, with artists like Skream and T2 becoming well known. Dance and Eurodance singers and groups such as Kate Ryan, September, Alcazar, Basshunter, and Cascada became popular around the world during the 2000s. Grime music emerged in the early 2000s and achieved commercial success, particularly in the UK, through artists such as Dizzee Rascal and Wiley. Oceania Pop The most successful Australian female artist, Kylie Minogue still had a huge presence on the Australian music scene with all four albums she released during the decade, with X being the last one, and charting at number one along with its lead single "2 Hearts" becoming her 10th Australian No.1 single. Ex-Neighbours star, Delta Goodrem released her debut album Innocent Eyes in 2003 which became a monster smash hitit went to No. 1 and stayed for 29 non-consecutive weeks, being certified 14× Platinum for selling over 1 million copies, the second most of all time in Australia. In New Zealand, pop singer Brooke Fraser has seen large success throughout her music career with number one songs and countless New Zealand Music Awards wins. Other popular artists include, Aaradhna, Vince Harder, Anika Moa, Gin Wigmore, whose debut album Holy Smoke peaked at No. 1 in New Zealand in 2009 and Ladyhawke, who achieved substantial international success following the release of her self-titled debut album in 2008, which peaked at number one in New Zealand and charted in the top twenty in Australia and the United Kingdom. In 2009, she received several New Zealand Music Awards and ARIA music awards and was nominated for a BRIT award in 2010. Rock Many new rock and alternative groups/bands formed during the early years of this decade. The Vines and Jet become very popular amongst others around 2002–03, paving the way for a mass of new groups midway through the decade such as Wolfmother. Other popular artists include Powderfinger, The Vines, You Am I, Silverchair, AC/DC, Pendulum, The Living End, Spiderbait, Grinspoon, Kisschasy and Eskimo Joe. Many rock artists in New Zealand were popular throughout the 2000s decade including, Evermore, The Feelers, Neil Finn, Tim Finn, and Liam Finn. Alternative From 2003 up until 2007, a popular American television showThe O.C.popularized many New Zealand alternative rock bands by playing their music during the years of the series run. These bands included Evermore and Youth Group. Australian electronic group The Avalanches released their debut album Since I Left You in 2000, composed completely of samples and gained critical acclaim. R&B and soul Throughout the 2000s decade, R&B and soul music had become more popular in Australia and New Zealand. Most Australian R&B artists from the early 2000s, such as Guy Sebastian, Paulini and Ricki-Lee Coulter, were known as contestants on Australian Idol and have established themselves in the Australian music market and continued to enjoy success after the show. Sebastian's debut album Just as I Am debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), becoming the highest selling album ever released by an Australian Idol contestant. He also has received 14 ARIA Music Awards nominations and is the only Australian male artist in Australian music history to achieve five No. 1 singles. Other Australian R&B/soul artists from the early 2000s include Jade MacRae, Israel Cruz, female duo Shakaya and boy band Random, who were best known for winning The X Factor in 2005. The late 2000s saw the rise of 2009 Australian Idol winner Stan Walker and 2006 Idol runner-up Jessica Mauboy. In New Zealand, R&B/soul groups Adeaze and Nesian Mystik have enjoyed success throughout their careers. Singer Aaradhna has released three top-ten singles "Down Time", "I Love You Too", and "They Don't Know" with rapper Savage. Other R&B singers include Pieter T and Vince Harder. The late 2000s saw the rise of J. Williams and Erakah. Hip hop Early into this decade, Australian hip hop has proved ultimate success through an Adelaide hip-hop trio, Hilltop Hoods. They became the first successful Australian hip hop outfit, followed by a Sydney hip-hop trio, Bliss n Eso. Each has achieved ARIA awards. The New Zealand hip hop scene has seen the success of artists such as Scribe, Savage, Smashproof, David Dallas, Young Sid, Nesian Mystik and P Money. In 2009, Smashproof and Gin Wigmore collaborated on the successful single "Brother", which stayed at No. 1 on the New Zealand charts for eleven weeks, breaking the 23-year-old record for the longest consecutive run at number one on the charts by a local artist. The single also charted in Germany. Latin America Pop The Colombian Latin pop singer Shakira's breakthrough in the early 2000s led to her major international success in many non-Spanish-speaking countries, especially the United States in addition to the music scene of Latin America. In 2001, and aided by heavy rotation of the music video, "Whenever, Wherever", she broke through into the English-speaking world with the release of Laundry Service, which sold over 13 million copies worldwide. Four years later, Shakira released two album projects called Fijación Oral, Vol. 1 and Oral Fixation, Vol. 2. Both reinforced her success, particularly with one of the most successful song in the 21st century to date, "Hips Don't Lie" which sold over 10 million copies and downloads worldwide and hit No. 1 in many countries. From October–November 2009 Shakira released her latest album She Wolf worldwide. Due to her massive international success during the 2000s, she is considered the second most successful female Latin singer.In the early 2000s, Mexican pop star Paulina Rubio became the best-selling artist thanks to the success of her eponymous album Paulina (2000). It remained on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart for 99 weeks, and became the first Latin pop album by a Mexican artist to receive a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 units in the United States. Her follow-up album, Border Girl (2002), also achieved gold certification. Rubio is the best-selling Mexican pop singer in the United States. Pop rock begins to take shape in Latin music with acts such as RBD, Camila, Kany García, Jesse & Joy, Belinda Peregrin and Ha*Ash. Also, more established pop acts such as Pepe Aguilar, Alejandro Fernández, Luis Fonsi, and ex-OV7 member Kalimba would use pop rock in their repertoires. Pop-rock music hits new highs in the 2000s with acts such as Maná, Juanes, Julieta Venegas and the highly anticipated comeback of 90s Mexican Pop Queen, Gloria Trevi in the second half of the decade. In 2004, Gloria Trevi released her first studio album, Como Nace el Universo, in ten years. Rock During the early 2000s, Lynda Thomas had notable success as an alternative rock act around the world, including the U.S. Latin market, a success carried over since the 1990s, first as a eurodance act; she scored successful rock singles in 2000 and 2001, including "A Mil Por Hora", "Lo Mejor De Mí" and "Estoy Viva". Reggaetón In 2002, the New York-based group Aventura would reinvent bachata, thus making it a dominant Latin genre. By 2004, reggaetón would become a staple in music with acts such as Don Omar, Daddy Yankee, Ivy Queen and Wisin & Yandel. By the mid-2000s, reggaetón had replaced salsa, merengue and cumbia as the main dance genre in nightclubs for young people all over Latin America, reaching popularity in parts of Spain and Italy as well. But by the end of 2007, this craze soon declined in popularity. Salsa and merengue Although salsa and merengue began to decline in popularity, merengue would have new life injected thanks to the subgenre known as, "merengue de calle" (or street merengue). Beginning in 2004, this subgenre combining elements of merengue, rap, and reggaetón would be popularized by Dominican acts such as Omega, Silvio Mora, El Sujeto, and Tito Swing. Asia With the rapid development of Asian economies during the 1990s and 2000s, the independent music industries of Asia have seen considerable growth. Asian countries like Japan, China, and India have some of the largest music markets in the world. Supported by their large markets, the music charts in Asia are largely dominated by local Asian artists, with very few artists from the Western world managing to break into those markets. J-pop and K-pop have become increasingly influenced by contemporary R&B, hip hop music and Eurobeat, and they have become popular all over the Far East region. Meanwhile, in the Southern Asia region, the rising independent Indian pop scene, often characterized by its fusion of Indian and non-Indian sounds, has begun to increasingly compete with the popularity of Bollywood filmi music in the region. In Southeast Asia, especially Singapore and Indonesia, straight-ahead jazz saw a revival in the second half of the decade. P-pop refers to contemporary pop music in the Philippines originating from the OPM genre. With its beginnings in the late 1970s, Pinoy pop is a growing genre in the year of 2020s. From the 1990s to the 2000s, OPM pop was regularly showcased in the live band scene. C-pop The appearance of Hong Kong national William Hung on American Idol in 2004, proved to be very popular with many locals of East Asia and Southeast Asia. This resulted in a new generation of young local artists, both solo singers as well as bands, having hit records during this period. Later in 2004, Hung would hold his first solo concert at the Esplanade Theatre in Singapore.Taiwanese boy band F4's first big hit "Meteor Rain", from the album of the same name, established them as the dominant boyband of the first half of the decade. The four members of F4 also had solo hits, such as Jerry Yen's "One Metre", Vanness Wu's "My Friend" (an adaptation of the Robert Burns poem "Auld Lang Syne"), Ken Chu's "Never Stopping", and Vic Chou's "Make a wish". Jay Chou's first solo album Jay in 2000, showcased a unique fusion of Asian music with American R&B. Chou would go on to become the dominant force in Asian music for almost all of the 2000s and the first half of the next decade. Among solo female artists of the 2000s, Stefanie Sun of Singapore was the most outstanding. Her 2000 eponymous debut album featured a remake of an old Hokkien pop song, "Cloudy Day"; and it earned her a Golden Melody Award for Best New Artist.Singer-songwriter-guitarist Tanya Chua was successful during this period as a leading Mandopop artist. Her 2000 album I Do Believe garnered a nomination for Best New Artist at the Golden Melody Awards. Chua also wrote songs or produced albums for several other established singers during this period, for instance, "Wrong Number" for Faye Wong. The most popular girl group of this period was S.H.E, comprising Selina Jen, Hebe Tien, and Ella Chen. Their first big hit, from their fourth album Super Star, was their cover of the Bee Gees' "I.O.I.O.". In Taiwan alone, 250,000 copies of Super Star were sold. In the second half of the decade, straight-ahead jazz saw a surge of popularity in Asia, in particular after the release in 2006 of the debut album, Let Me Sing!, from 15-year-old Indonesian jazz virtuoso Nathan Hartono. Singapore-based wind orchestra The Philharmonic Winds, formed at the beginning of the decade, also played a major part in the revival of jazz in Asia. In 2009, Singapore's Esplanade Theatre would found its own jazz festival especially meant for young bands and artistes; it was originally called Bright Young Things, but it would later be renamed Mosaic Jazz Fellows. Contemporary Christian music artistes also found their way into Asian secular music charts for the first time ever during the 2000s. Mi Lu Bing was a three-piece band that had originally started out playing for worship in their church, but later would release secular-themed albums and songs, including their opening and ending theme songs to the 2007 local television serial, The Golden Path. Sun Ho had been the worship pastor at megachurch City Harvest Church before she released her first album of secular material, Sun With Love, in 2002. She would go on to release another four albums between 2003 and 2007, although her secular music career eventually came to an abrupt ending with the City Harvest Trial. Taiwanese supergroup SuperBand, comprising Wakin Chau, Jonathan Lee, Chang Chen-yue, and Lo Ta-Yu, emerged in 2008 and went on to hold several concerts and release two studio EPs of new material, Northbound (2009) and Go South (2010), before finally resuming their individual solo careers in 2010. 2003 saw the deaths of Hong Kong popular singers Leslie Cheung, 46, who committed suicide; and Anita Mui, 40, who died of cervical cancer. Both singers were highly respected in Cantopop music. J-pop Japanese Pop's popularity continued to expand through Asia and the rest of the world, with various Japanese artists debuting in the U.S. J-pop starts to enjoy a relatively big global online fan base. At the end of the decade, dance music and techno become the most popular genres. Bubblegum pop remains popular during the entire decade. Ayumi Hamasaki was one of the most popular Japanese stars of the 2000s, known as "The Empress of Japanese Pop". Ken Hirai was the most popular male solo artist. 1990s divas like Namie Amuro, Misia, and Hikaru Utada remained popular during this era, with Utada having a second popularity boom in 2008. Starlet Kumi Koda became popular in this era, due to her provocative dance moves. Boy bands were the most popular musical format, with girl bands like Morning Musume experiencing a decline in popularity. Johnny's boy bands, notably Arashi, became very popular. Vocal groups like Exile and Tohoshinki gained popularity and pop/rock bands like Mr. Children, Tokio and Glay remained popular. English pop music's popularity expanded with popular U.S. artists receiving success such as Backstreet Boys and Britney Spears two of the most successful non-Japanese artists. K-pop By the beginning of the 21st century, the K-pop market had slumped and early K-pop idol groups that had seen success in the 90s were on the decline. H.O.T. disbanded in 2001, while other groups like Sechs Kies, S.E.S., Fin.K.L, Shinhwa, and g.o.d became inactive by 2005. Solo singers like BoA, Rain and Lee Hyori grew in success. However, the success of the boy band TVXQ after its debut in 2003 marked the resurgence of idol groups to Korean entertainment and the growth of K-pop as part of Hallyu. The birth of second-generation K-pop was followed with the successful debuts of SS501, Super Junior, BigBang, Wonder Girls, Girls' Generation, Kara, Shinee, 2NE1, 4Minute, T-ara, f(x), and After School. Indian pop The Indian music industry was previously dominated by the filmi music of Bollywood for much of the late 20th century. The 2000s saw increasing popularity of independent Indian pop music that could compete with Bollywood film music. Indian pop music began distinguishing itself from mainstream Bollywood music with its fusion of Indian and non-Indian sounds, which later had on influence an Bollywood music itself. Indian pop has itself been partly influenced by the Asian Underground scene emerging in the United Kingdom among British Asian artists such as Bally Sagoo, Apache Indian, Panjabi MC, Raghav and the Rishi Rich Project (featuring Rishi Rich, Jay Sean and Juggy D). India has one of the largest music markets in the world, though like other developing nations, suffers from high levels of piracy. Indian music has also had an increasing influence on popular music in the Western world. The music of South Asia has influenced Europe's pop mainstream as acts like Björk, Bananarama, Erasure, and Siouxsie and the Banshees all released singles or remixes featuring South Asian instrumentation. Indian music has also influenced mainstream American hip hop, R&B and urban music in the 2000s, including artists/producers such as Timbaland, Jay-Z, Dr. Dre, Truth Hurts, The Black Eyed Peas, Missy Elliott and Britney Spears. According to DJ Green Lantern, "Indian beats have now become a fixture on the R&B scene". Several Hollywood musical films such as Moulin Rouge! have incorporated Bollywood songs, while several Indian music composers have gained international fame, particularly A. R. Rahman who, having sold over 300 million records worldwide, is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. M.I.A., a British-born Sri Lankan electronic artist incorporates Bollywood songs in her music. Indo pop In the early until the middle of 2000s, the most popular music genre in Indonesia was pop and pop rock music. Some group bands like Slank, Dewa 19, Sheila on 7, Padi, Noah, Radja, ST12, Ungu were top bands and their songs were the most played songs by teens and young adults. Some of these 2000s bands' most popular songs were Sheila on 7"Sebuah Kisah Klasik", Dewa 19"Separuh Nafas", Padi"Menanti Sebuah Jawaban", Peterpan/Noah"Ku Katakan Dengan Indah", etc. P-pop In the early 1970s, Pinoy music or Pinoy pop emerged, often sung in Tagalog. It was a mix of rock, folk and ballads making political use of music similar to early hip hop but transcending class. The music was a "conscious attempt to create a Filipino national and popular culture" and it often reflected social realities and problems. As early as 1973, the Juan De la Cruz Band was performing "Ang Himig Natin" ("Our Music"), which is widely regarded as the first example of Pinoy rock. "Pinoy" gained popular currency in the late 1970s in the Philippines when a surge in patriotism made a hit song of Filipino folk singer Heber Bartolome's "Tayo'y mga Pinoy" ("We are Pinoys"). This trend was followed by Filipino rapper Francis Magalona's "Mga Kababayan Ko" ("My Countrymen") in the 1990s and Filipino rock band Bamboo's "Noypi" ("Pinoy" in reversed syllables) in the 2000s. Nowadays, Pinoy is used as an adjective for some terms highlighting their relationship to the Philippines or Filipinos. Pinoy rock was soon followed by Pinoy folk and later, Pinoy jazz. Although the music was often used to express opposition to then Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos and his use of martial law and the creation of the Batasang Bayan, many of the songs were more subversive and some just instilled national pride. Perhaps because of the culturally affirming nature and many of the songs seemingly being non-threatening, the Marcos administration ordered radio stations to play at least oneand later, threePinoy songs each hour. Pinoy music was greatly employed both by Marcos and political forces who sought to overthrow him. Middle East and Africa Music charts in the Middle East are largely dominated by local Arabic-language artists, with an equivalent population of Western world artists as well. The music industry within the Middle East and Africa is international and diverse. Afrobeats Styles of music that make up afrobeats largely began sometime in the late 90s and early-mid-2000s. With the launching of MTV Base Africa in 2005, West Africa was given a large platform through which artists could grow. Artists such as MI Abaga, Naeto C and Sarkodie were among the first to take advantage of this, however most of the artists were merely making interpretations of American hip hop and R&B. Prior to this, groups such as Trybesmen, Plantashun Boiz, and The Remedies were early pioneers that fused modern American influences from hip-hop and R&B with local melodies. While this allowed them to build local audiences, it blocked them from a wider platform due to the language barriers in-place. P-Square released their album Game Over in 2007, which was unique for its usage of Nigerian rhythms and melodies. Meanwhile, artists such as Flavour N'abania were able to find success by embracing older genres, such as highlife, and remixing it into something more modern. By 2009 artists within the burgeoning scene were beginning to become stars across the continent and beyond. The style of music had a variety of names which made it difficult to market outside of Africa. Arabic pop music Arabic pop is mainly produced and originated in Cairo, Egypt; as Egyptian music genre is by far the most widespread within the region. Also Beirut, Lebanon, and Gulf states come as secondary centers. It is an outgrowth of the Arabic film industry (mainly Egyptian movies), also predominantly located in Cairo. Since 2000, various locations in the Gulf countries have been producing Khaleeji pop music. The primary style is a genre that synthetically combines pop melodies with elements of different Arabic regional styles, called ughniyah (Arabic: أغنية) or in English "song". It uses a wide variety of instruments, including electric guitars or electronic keyboards, as well as traditional Middle Eastern instruments like the oud, darbukka or qanun and many more. Another characteristic aspect of Arabic pop is the overall tone and mood of the songs. The majority of the songs are in a minor key, and the lyrics tend to focus on longing, melancholy, strife, and generally love issues. Although tame by Western standards, female Arab popstars have been known to cause controversy with their sexuality. Playful lyrics, skimpy costumes, and dancing have led to quite a bit of criticism in the more conservative Islamic circles. Artists such as Lydia Canaan, Samira Said, Nancy Ajram, Nawal El Zoghbi, Latifa, Assala, Amal Hijazi and Haifa Wehbe have all come under fire at one time or another for the use of sexual innuendos in their music. This has led to bans on their music and performances in certain countries; particularly in Haifa's case. Lydia Canaan's provocative costumes made her a sex symbol. The Daily Star wrote: "On stage, with her daring looks and style, Canaan became a role model". In 2002, a video by Samira Said called "Youm Wara Youm" was banned by the Egyptian Parliament for being 'too sexy', similar to Nancy Ajram's music video "Akhasmak Ah". In addition Amal Hijazi's music video of "Baya al Ward" was heavily criticised and banned on a few music channels. Such extremes are rare, but such kinds of censorship are not uncommon for Arab female popstars. Drum and bass The South African drum and bass scene began in the mid nineties. In 2000, events such as Homegrown became a prominent fixture in Cape Town and a launching platform for international and local artists such as Counterstrike, SFR, Niskerone, Tasha Baxter, Anti Alias and Rudeone. Other regular events include It Came From The Jungle in Cape Town and Science Friksun in Johannesburg. A weekly Sublime drum and bass radio show is hosted by Hyphen on Bush Radio. Hip hop Botswana Phat Boy etc. has done a lot to promote Botswana hip hop. The hip hop movement in Botswana has grown over the years as evidenced by the release over the years of albums and songs from artists such as Mr Doe, Zeus, Touch Motswak Tswak, Ignition, S.C.A.R, Awesomore.aka Gaddamit, Cashless Society, Nitro, Konkrete, HT, Flex, Dice, Dj Dagizus, 3rd Mind, Kast, Nomadic, and Draztik to name a few. The release of hip hop albums is slow because of the small market and competition from other genres of mostly dance-oriented music. Since 2000 hip hop has achieved more prominence in Botswana, with rappers like Scar Kast and Third Mind releasing relatively successful albums. In 2006, Scar released his sophomore offering, "Happy Hour". The same year Kast released "Dazzit". S.C.A.R has since won a Channel O Spirit of Africa Award 2007 for best hip hop. Côte d'Ivoire Ivorian hip hop became a mainstream part of the popular music of Côte d'Ivoire beginning in 2009 after the victory of Ivorian hip hop group Kiff No Beat at the hip-hop contest Faya Flow, and has been fused with many of the country's native styles, such as zouglou. There is a kind of gangsta rap-influenced Ivorian hip hop called rap dogba. Ivorian Hip Hop is mostly in the French language, but includes nouchi (Ivorian Slang). Madagascar On 21 June 2007, UNICEF chose a 15-year-old Malagasy rap star, Name Six as its first-ever Junior Goodwill Ambassador for Eastern and Southern Africa. The young rapper's work continues the genre's tradition of social critique and political commentary, focusing largely on the challenges faced by children in underprivileged communities in Madagascar and voicing the views and concerns of the young, who are routinely omitted from political decision-making processes. Malawi Hip hop culture in Malawi is relatively young. Notable rappers who were early on the scene include Criminal A, Bantu Clan, Real Elements, Dynamike, Dominant 1, Knight of the Round Table, and Wisdom Chitedze. The scene started to gain traction in the late 90s and expanded further in the early 2000s when cheap computers and recording gear became widely available to artists. The launch of Television Malawi in 1999 provided a platform for rappers to have their music videos beamed to a national audience. The music video to Wisdom Chitedze's song Tipewe was on regular rotation on the station in its early days. In the early to mid-2000s artists such as Nospa G, M Krazy, David Kalilani, and Gosple helped push the music further. A lot of Malawi's early hip hop music contained social commentary, religious, and introspective themes. By the late 2000s the scene had picked up further with artists such as Barry One, Basement, Mandela Mwanza, Hyphen, Fredokiss, and Tay Grin gaining notoriety. Tay Grin's music video for the song Stand Up was featured considerably on Channel O. He was not the first Malawian rapper to get his song on that station; that accolade goes to the Real Elements. However, Tay Grin's got much more airplay. In 2009, Phyzix released his debut studio album The Lone Ranger LP which contained the hit singles Cholapitsa and Gamba. Around the same time, Christian rap started to gain popularity and that movement was spearheaded by Manyanda Nyasulu, DJ Kali, KBG, Double Zee, Liwu, C-Scripture, Asodzi, Erasto, and Sintha. Niger Hip hop groups began to appear and perform in Niamey in 1998. In August 2004, UNICEF opened its "Scene Ouverte Rap", where 45 new groups entered selections among an informal count of 300 existing groups. Shows took place at Niamey's Jean Rouch Centre Culturel Franco – Nigerien (CCFN) in August 2004. Palestine Ramallah Underground, based in Ramallah, Palestine, was a musical collective born from the desire to give voice to a generation of Palestinians and Arabs, in a situation of great economic, artistic, and political difficulty. The collective was founded by artists Stormtrap and Boikutt, later joined by Aswatt, who aim to rejuvenate Arabic culture by creating "music that Arabic youth can relate to," in the words of Boikutt. They rapped in Arabic, and were credited as some of the founders of Palestinian hip-hop. Their music combines hip-hop, trip hop, and downtempo, besides more traditional Middle-Eastern music. Their MySpace page led David Harrington of the Kronos Quartet to ask them to collaborate on a piece, "Tashweesh," composed by Boikutt, which was included on the quartet's 2009 release Floodplain. Uganda In 2003 Geoffrey Ekongot, Saba Saba aka Krazy Native, of the Bataka Squad, Francis Agaba, the late Paul Mwandha of Musicuganda.com, and Xenson formed the Uganda Hip Hop Foundation. In 2003, the Foundation hosted the first Ugandan Hip Hop Summit and concert at Club Sabrina's in Kampala. It was so successful that they have hosted it every year for the past four years. In 2005 the Bavubuka All Starz was formed under the leadership of Silas aka Babaluku of the Bataka Squad, with the mission of bringing hip hop music and community together to address social causes. Keko is currently one of the most promising and talented rappers in Uganda. Of late Uganda has produced globally recognized MCs like Bana Mutibwa whose commonly known as Burney MC. Zambia The first hip hop album to be released in Zambia was actually a gospel hip hop album called Talk About God by a duo called MT God Bless which was released on cassette tape in 2003. (Mandiva Syananzu & Tommy Banda were the two rappers). It got massive airplay both locally and internationally. MT God Bless were also the first Christian hip hop dual to have their music video played on South Africa's Channel O. Pictures of the cassette tape can be seen on Mandiva's Facebook page with the year 2003 inscribed on it. In 2005 C.R.I$..I$. Mr Swagger released what is considered the biggest debut release by a hip hop artist in Zambia titled "Officer in Charge". Other notable artists to come up over the years are Black Muntu, The Holstar, Conscious, Takondwa, Pitch Black, Diamond Chain, 5ive 4our, Zone Fam, C.Q Krytic, Slap Dee, Macky 2, Mic Diggy and Urban Chaos. See also 1980s in music 1990s in music 2000s in the music industry 2000s 2010s in music References 2000s in music

424150

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian%20Embassy%20siege

Iranian Embassy siege

The Iranian Embassy siege took place from 30 April to 5 May 1980, after a group of six armed men stormed the Iranian embassy on Prince's Gate in South Kensington, London. The gunmen, Iranian Arabs campaigning for sovereignty of Khuzestan Province, took 26 people hostage, including embassy staff, several visitors, and a police officer who had been guarding the embassy. They demanded the release of prisoners in Khuzestan and their own safe passage out of the United Kingdom. The British government quickly decided that safe passage would not be granted and a siege ensued. Subsequently, police negotiators secured the release of five hostages in exchange for minor concessions, such as the broadcasting of the hostage-takers' demands on British television. By the sixth day of the siege the gunmen were increasingly frustrated at the lack of progress in meeting their demands. That evening, they killed a hostage and threw his body out of the embassy. The Special Air Service (SAS), a special forces regiment of the British Army, initiated "Operation Nimrod" to rescue the remaining hostages, abseiling from the roof and forcing entry through the windows. During the 17-minute raid they rescued all but one of the remaining hostages and killed five of the six hostage-takers. An inquest cleared the SAS of any wrongdoing. The sole remaining gunman served 27 years in British prisons. The operation brought the SAS to the public eye for the first time and bolstered the reputation of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's government. The SAS was quickly overwhelmed by the number of applications it received from people inspired by the operation and experienced greater demand for its expertise from foreign governments. The building, damaged by fire during the assault, was not reopened until 1993. The SAS raid, televised live on a bank holiday evening, became a defining moment in British history and proved a career boost for several journalists; it became the subject of multiple documentaries and works of fiction, including several films and television series. Background Motives The hostage-takers were members of the Democratic Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Arabistan (DRFLA), Iranian Arabs protesting for the establishment of an autonomous Arab state in the southern region of the Iranian province of Khūzestān which is home to an Arabic-speaking minority. The oil-rich area had become the source of much of Iran's wealth, having been developed by multi-national companies during the reign of the Shah. According to Oan Ali Mohammed, suppression of the Arab sovereignty movement was the spark that led to his desire to attack the Iranian Embassy in London. The plan was inspired by the Iran hostage crisis in which supporters of the revolution held the staff of the American embassy in Tehran hostage. Arrival in London Using Iraqi passports, Oan and three other members of the DRFLA arrived in London on 31 March 1980 and rented a flat in Earl's Court, West London. They claimed they had met by chance on the flight. Over the following days, the group swelled, with up to a dozen men in the flat on one occasion. Oan was 27 and from Khūzestān; he had studied at the University of Tehran, where he became politically active. He had been imprisoned by SAVAK, the Shah's secret police, and bore scars which he said were from torture in SAVAK custody. The other members of his group were Shakir Abdullah Radhil, known as "Faisal", Oan's second-in-command who also claimed to have been tortured by SAVAK; Shakir Sultan Said, or "Hassan"; Themir Moammed Hussein, or Abbas; Fowzi Badavi Nejad, or "Ali"; and Makki Hanoun Ali, the youngest of the group, who went by the name of "Makki". On 30 April the men informed their landlord that they were going to Bristol for a week and then returning to Iraq, stated that they would no longer require the flat, and arranged for their belongings to be sent to Iraq. They left the building at 09:30 (BST) on 30 April. Their initial destination is unknown, but en route to the Iranian Embassy they collected firearms (including pistols and submachine guns), ammunition and hand grenades. The weapons, predominantly Soviet-made, are believed to have been smuggled into the United Kingdom in a diplomatic bag belonging to Iraq. Shortly before 11:30, and almost two hours after vacating the nearby flat in Lexham Gardens in South Kensington, the six men arrived outside the embassy. According to a 2014 academic study into the Iran–Iraq War (which broke out later in 1980), the attackers were "recruited and trained" by the Iraqi government as part of a campaign of subversion against Iran, which included sponsorship of several separatist movements. Special Air Service The Special Air Service (SAS) is a regiment of the British Army and part of the United Kingdom's special forces, originally formed in the Second World War to conduct irregular warfare. Western European governments were prompted to form specialist police and military counter-terrorist units following the Munich massacre at the 1972 Olympic Games, during which a police operation to end a hostage crisis ended in chaos. In the resulting firefight, a police officer, most of the hostage-takers, and all of the hostages were killed. In response, West Germany created GSG 9, which was quickly followed by the French GIGN. Following these examples, the British government, worried that the country was unprepared for a similar crisis in the United Kingdom, ordered the formation of the Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW) Wing of the SAS. This became the UK's primary anti-terrorist and anti-hijacking unit. The SAS had taken part in counter-insurgency operations abroad since 1945, and had trained the bodyguards of influential people whose deaths would be contrary to British interests. Thus, it was believed to be better prepared for the role than any unit in the police or elsewhere in the armed forces. The CRW Wing's first operational experience was the storming of Lufthansa Flight 181 in 1977, when a small detachment of soldiers were sent to assist GSG 9, the elite West German police unit set up after the events of 1972. Siege Day one: 30 April At approximately 11:30 on Wednesday 30 April the six heavily armed members of DRFLA stormed the Iranian Embassy building on Princes Gate, South Kensington. The gunmen quickly overpowered Police Constable Trevor Lock of the Metropolitan Police's Diplomatic Protection Group (DPG). Lock was carrying a concealed Smith & Wesson .38-calibre revolver, but was unable to draw it before he was overpowered, although he did manage to press the "panic button" on his radio. Lock was later frisked, but the gunman conducting the search did not find the constable's weapon. He remained in possession of the revolver, and to keep it concealed he refused to remove his coat, which he told the gunmen was to "preserve his image" as a police officer. The officer also refused offers of food throughout the siege for fear that the weapon would be seen if he had to use the toilet and a gunman decided to escort him. Although the majority of the people in the embassy were captured, three managed to escape; two by climbing out of a ground-floor window and the third by climbing across a first-floor parapet to the Ethiopian Embassy next door. A fourth person, Gholam-Ali Afrouz, the chargé d'affaires and thus most senior Iranian official present, briefly escaped by jumping out of a first-floor window, but was injured in the process and quickly captured. Afrouz and the 25 other hostages were all taken to a room on the second floor. The majority of the hostages were embassy staff, predominantly Iranian nationals, but several British employees were also captured. The other hostages were all visitors, with the exception of Lock, the British police officer guarding the embassy. Afrouz had been appointed to the position less than a year before, his predecessor having been dismissed after the revolution. Abbas Fallahi, who had been a butler before the revolution, was appointed the doorman by Afrouz. One of the British members of staff was Ron Morris, from Battersea, who had worked for the embassy in various positions since 1947. During the course of the siege, police and journalists established the identities of several other hostages. Mustapha Karkouti was a journalist covering the crisis at the US Embassy in Tehran and was at the embassy for an interview with Abdul Fazi Ezzati, the cultural attaché. Muhammad Hashir Faruqi was another journalist, at the embassy to interview Afrouz for an article on the Iranian Revolution. Simeon "Sim" Harris and Chris Cramer, both employees of the BBC, were at the embassy attempting to obtain visas to visit Iran, hoping to cover the aftermath of the 1979 revolution, after several unsuccessful attempts. They found themselves sitting next to Moutaba Mehrnavard, who was there to consult Ahmad Dadgar, the embassy's medical adviser, and Ali Asghar Tabatabai, who was collecting a map for use in a presentation he had been asked to give at the end of a course he had been attending. Police arrived at the embassy almost immediately after the first reports of gunfire, and, within ten minutes, seven DPG officers were on the scene. The officers moved to surround the embassy, but retreated when a gunman appeared at a window and threatened to open fire. Deputy Assistant Commissioner John Dellow arrived nearly 30 minutes later and took command of the operation. Dellow established a temporary headquarters in his car before moving it to the Royal School of Needlework further down Princes Gate and then to 24 Princes Gate, a nursery school. From his various command posts, Dellow coordinated the police response, including the deployment of D11, the Metropolitan Police's marksmen, and officers with specialist surveillance equipment. Police negotiators, led by Max Vernon, made contact with Oan via a field telephone passed through one of the embassy windows, and were assisted by a negotiator and a psychiatrist. At 15:15 Oan issued the DRFLA's first demand, the release of 91 Arabs held in prisons in Khūzestān, and threatened to blow up the embassy and the hostages if this were not done by noon on 1 May. Large numbers of journalists were on the scene quickly and were moved into a holding area to the west of the front of the embassy, while dozens of Iranian protesters also arrived near the embassy and remained there throughout the siege. A separate police command post was established to contain the protests, which descended into violent confrontations with the police on several occasions. Shortly after the beginning of the crisis, the British government's emergency committee COBRA, was assembled. COBRA is made up of ministers, civil servants and expert advisers, including representatives from the police and the armed forces. The meeting was chaired by William Whitelaw, the Home Secretary, as Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister, was unavailable. The Iranian government accused the British and American governments of sponsoring the attack as revenge for the ongoing siege of the US Embassy in Tehran. Given the lack of co-operation from Iran, Thatcher, kept apprised of the situation by Whitelaw, determined that British law would be applied to the embassy. At 16:30, the gunmen released their first hostage, Frieda Mozaffarian. She had been unwell since the siege began, and Oan had asked for a doctor to be sent into the embassy to treat her, but the police refused. The other hostages deceived Oan into believing that Mozaffarian was pregnant, and Oan eventually released Mozaffarian after her condition deteriorated. Day two: 1 May The COBRA meetings continued through the night and into Thursday. Meanwhile, two teams were dispatched from the headquarters of the Special Air Service (SAS) near Hereford, and arrived at a holding area in Regent's Park Barracks. The teams, from B Squadron, complemented by specialists from other squadrons, were equipped with CS gas, stun grenades, and explosives and armed with Browning Hi-Power pistols and Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns. Lieutenant-Colonel Michael Rose, commander of 22 SAS, had travelled ahead of the detachment and introduced himself to Dellow, the commander of the police operation. At approximately 03:30 on 1 May, one of the SAS teams moved into the building next door to the embassy, normally occupied by the Royal College of General Practitioners, where they were briefed on Rose's "immediate action" plan, to be implemented should the SAS be required to storm the building before a more sophisticated plan could be formed. Early in the morning of 1 May, the gunmen ordered one of the hostages to telephone the BBC's news desk. During the call, Oan took the receiver and spoke directly to the BBC journalist. He identified the group to which the gunmen belonged and stated that the non-Iranian hostages would not be harmed, but refused to allow the journalist to speak to any other hostages. At some point during the day, the police disabled the embassy's telephone lines, leaving the hostage-takers just the field telephone for outside communication. As the hostages woke up, Chris Cramer, a sound organiser for the BBC, appeared to become seriously ill. He and three other non-Arab hostages had decided one of them must get out, and to do this, he had convincingly exaggerated the symptoms of an existing illness. His colleague, Sim Harris, was taken to the field telephone to negotiate for a doctor. The police negotiator refused the request, instead telling Harris to persuade Oan to release Cramer. The ensuing negotiations between Harris, Oan, and the police took up most of the morning, and Cramer was eventually released at 11:15. He was rushed to hospital in an ambulance, accompanied by police officers sent to gather information from him. As the deadline of noon approached, set the previous day for the release of the Arab prisoners, the police became convinced that the gunmen did not have the capability to carry out their threat of blowing up the embassy, and persuaded Oan to agree to a new deadline of 14:00. The police allowed the deadline to pass, to no immediate response from the gunmen. During the afternoon, Oan altered his demands, requesting that the British media broadcast a statement of the group's grievances and for ambassadors of three Arab countries to negotiate the group's safe passage out of the UK once the statement had been broadcast. At approximately 20:00, Oan became agitated by noises coming from the Ethiopian Embassy next door. The noise came from technicians who were drilling holes in the wall to implant listening devices, but PC Trevor Lock, when asked to identify the sound, attributed it to mice. COBRA decided to create ambient noise to cover the sound created by the technicians and instructed British Gas to commence drilling in an adjacent road, supposedly to repair a gas main. The drilling was aborted after it agitated the gunmen, and instead British Airports Authority, owner of London Heathrow Airport, was told to instruct approaching aircraft to fly over the embassy at low altitude. Day three: 2 May At 09:30 on 2 May, Oan appeared at the first-floor window of the embassy to demand access to the telex system, which the police had disabled along with the telephone lines, and threatened to kill Abdul Fazi Ezzati, the cultural attaché. The police refused and Oan pushed Ezzati, who he had been holding at gunpoint at the window, across the room, before demanding to speak to somebody from the BBC who knew Sim Harris. The police, relieved to have a demand to which they could easily agree, produced Tony Crabb, managing director of BBC Television News and Harris's boss. Oan shouted his demands—for safe passage out of the UK, to be negotiated by three ambassadors from Arab countries—to Crabb from the first-floor window, and instructed that they should be broadcast along with a statement of the hostage-takers' aims by the BBC. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office informally approached the embassies of Algeria, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria and Qatar to ask if their ambassadors would be willing to talk to the hostage-takers. The Jordanian ambassador immediately refused and the other five said they would consult their governments. The BBC broadcast the statement that evening, but in a form unsatisfactory to Oan, who considered it to be truncated and incorrect. Meanwhile, the police located the embassy caretaker and took him to their forward headquarters to brief the SAS and senior police officers. He informed them that the embassy's front door was reinforced by a steel security door, and that the windows on the ground floor and first floor were fitted with armoured glass, the result of recommendations made after the SAS had been asked to review security arrangements for the embassy several years earlier. Plans for entering the embassy by battering the front door and ground-floor windows were quickly scrapped and work began on other ideas. Day four: 3 May Oan, angered by the BBC's incorrect reporting of his demands the previous evening, contacted the police negotiators shortly after 06:00 and accused the authorities of deceiving him. He demanded to speak with an Arab ambassador, but the negotiator on duty claimed that talks were still being arranged by the Foreign Office. Recognising the delaying tactic, Oan told the negotiator that the British hostages would be the last to be released because of the British authorities' deceit. He added that a hostage would be killed unless Tony Crabb was brought back to the embassy. Crabb did not arrive at the embassy until 15:30, nearly ten hours after Oan demanded his presence, to the frustration of both Oan and Sim Harris. Oan then relayed another statement to Crabb via Mustapha Karkouti, a journalist also being held hostage in the embassy. The police guaranteed that the statement would be broadcast on the BBC's next news bulletin, in exchange for the release of two hostages. The hostages decided amongst themselves that the two to be released would be Hiyech Kanji and Ali-Guil Ghanzafar; the former as she was pregnant and the latter for no other reason than his loud snoring, which kept the other hostages awake at night and irritated the terrorists. Later in the evening, at approximately 23:00, an SAS team reconnoitred the roof of the embassy. They discovered a skylight, and succeeded in unlocking it for potential use as an access point, should they later be required to storm the building. They also attached ropes to the chimneys to allow soldiers to abseil down the building and gain access through the windows if necessary. Day five: 4 May During the day, the Foreign Office held further talks with diplomats from Arabian countries in the hope of persuading them to go to the embassy and talk to the hostage-takers. The talks, hosted by Douglas Hurd, ended in stalemate. The diplomats insisted they must be able to offer safe passage out of the UK for the gunmen, believing this to be the only way to guarantee a peaceful outcome, but the British government was adamant that safe passage would not be considered under any circumstances. Karkouti, through whom Oan had issued his revised demands the previous day, became increasingly ill throughout the day and by the evening was feverish, which led to suggestions that the police had spiked the food that had been sent into the embassy. John Dellow, the commander of the police operation, had apparently considered the idea and even consulted a doctor about its viability, but eventually dismissed it as "impracticable". The SAS officers involved in the operation, including Brigadier Peter de la Billière, Director SAS, Rose, and Major Hector Gullan (commander of the team that would undertake any raid) spent the day refining their plans for an assault. Day six: 5 May Oan woke Lock at dawn, convinced that an intruder was in the embassy. Lock was sent to investigate, but no intruder was found. Later in the morning, Oan called Lock to examine a bulge in the wall separating the Iranian embassy from the Ethiopian embassy next door. The bulge had, in fact, been caused by the removal of bricks to allow an assault team to break through the wall and to implant listening devices, resulting in a weakening of the wall. Although Lock assured him that he did not believe the police were about to storm the building, Oan remained convinced that they were "up to something" and moved the male hostages from the room in which they had spent the last four days to another down the hall. Tensions rose throughout the morning and, at 13:00, Oan told the police that he would kill a hostage unless he was able to speak to an Arab ambassador within 45 minutes. At 13:40, Lock informed the negotiator that the gunmen had taken Abbas Lavasani, the embassy's chief press officer, downstairs and were preparing to execute him. Lavasani, a strong supporter of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, had repeatedly provoked his captors during the siege. According to Lock, Lavasani stated that "if they were going to kill a hostage, [Lavasani] wanted it to be him." At exactly 13:45, 45 minutes after Oan's demand to speak to an ambassador, three shots were heard from inside the embassy. Whitelaw, who had been chairing the COBRA crisis meeting during the siege, was rushed back to Whitehall from a function he had been attending in Slough, roughly away, arriving 19 minutes after the shots had been reported. He was briefed on the SAS plan by de la Billière, who told him to expect that up to 40 percent of the hostages would be killed in an assault. After deliberations, Whitelaw instructed the SAS to prepare to assault the building at short notice, an order that was received by Lieutenant-Colonel Rose at 15:50. By 17:00, the SAS were in a position to assault the embassy at ten minutes' notice. The police negotiators recruited the imam from Regent's Park Mosque at 18:20, fearing that a "crisis point" had been reached, and asked him to talk to the gunmen. Three further shots were fired during the course of the imam's conversation with Oan. Oan announced that a hostage had been killed, and the rest would die in 30 minutes unless his demands were met. A few minutes later, Lavasani's body was dumped out of the front door. Upon a preliminary examination, conducted at the scene, a forensic pathologist estimated that Lavasani had been dead for at least an hour, meaning he could not have been killed by the three most recent shots, and leading the police to believe that two hostages had been killed. In fact, only Lavasani had been shot. After Lavasani's body had been recovered, Sir David McNee, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, contacted the Home Secretary to request approval to hand control of the operation over to the British Army, under the provisions of Military Aid to the Civil Power. Whitelaw relayed the request to Thatcher, and the prime minister agreed immediately. Thus John Dellow, the ranking police officer at the embassy, signed over control of the operation to Lieutenant-Colonel Rose at 19:07, authorising Rose to order an assault at his discretion. The signed note is now on display at New Scotland Yard's Crime Museum. Meanwhile, the police negotiators began stalling Oan. They offered concessions in order to distract him and prevent him killing further hostages, buying time for the SAS to make its final preparations for the now-inevitable assault. SAS assault The two SAS teams on-scene, Red Team and Blue Team, were ordered to begin their simultaneous assaults, under the codename Operation Nimrod, at 19:23. One group of four men from Red Team abseiled from the roof down the rear of the building, while another four-man team lowered a stun grenade through the skylight. The detonation of the stun grenade was supposed to coincide with the abseiling teams detonating explosives to gain entry to the building through the second-floor windows. During the descent, one of the abseilers became entangled in his rope. While trying to assist him, one of the other soldiers accidentally smashed a window with his foot. The noise of the breaking window alerted Oan, who was on the first floor communicating with the police negotiators, and he went to investigate. The soldiers were unable to use explosives in case they injured their stranded comrade, but managed to smash their way in using sledgehammers. After the first soldiers entered, a fire started and travelled up the curtains and out of the second-floor window, severely burning the stranded soldier. A second wave of abseilers cut him free, and he fell to the balcony below before entering the embassy. Slightly behind Red Team, Blue Team detonated explosives on a first-floor window, forcing Sim Harris—who had just run into the room—to take cover. Much of the operation at the front of the embassy took place in full view of the assembled journalists and was broadcast on live television, and Harris's escape across the parapet of a first-floor balcony was famously captured on video. As the soldiers emerged onto the first-floor landing, Lock tackled Oan to prevent him attacking the SAS operatives. Oan, still armed, was subsequently shot dead by one of the soldiers. Meanwhile, further teams entered the embassy through the back door and cleared the ground floor and cellar. During the raid, the gunmen holding the male hostages opened fire on their captives, killing Ali Akbar Samadzadeh and wounding two others. The SAS began evacuating hostages, taking them down the stairs towards the back door of the embassy. Two of the terrorists were hiding amongst the hostages; one of them produced a hand grenade when he was identified. An SAS soldier, who was unable to shoot for concern of hitting a hostage or another soldier, pushed the grenade-wielding terrorist to the bottom of the stairs, where two other soldiers shot him dead. The raid lasted seventeen minutes and involved 30 to 35 soldiers. The terrorists killed one hostage and seriously wounded two others during the raid while the SAS killed all but one of the terrorists. The rescued hostages and the remaining terrorist, who was still concealed amongst them, were taken into the embassy's back garden and restrained on the ground while they were identified. The last terrorist was identified by Sim Harris and led away by the SAS. Hostages Perpetrators Aftermath After the end of the siege, PC Trevor Lock was widely considered a hero. He was awarded the George Medal, the United Kingdom's second-highest civil honour, for his conduct during the siege and for tackling Oan during the SAS raid, the only time during the siege that he drew his concealed side arm. In addition, he was honoured with the Freedom of the City of London and in a motion in the House of Commons. Police historian Michael J. Waldren, referring to the television series Dixon of Dock Green, suggested that Lock's restraint in the use of his revolver was "a defining example of the power of the Dixon image", and academic Maurice Punch noted the contrast between Lock's actions and the highly aggressive tactics of the SAS. Another academic, Steven Moysey, commented on the difference in outcomes between the Iranian Embassy siege and the 1975 Balcombe Street siege, in which the police negotiated the surrender of four Provisional Irish Republican Army members without military involvement. Nonetheless, the siege led to calls for increasing the firepower of the police to enable them to prevent and deal with similar incidents in the future, and an official report recommended that specialist police firearms units, such as the Metropolitan Police's D11, be better resourced and equipped. Warrant Officer Class 1 Tommy Goodyear was awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal for his part in the assault, in which he shot dead a terrorist who was apparently about to throw a grenade amongst the hostages. After the operation concluded, the staff sergeant who was caught in his abseil rope was treated at St Stephen's Hospital in Fulham. He suffered serious burns to his legs, but went on to make a full recovery. The Iranian government welcomed the end of the siege, and declared that the two hostages killed were martyrs for the Iranian Revolution. They also thanked the British government for "the persevering action of your police force during the unjust hostage-taking event at the Embassy". After the assault concluded, the police conducted an investigation into the siege and the deaths of the two hostages and five terrorists, including the actions of the SAS. The soldiers' weapons were taken away for examination and, the following day, the soldiers themselves were interviewed at length by the police at the regiment's base in Hereford. There was controversy over the deaths of two terrorists in the telex room, where the male hostages were held. Hostages later said in interviews that they had persuaded their captors to surrender and television footage appeared to show them throwing weapons out of the window and holding a white flag. The two SAS soldiers who killed the men both stated at the inquest into the terrorists' deaths that they believed the men had been reaching for weapons before they were shot. The inquest jury reached the verdict that the soldiers' actions were justifiable homicide (later known as "lawful killing"). Fowzi Nejad was the only gunman to survive the SAS assault. After being identified, he was dragged away by an SAS trooper, who allegedly intended to take him back into the building and shoot him. The soldier reportedly changed his mind when it was pointed out to him that the raid was being broadcast on live television. It later emerged that the footage from the back of the embassy was coming from a wireless camera placed in the window of a flat overlooking the embassy. The camera had been installed by ITN technicians, who had posed as guests of a local resident in order to get past the police cordon, which had been in place since the beginning of the siege. Nejad was arrested, and was eventually tried, convicted, and sentenced to life imprisonment for his role in the siege. He became eligible for parole in 2005. As a foreign national, he would normally have been immediately deported to his home country but Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, incorporated into British law by the Human Rights Act 1998, has been held by the European Court of Human Rights to prohibit deportation in cases where the person concerned would be likely to be tortured or executed in his home country. Nejad was eventually paroled in 2008 and granted leave to remain in the UK, but was not given political asylum. The Home Office released a statement, saying "We do not give refugee status to convicted terrorists. Our aim is to deport people as quickly as possible but the law requires us to first obtain assurances that the person being returned will not face certain death". After 27 years in prison, Nejad was deemed no longer to be a threat to society, but Trevor Lock wrote to the Home Office to oppose his release. Because it is accepted by the British government that he would be executed or tortured, he cannot be deported to Iran; he now lives in south London, having assumed another identity. Long-term impact Prior to 1980, London had been the scene of several terrorist incidents related to Middle East politics, including the assassination of the former prime minister of the Republic of Yemen, and an attack on a coach containing staff from the Israeli airline El Al. Although there were other isolated incidents relating to Middle Eastern and North African politics in the years following the embassy siege, most prominently the murder of Yvonne Fletcher from inside the Libyan embassy in 1984, historian Jerry White believed the resolution of the siege "effectively marked the end of London's three years as a world theatre for the resolution of Middle Eastern troubles". The SAS raid, codenamed "Operation Nimrod", was broadcast live at peak time on a bank holiday Monday evening and was viewed by millions of people, mostly in the UK, making it a defining moment in British history. Both the BBC and ITV interrupted their scheduled programming, the BBC interrupting the broadcast of the World Snooker Championship final, to show the end of the siege, which proved to be a major career boost for several journalists. Kate Adie, the BBC's duty reporter at the embassy when the SAS assault began, went on to cover Nejad's trial and then to report from war zones across the world and eventually to become chief news correspondent for BBC News, while David Goldsmith and his team, responsible for the hidden camera at the back of the embassy, were awarded a BAFTA for their coverage. The success of the operation, combined with the high profile it was given by the media, invoked a sense of national pride compared to Victory in Europe Day, the end of the Second World War in Europe. The operation was declared "an almost unqualified success". Margaret Thatcher recalled that she was congratulated wherever she went over the following days, and received messages of support and congratulation from other world leaders. However, the incident strained already-tense relations between the UK and Iran following the Iranian Revolution. The Iranian government declared that the siege of the embassy was planned by the British and American governments, and that the hostages who had been killed were martyrs for the Revolution. Operation Nimrod brought the SAS, a regiment that had fallen into obscurity after its fame during the Second World War (partly owing to the covert nature of its operations), back into the public eye. The regiment was not pleased with its new high profile, having enjoyed its previous obscurity. Nonetheless, the operation vindicated the SAS, which had been threatened with disbandment and whose use of resources had previously been considered a waste. The regiment was quickly overwhelmed by new applicants. Membership of 22 SAS is open only to individuals currently serving in the Armed Forces (allowing applications from any individual in any service), but the unit also has two regiments from the volunteer Territorial Army (TA): 21 SAS and 23 SAS. Both the TA regiments received hundreds more applications than in previous years, prompting de la Billière to remark that the applicants seemed "convinced that a balaclava helmet and a sub-machine gun would be handed to them over the counter, so that they could go off and conduct embassy-style sieges of their own". Meanwhile, the SAS became a sought-after assignment for career army officers. All three units were forced to introduce additional fitness tests at the start of the application process. The SAS also experienced an increased demand for their expertise in training the forces of friendly countries and those whose collapse was considered not to be in Britain's interest. The government developed a protocol for lending the SAS to foreign governments to assist with hijackings or sieges, and it became fashionable for politicians to be seen associating with the regiment. Despite its new fame, the SAS did not have a high profile during the 1982 Falklands War, partly due to a lack of operations, and next came to the fore during the 1990–1991 Gulf War. The British government's response to the crisis, and the successful use of force to end it, strengthened the Conservative government of the day and boosted Thatcher's personal credibility. McNee believed that the conclusion of the siege exemplified the British government's policy of refusing to give in to terrorist demands, "nowhere was the effectiveness of this response to terrorism more effectively demonstrated". The embassy building was severely damaged by fire. It was more than a decade before the British and Iranian governments came to an agreement whereby the United Kingdom would repair the damage to the embassy in London and Iran would pay for repairs to the British embassy in Tehran, which had been damaged during the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Iranian diplomats began working from 16 Princes Gate again in December 1993. The DRFLA was undermined by its links with the Iraqi government after it emerged that Iraq had sponsored the training and equipping of the hostage-takers. The Iran–Iraq War started five months after the end of the siege and continued for eight years. The campaign for autonomy of Khūzestān was largely forgotten in the wake of the hostilities, as was the DRFLA. Cultural impact As well as factual television documentaries, the dramatic conclusion of the siege inspired a wave of fictional works about the SAS in the form of novels, television programmes, and films. Among them were the 1982 film Who Dares Wins and the 2017 film 6 Days, which was released on Netflix. The siege features in the 2006 video game The Regiment, and Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege – a 2015 tactical shooter video game focusing on counter-terrorism – uses the Iranian Embassy Siege as inspiration, with a playable character having canonically participated in the siege. The SAS also feature in the book Rainbow Six, upon which the game series was based. The embassy siege was referenced multiple times in the television drama Ultimate Force (2002–2008), which stars Ross Kemp as the leader of a fictional SAS unit. As well as fictional representations in media, the siege inspired a version of Palitoy's Action Man figure, clad in black and equipped with a gas mask, mimicking the soldiers who stormed the embassy. See also List of terrorist incidents in London List of hostage crises History of the Special Air Service Attack on the Iranian Embassy in London (2018) Notes References Bibliography Citations External links SAS Storm the Embassy: Interactive walk-through of the raid from BBC News. 1980 disasters in the United Kingdom 1980 fires 1980s fires in the United Kingdom 1980 in international relations 1980 in London 1980 murders in the United Kingdom 1980s in the City of Westminster 20th-century history of the British Army 20th century in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea 1980 crimes April 1980 events April 1980 events in the United Kingdom Arab nationalism in Iran Attacks on buildings and structures in 1980 Attacks on diplomatic missions in the United Kingdom Attacks on diplomatic missions of Iran Battles and military actions in London Diplomatic incidents Fires in London Hostage taking in the United Kingdom Iran–United Kingdom relations Khuzestan conflict May 1980 events May 1980 events in the United Kingdom Military raids Sieges in the United Kingdom Special Air Service operations Terrorist incidents in London in the 1980s Terrorist incidents in the United Kingdom in 1980 Metropolitan Police operations

424153

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcelo%20Salas

Marcelo Salas

José Marcelo Salas Melinao (; born 24 December 1974), nicknamed Matador (due to his goalscoring celebrations), El Fenómeno and Shileno, is a Chilean former footballer who played as a striker. Salas is considered the best striker in the history of Chile. He stood out during the 1990s and 2000s in clubs such as Universidad de Chile, River Plate, Lazio and Juventus. He was captain of the Chile national team and the top scorer – scoring 45 goals in total: 37 goals for the Chile national football team (4 in World Cups, 18 in World Cup qualification processes and 15 in friendlies) and 8 goals with the Chile Olympic football team. He played in Chile, Argentina and Italy, winning titles with each club he joined. The IFFHS ranked him as the 31st best South American player of the 20th century, the 19th best South American forward of the 20th century and the 3rd best South American forward of the 1990s (integrating the podium with Brazilians players Ronaldo and Romário). In 1997 he ranked 3rd as the "best centre forward in the world" (after players Ronaldo and Gabriel Batistuta) and he was ranked 5th in the “Best Centre Forward” category in the RSS Award for the best footballer of the year, in 1998 and 1999. He was also named the South American Footballer of the Year in 1997. A powerful and tenacious forward, with good technique, who was well-known for his deft touch with his left foot, as well as his aerial ability, Salas had a prolific goalscoring record throughout his career. Between 1996 and 2001 he was considered one of the best forwards in the world, often compared to Ronaldo and Gabriel Batistuta. Salas is considered one of the greatest players in the history of Universidad de Chile, an icon for the football team River Plate of Argentina, and one of the greatest foreign players in Lazio's history. He played for the Chile national football team at the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, where he scored four goals in four matches, leading his team to the second round of the competition. Additionally, Salas played for the Chile national football team at two Copa América tournaments, helping his team to reach fourth place in the 1999 edition of the tournament. Currently, after his retirement as a football player, he has continued linked to the sport, being since May 2013 the president of Deportes Temuco (a club that on that date absorbed Unión Temuco, owned by him from 2008 to April 2013). The club is now in 2nd division of Chile, the Primera B. Club career Universidad de Chile Born in Temuco, Salas played for the Deportes Temuco youth team until his father took him to Santiago de Chile to be incorporated into the Universidad de Chile team. Salas joined the Universidad de Chile team in 1993 and debuted on 4 January 1994 in a match against Cobreloa where he scored a goal. Finally, Salas was consolidated in the match against Colo Colo at the National Stadium, where he scored a Hat-trick in the 4–1 victory. His great performances quickly led the university fans to give him the nickname of "Matador" due to his cold blood when defining, also inspired by the song of the same name by the Argentine musical group Los Fabulosos Cadillacs, which at that time was fashionable in Latin America. It was also at this time that he patented his particular way of celebrating goals: he put one leg down, bowed his head, stretched his right arm and pointed his index finger towards the sky. Salas helped the team win back-to-back titles in 1994 and 1995, he was an essential player for the Universidad de Chile team, as he was their top scorer in both seasons (27 goals in the first season and 17 goals in the second season). Leaving a trail of 76 goals which included a strong 1996 campaign in the Copa Libertadores. River Plate Later in 1996, Salas moved to Argentina to play in River Plate team of the Argentine first division of football. On 30 September 1996 he scored his first goal, in a match played against Boca Juniors at the La Bombonera stadium. From 1996 to 1998 Salas scored 31 goals in 67 games, helping River to win the Torneo de Apertura 1996 (where he scored two goals in the 3–0 win over Vélez Sarsfield that made him champion), the Clausura 1997, the Apertura 1997 (scoring the title goal against Argentinos Juniors), and the 1997 Supercopa Libertadores, where he scored the 2 goals in the final against São Paulo that gave the millionaire club the cup. In addition, he was elected the Best Footballer of the season in Argentina and South American Footballer of the Year in 1997. These accomplishments would cement his legacy in Argentina as one of its greatest foreign born players earning the nickname, "El shileno (sic) Salas". The Argentine team valued his transfer at US$30,000,000 as the English football club Manchester United (The coach Alex Ferguson wanted a player with the characteristics of Ronaldo and Marcelo Salas to replace the retirement of Eric Cantona, Ferguson traveled 14,000 miles to sign Salas, but River Plate refused to sell him.), in addition to great clubs from Italy and Spain for hiring him. Lazio On 1 February 1998, thanks to his good performances both in Argentina and in the Chile national football team, he was sold to S.S. Lazio in Italy for US$20.5 million. becoming the highest transfer in history at that time, after Ronaldo, Rivaldo and Denilson (to Inter Milan from Italy, Barcelona and Betis from Spain, respectively). Salas played in Italy for five years: three years with S.S. Lazio (1998–2001), a key catalyst in helping turn around a Lazio team that hadn't won a Scudetto since the 1973–1974 season. He made his debut for Lazio on 12 August 1998 against the UEFA Champions League champion, the Real Madrid of Spain, where he scored the second goal of his team, in the Teresa Herrera Trophy. His official debut was for the Supercoppa italiana where his team won the competition after winning 2–1 over Juventus F.C., on 29 August 1998. With Salas in the team, successes in Italian football returned for the whole of the Italian capital, after 25 years. He scored his first goal for Serie A playing for Lazio a few days later against Inter Milan. With Lazio he won a Serie A (being Salas the team's top scorer with 12 annotations), an Coppa Italia, two Supercoppa Italiana, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and a UEFA Super Cup, scoring the match's only goal in the latter, in a 1–0 win over Manchester United. Salas quickly became an idol of the Lazio tifosi, where they dedicated songs to him, the most traditional was: "Matador, Matador, che ce frega de Ronaldo noi c'avemo er Matador" (Matador, Matador, what do we care about Ronaldo if we have the Matador). After rejecting offers of US$30,000,000 from important football club as: Manchester United, Chelsea, Arsenal, Liverpool, Barcelona, Parma, A.C. Milan and Inter Milan. was in negotiations with Real Madrid to become, together with Zinedine Zidane, one of the two great "meringues" signings of 2001. However, the transfer failed, largely due to the exorbitant sum that the Spanish club had invested in the signing of Zidane. Finally, that same year he signed for Juventus, after paying the club €25,000,000 (US$28,500,000) for him, which at the time was the most expensive transfer of a Chilean player. Juventus In 2001, he was transferred to Juventus F.C. for 55 billion lire (€28.5 million by fixed exchange rate; 22 billion lire cash plus Darko Kovačević) his stay in Turin was cut short due to a torn ACL in his right knee against Bologna FC in a match valid for Serie A. Where Salas would endure the worst moments of his career; he was hampered by injuries, including a further issue with his knee meniscus, allowing him to participate in only 26 games and scoring just 4 goals. Return to River Plate After Juventus unsuccessfully tried to transfer him to such high-profile European clubs as Manchester United, Chelsea, Liverpool, Barcelona, A.C. Milan, and Sporting Lisbon (in exchange for the transfer of a young Cristiano Ronaldo), in 2003 he was loaned back to River Plate. Hailed as "Saint Matador" by fans, Salas stood out especially in that year's Copa Sudamericana, but could not prevent his team's defeat in the final against Cienciano of Peru, despite scoring the tying goal 3–3 in the first leg. However, he later achieved a new title: the 2004 Clausura. A year later, he helped River Plate reach the semifinals of the 2005 Copa Libertadores, scoring a hat-trick against Liga de Quito. In his second stay at River Plate, Salas scored 17 goals in 43 games. Marcelo Salas is regarded as one of the greatest players in the history of River Plate, along with Ángel Labruna, Enzo Francescoli, Ramón Díaz, Norberto Alonso, Ubaldo Fillol and Amadeo Carrizo. In addition, he was one of the few foreign players who have worn the Millonarios captain armband. Universidad de Chile Between 2004 and 2005 he received offers to return to European football from Barcelona in Spain and Inter Milan in Italy, among others. In late July 2005, it was confirmed that he would return to his original football team, Universidad de Chile on a temporary deal from Juventus team. Salas announced his retirement on 28 November 2008, at the age of 33. Before the 23 November game where the Universidad de Chile beat Cobreloa 3–2, with two goals from Salas at the National Stadium. Retirement Salas played his last game on 2 June 2009. Amongst the invited players were his friends from the 1993–1996 Universidad de Chile squads, River Plate, Juventus, plus members of Chile's France '98 World Cup squad. More than 60,000 people attended to pay him one final salute. Playing for both sides, he managed to score three goals. International career Salas represented Chile at under-20 level in 1993 alongside players such as Francisco Rojas, Claudio Lizama and Claudio Villan. On 30 April 1994 at the National Stadium, Salas made his debut for the Chile national football team at age 19, scoring his first international goal in a 3–3 draw with Argentina of Diego Maradona, who was preparing for the World Cup 1994. In 1995 his team won the Canada Cup, where Salas scored the "goal of the victory" in the final match against Canada (2–1). During the 1998 World Cup qualification campaign, Salas scored 11 goals. He also scored memorable goals: against Argentina of local, in Quito of visit against Ecuador and of local against Uruguay, including hat-tricks against Colombia and Peru, and a goal in the final match against Bolivia. Against Peru, he became the youngest Chilean footballer to wear the captain's belt, at just 22 years old. During the training for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, Chile played a friendly match with England in front of about 65,000 people at the legendary Wembley Stadium on 11 February 1998. In a memorable match, Chile won 2–0 with goals of "The Killer". The first, of great invoice, with perfect control, spin and definition, without letting the ball touch the ground after a pass of more than 60 meters. The second, a penalty that he created after brilliantly dribbling the English defender Sol Campbell. In 1998, Marcelo Salas had an outstanding performance in the 1998 FIFA World Cup, reaching the 16th round of the tournament. He scored 4 goals: two against Italy, one against Austria and one against Brazil positioning himself as the third-best scorer of the World Cup in that year, along with Brazilian striker Ronaldo, being only 1 away from the bronze boot, and 2 from the golden boot. In 1999, Chile national football team reached the semi-finals of the Copa América, where they won fourth place. On 15 August 2000, Salas was the great figure in Chile 3–0 victory over Brazil, scoring a great goal and being the most important player of the match, played in the 2002 World Cup qualification. Due to his injury problems, Salas's appearances for Chile were limited after 2001. He scored four goals in nine matches during the failed 2002 World Cup qualification campaign and during the 2006 World Cup qualification. He surpassed his attacking partner Iván Zamorano as the nation's all-time leading scorer for the second time (he had previously done so in 1998) with his 35th goal against Bolivia. On 18 November 2007, during a match for the qualification for 2010 World Cup where Chile played against Uruguay, Marcelo Salas scored his last 2 final goals at the majestic Estadio Centenario, the first with a header after Carlos Villanueva center and the second, penalty. Career statistics Club International Score and Result lists Chile's goals first Personal life He is the nephew-in-law of the former Chile international footballer since his wife, Carolina Messen, is Sergio's niece. His maternal surname, Melinao, means "four lions" in Mapudungun. Salas gave his backing to José Antonio Kast in the run-up to the 2021 Chilean presidential election. Honours ClubUniversidad de ChilePrimera División de Chile: 1994, 1995River PlateArgentine Primera División: 1996 Apertura, 1997 Clausura, 1997 Apertura, 2004 Clausura Supercopa Libertadores: 1997LazioSerie A: 1999–2000 Coppa Italia: 1999–2000 Supercoppa Italiana: 1998 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1998–99 UEFA Super Cup: 1999JuventusSerie A: 2001–02, 2002–03 Supercoppa Italiana: 2002 Individual Top scorer Copa Chile: 1994 America's Ideal Team: 1996, 1997 South American Footballer of the Year: 1997 Argentine Footballer of the Year: 1997 Olimpia Award: 1997 Award for the best athlete in Chile: 1997 3rd "Best Centre Forward in the World" RSS Award for the best footballer of the year: 1997 Chilean Footballer of the Year: 1997, 1998 Third scorer (shared) 1998 FIFA World Cup Included within the 10 figures of 1998 FIFA World Cup 5th “Best Centre Forward in the World” RSS Award for the best footballer of the year: 1998 Integra the Rest of the world in sports and games 1998 Goal scorer 1999 UEFA Super Cup 5th “Best Centre Forward in the World” RSS Award for the best footballer of the year: 1999 Best South American striker of the 1990s by IFFHS: No. 3 Best South American striker of the 20th century by IFFHS: No. 19 Best South American player of the 20th century by IFFHS: No. 31 Order of the Liberator General San Martín: 2009 Included in the Top 10 Best Scorers in the History of South American Soccer 7th best South American left-foot soccer player in history ("Bleacher Report" magazine) 4th best striker in the history of South America of the 1990s Included in the best 50 soccer players in history representative of each country by These Football Times (The Guardian) Included in the 50 Greatest South American Footballers of All Time: #27 Tributes In the year 2004 the River Plate club of Argentina honored and immortalized the figure of Marcelo Salas with a portrait of the image of the "Matador" in the dressing rooms of the Monumental de Nuñez Stadium, being included among the most prominent idols in the club's history. Also in the year 2009, at the inauguration of the museum of the Argentine club, the goals of Marcelo Salas are portrayed in videos and images (the goals of the titles of the Apertura 1996, Clausura 1997, Apertura 1997, Supercopa Sudamericana 1997, among others), in addition to the shirts and boots that Marcelo Salas wore while he played in River Plate. In the year 2013 Marcelo Salas received a tribute from the English Football Federation at Wembley Stadium for his "excellent performance" in the England vs Chile match from 11 February from 1998. Where his first goal of that match is portrayed in the museum of said stadium, as one of the best goals in all history scored at Wembley Stadium. Players tribute Long is the list of public figures whose idol is the "Matador" where several of them have decided to honor Marcelo Salas by imitating his typical celebration after scoring a goal: knee to the ground, head bowed and one arm pointing to the sky. Among the players who have Salas as an idol, the following stand out:Football players Alexis Sánchez Arturo Vidal Charles Aránguiz David Pizarro David Trezeguet Eduardo Vargas Gastón Fernández Gonzalo Higuaín Humberto Suazo Javier Saviola José Luis Villanueva Marcelo Díaz Marcelo Larrondo Mauricio Isla Pablo Aimar Radamel Falcao Santiago Solari Carla Guerrero Christiane Endler Camila PavezGolfer Nicole PerrotTennis players' Guillermo Coria Facundo Bagnis Federico Coria Felipe Arevalo Tributes from the world of music On 16 October 1997, Jay Kay, lead singer of the English band Jamiroquai, paid tribute to Marcelo Salas, in his presentation with the band at the Teatro Caupolicán, wearing the traditional shirt number 11 from Salas where he celebrated as the Matador on stage On 11 February 1998 the Irish band U2 performed in Chile for the first time. That day the vocalist and leader Bono went on stage at the National Stadium along with the rest of the members wearing Marcelo Salas' jersey number 11, where at the same time Salas' goals playing for Chile against England at Wembley Stadium were displayed on a giant screen. References External links International Career 1st in South America Player of the Year 1997 7th in South America Player of the Year 1996 8th in the World Player of the Year Award 1997 14th in the World Player of the Year Award 1998 Argentina Player of the Year 1997 Bronze Boot Award in the World Cup 1998 31st in IFFHS South American Player of the Century 1974 births Living people Chilean people of Mapuche descent Mapuche sportspeople Sportspeople from Temuco Chilean men's footballers Chilean expatriate men's footballers Chile men's international footballers Chile men's under-20 international footballers Club Universidad de Chile footballers Club Atlético River Plate footballers SS Lazio players Juventus FC players Chilean Primera División players Argentine Primera División players Serie A players Chilean expatriate sportspeople in Argentina Chilean expatriate sportspeople in Italy Expatriate men's footballers in Argentina Expatriate men's footballers in Italy 1998 FIFA World Cup players 1995 Copa América players 1999 Copa América players South American Footballer of the Year winners Indigenous sportspeople of the Americas 20th-century Mapuche people 21st-century Mapuche people Men's association football forwards

424158

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Czechoslovakia

History of Czechoslovakia

With the collapse of the Habsburg monarchy at the end of World War I, the independent country of Czechoslovakia (Czech, Slovak: Československo) was formed as a result of the critical intervention of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, among others. The Czechs and Slovaks were not at the same level of economic and technological development, but the freedom and opportunity found in an independent Czechoslovakia enabled them to make strides toward overcoming these inequalities. However, the gap between cultures was never fully bridged, and this discrepancy played a disruptive role throughout the seventy-five years of the union. Political history Historical background to 1918 Although the Czechs and Slovaks speak languages that are very similar, the political and social situation of the Czech and Slovak peoples was very different at the end of the 19th century. The reason was the differing attitude and position of their overlords – the Austrians in Bohemia and Moravia, and the Hungarians in Slovakia – within Austria-Hungary. Bohemia was the most industrialized part of Austria and Slovakia was the most industrialized part of Hungary – however at very different levels of development. Around the start of the 20th century, the idea of a "Czecho-Slovak" entity began to be advocated by some Czech and Slovak leaders after contacts between Czech and Slovak intellectuals intensified in the 1890s. Despite cultural differences, the Slovaks shared similar aspirations with the Czechs for independence from the Habsburg state. In 1917, during World War I, Tomáš Masaryk created the Czechoslovak National Council together with Edvard Beneš and Milan Štefánik (a Slovak astronomer and war hero). Masaryk in the United States (and in United Kingdom and Russia too), Štefánik in France, and Beneš in France and Britain, worked tirelessly to secure Allied recognition. About 1.4 million Czech soldiers fought in World War I, 150,000 of which died. More than 90,000 Czech and Slovak volunteers formed the Czechoslovak Legions in Russia, France and Italy, where they fought against the Central Powers and later with White Russian forces against Bolshevik troops. At times they controlled much of the Trans-Siberian railway, and they were indirectly involved in the shooting of the Russian tsar and his family in 1918. Their goal was to win the support of the Allies for the independence of Czechoslovakia. They succeeded on all counts. When secret talks between the Allies and Austrian emperor Charles I (r. 1916–1918) collapsed, the Allies recognized, in the summer of 1918, the Czechoslovak National Council would be the kernel of the future Czechoslovak government. The First Republic (1918–1938) The independence of Czechoslovakia was officially proclaimed in Prague on 28 October 1918 in Smetana Hall of the Municipal House, a physical setting strongly associated with nationalist feeling. The Slovaks officially joined the state two days later in the town of Martin. A temporary constitution was adopted, and Tomáš Masaryk was declared president on 14 November. The Treaty of St. Germain, signed in September 1919, formally recognized the new republic. Carpathian Ruthenia was added later by the Treaty of Trianon in June 1920. There were also various border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia due to the annexation of the Trans-Olza region. The new state was characterized by problems with its ethnic diversity, the separate histories of the Czech and Slovak peoples and their greatly differing religious, cultural, and social traditions. The Germans and Hungarians of Czechoslovakia openly agitated against the territorial settlements. Nevertheless, the new republic saw the passage of a number of progressive reforms in areas such as housing, social security, and workers' rights. In 1929, the gross domestic product increased by 52% and industrial production by 41% as compared to 1913. In 1938, Czechoslovakia held 10th place in the world for industrial production. The Czechoslovak state was conceived as a representative democracy. The constitution identified the "Czechoslovak nation" as the creator and principal constituent of the Czechoslovak state and established Czech and Slovak as official languages. The concept of the Czechoslovak nation was necessary in order to justify the establishment of Czechoslovakia before the world, otherwise the statistical majority of the Czechs as compared to Germans would be rather weak. The operation of the new Czechoslovak government was distinguished by its political stability. Largely responsible for this were the well-organized political parties that emerged as the real centers of power. After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in central and eastern Europe. The Second Republic (1938–1939) Although Czechoslovakia was the only central European country to remain a parliamentary democracy during the entire period 1918 to 1938, it faced problems with ethnic minorities such as Hungarians, Poles and Sudeten Germans, which made up the largest part of the country's German minority. The Germans constituted 3 to 3.5 million out of 14 million of the interwar population of Czechoslovakia and were largely concentrated in the Bohemian and Moravian border regions known as the Sudetenland. The rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany in 1933, the German annexation (Anschluss) of Austria in 1938, the resulting revival of revisionism in Hungary, the agitation for autonomy in Slovakia and the appeasement policy of the Western powers of France and the United Kingdom left Czechoslovakia without effective allies. After the acquisition of Austria, Czechoslovakia became Hitler's next target. The German nationalist minority in Czechoslovakia, led by Konrad Henlein and fervently backed by Hitler, demanded a union of the predominantly German districts of the country with Germany. On 17 September 1938 Hitler ordered the establishment of Sudetendeutsches Freikorps, a paramilitary organization that took over the structure of Ordnersgruppe, an organization of ethnic-Germans in Czechoslovakia that had been dissolved by the Czechoslovak authorities the previous day due to its implication in terrorist activities. The organization was sheltered, trained and equipped by German authorities and conducting cross border terrorist operations into Czechoslovak territory. Relying on the Convention for the Definition of Aggression, Czechoslovak president Edvard Beneš and the government-in-exile later regarded 17 September 1938 as the beginning of the undeclared German-Czechoslovak war. This understanding has been assumed also by the contemporary Czech Constitutional court. Hitler extorted the cession of the Bohemian, Moravian and Czech Silesian borderlands via the Munich Agreement on 29 September 1938 signed by Germany, Italy, France, and Britain. The Czech population in the annexed lands was forcibly expelled. Finding itself abandoned by the Western powers, the Czechoslovak government agreed to abide by the agreement. Beneš resigned as president on 5 October 1938, fled to London and was succeeded by Emil Hácha. In early November 1938, under the First Vienna Award, Czechoslovakia was forced to cede the mainly Hungarian-populated southern Slovakia (one third of Slovakia) to Hungary. After an ultimatum on 30 September (but without consulting with any other countries), Poland obtained the disputed the Trans-Olza region as a territorial cession shortly after the Munich Agreement, on 2 October. The ultimatum was only sent after Czech request. The Czechs in the greatly weakened Czechoslovak Republic were forced to grant major concessions to the non-Czech residents in the country. The executive committee of the Slovak People's Party met at Žilina on 5 October 1938, and with the acquiescence of all Slovak parties except the Social Democrats formed an autonomous Slovak government under Jozef Tiso. Similarly, the two major factions in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, the Russophiles and Ukrainophiles, agreed on the establishment of an autonomous government that was constituted on 8 October 1938. In late November 1938, the truncated state, renamed Czecho-Slovakia (the so-called Second Republic), was reconstituted in three autonomous units: the Czech lands (i.e. Bohemia and Moravia), Slovakia, and Ruthenia. On 14 March 1939, the Slovak State declared its independence under Jozef Tiso. Hitler forced Hácha to surrender what remained of Bohemia and Moravia to German control on 15 March 1939, establishing the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On the same day, the Carpatho-Ukraine (Subcarpathian Ruthenia) declared its independence and was immediately occupied and annexed by Hungary. Finally, following the Slovak–Hungarian Little War, Slovakia ceded an eastern land strip to Hungary. Second World War Beneš and other Czechoslovak exiles in London organized a Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile and negotiated to obtain international recognition for the government and a renunciation of the Munich Agreement. The government was recognized by the government of the United Kingdom with the approval of Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax on 18 July 1940. In July and December 1941, the Soviet Union and United States also recognized the exiled government, respectively. Czechoslovak military units fought alongside Allied forces. In December 1943, Beneš's government concluded a treaty with the Soviet Union. Beneš worked to bring Czechoslovak communist exiles in Britain into active cooperation with his government, offering far-reaching concessions, including nationalization of heavy industry and the creation of local people's committees at the war's end (which indeed occurred). In March 1945, he gave key cabinet positions to Czechoslovak communist exiles in Moscow. The assassination of Reichsprotector Reinhard Heydrich in 1942 by a group of British-trained Czech and Slovak commandos led by Jan Kubiš and Jozef Gabčík led to reprisals, including the annihilation of the village of Lidice. All adult male inhabitants were executed, while females and children were transported to concentration camps. A similar fate met the village of Ležáky and later, at the end of war, Javoříčko. On 8 May 1944, Edvard Beneš signed an agreement with Soviet leaders stipulating that former Czechoslovak territory liberated by Soviet armies would be placed under Czechoslovak civilian control. From 21 September 1944, Czechoslovakia was liberated by the Soviet troops of the Red Army and the Romanian Army, supported by Czech and Slovak resistance, from the east to the west; only southwestern Bohemia was liberated by other Allied troops (i.e., the United States Army) from the west. In May 1945, American forces liberated the city of Plzeň. A civilian uprising against the Nazi garrison took place in Prague in May 1945. The resistance was assisted by the heavily armed Russian Liberation Army, i.e., Gen. Vlasov's army, a force composed of Soviet POWs organised by the Germans who now turned against them. The main brutality suffered in the lands of the pre-war Czechoslovakia came as an immediate result of the German occupation in the Protectorate, the widespread persecution of Jews, and, after the Slovak National Uprising in August 1944, repression in Slovakia. In spite of the oppressiveness of the government of the German Protectorate, Czechoslovakia did not suffer the degree of population loss that was witnessed during World War II in countries such as Poland and the Soviet Union, and it avoided systematic destruction of its infrastructure. Bratislava was taken from the Germans on 4 April 1945, and Prague on 9 May 1945 by Soviet troops. Both Soviet and Allied troops were withdrawn in the same year. A treaty ceding Transcarpathia to the Soviet Union was signed in June 1945 between Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, following an apparently rigged Soviet-run referendum in the territory. The Potsdam Agreement provided for the expulsion of Sudeten Germans to Germany under the supervision of the Allied Control Council. Decisions regarding the Hungarian minority reverted to the Czechoslovak government. In February 1946, the Hungarian government agreed that Czechoslovakia could expatriate as many Hungarians as there were Slovaks in Hungary wishing to return to Czechoslovakia. The Third Republic (1945–1948) and the Communist takeover (1948) The Third Republic came into being in April 1945. Its government, installed at Košice on 4 April, then moved to Prague in May, was a National Front coalition in which three socialist parties—the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ), the Czechoslovak Social democratic Party, and the Czechoslovak National Socialist Party—predominated. Certain non-socialist parties were included in the coalition, among them the Catholic People's Party (in Moravia) and the Democratic Party of Slovakia. Following Nazi Germany's surrender, some 2.9 million ethnic Germans were expelled from Czechoslovakia with Allied approval, their property and rights declared void by the Beneš decrees. Czechoslovakia soon came to fall within the Soviet sphere of influence. The popular enthusiasm evoked by the Soviet armies of liberation (which was decided by compromise of Allies and Joseph Stalin at the Yalta conference in 1944) benefited the KSČ. Czechoslovaks, bitterly disappointed by the West at the Munich Agreement (1938), responded favorably to both the KSČ and the Soviet alliance. Reunited into one state after the war, the Czechs and Slovaks set national elections for the spring of 1946. The democratic elements, led by President Edvard Beneš, hoped the Soviet Union would allow Czechoslovakia the freedom to choose its own form of government and aspired to a Czechoslovakia that would act as a bridge between East and West. Communists secured strong representation in the popularly elected National Committees, the new organs of local administration. In the May 1946 election, the KSČ won most of the popular vote in the Czech part of the bi-ethnic country (40.17%), and the more or less anti-Communist Democratic Party won in Slovakia (62%). In sum, however, the KSČ only won a plurality of 38 percent of the vote at countrywide level. Edvard Beneš continued as president of the republic, whereas the Communist leader Klement Gottwald became prime minister. Most importantly, although the communists held only a minority of portfolios, they were able to gain control over most of the key ministries (Ministry of the Interior, etc.) Although the communist-led government initially intended to participate in the Marshall Plan, it was forced by the Kremlin to back out. In 1947, Stalin summoned Gottwald to Moscow; upon his return to Prague, the KSČ demonstrated a significant radicalization of its tactics. On 20 February 1948, the twelve non-communist ministers resigned, in part to induce Beneš to call for early elections; however Beneš refused to accept the cabinet resignations and did not call elections. In the meantime, the KSČ marshalled its forces for the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948. The communist-controlled Ministry of the Interior deployed police regiments to sensitive areas and equipped a workers' militia. On 25 February Beneš, perhaps fearing Soviet intervention, capitulated. He accepted the resignations of the dissident ministers and received a new cabinet list from Gottwald, thus completing the communist takeover under the cover of superficial legality. On 10 March 1948, the moderate foreign minister of the government, Jan Masaryk, was found dead in suspicious circumstances that have still not been definitively proved to constitute either suicide or political assassination. The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1989) In February 1948, the Communists took power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, and Edvard Beneš inaugurated a new cabinet led by Klement Gottwald. Czechoslovakia was declared a "people's democracy" (until 1960) – a preliminary step towards socialism and, ultimately, communism. Bureaucratic centralism under the direction of KSČ leadership was introduced. Dissident elements were purged from all levels of society, including the Roman Catholic Church. The ideological principles of Marxism-Leninism and socialist realism pervaded cultural and intellectual life. The economy was committed to comprehensive central planning and the abolition of private ownership of capital. Czechoslovakia became a satellite state of the Soviet Union; it was a founding member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 and of the Warsaw Pact in 1955. The attainment of Soviet-style command socialism became the government's avowed policy. Slovak autonomy was constrained; the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS) was reunited with the KSČ (Communist Party of Czechoslovakia), but retained its own identity. Following the Soviet example, Czechoslovakia began emphasizing the rapid development of heavy industry. Although Czechoslovakia's industrial growth of 170 percent between 1948 and 1957 was impressive, it was far exceeded by that of Japan (300 percent) and the Federal Republic of Germany (almost 300 percent) and more than equaled by Austria and Greece. Beneš refused to sign the Communist Constitution of 1948 (the Ninth-of-May Constitution) and resigned from the presidency; he was succeeded by Klement Gottwald. Gottwald died in March 1953. He was succeeded by Antonín Zápotocký as president and by Antonín Novotný as head of the KSČ. In June 1953, thousands of workers in Plzeň went on strike to demonstrate against a currency reform that was considered a move to solidify Soviet socialism in Czechoslovakia. The demonstrations ended without significant bloodshed, disappointing American Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, who wished for a pretext to help the Czechoslovak people resist the Soviets. For more than a decade thereafter, the Czechoslovak communist political structure was characterized by the orthodoxy of the leadership of party chief Antonín Novotný, who became president in 1957 when Zápotocký died. In the 1950s, the Stalinists accused their opponents of "conspiracy against the people's democratic order" and "high treason" in order to oust them from positions of power. In all, the Communist Party tried 14 of its former leaders in November 1952 and sentenced 11 to death. Large-scale arrests of Communists and socialists with an "international" background, i.e., those with a wartime connection with the West, veterans of the Spanish Civil War, Jews, and Slovak "bourgeois nationalists," were followed by show trials. The outcome of these trials, serving the communist propaganda, was often known in advance and the penalties were extremely heavy, such as in the case of Milada Horáková, who was sentenced to death together with Jan Buchal, Záviš Kalandra and Oldřich Pecl. The 1960 Constitution declared the victory of socialism and proclaimed the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR). De-Stalinization had a late start in Czechoslovakia. In the early 1960s, the Czechoslovak economy became severely stagnant. The industrial growth rate was the lowest in Eastern Europe. As a result, in 1965, the party approved the New Economic Model, introducing free market elements into the economy. The KSČ "Theses" of December 1965 presented the party response to the call for political reform. Democratic centralism was redefined, placing a stronger emphasis on democracy. The leading role of the KSČ was reaffirmed, but limited. Slovaks pressed for federalization. On 5 January 1968, the KSČ Central Committee elected Alexander Dubček, a Slovak reformer, to replace Novotný as first secretary of the KSČ. On 22 March 1968, Novotný resigned from the presidency and was succeeded by General Ludvík Svoboda. The Prague Spring (1968) Dubček carried the reform movement a step further in the direction of liberalism. After Novotný's fall, censorship was lifted. The press, radio, and television were mobilized for reformist propaganda purposes. The movement to democratize socialism in Czechoslovakia, formerly confined largely to the party intelligentsia, acquired a new, popular dynamism in the spring of 1968 (the "Prague Spring"). Radical elements found expression; anti-Soviet polemics appeared in the press; the Social Democrats began to form a separate party; and new unaffiliated political clubs were created. Party conservatives urged the implementation of repressive measures, but Dubček counseled moderation and re-emphasized KSČ leadership. In addition, the Dubček leadership called for politico-military changes in the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact and Council for Mutual Economic Assistance. The leadership affirmed its loyalty to socialism and the Warsaw Pact, but also expressed the desire to improve relations with all countries of the world, regardless of their social systems. A program adopted in April 1968 set guidelines for a modern, humanistic socialist democracy that would guarantee, among other things, freedom of religion, press, assembly, speech, and travel, a program that, in Dubček's words, would give socialism "a human face." After 20 years of little public participation, the population gradually started to take interest in the government, and Dubček became a truly popular national figure. The internal reforms and foreign policy statements of the Dubček leadership created great concern among some other Warsaw Pact governments. As a result, the troops of the Warsaw Pact countries (except for Romania) mounted a Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia during the night of 20–21 August 1968. Two-thirds of the KSČ Central Committee opposed the Soviet intervention. Popular opposition was expressed in numerous spontaneous acts of non-violent resistance. In Prague and other cities throughout the republic, Czechs and Slovaks greeted Warsaw Pact soldiers with arguments and reproaches. The Czechoslovak Government declared that the Warsaw Pact troops had not been invited into the country and that their invasion was a violation of socialist principles, international law, and the UN Charter. Dubček, who had been arrested on the night of 20 August, was taken to Moscow for negotiations. The outcome was the Brezhnev Doctrine of limited sovereignty, which provided for the strengthening of the KSČ, strict party control of the media, and the suppression of the Czechoslovak Social Democratic Party. The principal Czechoslovak reformers were forcibly and secretly taken to the Soviet Union, where they signed a treaty that provided for the "temporary stationing" of an unspecified number of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. Dubček was removed as party First Secretary on 17 April 1969, and replaced by another Slovak, Gustáv Husák. Later, Dubček and many of his allies within the party were stripped of their party positions in a purge that lasted until 1971 and reduced party membership by almost one-third. On 19 January 1969, the student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union. His death shocked many observers throughout the world. Aftermath The Slovak part of Czechoslovakia made major gains in industrial production in the 1960s and 1970s. By the 1970s, its industrial production was near parity with that of the Czech lands. Slovakia's portion of per capita national income rose from slightly more than 60 percent of that of Bohemia and Moravia in 1948 to nearly 80 percent in 1968, and Slovak per capita earning power equaled that of the Czechs in 1971. The pace of Slovak economic growth has continued to exceed that of Czech growth to the present day (2003). Dubcek remained in office only until April 1969. Gustáv Husák (a centrist, and one of the Slovak "bourgeois nationalists" imprisoned by his own KSČ in the 1950s) was named first secretary (title changed to general secretary in 1971). A program of "Normalization" – the restoration of continuity with the prereform period—was initiated. Normalization entailed thoroughgoing political repression and the return to ideological conformity. A new purge cleansed the Czechoslovak leadership of all reformist elements. Anti-Soviet demonstrations in August 1969 ushered in a period of harsh repression. The 1970s and 1980s became known as the period of "normalization," in which the apologists for the 1968 Soviet invasion prevented, as best they could, any opposition to their conservative regime. Political, social, and economic life stagnated. The population, cowed by the "normalization," was quiet. The only point required during the Prague spring that was achieved was the federalization of the country (as of 1969), which however was more or less only formal under the normalization. The newly created Federal Assembly (i.e., federal parliament), which replaced the National Assembly, was to work in close cooperation with the Czech National Council and the Slovak National Council (i.e., national parliaments). In 1975, Gustáv Husák added the position of president to his post as party chief. The Husák regime required conformity and obedience in all aspects of life. Husák also tried to obtain acquiescence to his rule by providing an improved standard of living. He returned Czechoslovakia to an orthodox command economy with a heavy emphasis on central planning and continued to extend industrialization. For a while the policy seemed successful; the 1980s, however, were more or less a period of economic stagnation. Another feature of Husák's rule was a continued dependence on the Soviet Union. In the 1980s, approximately 50 percent of Czechoslovakia's foreign trade was with the Soviet Union, and almost 80 percent was with communist countries. Through the 1970s and 1980s, the regime was challenged by individuals and organized groups aspiring to independent thinking and activity. The first organized opposition emerged under the umbrella of Charter 77. On 6 January 1977, a manifesto called Charter 77 appeared in West German newspapers. The original manifesto reportedly was signed by 243 persons; among them were artists, former public officials, and other prominent figures. The Charter had over 800 signatures by the end of 1977, including workers and youth. It criticized the government for failing to implement human rights provisions of documents it had signed, including the state's own constitution; international covenants on political, civil, economic, social, and cultural rights; and the Final Act of the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Although not organized in any real sense, the signatories of Charter 77 constituted a citizens' initiative aimed at inducing the Czechoslovak Government to observe formal obligations to respect the human rights of its citizens. Signatories were arrested and interrogated; dismissal from employment often followed. Because religion offered possibilities for thought and activities independent of the state, it too was severely restricted and controlled. Clergymen were required to be licensed. Unlike in Poland, dissent and independent activity were limited in Czechoslovakia to a fairly small segment of the population. Many Czechs and Slovaks emigrated to the West. The final years of the Communist era Although, in March 1987, Husák nominally committed Czechoslovakia to follow the program of Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika, it did not happen much in reality. On 17 December 1987, Husák, who was one month away from his seventy-fifth birthday, had resigned as head of the KSČ. He retained, however, his post of president of Czechoslovakia and his full membership on the Presidium of the KSČ. Miloš Jakeš, who replaced Husák as first secretary of the KSČ, did not change anything. The slow pace of the Czechoslovak reform movement was an irritant to the Soviet leadership. The first anti-Communist demonstration took place on 25 March 1988 in Bratislava (the Candle demonstration in Bratislava). It was an unauthorized peaceful gathering of some 2,000 (other sources 10,000) Roman Catholics. Demonstrations also occurred on 21 August 1988 (the anniversary of the Soviet intervention in 1968) in Prague, on 28 October 1988 (establishment of Czechoslovakia in 1918) in Prague, Bratislava and some other towns, in January 1989 (death of Jan Palach on 16 January 1969), on 21 August 1989 (see above) and on 28 October 1989 (see above). Velvet Revolution (1989) The anti-Communist revolution started on 16 November 1989 in Bratislava, with a demonstration of Slovak university students for democracy, and continued with the well-known similar demonstration of Czech students in Prague on 17 November. On 17 November 1989, the communist police violently broke up a peaceful pro-democracy demonstration, brutally beating many student participants. In the following days, Charter 77 and other groups united to become the Civic Forum, an umbrella group championing bureaucratic reform and civil liberties. Its leader was the dissident playwright Václav Havel. Intentionally eschewing the label "party", a word given a negative connotation during the previous regime, Civic Forum quickly gained the support of millions of Czechs, as did its Slovak counterpart, Public Against Violence. Faced with an overwhelming popular repudiation, the Communist Party all but collapsed. Its leaders, Husák and party chief Miloš Jakeš, resigned in December 1989, and Havel was elected President of Czechoslovakia on 29 December. The astonishing quickness of these events was in part due to the unpopularity of the communist regime and changes in the policies of its Soviet guarantor as well as to the rapid, effective organization of these public initiatives into a viable opposition. Democratic Czechoslovakia (1989–1992) A coalition government, in which the Communist Party had a minority of ministerial positions, was formed in December 1989. The first free elections in Czechoslovakia since 1946 took place in June 1990 without incident and with more than 95% of the population voting. As anticipated, Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won landslide victories in their respective republics and gained a comfortable majority in the federal parliament. The parliament undertook substantial steps toward securing the democratic evolution of Czechoslovakia. It successfully moved toward fair local elections in November 1990, ensuring fundamental change at the county and town level. Civic Forum found, however, that although it had successfully completed its primary objective—the overthrow of the communist regime—it was ineffectual as a governing party. The demise of Civic Forum was viewed by most as necessary and inevitable. By the end of 1990, unofficial parliamentary "clubs" had evolved with distinct political agendas. Most influential was the Civic Democratic Party, headed by Václav Klaus. Other notable parties that came into being after the split were the Czech Social Democratic Party, Civic Movement, and Civic Democratic Alliance. Dissolution of Czechoslovakia By 1992, Slovak calls for greater autonomy effectively blocked the daily functioning of the federal government. In the election of June 1992, Klaus's Civic Democratic Party won handily in the Czech lands on a platform of economic reform. Vladimír Mečiar's Movement for a Democratic Slovakia emerged as the leading party in Slovakia, basing its appeal on fairness to Slovak demands for autonomy. Federalists, like Havel, were unable to contain the trend toward the split. In July 1992, President Havel resigned. In the latter half of 1992, Klaus and Mečiar hammered out an agreement that the two republics would go their separate ways by the end of the year. Members of Czechoslovakia's parliament (the Federal Assembly), divided along national lines, barely cooperated enough to pass the law officially separating the two nations in late 1992. On 1 January 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia were simultaneously and peacefully established as independent states. Relationships between the two states, despite occasional disputes about the division of federal property and the governing of the border, have been peaceful. Both states attained immediate recognition from the US and their European neighbors. Economic history At the time of the communist takeover, Czechoslovakia was devastated by WWII. Almost 1 million people, out of a prewar population of 15 million, had been killed. An additional 3 million Germans were expelled in 1946. In 1948, the government began to stress heavy industry over agricultural and consumer goods and services. Many basic industries and foreign trade, as well as domestic wholesale trade, had been nationalized before the communists took power. Nationalization of most of the retail trade was completed in 1950–1951. Heavy industry received major economic support during the 1950s. Although the labor force was traditionally skilled and efficient, inadequate incentives for labor and management contributed to high labor turnover, low productivity, and poor product quality. Economic failures reached a critical stage in the 1960s, after which various reform measures were sought with no satisfactory results. Hope for wide-ranging economic reform came with Alexander Dubcek's rise in January 1968. Despite renewed efforts, however, Czechoslovakia could not come to grips with inflationary forces, much less begin the immense task of correcting the economy's basic problems. The economy saw growth during the 1970s but then stagnated between 1978 and 1982. Attempts at revitalizing it in the 1980s with management and worker incentive programs were largely unsuccessful. The economy grew after 1982, achieving an annual average output growth of more than 3% between 1983 and 1985. Imports from the West were curtailed, exports boosted, and hard currency debt reduced substantially. New investment was made in the electronic, chemical, and pharmaceutical sectors, which were industry leaders in eastern Europe in the mid-1980s. See also History of the Czech lands From creation to dissolution – overview N/A References Further reading Surveys Bruegel, J. W. Czechoslovakia before Munich (1973). Cabada, Ladislav, and Sarka Waisova, Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic in World Politics (Lexington Books; 2012), foreign policy 1918 to 2010 Felak, James Ramon. At the price of the Republic: Hlinka's Slovak People's Party, 1929–1938 (U of Pittsburgh Press, 1995). Korbel, Josef. Twentieth Century Czechoslovakia: The Meaning of its History (1977) Mamatey, V. S., and R. Luža, eds. A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-48 (1973) Skilling, H. ed. Czechoslovakia, 1918-88. Seventy Years from Independence (1991) Lukes, Igor. 'Czechoslovakia between Stalin and Hitler', Oxford University Press 1996, Olivová, V. The Doomed Democracy: Czechoslovakia in a Disrupted Europe 1914-38 (1972) Orzoff, Andrea. Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe 1914-1948 (Oxford University Press, 2009); online review Preclík, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie [Masaryk and legions], published by Paris Karviná in association with Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague. 2019, , pp. 17–25, 33–45, 70–96, 100–140, 159–184, 187–199 Steiner, Eugen. The Slovak Dilemma (1973) Thomson, S. Harrison. Czechoslovakia in European history (Routledge, 2019). Pre 1918 Vyšný, Paul. Neo-Slavism and the Czechs 1898-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 1977). 1939–1989 Bryant, Chad. 'Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism', Harvard University Press 2007, Douglas, R. M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012. . Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakia in transition: politics, economics and society (Burns & Oates, 1991). After 1989 Ash, Timothy Garton. We the People by Granta Books, 1990 , Echikson, William. Lighting the Night: Revolution in Eastern Europe Pan Books, 1990 Simpson, John. Despatches from the Barricades Hutchinson, 1990 Heimann, Mary. Czechoslovakia: The State That Failed 2009 Skilling Gordon. 'Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution', Princeton University Press 1976, Tauchen, Jaromír – Schelle, Karel etc. The Process of Democratization of Law in the Czech Republic (1989–2009). Rincon (USA), The American Institute for Central European Legal Studies 2009. 204 pp. () Economic, social and cultural studies Abrams, Bradley F. The struggle for the soul of the nation: Czech culture and the rise of communism (Rowman & Littlefield, 2004). Agnew, Hugh LeCaine. Origins of the Czech National Renascence (University of Pittsburgh Press, 1994). Beck, Dennis C. "Setting the Stage for Revolution: The Efficacy of Czech Theatre, 1975–1989." Theatre Survey 44.2 (2003): 199–219. Beck, Dennis C. "Dissident patriotism: subverting the State by excavating the nation in "normalized" Czechoslovakia." Toronto Slavic Quarterly 9: 200+ online. Cohen, Gary B. "Cultural crossings in Prague, 1900: scenes from late Imperial Austria." Austrian History Yearbook 45 (2014): 1-30. Filipova, Marta. "The construction of national identity in the historiography of Czech art." (PhD diss., University of Glasgow, 2009). Katz, Derek. Janáček beyond the Borders (U of Rochester Press, 2009). Kohák, Erazim. Hearth and Horizon: Cultural Identity and Global Humanity in Czech Philosophy (Filosofia 2008, ) McFadden, Becka. "Theft, Contestation and Affirmation in Contemporary Czech Theatre: Krepsko's Ukradené ovace (The Stolen Ovation)." Performance Research 19.2 (2014): 126–134. McShane, Roger Burnham, and Stanley Buchholz Kimball. Czech nationalism: a study of the national theatre movement, 1845-83 (U of Illinois Press, 1964). Nolte, Claire. The Sokol in the Czech Lands to 1914: training for the nation (Springer, 2002). Paces, Cynthia Jean. "Religious images and national symbols in the creation of Czech identity, 1890-1938" (PhD thesis . Columbia University, 1998). Seton-Watson, Robert William. Racial problems in Hungary (1908) full text online Teichová, Alice. The Czechoslovak Economy 1918-1980 (1988) Wingfield, Nancy M. Flag Wars & Stone Saints: How the Bohemian Lands Became Czech (2007), 353pp.

424214

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligures

Ligures

The Ligures or Ligurians were an ancient people after whom Liguria, a region of present-day north-western Italy, is named. In pre-Roman times, the Ligurians occupied the present-day Italian region of Liguria, Piedmont, northern Tuscany, western Lombardy, western Emilia-Romagna and northern Sardinia, reaching also Elba and Sicily. They inhabited also the French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur and Corsica. However, it is generally believed that around 2000 BC, the Ligurians occupied a much larger area, extenting as far as what today is Catalonia (in the north-eastern corner of the Iberian Peninsula). The origins of the ancient Ligurians are unclear, and an autochthonous origin is increasingly probable. Little is known about the ancient Ligurian language, which is based on placenames and inscriptions on steles representing warriors. The lack of evidence does not allow a certain linguistic classification; it may be Pre-Indo-European or an Indo-European language. Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were also known in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians. Name The Ligures are referred to as Ligyes (λιγούρες) by the Greeks and Ligures (earlier Liguses) by the Romans. According to Plutarch, the Ligurians called themselves Ambrones, which could indicate a relationship with the Ambrones of northern Europe. Geographical area of ancient Liguria The geography of Strabo, from book 2, chapter 5, section 28 : This zone corresponds to the current region of Liguria in Italy as well as to the former county of Nice which could be compared today to the Alpes Maritimes. The writer, naturalist and Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder writes in his book "The Natural History" book III chapter 7 on the Ligurians and Liguria: Just like Strabo, Pliny the Elder situates Liguria between the rivers Varus and Magra. He also quotes the Ligurian peoples living on the other side of the banks of the Var and the Alps. He writes in his book "The Natural History" book III chapter 6 : Transalpine Ligures are said to have inhabited the South Eastern portion of modern France, between the Alps and the Rhone river, from where they constantly battled against the Greek colony of Massalia. History Copper and Bronze ages Copper begins to be mined from the middle of the 4th millennium BC in Liguria with the Libiola and Monte Loreto mines dated to 3700 BC.. These are the oldest copper mines in the western Mediterranean basin. It was during this period of the Copper Age in Italy that we find throughout Liguria a large number of anthropomorphic stelae in addition to rock engravings. The Polada Culture (a location near Brescia, Lombardy, Italy) was a cultural horizon extended in the Po valley from eastern Lombardy and Veneto to Emilia and Romagna, formed in the first half of 2nd millennium BC perhaps for the arrival of new people from the transalpine regions of Switzerland and Southern Germany. Its influences are also found in the cultures of the Early Bronze Age of Liguria, Romagna, Corsica, Sardinia (Bonnanaro culture) and Rhone Valley. There are some commonalities with the previous Bell Beaker Culture including the usage of the bow and a certain mastery in metallurgy. Apart from that, the Polada culture does not correspond to the Beaker culture nor to the previous Remedello culture. The Bronze tools and weapons show similarities with those of the Unetice Culture and other groups in north of Alps. According to Bernard Sergent, the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to the Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in the Polada culture and Rhone culture, southern branches of the Unetice culture. It is said that the ligurians inhabited the Po valley around the 2,000 B.C., they not only appear in the legends of the Po valley, but would have left traces (linguistic and craft) found in the archaeological also in the area near the northern Adriatic coast. The Ligurians are credited with forming the first villages in the Po Valley of the facies of the pile dwellings and of the dammed settlements, a society that followed the Polada culture, and is well suited in middle and late Bronze Age. The ancient name of the Po river (Padus in Latin) derived from the Ligurian name of the river: Bod-encus or Bod-incus. This word appears in the placename Bodincomagus, a Ligurian town on the right bank of the Po downstream near today's Turin. According to a legend, Brescia and Barra (Bergamo) were founded by Cydno, forefather of the Ligurians. This myth seems to have a grain of truth, because recent archaeological excavations have unearthed remains of a settlement dating back to 1200 BC that scholars presume to have been built and inhabited by Ligures. Others scholars attribute the founding of Bergamo and Brescia to the Etruscans. Canegrate and Golasecca cultures The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina culture). They brought a new funerary practice—cremation—which supplanted inhumation. It has also been proposed that a more ancient proto-Celtic presence can be traced back to the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (16th-15th century BC), when north-western Italy appears closely linked regarding the production of bronze artifacts, including ornaments, to the western groups of the Tumulus culture (Central Europe, 1600 BC - 1200 BC). The bearers of the Canegrate culture maintained its homogeneity for only a century, after which it melded with the Ligurian populations and with this union gave rise to a new phase called the Golasecca culture, which is nowadays identified with the Lepontii and other Celto-Ligurian tribes. Within the Golasecca culture territory roughly corresponds with the territories occupied by those tribal groups whose names are reported by Latin and Greek historians and geographers: Insubri: in the area south of Lake Maggiore, in Varese and part of Novara with Golasecca, Sesto Calende, Castelletto sopra Ticino; from the fifth century BC this area remains suddenly depopulated, while the first settlement of Mediolanum (Milan) rises. Leponti: in the Canton of Ticino, with Bellinzona and Sopra Ceneri; in the Ossola. Orobi: in the area of Como and Bergamo. Laevi and Marici: in Lomellina (Pavia/Ticinum). Founding of Genoa The Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. According to excavations carried out in the city between 1898 and 1910, the Ligurian population that lived in Genoa maintained trade relations with the Etruscans and the Greeks, since several objects from these populations were found. In the 5th century BC the first town, or oppidum, was founded at the top of the hill today called Castello (Castle), which is now inside the medieval old town. Thucydides (5th century BC) speaks of the Ligures having expelled the Sicanians, an Iberian tribe, from the banks of the river Sicanus, in Iberia. First contacts with Romans Ligurian sepulchres of the Italian Riviera and of Provence, holding cremations, exhibit Etruscan and Celtic influences. In the third century BC, the Romans were in direct contact with the Ligurians. However, Roman expansionism was directed towards the rich territories of Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula (then under Carthaginian control), and the territory of the Ligurians was on the road (they controlled the Ligurian coasts and the south-western Alps). Despite Roman efforts, only a few Ligurian tribes made alliance agreements with the Romans, notably the Genuates. The rest soon proved hostile. The hostilities were opened in 238 BC by a coalition of Ligurians and Boii Gauls, but the two peoples soon found themselves in disagreement and the military campaign came to a halt with the dissolution of the alliance. Meanwhile, a Roman fleet commanded by Quintus Fabius Maximus routed Ligurian ships on the coast (234-233 BC), allowing the Romans to control the coastal route to and from Gaul and to counter the Carthaginian expansion in Iberia, given that the Pisa-Luni-Genoa sea route was now safe. In 222 BC the Insubres, during a war with Romans occupied the oppidum of Clastidium, that at that time, it was an important locality of the Anamari (or Marici), a Ligurian tribe that, probably for fear of the nearby warlike Insubres, had already accepted the alliance with Rome the year before. For the first time, the Roman army marched beyond the Po, expanding into Gallia Transpadana. In 222 BC, the battle of Clastidium was fought and allowed Rome to take the capital of the Insubres, Mediolanum (modern-day Milan). To consolidate its dominion, Rome created the colonies of Placentia in the territory of the Boii and Cremona in that of the Insubres. Second Punic War With the outbreak of the second Punic war (218 BC) the Ligurian tribes had different attitudes. Some, like the tribes of the west Riviera and the Apuani, allied with the Carthaginians, providing soldiers to Hannibal's troops when he arrived in Northern Italy, hoping that the Carthaginian general would free them from the neighbouring Romans. Others, like the Taurini, took sides in support of the Romans. The pro-Carthaginian Ligurians took part in the Battle of the Trebia, which the Carthaginians won. Other Ligurians enlisted in the army of Hasdrubal Barca, when he arrived in Cisalpine Gaul (207 BC), in an attempt to rejoin the troops of his brother Hannibal. In the port of Savo (modern-day Savona), then capital of the Ligures Sabazi, triremes of the Carthaginian fleet of Mago Barca, brother of Hannibal, which were intended to cut the Roman trade routes in the Tyrrhenian Sea, found shelter. In the early stages of the war, the pro-Roman Ligurians suffered. The Taurini were on the path of Hannibal's march into Italy, and in 218 BC, they were attacked by him, as he had allied with their long-standing enemies, the Insubres. The Taurini chief town of Taurasia (modern-day Turin) was captured by Hannibal's forces after a three-day siege. In 205 BC, Genua (modern-day Genoa) was attacked and razed to the ground by Mago. Near the end of the Second Punic War, Mago was among the Ingauni, trying to block the Roman advance. At the Battle of Insubria, he suffered a defeat, and later, died of wounds sustained in the battle. Genua was rebuilt in the same year. Ligurian troops were present at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, which marked the final end of Carthage as a great power. Roman conquest of Ligurians In 200 BC, the Ligures and Boii sacked and destroyed the Roman colony of Placentia, effectively controlling the most important ford of the Po Valley. During the same period, the Romans were at war with the Apuani. Serious Roman efforts began in 182 BC, when both consular armies and a proconsular army were sent against the Ligurians. The wars continued into the 150s BC, when victorious generals celebrated two triumphs over the Ligurians. Here too, the Romans drove many natives off their land and settled colonies in their stead (e.g., Luna and Luca in the 170s BC). During the same period, the Romans were at war with the Ligurian tribes of the northern Apennines. By the end of the Second Punic War, however, hostilities were not over yet. Ligurian tribes and Carthaginian holdouts operating from the mountain territories continued to fight with guerrilla tactics. Thus, the Romans were forced into continuous military operations in northern Italy. In 201 BC, the Ingauni signed a peace treaty with Rome. It was only in 197 BC that the Romans, under the leadership of Minucius Rufus, succeeded in regaining control of the Placentia area by subduing the Celelates, Cerdicates, Ilvati and the Boii Gauls and occupying the oppidum of Clastidium. Genua was rebuilt by the proconsul Spurius Lucretius in the same year. Having defeated Carthage, Rome sought to expand northwards, and used Genua as a support base for raids, between 191 and 154 BC, against the Ligurian tribes of the hinterland, allied for decades with Carthage. A second phase of the conflict followed (197-155 BC), characterized by the fact that the Apuani Ligurians entrenched themselves on the Apennines, from where they periodically descended to plunder the surrounding territories. The Romans, for their part, organized continuous expeditions to the mountains, hoping to surround and defeat the Ligurians (taking care not to be destroyed by ambushes). In the course of these wars, the Romans celebrated fifteen triumphs and at suffered at least one serious defeat. Historically, the beginning of the campaign dates back to 193 BC on the initiative of the Ligurian conciliabula (federations), who organized a major raid going as far as the right bank of the river Arno. Roman campaigns followed (191, 188 and 187 BC); these were victorious, but not decisive. In the campaign of 186 BC, the Romans were beaten by the Ligurians in the Magra valley. In this battle, which took place in a narrow and precipitous place, the Romans lost about 4000 soldiers, three eagle insignia of the second legion and eleven banners of the Latin allies. In addition, the consul Quintus Martius was also killed in the battle. It is thought that the place of the battle and the death of the consul gave rise to the place-name of Marciaso, or that of the Canal of March on Mount Caprione in the town of Lerici (near the ruins of the city of Luni), which was later founded by the Romans. This mountain had a strategic importance because it controlled the valley of Magra and the sea. In 185 BC, the Ingauni and the Intimilii also rebelled and managed to resist the Roman legions for the next five years, before capitulating in 180 BC. The Apuani, and those of hinterland side still resisted. However, the Romans wanted to permanently pacify Liguria to facilitate further conquests in Gaul. To that end, they prepared a large army of almost 36,000 soldiers, under the command of proconsuls Publius Cornelius Cethegus and Marcus Baebius Tamphilus, with the aim of putting an end to Ligurian independence. In 180 BC, the Romans inflicted a serious defeat on the Apuani Ligures, and deported 40,000 of them to the regions of Samnium. This deportation was followed by another one of 7,000 Ligurians in the following year. These were one of the few cases in which the Romans deported defeated populations in such a high number. In 177 BC other groups of Apuani Ligures surrendered to the Roman forces, and were eventually assimilated into Roman culture during the 2nd century BC, while the military campaign continued further north. The Frinatiates surrendered in 175 BC, followed by the Statielli (172 BC) and the Velleiates (158 BC). The last Apuani resistance was subdued in 155 BC by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus. The subjugation of the coastal Ligures and the annexation of the Alpes Maritimae took place in 14 BC, closely following the occupation of the central Alps in 15 BC. The last Ligurian tribes (e.g. Vocontii and Salluvii) still autonomous, who occupied Provence, were subdued in 124 BC. Under Roman rule Cisalpine Gaul was the part of modern Italy inhabited by Celts during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Conquered by the Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy as indicated in Caesar's will (Acta Caesaris). In 49 BC all inhabitants of northern Italy received Roman citizenship. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven regiones, as reported by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia. One of these was Regio IX: Liguria. Genoa became the centre of this region and the Ligurian populations moved towards the definitive Romanization. The official historical name did not have the Liguria apposition, due to the contemporary academic use of naming the Augustan regions according to the populations they understood. Regio IX included only the Ligurian territory. This territory extended from the Maritime and Cottian Alps and the Var river (to the west) to the Trebbia and the Magra bordering Regio VIII Aemilia and Regio VII Etruria (to the east), and the Po to the north. Pliny describes the region thus: "patet ora Liguriae inter amnes Varum et Macram XXXI Milia passuum. Haec regio ex descriptione Augusti nona est". People with Ligurian names were living south of Placentia, in Italy, as late as 102 AD. In 126 AD the Liguria region was the birthplace of Pertinax, Roman soldier and politician who became Roman Emperor. Theories on the origin of the Ligurians In the 19th century, the origins of the Ligures drew renewed attention from scholars. Amédée Thierry, a French historian and journalist, linked them to the Iberians. The historian of the Bourgogne and specialist in its Gallic culture, Dominique-François-Louis Roget, Baron de Belloguet, would later claim a Gallic origin of the Ligurians. During the Iron Age the spoken language, the main divinities and the workmanship of the artifacts unearthed in the area of Liguria (such as the numerous torcs found) were similar to those of Celtic culture in both style and type. Karl Müllenhoff, professor of Germanic antiquities at the Universities of Kiel and Berlin, studying the sources of the Ora maritima by Avienius (a Latin poet who lived in the 4th century AD, but who used as a source for his own work a Phoenician Periplum of the 6th century BC), held that the name 'Ligurians' generically referred to various peoples who lived in western Europe, including the Celts, but thought the "real Ligurians" were a Pre-Indo-European population. Italian geologist and paleontologist Arturo Issel considered Ligurians to be direct descendants of the Cro-Magnon people that lived throughout Gaul from the Mesolithic period. Those in favor of an Indo-European origin included Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville, a 19th-century French historian, who argued in Les Premiers habitants de l'Europe (1877) that the Ligurians were the earliest Indo-European speakers of western Europe. Jubainville's "Celto-Ligurian hypothesis", as it later became known, was significantly expanded in the second edition of his initial study. It inspired a body of contemporary philological research, as well as some archaeological work. The Celto-Ligurian hypothesis became associated with the Funnelbeaker culture and "expanded to cover much of Central Europe". Julius Pokorny adapted the Celto-Ligurian hypothesis into one linking the Ligures to the Illyrians, citing an array of similar evidence from Eastern Europe. Under this theory the "Ligures-Illyrians" became associated with the prehistoric Urnfield peoples. Today some accounts suggest that the Ligures represented the northern branch of an ethno-linguistic layer older than and very different from the proto-Italic peoples. It was believed that a "Ligurian-Sicanian" culture occupied a wide area of southern Europe, stretching from Liguria to Sicily and Iberia. However, while any such area would be broadly similar to that of the paleo-European "Tyrrhenian culture" hypothesized by later modern scholars, there are no known links between the Tyrrenians and Ligurians. There are others such as Dominique Garcia, who question whether the Ligures can be considered a distinct ethnic group or culture from the surrounding cultures. Culture Society The Ligurians never formed a centralized state, they were in fact divided into independent tribes, in turn organized in small villages or castles. Rare were the oppidas, to which corresponded the federal capitals of the individual tribes or important commercial emporiums. Within the tribes, an egalitarian and communal spirit prevailed. If there was also a noble class, this was tempered by "tribal rallies" in which all the classes participated; there does not seem to have been any pre-organized magistracy. There were no dynastic leaders either: the Ligurian "king" was elected as leader of a tribe or a federation of tribes; only in late period did a real dynastic aristocratic class begin to emerge. Originally there was no slavery: prisoners of war were massacred or sacrificed. Diodorus Siculus, in the first century B.C., writes that women take part in the work of toil alongside men. Religion Among the most important testimonies, the sacred mountain sites (Mont Bègo, Monte Beigua) and the development of megalithicism (statues-stelae of Lunigiana) are worth mentioning. The spectacular Mont Bégo in Vallée des merveilles is the most representative site of the numerous sacred sites covered with rock carvings, and in particular with cupels, gullies and ritual basins. The latter would indicate that a fundamental part of the rites of the ancient Ligurians, provided for the use of water (or milk, blood?). The site of Mont Bégo has an extension and spectacularity comparable to the sites of Val Camonica. Another important sacred centre is Mount Beigua, but the reality is that many promontories in North-west Italy and the Alps present these types of sacred centres. In general, it is believed that the Ligurian religion was rather primitive, addressed to supernatural tutelary gods, representing the great forces of nature, and from which you could get help and protection through their divination. Another important deity was Cycnus of Liguria, who was a king of Liguria, a beloved and kin of Phaethon, who lamented his death and was subsequently turned into a swan and then a constellation. Dress Diodorus Siculus reports the use of a tunic tightened at the waist by a leather belt and closed by a clasp generally bronze; the legs were bare. Other garments used were cloaks "sagum", and during the winter animal skins to shelter from the cold. Lucan in his Pharsalia (c. 61 AD) described Ligurian tribes as being long-haired, and their hair a shade of auburn (a reddish-brown): Warfare Diodorus Siculus describes the Ligurians as very fearsome enemies. Tactics, unit types and equipment The armament varied according to the class and the comfort of the owner, in general however the great mass of the Ligurian warriors was substantially light infantry, armed in a poor way. The main weapon was the spear, with cusps that could exceed a cubit (about 45 cm, or one and half foot ), followed by the sword, of Gallic shape (sometimes cheap because made with soft metals), very rarely the warriors were equipped with bows and arrows. The protection was entrusted to an oblong shield of wood, always of Celtic typology (but to difference of this last one without metallic boss) and a simple helmet, of Montefortino type. The horned helmets, recovered in the Apuani tribe area, were probably used only for ceremonial purpose and they were worn by warchief, to underline their virility and military skills. The use of armor is not known: the seated warrior from the site of Roquepertuse seems to wear leather armor, although the statue is attributable to the 5th century A.D. and the armor maybe was used only in this period. Even if it is possible that the richer warriors used armor in organic material like the Gauls or the Greek linothorax. Cavalry Strabo and Diodorus Siculus say they fought mostly on foot, because of the nature of their territory, but their phrasing implies that cavalry was not entirely unknown, and two recently discovered Ligurian graves have included harness fittings. Strabo says that the Salyes, a tribe located north of Massalia, had a substantial cavalry force, but they were one of the several Celto-Ligurian tribes, and the cavalry probably reflected a Celtic element. The Ligures seem to have been ready to engage as mercenary troops in the service of others. Ligurian auxiliaries are mentioned in the army of the Carthaginian general Hamilcar I in 480 BC. Greek leaders in Sicily continued to recruit Ligurian mercenary forces as late as the time of Agathocles. The Ingauni, a tribe of sailors located around Albingaunum (nowadays Albenga) were famous to engage trade and piracy, hostiles to Rome, they were subdued by consul Lucius Emilius Paullus Macedonicus in 181 BC. Under Roman service According to Plutarch, Ligurian auxiliaries fought for the Romans in the Battle of Pydna, the decisive battle of Third Macedonian War. Sallustius and Plutarch say that during the Jugurthine War (from 112 to 105 BC) and the Cimbrian War (from 104 to 101 BC) the Ligurians served as auxiliary troops in the Roman army. In the course of this last conflict they played an important role in the Battle of Aquae Sextae. Economy The Ligurian economy was based on primitive agriculture, sheep farming, hunting and the exploitation of forests. Diodorus Siculus writes about the Ligurians: Since their country is mountainous and full of trees, some of them use all day to cut wood, using strong and heavy dark; others, who want to cultivate the land, must deal with breaking stones, because it is so dry soil that you can not pick tools remove a sod, that with it do not rise stones. However, even if they have to fight with so many misfortunes, by means of stubborn work they go beyond nature [...] they often give themselves to hunting, and finding quantities of savage, with it they make up for the lack of bladders; and so it comes, that flowing through their snow-covered mountains, and getting used to practicing then more difficult places of the thickets, they harden their bodies, and strengthen their muscles admirably. Some of them, due to the famine of food, drink water, and live of meat of domestic and wild animals. Thanks to the contact with the bronze "metal seekers", the Ligurians also dedicated themselves to mining. The commercial activity is important. Already in ancient times the Ligurians were known in the Mediterranean for the trade of the precious Baltic amber. With the development of the Celtic populations, the Ligurians found themselves controlling a crucial access to the sea, becoming (sometimes in spite of themselves) custodians of an important way of communication. Although they were not renowned navigators, they came to have a small maritime fleet, and their attitude to navigation is described as follows: They sail for reason of shops on the sea of Sardinia and Libya, spontaneously exposing themselves to extreme dangers; they use smaller hulls than vulgar boats for this; nor are they practical of the comfort of other ships; and what is surprising is that they are not afraid to sustain the serious risks of storms. Tribes The Ligures lived divided into numerous tribes, among them were: the Genuati, who lived in what is now the area of the city of Genoa; the Tigulli, who lived in what is now the area of Trigoso; the Ingauni, who lived in what is now the area of the city of Albenga; the Intimilii who lived in what is now the area of Ventimiglia, the Apuani who lived in what is now the areas of the valleys of Magra and Serchio. See also Ligurian (ancient language) Ancient peoples of italy Liguria Genoa References Bibliography ARSLAN E. A. 2004b, LVI.14 Garlasco, in I Liguri. Un antico popolo europeo tra Alpi e Mediterraneo, Catalogo della Mostra (Genova, 23.10.2004-23.1.2005), Milano-Ginevra, pp. 429–431. ARSLAN E. A. 2004 c.s., Liguri e Galli in Lomellina, in I Liguri. Un antico popolo europeo tra Alpi e Mediterraneo, Saggi Mostra (Genova, 23.10.2004–23.1.2005). Raffaele De Marinis, Giuseppina Spadea (a cura di), Ancora sui Liguri. Un antico popolo europeo tra Alpi e Mediterraneo, De Ferrari editore, Genova 2007 (scheda sul volume). John Patterson, Sanniti,Liguri e Romani,Comune di Circello;Benevento Giuseppina Spadea (a cura di), I Liguri. Un antico popolo europeo tra Alpi e Mediterraneo (catalogo mostra, Genova 2004–2005), Skira editore, Genova 2004 Further reading Berthelot, André. "LES LIGURES." Revue Archéologique 2 (1933): 245–303. www.jstor.org/stable/41750896. History of Italy History of Liguria Ancient peoples of Italy Ancient peoples of Europe History of Europe Ancient history of France History of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur History of Piedmont History of Lombardy Transhumant ethnic groups

424218

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production%20function

Production function

In economics, a production function gives the technological relation between quantities of physical inputs and quantities of output of goods. The production function is one of the key concepts of mainstream neoclassical theories, used to define marginal product and to distinguish allocative efficiency, a key focus of economics. One important purpose of the production function is to address allocative efficiency in the use of factor inputs in production and the resulting distribution of income to those factors, while abstracting away from the technological problems of achieving technical efficiency, as an engineer or professional manager might understand it. For modelling the case of many outputs and many inputs, researchers often use the so-called Shephard's distance functions or, alternatively, directional distance functions, which are generalizations of the simple production function in economics. In macroeconomics, aggregate production functions are estimated to create a framework in which to distinguish how much of economic growth to attribute to changes in factor allocation (e.g. the accumulation of physical capital) and how much to attribute to advancing technology. Some non-mainstream economists, however, reject the very concept of an aggregate production function. The theory of production functions In general, economic output is not a (mathematical) function of input, because any given set of inputs can be used to produce a range of outputs. To satisfy the mathematical definition of a function, a production function is customarily assumed to specify the maximum output obtainable from a given set of inputs. The production function, therefore, describes a boundary or frontier representing the limit of output obtainable from each feasible combination of input. Alternatively, a production function can be defined as the specification of the minimum input requirements needed to produce designated quantities of output. Assuming that maximum output is obtained from given inputs allows economists to abstract away from technological and managerial problems associated with realizing such a technical maximum, and to focus exclusively on the problem of allocative efficiency, associated with the economic choice of how much of a factor input to use, or the degree to which one factor may be substituted for another. In the production function itself, the relationship of output to inputs is non-monetary; that is, a production function relates physical inputs to physical outputs, and prices and costs are not reflected in the function. In the decision frame of a firm making economic choices regarding production—how much of each factor input to use to produce how much output—and facing market prices for output and inputs, the production function represents the possibilities afforded by an exogenous technology. Under certain assumptions, the production function can be used to derive a marginal product for each factor. The profit-maximizing firm in perfect competition (taking output and input prices as given) will choose to add input right up to the point where the marginal cost of additional input matches the marginal product in additional output. This implies an ideal division of the income generated from output into an income due to each input factor of production, equal to the marginal product of each input. The inputs to the production function are commonly termed factors of production and may represent primary factors, which are stocks. Classically, the primary factors of production were land, labour and capital. Primary factors do not become part of the output product, nor are the primary factors, themselves, transformed in the production process. The production function, as a theoretical construct, may be abstracting away from the secondary factors and intermediate products consumed in a production process. The production function is not a full model of the production process: it deliberately abstracts from inherent aspects of physical production processes that some would argue are essential, including error, entropy or waste, and the consumption of energy or the co-production of pollution. Moreover, production functions do not ordinarily model the business processes, either, ignoring the role of strategic and operational business management. (For a primer on the fundamental elements of microeconomic production theory, see production theory basics). The production function is central to the marginalist focus of neoclassical economics, its definition of efficiency as allocative efficiency, its analysis of how market prices can govern the achievement of allocative efficiency in a decentralized economy, and an analysis of the distribution of income, which attributes factor income to the marginal product of factor input. Specifying the production function A production function can be expressed in a functional form as the right side of where is the quantity of output and are the quantities of factor inputs (such as capital, labour, land or raw materials). For it must be since we cannot produce anything without inputs. If is a scalar, then this form does not encompass joint production, which is a production process that has multiple co-products. On the other hand, if maps from to then it is a joint production function expressing the determination of different types of output based on the joint usage of the specified quantities of the inputs. One formulation is as a linear function: where are parameters that are determined empirically. Linear functions imply that inputs are perfect substitutes in production. Another is as a Cobb–Douglas production function: where is the so-called total factor productivity. The Leontief production function applies to situations in which inputs must be used in fixed proportions; starting from those proportions, if usage of one input is increased without another being increased, the output will not change. This production function is given by Other forms include the constant elasticity of substitution production function (CES), which is a generalized form of the Cobb–Douglas function, and the quadratic production function. The best form of the equation to use and the values of the parameters () vary from company to company and industry to industry. In the short run, production function at least one of the 's (inputs) is fixed. In the long run, all factor inputs are variable at the discretion of management. Moysan and Senouci (2016) provide an analytical formula for all 2-input, neoclassical production functions. Production function as a graph Any of these equations can be plotted on a graph. A typical (quadratic) production function is shown in the following diagram under the assumption of a single variable input (or fixed ratios of inputs so they can be treated as a single variable). All points above the production function are unobtainable with current technology, all points below are technically feasible, and all points on the function show the maximum quantity of output obtainable at the specified level of usage of the input. From point A to point C, the firm is experiencing positive but decreasing marginal returns to the variable input. As additional units of the input are employed, output increases but at a decreasing rate. Point B is the point beyond which there are diminishing average returns, as shown by the declining slope of the average physical product curve (APP) beyond point Y. Point B is just tangent to the steepest ray from the origin hence the average physical product is at a maximum. Beyond point B, mathematical necessity requires that the marginal curve must be below the average curve (See production theory basics for further explanation and Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019) for more extensive discussions of various production functions, their generalizations and estimations). Stages of production To simplify the interpretation of a production function, it is common to divide its range into 3 stages. In Stage 1 (from the origin to point B) the variable input is being used with increasing output per unit, the latter reaching a maximum at point B (since the average physical product is at its maximum at that point). Because the output per unit of the variable input is improving throughout stage 1, a price-taking firm will always operate beyond this stage. In Stage 2, output increases at a decreasing rate, and the average and marginal physical product both decline. However, the average product of fixed inputs (not shown) is still rising, because output is rising while fixed input usage is constant. In this stage, the employment of additional variable inputs increases the output per unit of fixed input but decreases the output per unit of the variable input. The optimum input/output combination for the price-taking firm will be in stage 2, although a firm facing a downward-sloped demand curve might find it most profitable to operate in Stage 2. In Stage 3, too much variable input is being used relative to the available fixed inputs: variable inputs are over-utilized in the sense that their presence on the margin obstructs the production process rather than enhancing it. The output per unit of both the fixed and the variable input declines throughout this stage. At the boundary between stage 2 and stage 3, the highest possible output is being obtained from the fixed input. Shifting a production function By definition, in the long run the firm can change its scale of operations by adjusting the level of inputs that are fixed in the short run, thereby shifting the production function upward as plotted against the variable input. If fixed inputs are lumpy, adjustments to the scale of operations may be more significant than what is required to merely balance production capacity with demand. For example, you may only need to increase production by million units per year to keep up with demand, but the production equipment upgrades that are available may involve increasing productive capacity by 2 million units per year. If a firm is operating at a profit-maximizing level in stage one, it might, in the long run, choose to reduce its scale of operations (by selling capital equipment). By reducing the amount of fixed capital inputs, the production function will shift down. The beginning of stage 2 shifts from B1 to B2. The (unchanged) profit-maximizing output level will now be in stage 2. Homogeneous and homothetic production functions There are two special classes of production functions that are often analyzed. The production function is said to be homogeneous of degree , if given any positive constant , . If , the function exhibits increasing returns to scale, and it exhibits decreasing returns to scale if . If it is homogeneous of degree , it exhibits constant returns to scale. The presence of increasing returns means that a one percent increase in the usage levels of all inputs would result in a greater than one percent increase in output; the presence of decreasing returns means that it would result in a less than one percent increase in output. Constant returns to scale is the in-between case. In the Cobb–Douglas production function referred to above, returns to scale are increasing if , decreasing if , and constant if . If a production function is homogeneous of degree one, it is sometimes called "linearly homogeneous". A linearly homogeneous production function with inputs capital and labour has the properties that the marginal and average physical products of both capital and labour can be expressed as functions of the capital-labour ratio alone. Moreover, in this case, if each input is paid at a rate equal to its marginal product, the firm's revenues will be exactly exhausted and there will be no excess economic profit. Homothetic functions are functions whose marginal technical rate of substitution (the slope of the isoquant, a curve drawn through the set of points in say labour-capital space at which the same quantity of output is produced for varying combinations of the inputs) is homogeneous of degree zero. Due to this, along rays coming from the origin, the slopes of the isoquants will be the same. Homothetic functions are of the form where is a monotonically increasing function (the derivative of is positive ()), and the function is a homogeneous function of any degree. Aggregate production functions In macroeconomics, aggregate production functions for whole nations are sometimes constructed. In theory, they are the summation of all the production functions of individual producers; however there are methodological problems associated with aggregate production functions, and economists have debated extensively whether the concept is valid. Criticisms of the production function theory There are two major criticisms of the standard form of the production function. On the concept of capital During the 1950s, '60s, and '70s there was a lively debate about the theoretical soundness of production functions (see the Capital controversy). Although the criticism was directed primarily at aggregate production functions, microeconomic production functions were also put under scrutiny. The debate began in 1953 when Joan Robinson criticized the way the factor input capital was measured and how the notion of factor proportions had distracted economists. She wrote: "The production function has been a powerful instrument of miseducation. The student of economic theory is taught to write where is a quantity of labor, a quantity of capital and a rate of output of commodities. [They] are instructed to assume all workers alike, and to measure in man-hours of labor; [they] are told something about the index-number problem in choosing a unit of output; and then [they] are hurried on to the next question, in the hope that [they] will forget to ask in what units K is measured. Before [they] ever do ask, [they] have become a professor, and so sloppy habits of thought are handed on from one generation to the next". According to the argument, it is impossible to conceive of capital in such a way that its quantity is independent of the rates of interest and wages. The problem is that this independence is a precondition of constructing an isoquant. Further, the slope of the isoquant helps determine relative factor prices, but the curve cannot be constructed (and its slope measured) unless the prices are known beforehand. On the empirical relevance As a result of the criticism on their weak theoretical grounds, it has been claimed that empirical results firmly support the use of neoclassical well behaved aggregate production functions. Nevertheless, Anwar Shaikh has demonstrated that they also have no empirical relevance, as long as the alleged good fit comes from an accounting identity, not from any underlying laws of production/distribution. Natural resources Natural resources are usually absent in production functions. When Robert Solow and Joseph Stiglitz attempted to develop a more realistic production function by including natural resources, they did it in a manner economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen criticized as a "conjuring trick": Solow and Stiglitz had failed to take into account the laws of thermodynamics, since their variant allowed man-made capital to be a complete substitute for natural resources. Neither Solow nor Stiglitz reacted to Georgescu-Roegen's criticism, despite an invitation to do so in the September 1997 issue of the journal Ecological Economics. Georgescu-Roegen can be understood as criticizing Solow and Stiglitz's approach to mathematically modelling factors of production. We will use the example of energy to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the two approaches in question. Independent factors of production Robert Solow and Joseph Stiglitz describe an approach to modelling energy as a factor of production which assumes the following: Labor, capital, energy input, and technical change (omitted below for brevity) are the only relevant factors of production, The factors of production are independent of one another such that the production function takes the general form , Labor, capital, and energy input only depend on time such that . This approach yields an energy-dependent production function given as . However, as discussed in more-recent work, this approach does not accurately model the mechanism by which energy affects production processes. Consider the following cases which support the revision of the assumptions made by this model: If workers at any stage of the production process rely on electricity to perform their jobs, a power outage would significantly reduce their maximum output, and a long-enough power outage would reduce their maximum output to zero. Therefore should be modeled as depending directly on time-dependent energy input . If there were a power outage, machines would not be able to run, and therefore their maximum output would be reduced to zero. Therefore should be modeled as depending directly on time-dependent energy input . This model has also been shown to predict a 28% decrease in output for a 99% decrease in energy, which further supports the revision of this model's assumptions. Note that, while inappropriate for energy, an "independent" modelling approach may be appropriate for modelling other natural resources such as land. Inter-dependent factors of production The "independent" energy-dependent production function can be revised by considering energy-dependent labor and capital input functions , . This approach yields an energy-dependent production function given generally as . Details related to the derivation of a specific functional form of this production function as well as empirical support for this form of the production function are discussed in more-recently published work. Note that similar arguments could be used to develop more-realistic production functions which consider other depletable natural resources beyond energy: If a geographical region runs out of the natural resources required to produce a given machine or maintain existing machines and is unable to import more or recycle, the machines in that region will eventually fall into disrepair and the machines' maximum output would be reduced to near-zero. This should be modeled as significantly affecting the total output. Therefore, therefore should be modeled as depending directly on time-dependent natural resource input . The practice of production functions The theory of the production function depicts the relation between physical outputs of a production process and physical inputs, i.e. factors of production. The practical application of production functions is obtained by valuing the physical outputs and inputs by their prices. The economic value of physical outputs minus the economic value of physical inputs is the income generated by the production process. By keeping the prices fixed between two periods under review we get the income change generated by a change of the production function. This is the principle how the production function is made a practical concept, i.e. measureable and understandable in practical situations. See also Assembly line Computer-aided manufacturing Distribution (economics) Division of labour Economic region of production Industrial Revolution Mass production Production Production theory basics Production, costs, and pricing Production possibility frontier Productive forces Productive and unproductive labour Productivity Productivity improving technologies (historical) Productivity model Second Industrial Revolution References Citations Sources Sickles, R., & Zelenyuk, V. (2019). Measurement of Productivity and Efficiency: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/36161/frontmatter/9781107036161_frontmatter.pdf Further reading Guerrien B. and O. Gun (2015) "Putting an end to the aggregate function of production... forever?", Real World Economic Review N°73 Sickles, R., & Zelenyuk, V. (2019). Measurement of Productivity and Efficiency: Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://assets.cambridge.org/97811070/36161/frontmatter/9781107036161_frontmatter.pdf External links A further description of production functions Anatomy of Cobb–Douglas Type Production Functions in 3D Anatomy of CES Type Production Functions in 3D Production economics

424225

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Democracy%20%28Greece%29

New Democracy (Greece)

New Democracy (ND; , ) is a liberal-conservative political party in Greece. In contemporary Greek politics, New Democracy has been the main centre-right political party and one of the two major parties along with its historic rival, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK). New Democracy and PASOK were created in the wake of the toppling of the military junta in 1974, and ruled Greece alternately for the next four decades. Following the electoral decline of PASOK, New Democracy remained one of the two major parties in Greece, the other being the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA). The party was founded in 1974 by Konstantinos Karamanlis and in the same year it formed the first cabinet of the Third Hellenic Republic. New Democracy is a member of the European People's Party, the largest European political party since 1999, the Centrist Democrat International, and the International Democrat Union. The support of New Democracy comes from a wide electorate base ranging from centrists to conservatives, and nationalists to post-modernists. From a geographical perspective, its main support base is in the rural areas of Greece as well as the city centers of Athens and Thessaloniki. Its support is generally weaker in areas like Arta, Achaia and Crete, with the exception of some parts in Chania and Rethymno. Traditionally, New Democracy receives greatest percentages in Laconia, Messenia, Kastoria and Serres. Having spent four and a half years in opposition to SYRIZA's government, New Democracy regained its majority in the Hellenic Parliament and returned to government under Kyriakos Mitsotakis after the 2019 Greek legislative election. The party secured an absolute majority in Parliament in the June 2023 Greek legislative election. New Democracy has faced considerable criticism for its role in the fiscal crisis that engulfed Greece in 2010, as well as its financial management during the 2000s. Numerous academic scholars have highlighted the party's penchant for lacking transparency concerning financial data and resource utilization, which has raised concerns about their accountability as a political entity within the country. Moreover, New Democracy has come under fire for its substantial debt to the Greek state, amounting to a staggering 435 million Euros as of 2023. History Foundation New Democracy was founded on 4 October 1974 by Konstantinos Karamanlis, in the beginning of the metapolitefsi era following the fall of the Greek military junta. Karamanlis, who had already served as Prime Minister of Greece from 1955 to 1963, was sworn in as the first Prime Minister of the Third Hellenic Republic in a national unity government on 24 July 1974, until the first free elections of the new era. He intended New Democracy to be a more modern and progressive political party than the right-wing parties that ruled Greece before the 1967 Greek coup d'état, including his own National Radical Union (ERE). The party's ideology was defined as "radical liberalism", a term defined as "the prevalence of free market rules with the decisive intervention of the state in favour of social justice." The party was formed out of a National Radical Union core and dissident members of the pre-Junta Centre Union. It included members of both former Monarchist and Venizelist backgrounds. First government (1974–1981) In the 1974 legislative election, New Democracy obtained a massive parliamentary majority of 220 seats with a record 54.37% of the vote, a result attributed to the personal appeal of Karamanlis to the electorate. Karamanlis was elected as Prime Minister and soon decided to hold a referendum on 8 December 1974 for the issue of the form of government; with a large majority of 69.17%, monarchy was eventually abolished in favour of a republic. The next major issue for the New Democracy cabinet was the creation of the Constitution of Greece, which entered into force in 1975 and established Greece as a parliamentary republic. On 12 June 1975, Greece applied to join the European Communities, of which it was already an associate member since 1961, while it had already been readmitted to the Council of Europe on 28 November 1974. In the 1977 election, New Democracy won again a large parliamentary majority of 171 seats, albeit with a reduced percentage of popular vote (41.84%). Under Karamanlis, Greece redefined its relations with NATO and tried to resolve the Cyprus dispute following the Turkish invasion of the island. In 1979, the first conference of the party was held in Chalkidiki, where its ideological principles defined under the term "radical liberalism" were unanimously approved, as well as its statute and the operating regulations of its organizations. It was the first conference of any Greek political party whose delegates were elected by the members. Karamanlis' vision concerning the accession of Greece into the European Communities, despite the resolute opposition of the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) and the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), led to the signing of the Treaty of Accession on 28 May 1979 in Athens; following the ratification of the act by the Hellenic Parliament on 28 June 1979, Greece became the tenth member state of the European Communities on 1 January 1981. Karamanlis was criticised by opposing parties for not holding a referendum, even though Greece's accession into the European Communities had been in the forefront of New Democracy's political platform, under which the party had been elected to power. Meanwhile, Karamanlis relinquished the premiership in 1980 and was elected as President of Greece by the parliament, serving until 1985. Georgios Rallis was elected as the new leader of New Democracy and succeeded Karamanlis in premiership. Opposition and Mitsotakis' rise to power (1981–1989) Under the leadership of Georgios Rallis, New Democracy was defeated in the 1981 legislative elections by Andreas Papandreou's PASOK which ran on a left-wing progressive platform, and was placed in opposition for a first time with 35.87% share of the vote and 115 seats. On the same day, on 18 October 1981, New Democracy was also defeated in the first Greek election to the European Parliament. In the following December, the party's parliamentary group elected Evangelos Averoff, former Minister for National Defence, as president of New Democracy, but he resigned in 1984 due to health problems. On 1 September 1984, Konstantinos Mitsotakis succeeded him in the party's presidency and he managed to increase its percentage in the 1985 elections to 40.85%, although it was defeated again and remained in opposition. Second government (1989–1993) Mitsotakis led New Democracy to a clear win in the June 1989 legislative elections registering 44.28% of the vote but, due to the modification of the electoral law by the outbound PASOK government, New Democracy obtained only 145 seats which were not enough to form a government on its own. The aftermath was the formation of a coalition government under Tzannis Tzannetakis, consisted of New Democracy and Coalition of the Left and Progress (Synaspismos), with the latter also including at the time the Communist Party of Greece. In the subsequent elections of November 1989, New Democracy took one more comfortable win, increasing its share to 46.19% of the vote and 148 seats but, under the same electoral law, they were still short of forming a government and this led to a national unity government along with PASOK and Synaspismos, under Xenophon Zolotas. Eventually, in the 1990 election Mitsotakis' New Democracy defeated once again Papandreou's PASOK with a lead of 8.28%, but this time the 46.89% of votes awarded them with 150 seats, which allowed Mitsotakis to form a majority in the parliament with the support of Democratic Renewal's (DIANA) sole member of parliament and one more seat given by the Supreme Special Court, after a mistake in seat calculation was detected. After three consecutive wide wins with high vote percentages, Mitsotakis became the 178th Prime Minister of Greece and the 7th Prime Minister of the 3rd Hellenic Republic though with a slim parliamentary majority of 152 seats due to the electoral law in force at the time. In a turbulent international political environment following the 1989 Fall of Communism in Europe, Mitsotakis' government focused on cutting government spending, the privatization of state enterprises, the reformation of the public administration and the restoration of the original electoral system, with the addition of an election threshold of 3%. In foreign policy, the priorities were the restoration of confidence among Greece's economic and political partners, NATO and the United States. Mitsotakis also supported a new dialogue with Turkey on the Cyprus dispute and a compromise over the Macedonia naming dispute; the latter triggered an irritation among the MPs of New Democracy, which led Antonis Samaras to leave it and form a new political party in June 1993, Political Spring; one more withdrawal later from its parliamentary group resulted in New Democracy's loss of the majority in the parliament and the call of early elections. Opposition (1993–2004) In the 1993 elections, New Democracy suffered an easy defeat with 39.30% of the vote, something that led to Mitsotakis' resignation and the election of Miltiadis Evert in the party's leadership. In the early 1996 legislative election, New Democracy was defeated again by Costas Simitis' PASOK registering 38.12%, but Evert obtained a re-election as the party's leader in the same year. However, in the spring of 1997 a new conference took place, in order to elect a new president among others. Kostas Karamanlis, nephew of the party's founder, was elected the sixth president of New Democracy. Under Karamanlis, New Democracy experienced an evident increase in popularity, but in the 2000 elections they lost by only 1.06% of the popular vote, the smallest margin in modern Greek history, registering 42.74% and obtaining 125 seats in the parliament. By 2003, New Democracy was consistently leading Simitis' PASOK in opinion polls; in January 2004 Simitis resigned and announced elections for 7 March, while George Papandreou succeeded him in PASOK's leadership. Third government (2004–2009) Despite speculation that Papandreou would succeed in restoring the party's fortunes, in the 2004 election Karamanlis managed to take a clear win with 45.36% of the vote and 165 seats, and New Democracy returned to power after eleven years in opposition, scoring an all-time record of 3,359,682 votes in the history of Greek elections. The regions that consistently support New Democracy include the Peloponnese, Central Macedonia and West Macedonia. On the other hand, the party is weak in Crete, the Aegean Islands, Attica and West Greece. On 16 September 2007, Kostas Karamanlis won re-election with a diminished majority in Parliament, and stated: "Thank you for your trust. You have spoken loud and clear and chosen the course the country will take in the next few years." George Papandreou, PASOK, accepted defeat (New Democracy party with 41.84%, and opposition party PASOK had 38.1%). 2009 defeat On 2 September 2009 Karamanlis announced his intention to call an election, although one was not required until September 2011. The parliament was dissolved on 9 September, and the 2009 legislative election was held on 4 October. New Democracy's share of the parliamentary vote dropped to 33.47% (down by 8.37%) and they won only 91 of 300 seats, dropping by 61 since the last election. The rival PASOK soared to 43.92% (up 5.82%), and took 160 seats (up 58). The 33.5% tally marked a historic low for the party since its founding in 1974. Karamanlis conceded defeat and stated that he would resign as a leader of New Democracy, and would not stand as a candidate at the next party election. Two former Ministers for Foreign Affairs, Dora Bakoyannis and Antonis Samaras, as well as Thessaloniki Prefect Panagiotis Psomiadis were announced as candidates, with Samaras being the favorite to win. On 29 November 2009, Antonis Samaras was elected the new leader of New Democracy by the party base at the 2009 leadership election. Following early results showing Samaras in the lead, his main rival Dora Bakoyannis conceded defeat and congratulated Samaras for his election; later she left New Democracy to found her own party, Democratic Alliance. Samaras himself had also left New Democracy in 1992 because of his hard stance on the Macedonia naming dispute and found his own party, Political Spring; he returned to New Democracy in 2004. 2011 government debt crisis New Democracy was in opposition during the first phase (2009–11) of the Greek government debt crisis which included the First bailout package agreed in May 2010. The party did not support the first EU/IMF rescue package of May 2010 and the three related austerity packages of March 2010, May 2010 and June 2011. Further measures were agreed by prime minister George Papandreou with the EU and private banks and insurers on 27 October 2011. The aim was to complete negotiations by the end of the year and put in place a full Second bailout package to supplement the one agreed in May 2010. Samaras initially blasted the deal. In reality New Democracy had dismissed cross-party agreement even before the deal was agreed. A few days later, Papandreou announced a surprise referendum. During the frantic negotiations that followed, Samaras offered to support the austerity package he had initially condemned if Papandreou resigned and an interim government be appointed to lead the country to elections early in the new year. The referendum was never held, and Papandreou resigned in early November 2011. New Democracy supported the new national unity government headed by Lucas Papademos; however the party's support for austerity appeared lukewarm at first. Within a few days, party officials spoke of "renegotiating" existing agreements with the EU and IMF. EU partners requested that Samaras sign a letter committing him to the terms of the rescue package, in what was seen as an effort to keep the nationalist elements of his party happy. Samaras argued that his word should be enough and that the demand for a written commitment was "humiliating". Both Papademos and the EU insisted on a written commitment. New Democracy repeated its call for new elections. Samaras was said to be infuriating European leaders by only partly backing the international reform programme. A meeting of Eurozone's Finance Ministers was postponed in February 2012, when it became apparent that not all the main political parties were willing to pledge to honour the conditions demanded in return for the rescue package; a day later Samaras reversed course and wrote to the European Commission and IMF, promising to implement the austerity measures if his party were to win a general election in April. German finance minister Wolfgang Schäuble suggested postponing the election and setting up a small technocratic cabinet like Italy's to run Greece for the next two years. Fourth government with PASOK (2012–2015) In May 2012 general election, the New Democracy regained the largest party but could not obtain a majority. Anti-austerity leftist SYRIZA, led by Alexis Tsipras became the second largest party and refused to negotiate with New Democracy and PASOK. After the general election the New Democracy could not form a coalition government. New Democracy during its rule introduced a strict immigration policy, and proposed strengthening this policy as part of its political agenda. In opposition (2015–2019) In its electoral campaign for the January 2015 legislative election, Samaras promised to continue with his plan to exit the bailout and return to growth by further privatizations, a corporate tax rate reduced to 15 percent and a recapitalization of Greece's banks. The party received a total of €747,214 of state funding, the largest share of all political parties in Greece. In the election, ND was defeated by SYRIZA. On 5 July 2015 Samaras stepped down from party leadership. New Democracy was once again defeated by SYRIZA in the September 2015 legislative election, but maintained its number of seats in the Hellenic Parliament. On 10 January 2016 Kyriakos Mitsotakis was elected as new party leader. On 4 October 2018, the party adopted a new logo. Fifth government (2019–present) In the 2019 legislative election, New Democracy won 158 seats in the 300-seat Hellenic Parliament, a majority of the seats, enabling it to form a government on its own under Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Mitsotakis' efforts to deal with the prolonged lockdown in Greece received widespread praise from Greek and International press, analysts, and academics, for the well-structured approach and continuous reliance on scientific expertise of the Greek pandemic task force, headed by Sotiris Tsiodras. In 2021, the country managed to keep the new cases of COVID-19 to low levels by enforcing back to back strict lockdowns in Athens and Thessaloniki, and enabling different emergency protocols for rural areas. At the same time the government focused on tackling the pandemic before the launch of the 2021 summer tourist season in an attempt to boost the country's economy. During Mitsotakis's term as Prime Minister, he has received praise for his pro-European and technocratic governance, his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece, and is credited with the modernization and digital transformation of the country's public administration, as well as for his overall management of the Greek economy, with Greece being named the Top Economic Performer for 2022 by The Economist. This was in particular due to Greece in 2022 being able to repay ahead of schedule 2.7 billion euros ($2.87 billion) of loans owed to Eurozone countries under the first bailout it received during its decade-long debt crisis, along with being on the verge of reaching investment-grade rating. Mitsotakis has also received criticism, as during his term Greece has experienced heightened corruption, and a deterioration of freedom of the press. His term was marred by the Novartis corruption scandal, the 2022 wiretapping scandal, and the Tempi Train crash. Additionally, he has received both praise and criticism for his handling of migration, including praise and aid from the European Union, but criticism from journalists and activists for pushbacks, which his government has denied. In the May 2023 elections, the only election to use the purely proportional system introduced by SYRIZA in 2016, Mitsotakis led the party to achieve a plurality of the seats in parliament. Soon after the results were announced, Mitsotakis called snap elections for the following month, with this election returning to the majority bonus system. Ideology New Democracy political position has been placed as centre to centre-right. The main ideologies of the party have been described as liberal-conservative, or conservative liberal, Christian democratic, and with a pro-European stance. Electoral history Hellenic Parliament Popular vote in Greek legislative elections European Parliament elections A 2004 results are compared to the combined totals for ND and POLAN totals in the 1999 election. Party leaders Symbols The traditional symbol of the party has been the freedom torch, incorporated in its logo, albeit in a stylized form in the logo adopted in 2018. Logos Notes References External links ND list of MPs_Vouliwatch.gr Liberal conservative parties International Democrat Union member parties 1974 establishments in Greece Political parties established in 1974 Member parties of the European People's Party Parties represented in the European Parliament Conservative parties in Greece Konstantinos Karamanlis Centre-right parties in Europe Christian democratic parties in Europe Eastern Orthodox political parties Liberal parties in Greece Pro-European political parties in Greece

424253

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GarageBand

GarageBand

GarageBand is a line of digital audio workstations developed by Apple for macOS, iPadOS, and iOS devices that allows users to create music or podcasts. GarageBand was originally released for macOS in 2004 and brought to iOS in 2011. The app's music and podcast creation system enables users to create multiple tracks with pre-made MIDI keyboards, pre-made loops, an array of various instrumental effects, and voice recordings. Apple positions GarageBand for the consumer market, and used to sell the app as part of iLife, a bundle of consumer media apps. For the professional market, Apple offers another digital-audio product, Logic Pro. History GarageBand was developed by Apple under the direction of Dr. Gerhard Lengeling. Dr. Lengeling was formerly from the German company Emagic, makers of Logic Audio. Apple acquired Emagic in July 2002. Steve Jobs announced the application in his keynote speech at the Macworld Conference & Expo in San Francisco on January 6, 2004. Musician John Mayer assisted with its demonstration. It is part of the iLife '04 package. Apple announced GarageBand 2 at the 2005 Macworld Conference & Expo on January 11, 2005. It shipped, as announced, around January 22, 2005. Notable new features included the abilities to view and edit music in musical notation. It was also possible to record up to 8 tracks at once and to fix timing and pitch of recordings. Apple added automation of track pan position and the master pitch. Transposition of both audio and MIDI has been added by Apple along with the ability to import MIDI files. It is part of iLife '05. GarageBand 3, announced at 2006's Macworld Conference & Expo, includes a 'podcast studio', including the ability to use more than 200 effects and jingles, and integration with iChat for remote interviews. It is part of iLife '06. GarageBand 4, also known as GarageBand '08, is part of iLife '08. It incorporates the ability to record sections of a song separately, such as bridges, and chorus lines. Additionally, it provides support for the automation of tempos and instruments, the creation, and exportation of iPhone ringtones, and a "Magic GarageBand" feature which includes a virtual jam session with a complete 3D view of the Electric instruments. GarageBand 5 is part of the iLife '09 package. It includes music instruction and allows the user to buy instructional videos by contemporary artists. It also contains new features for electric guitar players, including a dedicated 3D Electric Guitar Track containing a virtual stompbox pedalboard, and virtual amplifiers with spring reverb and tremolo. GarageBand 5 also includes a redesigned user interface as well as Project Templates. GarageBand 6, also known as GarageBand '11, is part of the iLife '11 package, which Apple released on October 20, 2010. This version brings new features such as Flex Time, a tool to adjust the rhythm of a recording. It also includes the ability to match the tempo of one track with another instantly, additional guitar amps and stompboxes, 22 new lessons for guitar and piano, and "How Did I Play?", a tool to measure the accuracy and progress of a piano or guitar performance in a lesson. Apple released GarageBand 10 along with OS X 10.9 Mavericks in October 2013. This version has lost Magic GarageBand and the podcast functionality. Apple updated GarageBand 10 for Mac on March 20, 2014. Version 10.0.2 adds the ability to export tracks in MP3 format as well as a new drummer module, but removed support for podcasting; users with podcast files created in GarageBand 6 can continue to edit them using the older version. GarageBand was updated to version 10.0.3 on October 16, 2014. This version adds a dedicated Bass Amp Designer, global track effects and dynamic track resizing. Apple released GarageBand 10.2 on June 5, 2017. Features Audio recording GarageBand is a digital audio workstation (DAW) and music sequencer that can record and play back multiple tracks of audio. Built-in audio filters that use the AU (audio unit) standard allow the user to enhance the audio track with various effects, including reverb, echo, and distortion amongst others. GarageBand also offers the ability to record at both 16-bit and 24-bit Audio Resolution, but at a fixed sample rate of 44.1 kHz. An included tuning system helps with pitch correction and can effectively imitate the Auto-Tune effect when tuned to the maximum level. It also has a large array of preset effects to choose from, with an option to create your own effects. Virtual software instruments GarageBand includes a large selection of realistic, sampled instruments and software modeled synthesizers. These can be used to create original compositions or play music live through the use of a USB MIDI keyboard connected to the computer. An on-screen virtual keyboard is also available as well as using a standard QWERTY keyboard with the "musical typing" feature. The synthesizers were broken into two groups: [virtual] analog and digital. Each synthesizer has a wide variety of adjustable parameters, including richness, glide, cut off, standard attack, decay, sustain, and release; these allow for a wide array of sound creation. The five synth thumbnails are the ARP 2600, the Minimoog, the Waldorf Wave, the Nord Lead 1 and the Yamaha DX7. Guitar features In addition to the standard tracks, Garageband allows for guitar-specific tracks that can use a variety of simulated amplifiers, stompboxes, and effects processors. These imitate popular hardware from companies including Marshall Amplification, Orange Music Electronic Company, and Fender Musical Instruments Corporation. Up to five simulated effects can be layered on top of the virtual amplifiers, which feature adjustable parameters including tone, reverb, and volume. Guitars can be connected to Macs using the built-in input (requires hardware that can produce a standard stereo signal using a 3.5mm output) or a USB interface. MIDI editing GarageBand can import MIDI files and offers piano roll or notation-style editing and playback. By complying with the MIDI Standard, a user can edit many different aspects of a recorded note, including pitch, velocity, and duration. Pitch was settable to 1/128 of a semitone, on a scale of 0–127 (sometimes described on a scale of 1–128 for clarity). Velocity, which determines amplitude (volume), can be set and adjusted on a scale of 0–127. Note duration can be adjusted manually via the piano roll or in the score view. Note rhythms can be played via the software instruments, or created in the piano roll environment; rhythm correction is also included to lock notes to any time signature subdivision. GarageBand also offers global editing capabilities to MIDI information with Enhanced Timing, also known as Quantizing. While offering comprehensive control over MIDI files, GarageBand does not include several features of professional-level DAWs, such as a sequencer for drum tracks separate from the normal piano roll. However, many of these shortcomings have been addressed with each successive release of GarageBand. Also of note, MIDI sequences edited or created in GarageBand cannot be exported to other DAWs or programs without first being converted to audio. A MIDI file can be extracted from a loop file created from a region, but this is not a general MIDI export facility, using manual steps and an open-source program. Music lessons A new feature included with GarageBand '09 and later is the ability to download pre-recorded music lessons from GarageBand's Lesson Store for guitar and piano. There are two types of lessons available in the Lesson Store: Basic Lessons, which are a free download, and Artist Lessons, which a user must purchase. The first Basic Lessons for both guitar and piano are included with GarageBand. In GarageBand 10, many sounds (aka patches, which Apple refers to as 'audio units') that are listed within the sound library are dimmed and unusable until the user pays an additional fee that allows the utilization of those sounds, bundled with the guitar and piano lessons. Attempting to click on and select the dimmed audio units to apply to the track causes promotional prompts to appear, requiring the user to log on with their Apple ID and furnish credit card information before knowing the price of the bundle. In both types of lessons, a music teacher presents the lesson, which is in a special format offering high-quality video and audio instructions. The lessons include a virtual guitar or piano, which demonstrates finger position and a musical notation area to show the correct musical notations. The music examples used in these lessons feature popular music. In an Artist Lesson the music teacher is the actual musician/songwriter who composed the song being taught in the lesson. the artists featured are: Sting (The Police) — "Roxanne", "Message in a Bottle", "Fragile" Sarah McLachlan — "Angel" Patrick Stump of Fall Out Boy — "I Don't Care", "Sugar, We're Goin' Down" Norah Jones — "Thinking About You" Colbie Caillat — "Bubbly" Sara Bareilles — "Love Song" John Fogerty (Creedence Clearwater Revival) — "Proud Mary", "Fortunate Son", "Centerfield" Ryan Tedder (OneRepublic) — "Apologize" Ben Folds — "Brick", "Zak and Sara" John Legend — "Ordinary People" Alex Lifeson (Rush) — "Tom Sawyer", "Limelight", "Working Man", "The Spirit of Radio". No new Artist Lessons were released in 2010, and Apple has not announced plans to release additional entries. In June 2018, the GarageBand 10.3 update made Artist Lessons free. Additional audio loops Garageband includes an extensive array of pre-made audio loops to choose from with an option to import custom sound loops and an additional loop pack that is purchasable via the App Store. All loops have an edit and effects option. The Additional Audio Loops are as follows Jam Packs Jam Packs are Apple's official add-ons for GarageBand. Each Jam Pack contains loops and software instruments grouped into certain genres and styles. The Jam Packs are as follows: GarageBand Jam Pack: Remix Tools GarageBand Jam Pack: Rhythm Section GarageBand Jam Pack: Symphony Orchestra GarageBand Jam Pack: World Music GarageBand Jam Pack: Voices There was also another GarageBand Jam Pack, initially known just as GarageBand Jam Pack, later GarageBand Jam Pack 1, which Apple discontinued in January 2006. Beginning with the release of the Remix Tools and Rhythm Section Jam Packs, each Jam Pack has been designated with a number. The release of GarageBand Jam Pack: World Music also saw a redesign in packaging. MainStage 2 MainStage 2 by Apple also includes 40 built-in instruments – including synths, vintage keyboards, and a drum machine – to use in GarageBand. It also features an interface for live performances and includes a large collection of plug-ins and sounds. Third-party instrument and Apple Loop packages In addition to Apple, many other companies today offer commercial or shareware virtual software instruments designed especially for GarageBand, and collections of Apple Loops intended for GarageBand users. GarageBand can also use any third-party software synthesizer that adheres to the Core Audio (Audio Units) standard. However, there are limitations, including that Audio Unit instruments which can respond to multiple MIDI channels or ports can be triggered only on the first channel of the first port. This means that multi-timbral instruments that contain multiple channels and respond to many MIDI channels, such as Native Instruments Kontakt and MOTU MachFive, are not ideally suited for use in GarageBand. Third-party vendors also offer extra loops for use in GarageBand. Users can also record custom loops through a microphone, via a software instrument, or by using an audio interface to connect physically a guitar or other hardware instruments to a Mac or iOS device. Sample multitrack source files In 2005, Trent Reznor from the band Nine Inch Nails released the source multitrack GarageBand files for the song "The Hand That Feeds" to allow the public to experiment with his music, and permitted prospective GarageBand users to remix the song. He also gave permission for anyone to share their personalized remix with the world. Since then, Nine Inch Nails has released several more GarageBand source files, and several other artists have also released their GarageBand files that the public could use to experiment. New Zealand band Evermore also released the source multi-track files for GarageBand for their song "Never Let You Go". Ben Folds released Stems & Seeds, a special version of his 2008 album Way to Normal. Stems and Seeds contained a remastered version of Way to Normal, and a separate disc containing GarageBand files for each track from the album to allow fans to remix the songs. Limitations A lack of MIDI-out capability limits the use of external MIDI instruments. There is also only limited support for messages sent from knobs on MIDI keyboards, as only real-time pitch bend, modulation, sustain, and foot control are recognizable. However, since GarageBand '08, other parameters affected by MIDI knobs can be automated later, per-track. GarageBand has no functions for changing time signature mid-song though the software does now allow a tempo track to automate tempo changes. Other than pitch bend, GarageBand is limited to the pitches and intervals of standard 12-tone equal temperament, so it does not natively support xenharmonic music. Logic Pro supports many different tunings. GarageBand does not support different tunings however, audio units which support micro tuning (using .scl or .tun files, or some other method) can be employed in GarageBand to produce alternative pitches. Before GarageBand 10, there was no export option, and the only option was to save files as .band or export to iTunes. There is no built-in MIDI export feature, although regions can be manually exported as loops and converted to MIDI files. GarageBand for iOS On March 2, 2011, Apple announced a version of GarageBand for the iPad. It has many features similar to the macOS version. Music can be created using the on-screen instruments, which include keyboards, drums, a sampler, and various "smart instruments". It also acts as a multitrack recording studio with Stompbox effects and guitar amps. Songs can be emailed or sent to an iTunes Library. Additionally, projects can be imported to GarageBand for macOS, where they are further editable. This feature also allows instruments from the iOS platform to be savable to software instrument library on the Mac. However projects created in the macOS version cannot be opened in the iOS version. The app is compatible with iPhone 3GS or higher, the third generation iPod Touch or higher, and all versions of the iPad, including the iPad Mini. The app, with all instruments included, was available for $6.99 from the Apple App Store. In 2017, it was made free. Instruments GarageBand comes with a wide range of different instruments for the user to use. All non-drum instruments (with the exception of the koto) come with the functionality to limit the note selection to different musical scales. Keyboard The keyboard is set up like a standard keyboard, and features several keyboard instruments, including grand piano, electric piano, various organs, clavinet, synth leads, synth pads, and bass synths. It also has many different non-keyboard instrument sounds including versions of many of the other instruments, for example users can use the keyboard to play guitar, bass and string sounds. In version 2.2, the Alchemy Synth synth engine from Logic Pro was also added to the keyboard. The keyboard has several additional features including a pitch bend, arpeggiator and "autoplay" function (which will play one of 4 rhythms for each instrument). Many of the instruments have adjustable parameters such as Attack, Cutoff and Resonance. Prior to version 2.2 there was also a separate "Smart Keyboard" instrument which was arranged like the other smart instruments, allowing the user to play chords on a limited selection of keyboard instruments (piano, electric piano, organ, clavinet, and four adjustable synthesizers). This functionality has since been integrated into the main keyboard instrument in version 2.2 with the new "Chord Strips" that allow the user to access the layout from the Smart Keyboard using any keyboard instrument. Drums There are three different kinds of drum instruments in GarageBand. The touch drums instrument includes by default 7 acoustic drum kits with a realistic drum kit layout, and 12 electronic drum kits (including Hip Hop drums, House drums, and drum kits with Roland TR-808 and 909 samples). The electronic kits are set up like drum machines with customizable sounds that can be saved as separate drum kits. The Chinese Kit was later added in version which included genuine Chinese sounds like the gong. The "Smart Drums" instrument allows the arranging of drum sounds on a grid by complexity and volume. It contains a selection of six drums (Classic Studio Kit, Live Rock Kit, Vintage Kit, Classic Drum Machine, Hip Hop Drum Machine, and House Drum Machine). The "Beat Sequencer" involves the placement of steps to form a beat pattern. There are many pre-sets patterns to choose from and users can customise aspects of the pattern such as note velocity and probability. Smart Guitar GarageBand includes 5 guitars: an acoustic guitar, three electric guitars, and a distortion guitar. Each guitar (except for the acoustic one) has two optional sound boxes. The instrument is set up with two different modes. The first is set up like the Chord Strips, where multiple chords are playable. Each note in a chord can also be played separately, or muted by holding the left side of the string. This mode includes an autoplay feature which will play one of 4 different rhythms depending on which guitar is chosen. Smart Bass The bass instrument is set up like the guitar, where four strings can play various notes. However, the bass cannot play chords. Included are three electric basses, an acoustic orchestral bass, and four customizable synth basses. Like the smart keyboard and smart guitars, there is an "autoplay" feature. Smart Strings Smart Strings were added in version 1.2 and consist of a string section made of 1st and 2nd violins, violas, cellos, and bass. They are capable of playing notes legato, staccato, and pizzicato depending on if the user swipes up and down, flicks or taps their screen respectively. The orchestra is customizable, including four different string styles (all with a different "autoplay" feature) and the option to choose which instruments to play. For example, one can play a chord made up of all the available instruments, or simply play a violin note. World World instruments were added in version 2.3 which allow the user to play traditional Chinese and Japanese instruments. The instruments available are the pipa, erhu, koto and guzheng. Drummer The Drummer was added in version 2.1 and is a virtual player who will create realistic drum grooves. There are numerous drummers to choose from in various genres. Each drummer has a unique kit, which can be an acoustic, electronic or percussion drum kit. Users can also customise the playing style of each drummer, including choosing from various preset rhythms. They can also adjust which parts of the drum kit the drummer will play, the amount of swing and if the drummer should follow the rhythm of another track. Sampler In the sampler, the user can import or record their own sound and then play it on the keyboard (it has the same interface as the keyboard instrument). After the sound has been recorded or imported, it can be modified with a various amount of tools within the sampler in order to trim or reverse the sample, loop a section of it or adjust the tuning and volume envelope of the sample. The app comes with numerous sound effects such as a dog bark, party horn and cheering already available to use in the sampler. Audio recorder The audio recorded is a standard recorder for recording and editing audio. Audio can be recorded through the device's internal microphone, a headphone microphone or external microphone connected to the device via an audio interface. After the sound has been recorded, many audio effects can be applied. The recorder comes with various presets designed for recording different sounds like Guitar, Piano or Lead vocals, all with adjustable parameters. Amp The amp is designed to be played by plugging a guitar or bass into the device and recording, but can also work with sounds from the audio recorder, included Apple Loops, and imported music files. Within it are several customizable amplifiers and stompboxes, allowing for a broad range of different sounds. External apps Third-party music apps can be used inside GarageBand in one of two ways. The Audio Unit Extensions feature allows third-party instruments and effect plug-ins to be played and used directly inside GarageBand as if they were native to the app. The Inter-App Audio functionality lets you record audio from another app into GarageBand. Sound Library The Sound Library was added in November 2017 with the 2.3.1 update and lets the user download additional free instruments, drummers and loops released as Sound Packs that are added to the app over time. Updates On November 1, 2011, Apple introduced GarageBand for iOS 1.1, adding support for the iPhone and iPod Touch, among other features. These included the ability to create custom 3/4 and 6/8 time signatures, and exporting in AAC or AIFF format. On March 7, 2012, Apple updated GarageBand to 1.2, adding support for the third-generation iPad. It introduced the new Smart Strings instrument, a string orchestra of 1st and 2nd violins, violas, celli, and bass, capable of playing notes legato, staccato, and pizzicato. Additionally, it added synthesizers to the Smart Keyboard and Smart Bass instruments. It also added a note editor that allows users to fine-tune note placement and length and the ability to upload songs to Facebook, YouTube and SoundCloud, as well as the ability to upload projects to iCloud. It also included Jam Session, a feature that enables up to 4 iPhones, iPod Touches, and/or iPads with GarageBand installed to play simultaneously. On May 1, 2012, GarageBand was updated to 1.2.1, providing minor bug fixes and stability improvements. Alongside the new iOS 6, Apple updated GarageBand to 1.3 on September 19, 2012. The update added the ability to import music from one's music library, ringtone creation, the ability to use the app in the background, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand was updated to 1.4 on March 20, 2013. The update added support for Audiobus, the ability to remove grid snapping, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand received an overhaul of design coinciding with the reveal of the iPad Air on October 22, 2013. GarageBand 2.0 features a new design to match iOS 7, an extended number of tracks per song, and new functions in the Sampler instrument. In January 2016, version 2.1 was released in which GarageBand received a new Live Loops layout that lets users create and perform music by triggering loops and adding effects in real-time. Other features in the update included the ability to add a virtual Drummer, increased maximum number of tracks up to 32, the ability to edit volume automation curves and the addition of basic EQ and compressor plug-ins. Amplifiers for bass guitars were also added. Third-party instrument apps could now be used inside GarageBand via Audio Unit Extensions. In January 2017, version 2.2 was released with a number of new features including the Alchemy Synth previously only available in Logic Pro. Audio Unit Extension compatibility was updated to also allow third-party effects apps to be used. A new Sound Library was added in November 2017 which allows users to download additional free instruments and loops released as part of Sound Packs that are added to the app over time. A new Beat Sequencer for creating drum beats was also added in this update. MIDI support was added in update 2.3.6 in September 2018. In July 2021, GarageBand released multiple new Sound Packs with loops and instruments from many producers such as Boys Noize, as well as two Remix Sessions from Dua Lipa and Lady Gaga that allow users to remix their songs. In August 2022, GarageBand released 2 Remix Sessions from Seventeen and Katy Perry. In December 2022, GarageBand released a Remix Session from Zedd. Differences from MacOS version No Music Lessons. Only three time signatures (4/4, 3/4, and 6/8). No master track. Automation is only available for volume. Live Loops layout. Audio Unit Extensions (via App Store). A Sound Library providing free, downloadable content such as additional keyboards, drum sets, and more. Limited exporting functions (As of 2.3.3, the option to export recorded projects as songs to YouTube has been removed). Availability Prior to the launch of Apple's Mac App Store, GarageBand was only available as a part of iLife, a suite of applications (also including iPhoto, iMovie, iDVD, and iWeb) intended to simplify the creation and organization of digital content, or available on a new Mac. On January 6, 2011, GarageBand was made available independently on the Mac App Store in addition to iPhoto and iMovie. Since then GarageBand's user base has increased drastically. Notable users GarageBand has been embraced by many musicians of varying levels of fame in order to record and produce music. Steve Lacy used the GarageBand app on his cracked 2012 iPhone to produce music for his solo projects, the Internet, and J. Cole. That phone is currently on display in the Smithsonian. Nine Inch Nails made their song "The Hand That Feeds" in the software, and released a link to the multitrack GarageBand file on the band's website, allowing other GarageBand users to remix the song. Musicians that have collaborated with Apple to promote GarageBand include Katy Perry, John Mayer, Dua Lipa, Billie Eilish, and Lady Gaga. Charlotte Day Wilson, Doja Cat, Ellie Rowsell (of Wolf Alice), Sloan Struble (of Dayglow), Meghan Trainor, Ethel Cain, and Awkwafina all began learning to produce and create music using GarageBand. GarageBand was also used by artists such as T-Pain; Grimes for her album Visions; Anne Clark of St. Vincent for multiple projects; Danielle Haim for Haim songs, with the song "Summer Girl" starting out as a GarageBand demo; and Jesse Rutherford for his sophomore solo album, GARAGEB&, named after the application, as he produced most of the tracks in GarageBand. In addition, Rihanna's hit "Umbrella" was born from a stock GarageBand drum track. As well, the music for the viral internet video Charlie the Unicorn was recorded in GarageBand. Supported music file formats This app supports many music formats, including AIFF, WAV, and MIDI. The app can export songs to AAC, MP3, MP4 or AIFF format. Support for 8-bit audio files was dropped in version 10. See also List of MIDI editors and sequencers List of music software References External links Garageband Alternatives MacOS audio editors Apple Inc. software IOS-based software made by Apple Inc. IOS software Music software Audio recording software

424279

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20of%20the%20Czech%20Republic

Constitution of the Czech Republic

The Constitution of the Czech Republic () is the supreme law of the Czech Republic. The current constitution was adopted by the Czech National Council on 16 December 1992. It entered into force on 1 January 1993, replacing the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia and the constitutional act No. 143/1968 Col., when Czechoslovakia gave way to the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic in a peaceful dissolution. The constitution is a constitutional act, and together with other constitutional acts constitutes the so-called constitutional order of the Czech Republic, or the constitution (with a small c). While the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms (Listina základních práv a svobod, No. 2/1993 Coll.), an equally important constitutional act, asserts human and civil rights, the Constitution is concerned with state sovereignty and territorial integrity, and defines the institutions governing the state. The Constitution is divided into a preamble and 8 chapters. The fundamental provisions are followed by long chapters on the legislative power, the executive power (the cabinet and the president), and the judicial power (the Constitutional Court and other courts), and shorter chapters on the Supreme Audit Office, the Czech National Bank, and territorial self-government, concluding with interim provisions. As of April 2013, the constitution has been amended eight times. The most important amendments are Act No. 395/2001 Coll. providing the legal framework for the accession to the EU in 2004, and Act No. 71/2011 Coll., which came into force on 1 October 2012, and provided for the election of the president by popular vote. History The federalization of Czechoslovakia At the 28th meeting of the National Assembly of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic on 27 October 1968, a bill called the Constitutional Act on the Czechoslovak Federation was introduced jointly by the Czech National Council, the Slovak National Council, and the Czechoslovak Cabinet. The bill was enacted the same day as Constitutional Act No. 143/1968 Coll. On its entry into force on 1 January 1969, it created the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic, both of them on an equal footing within the federation. The Act stipulated in article 142, paragraph 2, that both republics would in due course enact their own constitutions, and also envisaged the creation of three constitutional courts. The plan, however, was not followed through due to the onset of the period of normalization. In fact, Czechoslovakia only functioned as a federation until the enactment of Constitutional Act No. 125/1970 Coll. in December 1970. Its explanatory notes clearly and openly articulate the need for "strengthening of the structural role of the central government of the federation". This act introduced 37 direct changes and additions, which undid the original plan for federation and took away most of the powers of the federal republics. Consequently in 1970 Czechoslovakia became essentially a centrally governed country, with only prima facie attributes of a federation. The need for a new federal constitution was first announced officially at the 17th Congress of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in spring 1986. A working group fronted by Marián Čalfa was set up in 1987 to draft this, and in November 1988, a 153-strong committee of the Communist Party and the National Front was created, led by Miloš Jakeš. The constitution was expected to be enacted after the 18th Congress of the Communist Party, during the course of 1990. In its last draft, it was to be a single constitution serving both the federation and the two republics and, in contrast with its predecessor, did not include the leading role of the Communist Party, and somewhat expanded the list of basic human rights. In autumn 1989, a group of members of the Federal Assembly proposed the Constitutional Act on the Mode of Enactment of the New Constitutions of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Czech Socialist Republic, and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Despite not having seen the drafts of the constitutions themselves, on 31 October 1989, the national assemblies of both countries approved this proposal. The resolution of the Czech National Council was promulgated as Act. No. 123/1989 Coll. and the resolution of the Slovak National Council as Act No. 124/1989 Coll. These constitutional acts were intended as a prerequisite for the enactment of a single 'three-in-one' constitution, serving the federation and both republics. Through the consent of both national councils, both republics waived their entitlement to their own constitutions. However, the events of the Velvet Revolution in 1989 quickly changed everything. As early as the plenary session of the Slovak National Council on 30 November 1989, deputy Majer asked whether it would be necessary to re-enact the provision on the way of enactment together with the new constitution, or whether the resolution of the Slovak National Council from the end of October would stay intact. In its next session on 6 December 1989, the Slovak National Council had withdrawn its consent of 31 October 1989 in Resolution No. 167/1989 Coll. The Czech National Council enacted a similar provision as Resolution No. 166/1989 Coll. on 19 December 1989. Subsequently, several constitutional acts were enacted, which were supposed to pave the way towards the creation, or rather restoration of the federation. Both republics had passed constitutional acts on their symbols, and had had a number of powers devolved to them, which were hitherto vested in federal bodies. However, neither the Constitution of the federation, nor the constitutions of either of the republics had been enacted prior to the election of 1992. Preparations for the dissolution of the federation On 5 and 6 June 1992, elections were held for the Federal Assembly of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (parliament), the Czech National Council, and the Slovak National Council. In the Czech Republic, the Civic Democratic Party won the election; in its electoral programme, the party spoke of either a functional federation, or separation, although keeping the federation was the preferred option. In Slovak Republic, the winner was the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia, whose election promise was to acquire international legal subjectivity for Slovakia – although this was clearly inconsistent with the continuation of the shared state, the party convinced voters that it did not rule out the existence of the federation. The Constitution of the Slovak Republic was enacted on 1 September 1992, and came into force on 1 October 1992, three months before the dissolution of Czechoslovakia. The making of the Constitution of the Czech Republic also commenced soon after the election. Two committees were set up: a government committee, and a committee of the Presidium of the Czech National Council. The government committee was chaired by Václav Klaus; its other members were Jan Kalvoda, Cyril Svoboda, Filip Šedivý, Jiří Vlach, Vojtěch Cepl, Daniel Kroupa, Václav Benda, Václav Pečich, Jan Litomiský, Miloslav Výborný, Václav Novotný, Miroslav Sylla, Pavel Zářecký, and Dušan Hendrych. The members of the committee of the Czech National Council were Marek Benda, Jiří Bílý, Pavel Hirsch, Antonín Hrazdíra, Ivana Janů, Hana Marvanová, Ivan Mašek, Jaroslav Ortman, Jiří Payne, Anna Röschová, Vítězslav Sochor, Milan Uhde, and Jan Vik. In August 1992, it was agreed that the government committee would be entrusted with drafting the Constitution. There were several possible starting points for the new constitution. The secretary of the government committee, Cyril Svoboda, summed them up: to take the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920 as a point of departure, to rework the existing Constitution of the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, or to draft a brand new one. Svoboda, as well as several other members of the committee, were in favour of the first option, to make use of the Constitution of the First Czechoslovak Republic. One of the major obstacles seemed to be the status of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms. It had been declared a part of the legal system by Constitutional Act No. 23/1991 Coll., which required other constitutional acts to comply with it. Václav Klaus was totally opposed to the Charter in any form. In particular, he was against the wording of article 17 of the Charter, concerning a right to information (Klaus would have preferred the wording "a right to search out information" instead) and he also disagreed with the Charter granting a right to organize in trade unions, and a right to reward for work, vested in article 28. Miroslav Výborný proposed a solution to the problem, introducing the idea of the so-called constitutional order, although influential jurists (Filip, Knapp) were critical of it. Between 19 and 24 October 1992, work on the final draft of the constitution commenced in Karlovy Vary. The first few articles were taken from older drafts; the articles on executive power were penned by Miroslav and Jindřiška Syllovi. The articles on the powers of the president were written by Cyril Svoboda, those concerning the powers of the cabinet by Dušan Hendrych, and the articles on the judiciary by František Zoulík. Hendrych also drafted chapters on the Czech National Bank and the Supreme Audit Office, while Pavel Zářecký drafted chapters on territorial self-government. On 23 October 1992, three experts on constitutional law arrived to review the draft: Pavel Peška, Vladimír Klokočka and Pavel Holländer. The explanatory notes were written by Cyril Svoboda and Milena Poláková, on the weekend before it was due to be presented to prime minister Klaus. In all, four different drafts were created during the preparation of the Constitution, written respectively by the government, the Czechoslovak Social-Democratic Party, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia, and the Liberal-Social Union. Only the first of these was read in the Czech National Council. Enactment The government bill of the Constitution of the Czech Republic was read in the Czech National Council on 16 December 1992. It was introduced by Václav Klaus, the prime minister of the Czech Republic. Out of a number of changes proposed during the reading, only deputy Pavel Hirš's proposal was incorporated, returning into the bill proportional voting system for the Chamber of Deputies and two-round run-off system for the Senate. The result of the vote was announced by the chair of the Czech National Assembly, Milan Uhde: "[...] out of 198 deputies present, who registered their vote, 16 were against, 10 abstained, and by 172 votes in its support, the Constitution of the Czech Republic has been enacted." Characteristics The Constitution of the Czech Republic is a written constitution, having been promulgated in the official journal, the Collection of Laws. With reference to the provision of the article 39, paragraph 4 of the Constitution, which states that "for the enactment of a constitutional act, 3/5 of all deputies must agree, and 3/5 of senators present", changing the constitution is a more difficult procedure than changing an ordinary statute, making it an entrenched constitution in the typology of constitutions. Despite the tradition of entrenched constitutions throughout Czech history, some voiced the opinion, during the preparation of the Constitution of the Czech Republic, that this one should be flexible. With regard to Karl Loewenstein's ontological classification of constitutions, the Czech Constitution can be characterized as normative. The political process is carried out by the rules set out in it. High level of correspondence between the constitution and reality also makes it a real constitution. Despite being heavily influenced by the Czechoslovak Constitutional Charter of 1920, the Czech Constitution is an original one. It has been agreed on through a political process. The content of the Constitution Preamble Most of the preamble was written by Václav Havel and edited by Milan Uhde. The text recalls the history of Czech statehood and goes on to declare the basic values of the state, mentioning democracy and, thanks to Havel, the "civic society". Chapter One – Fundamental provisions The fundamental principles The provisions of article 1 of the Constitution enshrine fundamental principles of the whole constitutional system of the Czech Republic. It defines the state as a republic, as sovereign, unitary and democratic Rechtsstaat (state characterized by the rule of law) based on respect to rights and freedoms of the citizen and man. The word "sovereign" means that the Czech Republic is fully capable of holding rights and carrying out legal acts, and is a full subject of international law, independent of any other power. Such sovereignty may, however, be voluntarily limited by membership in an international organisation (this is the so-called shared or pooled sovereignty), as is the case with the Czech Republic and the European Union. The term "unitary" makes it clear that the state is not a federation or confederation. The definition of the Czech Republic as a democratic Rechtsstaat stresses the combination of the two principles, democracy and the rule of law. To modify either of these two is forbidden by article 9 of the Constitution. The term Rechtsstaat should not be understood merely formally, but substantively. The Constitutional Court confirmed this in its adjudications. As early as December 1993, it ruled: "The Constitution accepts and respects the principle of legality as a part of the overall concept of a Rechtsstaat; it does not merely link positive law to formal legality, it also subordinates the construction and application of legal norms to the substantive meaning of their content; it makes it a premise of law that it respects basic constitutive values of democratic society, and measures the application of legal norms by these values." The statement that the Czech Republic is a state "based on respecting the rights and freedoms of man and citizen" defines the purpose of the state, which is binding for the government. This is closely related to the provision of article 3, pronouncing the Charter a part of the constitutional order, and article 9, forbidding everyone, including those legislating constitutional acts, to change the fundamental requisites of the democratic Rechtsstaat. The second paragraph, added to the Constitution in the Euro-amendment, adopts the basic principle of international law, to honestly fulfill all international obligations. From this article, a duty arises for the government, namely the legislature, not to enact laws which would impede compliance with international legal obligations. As a part of the application of international legal norms, the case law of international judicial institutions responsible for application of such norms must be taken into account. Government In his 1863 Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln spoke of three features of democracy: "government of the people, by the people, for the people". Government of the people is enshrined in article 2 paragraph 1 of the Constitution, which postulates the sovereignty of the people, and the division of government into executive power, legislative power, and judicial power. The sovereignty of the people is not a legal principle, but a political principle – it means that it is the people, who have the right to create the system of values, institutions, and procedures, through which the state is governed. No government body can exist unless it derived its legitimacy from the people, directly or indirectly. Paragraph 2 makes it possible for future enactment of a constitutional act that would introduce some institutions of direct democracy, namely via referendum. The Cabinet's draft of the Constitution did not contain such a provision, as the Civic Democratic Party and the Civic Democratic Alliance were opposed to referendums. In the end, it did find its way into the Constitution with support from some social democratic deputies, and at the insistence of Václav Havel. Although several drafts of a constitutional act on referendum had been prepared since the enactment of the Constitution, the only nationwide referendum conducted so far was the referendum on the accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union. Paragraphs 3 and 4 embody the principle of enumerated powers and the silence of law principle. The principle of enumerated powers requires that the power of the state can only be applied in such cases, within such boundaries, and by such means, as is stipulated by law. The silence of law principle, in contrast, states that everyone may do everything law does not prohibit, and is not required to do anything, unless it is imposed on him by law. This provision is similar to article 2 of the Charter. Where the constitution talks of "every citizen", the Charter widens its to "everyone". The Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms Article 3, incorporating the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms into the constitutional order of the Czech Republic, is not a provision typical for a constitution. It was not before December 1992 that it was incorporated into the Constitution, based on political deal. While the government's draft at first did not contain any reference to the Charter, future drafts at least mentioned it in interim and final provisions, which was considered inadequate to its importance. In the end, all committees of the Czech National Council proposed in December 1992 that a reference to the Charter be incorporated into the first section of the Constitution. The Charter, hitherto part of Constitutional Act 23/1991 Coll., was disconnected from it and newly enacted in an extraordinary resolution of the Presidium of the Czech National Council, and published as No. 2/1993, Coll. This has later been used to question the normative nature of the Charter. Similar reference to a statute regulating fundamental rights and freedoms was also enshrined in Austria's December Constitution (Dezemberverfassung) of 1867 and the second interim constitution of the Czechoslovak Republic (No. 37/1918 Coll. and following). Judicial protection Article 4 states that fundamental rights and freedoms are subject to judicial protection. These rights are not limited to those enshrined in the Charter, but also includes those in other constitutional regulations and international treaties. Political system and political decision-making The political system of the Czech Republic is defined in article 5, which also ascribes irreplaceable role to political parties. Article 6 is dedicated to political decision-making, enshrining the principles of majority rule coupled with the protection of minorities. Protection of nature Article 7 enshrining the protection of nature was not a part of the Cabinet's draft of the Constitution. It was written by Václav Havel, convinced that there should be an "environmental paragraph" in the Constitution. In the upshot, only a curtailed version of Havel's proposal made it into the Constitution. Territorial self-government Article 8 is a basic provision granting the principle of territorial self-government. Such a provision is indispensable, as it is a substantial constitutive feature of democratic 'rechsstaat', as well as a requirement of the European Charter of Local Self-Government. Territorial self-government is further detailed in articles 99–105. Modification of the Constitution and the eternity clause There are three basic rules laid out in article 9, stating that the Constitution can only be changed by a Constitutional Act (par. 1), that not even such a change can remove or disrupt the substantive core of the Constitution (par. 3), and that not even construction or interpretation of legal regulations can remove or disrupt this core (par. 3). The second paragraph, stating that changing substantial features of a democratic state is not admissible, is what is known as entrenched substantive core of the Constitution. Historically, such entrenchment clause first appeared in the first Constitution of the French Republic of August 1804, stating that republican form of government can not be revised. Identical construction is in the current Constitution of France. Another important historical instance of entrenched clause in a constitution was enshrined in the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany of 1949, in reaction to development of 1919–1945. Firstly, it states that the Basic Law can only be changed by a statute that explicitly modifies or amends the wording of the Basic Law. Secondly, it contains a provision, which sets the substantive core beyond the reach of powers of the constitution-maker. This is called imperative of unchangeability or eternity clause. Unlike its Czech counterpart, the eternity clause (Ewigkeitsklausul) of the German Basic Law does specify, what its substantive core is: the subdivision of the federation into states, the states' powers in lawmaking, the dignity of a human, the principles of a democratic social state, the sovereignty of the people, the division of powers, the limitation of government by law, and the right to resist. International treaties Article 10 of the Constitution embeds key provisions in relation to incorporation of international law into domestic law. Until the 'Euro-amendment' came into effect, it bestowed legal power akin to constitutional order onto international treaties on human rights and fundamental freedoms. The amendment has extended the treaties this applies to, and also granted them priority of application. Transfer of powers onto international organizations Articles 10a and 10b have been added into the Constitution by the 'Euro-amendment' in reaction to the accession of the Czech Republic to the EU. Article 10a set the condition on the transfer of powers on an international organization or institution. Article 10b stipulates that regarding issues obligations arising from such a membership, it is a duty of the Cabinet to inform the Parliament, and a right of the chambers of the Parliament to give their opinion. Territorial integrity Constitutional grounds for defining what is Czech national territory are article 11, also stipulates that a constitutional act is necessary to modify Czech Republic's national borders. Czech citizenship Article 12 sets rules about the acquisition and loss of Czech citizenship. In 2007, a bill of a constitutional act on citizenship was drafted, which said explicitly that there was no legal claim to being granted Czech citizenship. This was likely an attempt to overcome case law of the Supreme Administrative Court, which has adjudicated that there is a right to Czech citizenship. The capital and symbols of the state Prague is declared the capital in article 13. While details are left to a statute, article 14 lists the symbols of the Czech Republic: the coat of arms, the official colours, the national flag, the flag of the president, the official seal and the national anthem. Chapter Two – Legislative power The Parliament, its chambers and members Chapter two vests legislative and constitution-making power in the Czech Parliament. Article 15 stipulates that legislative power belongs to the Parliament, consisting of two chambers, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. Article 16 says that the Chamber of Deputies has 200 members elected for a four-year term (the election is based upon proportional system representation), while the Senate has 81 members elected for 6 years (the election is based upon majority system), election being held every two year to select one third of them. Article 17 specifies election schedule. Article 18 regulates active suffrage, or the right to be elected, and the election process. Chapter Three It provides for the ways in which specific executive powers shall be delineated between the President of the Republic and the government (as headed by the Prime Minister). The chapter also outlines the nature of the direct election of the President by the public as well as the limitations of presidential power in selecting a government. (Articles 54–80). Chapter Four In article 81, the Constitution states that the judicial power shall be carried out in the name of the republic by courts of law, independent on the legislature and the executive. The in the name of republic formula contained here is also quoted in each substantive ruling of a Czech court. Article 82 lays out the requirement of independence and impartiality of judges, and in effect of all the decision by the judiciary. Articles 83–89 is dedicated to the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic and states, that it is only to be governed by the constitution. Limiting its powers by a regular statute, for example, is out of question. The 15 judges, nominated by the Senate and named by the president for the period of 10 years, are granted immunity akin to the one members of parliament enjoy. Articles 90–96 describe the court system, comprising the Supreme Court of the Czech Republic, the Supreme Administrative Court, high courts, regional courts, and district courts. Chapter Five The constitution establishes The Supreme Control Office (Article 97). Chapter Six In article 98, the constitution establishes the position and competences of the Czech National Bank (CNB). It assign the CNB the role of central bank, with the primary purpose of maintaining price stability. External interventions into its activities must be permitted by law. It was the then-governor of the national bank Josef Tošovský, who requested that the bank's position be incorporated into the Constitution. As the lawyers drafting the document could not find a way of placing it within the three powers, the bank was given its own chapter. Chapter Seven The constitution provides the basis for local government, by dividing the territory of the republic into self-governing territorial districts, and regions (Articles 99–105). Chapter Eight The document concludes by weighing in on a number of so-called 'interim' issues which mainly applied to the Republic in its first year of existence. Chiefly, it specifically delineates what officers or laws of the former Czech government as a constituent part of the Czechoslovak Federal Republic remained in force until the Czech Republic produced new officeholders or laws under the provisions found elsewhere in the constitution. Of the provisions of this chapter, by far the most lasting has been Article 112 (1), which made the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms (1991) a part of the constitution. This move has commonality with the way in which the Bill of Rights was quickly annexed to the US constitution, granting Czech citizens specific personal rights that would be extremely difficult for a future Czech government to abrogate (Articles 106–113). Amending the Constitution Overall development Stability has always been a characteristic of constitutional law of the Czech Republic and Czechoslovakia, and their constitutions (the sum of all constitutional acts). Since the Constitution came into force, it has only been modified a few times, and the amendments did not have a major impact on the Czech constitutional system. Higher territorial self-governing units The first Act of Parliament modifying the Constitution was Constitutional Act No. 347/1997 Coll, on the Creation of Higher Self-Governing Units and Amending Constitutional Act of the Czech National Assembly No. 1/1993 Coll., the Constitution of the Czech Republic. It created higher territorial self-governing units, as assumed by Article 100 paragraph 3 of the Constitution. NATO The wording of the Constitution was further changed by Constitutional Act No. 300/2000 Coll., relating to accession of the Czech Republic into the North Atlantic Alliance in 1999. The act changed provisions of the Constitution on matters such as deployment of armed forces, stay of allied armed forces on the territory of the Czech Republic, participation of the country in the defence systems of international organisations, and division of powers between the cabinet and the Parliament in such matters. The Czech National Bank Another modification to the Constitution brought Constitutional Act No. 448/2001 Coll. The Cabinet has prepared an amendment of the constitution in February 2000, but this has been this rejected by the Chamber of Deputies in second reading. Part of the bill proposed the change of article 98 of the Constitution, in preparation for the new wording of Act No. 6/1993 Coll. on the Czech National Bank. As a result of the rejection by the legislature, the Act on the Czech National bank became incompatible with the Constitution. The new wording of the Act, which entailed the necessity to modify the constitution, has become a necessity as a consequence and a requirement of the Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community and the Protocol on the Statute of the European System of Central Banks and the European Central Bank, attached to this treaty. A new bill has been drafted, limited to a technicality – replacing "the stability of currency" by "the stability of prices" in article 98. The Euro-amendment Passed on 18 October 2001, the so-called 'Euro-amendment', was a rather important change to the Constitution. Having entered into effect on 1 June 2002, Act No. 395/2001 Coll. added paragraph 2 into article 1, stating that the country abides by obligations arising from international law. It changed article 10, hitherto ascribing high legal force only to international treaties on basic human rights and freedoms, broadening it to grant this higher legal force to all promulgated international treaties, which the Parliament agreed to ratify. Articles 10a and 10b have been added, providing guidelines on the conditions of transfer of powers to an international organisation or organisations. With respect to obligations arising from the membership in such a body, the Cabinet has the duty to inform the Parliament, and both chambers of the Parliament have the right to give their opinion. Several other articles have been changed, including the list of laws that are binding for a judge of the Constitutional Court. The referendum on the accession to the EU The opposition of a part of the political class towards the introduction of features of direct democracy was the reason, for a one-off provision to have been incorporated into the Constitution, for the referendum on the accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union, published as Constitutional Act No. 515/2002 Coll. Self-dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies Constitutional Act No. 319/2009 Coll. has in essence been prepared back in 2001 by the standing committee of the Senate for the Constitution of the Czech Republic and parliamentary procedures. The Act has introduced the possibility of self-dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies, in reaction to a previous ruling by the Constitutional Court, which had annulled the Constitutional Act on the Shortening of the Fifth Electoral Term of the Chamber of Deputies. At the same time, the Act fixed a loophole in the Constitution, which had not foreseen and provided for the situation, when the president would not be able to call elections. Direct election of the president In June 2011, the government introduced into the chamber of deputies a bill of a constitutional act, providing for president to be elected by popular vote. The bill has been approved by the Chamber of Deputies in December 2011 and by the Senate in February 2012. Until the new Constitutional Act No. 71/2012 Coll. entered into force on 1 October 2012, president was elected at a joint session of both Chambers of the Parliament. The election was supposed to take place within 30 days before the incumbent president's term of office ended, or 30 days after, in case it ended prematurely. The powers of president have been modified too. To order that a criminal procedure must not be commenced, or, had it been commenced, that it not be continued, the president now needs co-action of the government. While the general entry into force of the Act has been fixed in advance for the coming presidential election, for the part of the Act regarding the liability of president for high treason, and the condition for bringing a constitutional action against the president by the Senate, a later date has been set, 8 March 2013. See also Principle of legality in French criminal law External links Constitution of the Czech Republic Ústava České republiky Government of the Czech Republic 1992 in law 1990s in the Czech Republic 1992 in politics 1992 documents

424296

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Cade%27s%20Rebellion

Jack Cade's Rebellion

Jack Cade's Rebellion was a popular revolt in 1450 against the government of England, which took place in the south-east of the country between the months of April and July. It stemmed from local grievances regarding the corruption, maladministration and abuse of power of the king's closest advisors and local officials, as well as recent military losses in France during the Hundred Years' War. Leading an army of men from south-eastern England, the rebellion's leader Jack Cade marched on London in order to force the government to reform the administration and remove from power the "traitors" deemed responsible for bad governance. Apart from the Cornish rebellion of 1497, it was the largest popular uprising to take place in England during the 15th century. Despite Cade's attempt to keep his men under control, once the rebel forces had entered London they began to loot. The citizens of London turned on the rebels and forced them out of the city in a bloody battle on London Bridge. To end the bloodshed the rebels were issued pardons by the king and told to return home. Cade fled but was later caught on 12 July 1450 by Alexander Iden, a future High Sheriff of Kent. As a result of the skirmish with Iden, the mortally wounded Cade died before reaching London for trial. The Jack Cade Rebellion has been perceived as a reflection of the social, political, and economic issues of the time period and as a precursor to the Wars of the Roses which saw the decline of the Lancaster dynasty and the rise of the House of York. Identity Very little is known about the identity and origins of Jack (possibly John) Cade. Given that the rebel leader did not leave behind any personal documents, and the use of aliases was common among rebels, historians are forced to base their claims on rumour and speculation. According to Mark Antony Lower, Jack (or John) Cade was probably born in Sussex between 1420 and 1430 and historians agree for certain that he was a member of the lower ranks of society. During the rebellion of 1450, Cade took on the title of "Captain of Kent" and adopted the alias "John Mortimer". The name "Mortimer" had negative connotations for King Henry VI and his associates because Henry's main rival for the throne of England was Richard, Duke of York, who had Mortimer ancestry on his mother's side. The possibility that Cade may have been working with York was enough to prompt the king into moving against the rebels without delay. At the time of the rebellion the Duke of York was out of the country serving as Lieutenant of Ireland. To date, no evidence has been found indicating that he was involved in funding or inciting the uprising. It is more likely that Cade used the name "Mortimer" as propaganda to give his cause more legitimacy. When the rebels were issued a pardon on 7 July 1450, Cade was issued a pardon under the name "Mortimer", but once it was discovered that he had lied about his identity, the pardon was rendered void. Among his followers, Cade's dedication to having the people's complaints heard and restoring order within both local and central governments earned him the nickname "John Mend-all" or "John Amend-all". It is not known whether Cade himself chose the name or not. One tale of the time claimed that Cade was the doctor John Alymere who was married to the daughter of a squire in Surrey. Another rumour suggested that he enjoyed dabbling in the dark arts and had once worked for Sir Tomas Dacres before fleeing the country after murdering a pregnant woman. Origins of the Jack Cade Rebellion In the years preceding the Jack Cade Rebellion, England suffered from both internal and external difficulties and the animosity of the lower classes toward Henry VI was on the rise. Years of war against France had caused the country to go into debt and the recent loss of Normandy caused morale to decline and led to a widespread fear of invasion. Already the coastal regions of England such as Kent and Sussex were seeing attacks by Norman soldiers and French armies. Ill-equipped by the government, English soldiers took to raiding towns along the route to France with their victims receiving no compensation. Henry's call to set warning beacons along the coastline confirmed peoples' suspicions that an attack by the French was possible. These fears and continuous unrest in the coastal counties inspired many Englishmen to rally in an attempt to force the King to address their problems or abdicate his throne in favour of someone more competent. At court the different opinions on how England should proceed in the war with France led to party divisions. Henry favoured peace while his uncle the Duke of Gloucester and other nobles felt England should continue to fight for England's claim to the French throne. Internecine fighting in court eventually led to the banishment of the king's closest friend and advisor William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. To add to England's troubles many believed that the king had surrounded himself with advisors who were ineffective and corrupt. At the heart of the corruption scandal was the Duke of Suffolk. When the duke's body washed up on the shores of Dover the people of Kent feared retaliation. Rumours emerged claiming that the king intended to turn Kent into a Royal forest in retaliation for the duke's death. Tired of the exploitation that the Duke of Suffolk had come to represent, the commons of Kent led by Jack Cade marched on London. It is estimated that about 5,000 people took part in the uprising. In the spring of 1450, Cade organised the creation and distribution of a manifesto entitled The Complaint of the Poor Commons of Kent. The manifesto represented not only the grievances of the people but of several MPs, lords and magnates as well. The document included a list of fifteen complaints and five demands to be brought before the king for scrutiny and dictated the causes of the revolt. The first issue to be addressed was that Cade's followers from Kent were being unjustly blamed for the death of the Duke of Suffolk. Despite the well-known anger of the peasants towards the Duke, the Bill of Complaints dismissed the idea that the rebels were responsible. In addition the rebels called for inquiries into cases of corruption within local and national governments and for the removal of corrupt high officials. Cade's list of complaints goes on to charge King Henry with injustice for not choosing to impeach his underlings and lords even though they were guilty of treasonous and unlawful acts. The king's counselors and officials were accused of rigging elections, extortion, manipulating the king for their own gains and using their close position to the king to oppress those below them. Besides the Duke of Suffolk, the rebels explicitly called out Lord Saye and officials Crowmer, Isley, St Leger and Est for extortion. Affiliates of Suffolk, Lord Saye and his son-in-law Crowmer held prominent positions within the king's household and in the local administration of Kent. Both had served several terms as High Sheriffs of Kent and as members of the king's council. Furthermore, in 1449, Saye was appointed to the prestigious office of Lord High Treasurer. Isley and St Leger also served as Sheriffs and MPs in the county of Kent. When the king failed to remedy their grievances the rebels marched on London. Rebellion In May 1450, the rebels began to join together in an organised fashion and began to move towards London. Cade sent out delegates to the surrounding counties to elicit aid and additional men. By early June more than 5,000 men had assembled at Blackheath, south-east of the City of London. They were mostly peasants but their numbers were swelled by shopkeepers, craftsmen, and some landowners (the list of pardoned shows the presence of one knight, two MPs, and eighteen squires). Several soldiers and sailors returning via Kent from the French wars also joined in the fray. Hoping to disperse the rebellion before any real damage could be done, the king sent a small host of his royal contingents to quell the rebellion. The royal forces were led by Sir Humphrey Stafford (d.1450), of Grafton in the parish of Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, and his second cousin William Stafford (d.1450), of Southwick, Wiltshire (father of Humphrey Stafford, 1st Earl of Devon). The royal forces underestimated the rebels' strength and were led into an ambush at Sevenoaks. In the skirmish on 18 June 1450, the two Stafford cousins were killed. Cade took the expensive clothing and armour of Sir Humphrey as his own. On 28 June, William Ayscough, the unpopular Bishop of Salisbury, was murdered by a mob in Wiltshire. William Ayscough had been the king's personal confessor and his position next to the king had allowed him to become one of the most powerful men in the country. Afraid that he might meet the same fate and shocked by the rebels' military ability, the king sought refuge in Warwickshire. Gaining confidence through their victory the rebels advanced to Southwark, at the southern end of London Bridge. Cade set up headquarters in The White Hart inn before crossing the bridge and entering the city with his followers on 3 July 1450. To prevent any infringement on his comings and goings within the city Cade cut the ropes on the bridge so that they could not be raised against him. Upon entering London, Cade stopped at the London Stone. He struck the stone with his sword and declared himself Lord Mayor in the traditional manner. By striking the stone, Cade had symbolically reclaimed the country for the Mortimers to whom he claimed to be related. Once inside the city's gates, Cade and his men initiated a series of tribunals dedicated to seeking out and convicting those accused of corruption. At Guildhall on 4 July, James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele, the Lord High Treasurer, was brought in for a sham trial. Upon being found guilty of treason he was taken to Cheapside and beheaded. Fiennes' son-in-law William Crowmer (son of William Cromer, a former Sheriff of London, MP and twice Lord Mayor of London) was also executed by the rebels. The heads of the two men were put on pikes and unceremoniously paraded through the streets of London while their bearers pushed them together so that they appeared to kiss. Their heads were then affixed to London Bridge. Despite Cade's frequent assurances that his followers would maintain a proper and orderly demeanour, as the rebel host made its way through the city many of the rebels, including Cade himself, began to engage in looting and drunken behaviour. Gradually Cade's inability to control his followers alienated the initially sympathetic citizens of London, who eventually turned against the rebels. When, on 7 July, Cade's army returned over the bridge to Southwark for the night, the London officials closed the bridge to prevent Cade from re-entering the city. The next day, on 8 July, at about ten in the evening, a battle erupted on London Bridge between Cade's army and various citizens and officials of London. The battle lasted until eight the next morning, when the rebels retreated with heavy casualties. One writer estimated that at least 40 Londoners and 200 rebels were killed at the battle. Cade's fall After the battle on London Bridge, Archbishop John Kemp (Lord Chancellor) persuaded Cade to call off his followers by issuing official pardons, and promising to fulfil the rebel's demands. Although King Henry VI had issued pardons to Cade and his followers, a proclamation written by the King shortly after the rebellion voided all previously issued pardons. The document was entitled "Writ and Proclamation by the King for the Taking of Cade". In the document the King claimed that he revoked the previous pardons because they had not been created or approved by the Parliament. In the proclamation Cade was charged with deceiving the people of England to assemble with him in his rebellion and stated that none of the King's subjects should join Cade or help him in any way. A reward of 1000 marks was promised to whoever could capture and deliver Jack Cade to the king, dead or alive. Cade fled towards Lewes but on 12 July, in a garden in which he had taken shelter, was overtaken by Alexander Iden (eventual second husband of the murdered William Cromer's widow Elizabeth Fiennes, and a future High Sheriff of Kent). In the skirmish, Cade was fatally wounded and died before reaching London for trial. As a warning to others, Cade's body underwent a mock trial and was beheaded at Newgate. Cade's body was dragged through the streets of London before being quartered. His limbs were sent throughout Kent to various cities and locations that were believed to have been strong supporters of the rebel uprising. Aftermath To prevent further uprisings, Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham was given permission from the king to seek out the remainder of Cade's followers and bring them to trial. The search took place in and around areas where support for the uprising was felt to be the strongest—Blackheath, Canterbury and the coastal areas of Faversham and the Isle of Sheppey. The inquiries by bishops and justices were so thorough that in Canterbury (the first area searched by the royal commission) eight followers were quickly found and hanged. Although the Jack Cade Rebellion was quickly dispersed after Cade's death, the royal commission failed to rid England of the feeling of rebellion. Inspired by Cade and his rebellion many other counties in England revolted. In Sussex the yeomen brothers John and William Merfold organised their own rebellion against King Henry VI. Unlike Cade's revolt the men of Sussex were more radical and aggressive in their demands for reform. It is possible the animosity felt by the men of Sussex had arisen in part because the king had revoked the pardons issued to Cade and his followers. An indictment following the Sussex rebellion accused the rebels of wanting to kill the king and all his Lords, replacing them with twelve of the rioters' own men. The rebellions in Sussex did not achieve the same following as that of Cade's. While the minor rebellions inspired by Cade's rebellion did not produce a large number of deaths or immediate changes they can be seen as important precursors to the Wars of the Roses. These large battles over the crown of England would result in the end of the Lancaster dynasty and the creation of the Yorks. The weakness of the Lancaster dynasty and the English government had been exposed. In addition, the request made by the rebels in Cade's manifesto that the king welcome the Duke of York as his advisor outright informed the king that the masses wished to see the duke return from exile. When Richard the Duke of York finally did return to England in September 1450 several of his demands and reform policies were based on those made in the manifesto issued by Cade. Monument There is long-standing tradition that this clash between Iden and Cade took place at a small hamlet near (old) Heathfield in East Sussex. This place had since become known as Cade Street. A monument dedicated to Cade has been placed along the roadside. The monument states that on this location the rebel leader Jack Cade was captured and killed by Alexander Iden. Given that the exact location of Cade's capture is under dispute it is possible that Cade Street was named in error. The monument was erected by Francis Newbury between 1791 and 1819. Literature The story of Jack Cade's Rebellion was later dramatised by William Shakespeare in his play, Henry VI, Part 2. It was also dramatized in the 1835 play Aylmere (also billed as Jack Cade) by the Philadelphia politician and writer Robert T. Conrad. Though originally written for another actor, the play was for many years a principal part of the repertory of the American tragedian Edwin Forrest. In 1852 Conrad published a volume of poetry entitled Aylmere, or the Bondman of Kent, and other Poems. The novel London Bridge Is Falling (1934) by Philip Lindsay focuses on Jack Cade's revolt. Jack Cade is a prominent character in the historical novel series Wars of the Roses, by Conn Iggulden. Jack Cade, as well as Wat Tyler, are mentioned as failed rebels whose example the protagonist seeks to learn from in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court by Mark Twain. See also Bay Fleet Great Slump (15th century) Hundred Years' War Jack Cade's Cavern John and William Merfold Wars of the Roses References Bibliography Edward Vallance, A Radical History of Britain Abacus books, 2009; 2010 Alison Weir, "The Wars of the Roses", Ballantine Books, Trade Paper back edition July 1996, p. 147 Jack Cade's Rebellion on britainexpress.com "The second Part of Henry the Sixth", Project Gutenberg External links Jack Cade's Rebellion on Medieval Archives Podcast 1450 in England Battles and military actions in London Conflicts in 1450 15th-century rebellions English rebels Medieval Kent Popular revolt in late-medieval Europe Rebellions in medieval England Henry VI of England Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York

424312

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emporia%20State%20University

Emporia State University

Emporia State University (Emporia State or ESU) is a public university in Emporia, Kansas, United States. Established in March 1863 as the Kansas State Normal School, Emporia State is the third-oldest public university in the state of Kansas. Emporia State is one of six public universities governed by the Kansas Board of Regents. The university offers degrees through seven schools, one college, and one institute: the School of Business and Technology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, School of Library and Information Management, School of Science and Mathematics, School of Visual and Performing Arts, School of Applied Health Sciences, The Teachers College, and the Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies. Prior to the 2023–24 school year, Emporia State only had two schools and colleges. History Early history The origins of the university date back to 1861, when Kansas became a state. The Kansas Constitution provided for a state university, and from 1861 to 1863 the question of where the university would be locatedLawrence, Manhattan or Emporiawas debated. In February 1863, Manhattan was selected as the site for the state's land-grant college, authorized by the 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Act–what evolved into Kansas State University. Lawrence and Emporia were therefore left as the only candidates for a state university. The fact that Amos Adams Lawrence had donated $10,000 (plus interest), as well as 40 acres (160,000 m2) to the city of Lawrence had great weight with the Kansas Legislature, and Lawrence was selected by one vote over Emporia as the location of the University of Kansas. On March 7, 1863, the Kansas Legislature passed the enabling act to establish the Kansas State Normal School, which would one day become Emporia State University; it did not open until February 15, 1865. The first class graduated two and a half years later; it consisted of two women, Mary Jane Watson and Ellen Plumb. Ellen was the sister of US Senator Preston B. Plumb. In 1876, the Kansas Legislature passed the "Miscellaneous appropriations bill of 1876". As a result, Leavenworth Normal and Concordia Normal were closed so the state funding for normal schools could be directed to Emporia. Then, in the early 20th century, KSN branched out with satellited campuses in Pittsburg and Hays. The Hays campus opened June 3, 1902 as KSN's "Western Branch." It became an autonomous college in 1914 as Fort Hays Kansas State Normal School, and has since developed into Fort Hays State University. The Pittsburg branch was opened as the Manual Training Auxiliary School in 1904; it became a four-year school named Kansas State Teachers College of Pittsburg in 1913. Today it is Pittsburg State University. In February 1923, the name of the school was changed to the Kansas State Teachers College. In July 1974, the name was changed to Emporia Kansas State College. On April 21, 1977, the college became Emporia State University. Present university Dr. Michael Shonrock became Emporia State's 16th president on January 3, 2012. On April 9, 2015, it was announced that he was stepping down to become president at Lindenwood University, effective June 1. Former Butler Community College president Jackie Vietti became interim president. On October 22, 2015, Allison Garrett was selected as Emporia State University's 17th president, effective January 4, 2016. Garrett left on October 15, 2021, to become the chancellor of the Oklahoma State System of Higher Education. In June 2022, Ken Hush became the 18th president of Emporia State. Hush, a former Koch Industries executive with no higher education experience, quickly fired 33 faculty members, including many with tenure, in a widely-criticized move. Academics and rankings In 2020, Emporia State University was ranked by U.S. News & World Report as tied for the 95th best regional university, and tied for the 24th best public regional university in the Midwest. In 2019, Washington Monthly ranked the school the 266th best regional university in the United States that awards master's degrees out of 606 reviewed, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service. The university is classified among "Master's College and University: Larger programs (M1)", meaning that its programs awarded at least 200 master's-level degrees. Its graduate instructional program is designated as "Research Doctoral: Single program-Other", due to the school offering a PhD in Library Science. In 2013 and 2014, The Chronicle of Higher Education reviewed Emporia State as a "Great College to Work For" and the Princeton Review included Emporia State among its "Best of the Midwest" higher education institutions. Academic organization By enrollment, Emporia State is the seventh-largest university in Kansas. In the fall 2014 semester, it set a record enrollment with 6,114 students. Emporia State University comprises seven schools, one college, and one institute: the School of Business and Technology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, School of Library and Information Management, School of Science and Mathematics, School of Visual and Performing Arts, School of Applied Health Sciences, The Teachers College, and the Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies. Prior to the 2023–24 school year, Emporia State only had two schools and colleges. Emporia State is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. The university offers degrees in more than 80 courses of study. Emporia State has a satellite campus in Kansas City, which is mostly online classes, but some classes are held in the building. School of Business and Technology Founded in 1868, the School of Business is located on the main campus. It has more than 30 faculty members and approximately 300 students. The School is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB International). The programs have been thoroughly reviewed and found to be of the highest quality. This distinction is found with less than 5% of business schools worldwide. The School was renamed to the School of Business and Technology in 2023, after a university-wide restructure. Koch Center for Leadership and Ethics The School of Business opened the Koch Center for Leadership and Ethics, which is a center made up of classes that focuses on entrepreneurial management. The center was funded through grants of $750,000 from the Fred Koch Foundation, as well as Koch Industries. The university has since disbanded this center. School of Library and Information Management and Archives The School of Library and Information Management (SLIM), which was founded in 1902, is the "oldest school of library and information studies in the western half of the United States" and has branches in six different states. SLIM is the only accredited American Library Association program in Kansas, and the School Library Media Licensure program is also accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). The School of Library and Information Management also offers Emporia State University's only PhD: a doctorate in Library and Information Management. As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, SLIM added instructional design & technology to its school, joining the University Libraries and Archives that merged with the school in 2021. School of Humanities and Social Sciences As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, the School of Humanities and Social Sciences was created from some departments in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences: English and modern languages, communication, social sciences, sociology and criminology and the Intensive English Program. School of Science and Mathematics As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, the School of Science and Mathematics was created from departments in College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and includes biological sciences, mathematics, physics, Earth science, chemistry and forensic science. School of Visual and Performing Arts As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, the School of Visual and Performing Arts was created from departments in College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and includes music, theatre and art. School of Applied Health Sciences As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, the School of Applied Health Sciences was created from departments in College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and includes psychology, counseling, nursing, and health, physical education, and recreation. Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies As part of a university-wide restructure in 2023, the Institute of Interdisciplinary Studies was created from the department of interdisciplinary studies in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, and includes interdisciplinary studies and ethnic, gender and identity studies. The Teachers College The Teachers College at Emporia State University is an "Exemplary Model Teacher Education" program as named by Arthur Levine in 2006. In 2011, The Teachers College was featured in a video produced by the U.S. Department of Education highlighting the use of professional development schools. Jones Institute for Educational Excellence The Jones Institute for Educational Excellence is a non-profit organization provided by the Jones Trust in Lyon County. In August 1982, the office was established as part of the Teachers College for research to better education in the state of Kansas. National Teachers Hall of Fame The National Teachers Hall of Fame (NTHF) is a non-profit organization that honors exceptional school teachers and was established in 1989 by Emporia State University, the City of Emporia, the local school district, and the Chamber of Commerce. The NTHF has a museum on Emporia State's campus that honors the inducted teachers. It also has a teacher resource center and a program which recognizes five of the nation's best educators each June. The Hall of Fame annually honors five teachers who have demonstrated commitment and dedication to teaching children. The first induction was held in June 1992, and, 115 teachers have since been inducted into the Hall of Fame. Inductees cover more than three-quarters of the United States and Washington D.C. Memorial for Fallen Educators On June 13, 2013, the NTHF executive director, along with former university officials, U.S. Sen. Jerry Moran's staff, and local government leaders broke ground by the one-room schoolhouse located on the campus to build a memorial for teachers who have fallen in the "line of duty". The Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting was the main inspiration for the memorial. On June 6, 2014, the granite memorial markers were placed along with granite benches. The official dedication was held on June 12, 2014. On September 21, 2015, United States Senator Moran of Kansas introduced a bill to the United States Congress to designate the memorial as the "National Memorial to Fallen Educators". Should the bill pass by both the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate, the memorial would then need to be signed by the President of the United States. The memorial would not become a part of the National Park Service, nor would it receive Federal funding. Kansas City campus Emporia State University–Kansas City is the branch campus of Emporia State, located in Overland Park. The campus offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees. Honors College On August 29, 2014, Emporia State announced that it had received $1 million additional funding from the Governor's office for the school's first-ever Honors College. Campus Academic buildings Most academic buildings at Emporia State University are dedicated to someone or are an important part of the school's history. Beach Music Hall, named in honor of former professor Frank A. Beach, houses the Music Department. It was built in 1926, and contains classrooms, a recital hall, and practice studios. Within the science building, Bruekelman Science Hall houses the Biological Sciences department and mathematics and economics departments, while Cram Science Hall houses the Physical Sciences department and classrooms for chemistry, physics, and earth science. Inside the science building are two museums – Johnston Geology Museum and the Richard H. Schmidt Museum of Natural History, along with the Peterson Planetarium. Cremer Hall contains the School of Business and technology. The building opened in 1964 and is also home to the Kansas Business Hall of Fame. The HPER Building, officially known as the Health, Physical Education and Recreation building, is home to the Athletics and physical education department. Inside the building are five gyms, locker rooms, classrooms, administrative offices, and a swimming pool. Inside John E. King Hall, named after the 11th president of ESU, are the Theatre Department, and the Arts and Communication Departments. Also inside is the Karl C. Bruder Theatre. Plumb Hall serves as the administration building, and houses President's office, Academic Affairs, Fiscal Affairs, Financial Aid services, Human Resources, some classrooms, Social Sciences and English departments, and the Graduate School. The building is named after Senator Preston B. Plumb. Also inside is Albert Taylor Hall, an auditorium named after the 5th president of ESU. Roosevelt Hall, previously a high school in Emporia, once served as the home of the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences dean's office. Inside are classrooms primarily for English, Modern Languages, and Journalism classes, as well as a theatre. John E. Visser Hall, named after ESU's 12th president, is home to the Teachers College. It also houses the Teachers Hall of Fame. The William Allen White Library is home to the School of Library and Information Management and Archives. Inside are a computer lab, the University Archives, and the Academic Center for Excellence and Success. Other buildings The Emporia State University Memorial Union is the student activity center. It opened on Founder's Day in 1925 as a memorial to the KSN students who died in World War I. It was the first student union west of the Mississippi River. Inside the Union are the bookstore, admissions office, Sodexo dining services, and student life offices, and the office for the vice president of enrollment management and success. The Sauder Alumni Center houses the Emporia State University Foundation and Alumni Association. Cora Miller Hall houses the School of Nursing, and is located next to Newman Regional Hospital. Student life Housing At ESU, all incoming freshmen students must live in the Towers Complex (North & South Towers, Singular, and Trusler), unless they already live within a radius of the campus. Upperclassmen have the choice to live in Abigail Morse Hall, the original dormitory on campus. South Morse Hall, which used to house students, is now used for office purposes such as the TRIO Program and Student Wellness Center are located in South. The Towers Complex is made up into four residence halls: North and South Towers, and Singular and Trusler Towers. Trusler went under renovation in the fall of 2013, with Singular going under renovation in the spring of 2014. In November 2017, construction started on a new residence hall, Schallenkamp Hall, which was named after Emporia State's 14th president, Kay Schallenkamp. It opened in 2020 and is the first new building on campus since 2000. Fraternity and sorority life ESU has eight fraternities and six sororities. Student newspaper The school newspaper of Emporia State University is ESU Bulletin, established in 1901. It is published once a week on Thursdays, and is distributed free of charge in all campus buildings. Supported by student fees and advertising, The Bulletin is written and operated by student staff members. Student yearbook Sunflower, the university's yearbook, is published each spring as a chronicle of the year's events and activities. It is funded by student fees and distributed during finals week of the spring semester. Students who choose to be included in the yearbook are photographed at no charge during the fall semester. Athletics The Emporia State athletic teams are called the Hornets (with women's basketball and softball being called the Lady Hornets). The university is a member of the NCAA Division II ranks, primarily competing in the Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletics Association (The MIAA) since the 1991–92 academic year. The Hornets previously competed as an NCAA D-II Independent from 1989–90 to 1990–91; in the Central States Intercollegiate Conference (CSIC) of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) from 1976–77 to 1988–89; in the Great Plains Athletic Conference (GPAC) from 1972–73 to 1975–76; in the Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference (RMAC) from 1968–69 to 1971–72; in the Central Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (CIC) from 1923–24 to 1967–68; and in the Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference (KCAC) from 1902–03 to 1922–23. Emporia State competes in 16 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, disc golf, football, tennis and track & field (indoor and outdoor); while women's sports include basketball, cross country, disc golf, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field (indoor and outdoor) and volleyball. Basketball Of its varsity sports, only Emporia States' women's basketball team has claimed a national title for the school. The Lady Hornets, led by former head coach Brandon Schneider, won the 2010 NCAA Division II Women's Basketball Championship, defeating the Fort Lewis College Skyhawks. They are coached by Brian Ostermann. The men's basketball team is coached by Craig Doty, a three-time national championship coach. Football The Hornets football team is currently coached by former Hornets quarterback Garin Higgins. Since joining the MIAA in 1991, the Hornets have gone 123–118 in conference play. The Hornets have also participated in five post-season bowls, winning three. Baseball The Hornets baseball team played its first game in 1949. The team has four conference championships, three conference tournament champions, and two College World Series appearances, with a 2009 runner-up coached by ESU alum, Bob Fornelli. The team also made five appearances in the NAIA World Series, winning the 1978 World Series. Currently the team is coached by former Hornet, Brad Hill. Softball The Hornets softball team played its first game by 1971, seven years before the baseball team. The team is currently coached by April Rosales, who took over the program on October 19, 2015. The softball team appeared in three Women's College World Series, in 1971, 1972, and 1979, and also won the first AIAW Division II national championship in 1980. Emporia State also played for the national championship in 2006 and 2008. Facilities Since 1940, home basketball games have been played at William L. White Auditorium, a 5,000-seat arena named after William Lindsay White, son of William Allen White. In addition to serving as home to the men's and women's basketball teams, the arena is used by the Lady Hornets volleyball team. In 2008, the auditorium received an upgrade throughout the entire building. Francis G. Welch Stadium serves as home to the Hornets football team. The stadium, named after long-time Emporia State football coach and athletic director Fran Welch, opened in 1947 and has since undergone a few renovations. In 1994, the east and west side concession areas, restroom facilities, and entrances were renovated, a new scoreboard was hoisted into place at the south end of the stadium, and a new landscaped fence was erected. The Hutchinson Family Pavilion, a three-tiered facility which has enclosed theatre seating on the first floor, a president's box and four sky-boxes on the second floor, and a game-day management and media center on the third floor, was built in 1997. The current seating capacity is 7,000. In 2005, an artificial football field was placed down, with that one being replaced in 2016, as well as a new track. Trusler Sports Complex is home to the baseball and softball teams. The baseball team competes on Glennen Field, named after Robert E. Glennen, 13th president of Emporia State. In 2009, the field was renovated with a new artificial turf that replaced the infield. The Lady Hornets compete on Turnbull Field named after J. Michael Turnbull, a trustee of the Trusler Foundation. School colors Emporia State's official school colors are black and gold. These have been the colors since the school was founded in 1863. Until recently, the gold was "old gold". Mascot In 1923, the teams were known as the "Yaps", but it was not a popular name. Men's basketball coach Vic Trusler recommended to a reporter of the Emporia Gazette that the name should be changed to "Yellow Jackets". Due to the lack of newspaper space, the reporter changed it to "Hornets". In 1933, the Teachers College held a contest in which students and staff could design a mascot for the college. Sophomore Paul Edwards, who graduated in 1937, designed Corky. Although hundreds of drawings were submitted, Edwards' Corky, a "human-like" hornet, was selected and published in The Bulletin, the student newspaper for Emporia State University. Foundation Established in 1952, the Emporia State University Foundation is an independent, nonprofit corporation that helps support Emporia State by fundraising. Campaign In February 2013, when the university turned 150, it announced a campaign to raise $45 million in five to seven years. The campaign's slogan is "Silent no more." After the announcement of a donation, big or small, the university rings a bell called Silent Joe. The bell, which is located just south of Francis G. Welch Stadium, was originally rung only after a football team won at home. The campaign ended in February 2017, having raised $58.03 million, the largest in the university's history. Police and Safety ESU Police and Safety is the campus police department. Besides enforcing the law, the department also provides other assistance for the students and faculty/staff members such as escorts and vehicle problems. The department has ten full-time commissioned officers (one chief, one lieutenant, three sergeants, two corporals, and three officers), one full-time dispatcher, and several student dispatchers. The Kansas Highway Patrol also has an office in the building. Notable alumni and faculty See also College of Emporia, a defunct private college in Emporia from 1882 to 1974 References External links Emporia State Athletics website Buildings and structures in Lyon County, Kansas Education in Lyon County, Kansas Universities and colleges established in 1863 Public universities and colleges in Kansas 1863 establishments in Kansas

424342

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepperdine%20University

Pepperdine University

Pepperdine University () is a private research university affiliated with the Churches of Christ with its main campus in Los Angeles County, California. Pepperdine's main campus consists of 830 acres (340 ha) overlooking the Pacific Ocean and the Pacific Coast Highway near Malibu, California. Founded by entrepreneur George Pepperdine in South Los Angeles in 1937, the school expanded to Malibu in 1972. Courses are now taught at a main Malibu campus, three graduate campuses in Southern California, a center in Washington, D.C., and international campuses in Buenos Aires, Argentina; London, United Kingdom; Heidelberg, Germany; Florence, Italy; and Lausanne, Switzerland. The university is composed of an undergraduate liberal arts school (Seaver College) and four graduate schools: the Caruso School of Law, the Graziadio Business School, the Graduate School of Education and Psychology, and the School of Public Policy. History Early years In February 1937, against the backdrop of the Great Depression, George Pepperdine founded a liberal arts college in the city of Los Angeles to be affiliated with the Churches of Christ and to be called—to the founder's embarrassment—George Pepperdine College. Pepperdine had built his fortune largely through the Western Auto Supply Company, which he founded in 1909 with a $5 investment, but his prosperity led to his greater ambition to discover "how humanity can be helped most with the means entrusted to [his] care. [He] considered it wrong to build up a great fortune and use it selfishly." Pepperdine voiced his twofold objective for the college that bore his name, "First, we want to provide first-class, fully accredited academic training in the liberal arts ... Secondly, we are especially dedicated to a greater goal—that of building in the student a Christ-like life, a love for the church, and a passion for the souls of mankind." On September 21, 1937, 167 new students from 22 different states and two other countries entered classes on a newly built campus on at West 79th Street and South Vermont Avenue in the Vermont Knolls neighborhood of South Los Angeles, later referred to as the Vermont Avenue campus. The campus was designed in the Streamline Moderne style by John M. Cooper, an art deco architect. By April 5, 1938, George Pepperdine College was fully accredited by the Northwest Association in large part due to the leadership of president Batsell Baxter and dean Hugh M. Tiner. The student newspaper, called the GraPhiC, published its first issue in October 1937. The college expanded significantly in the years following its founding, reaching an enrollment of 1,839 for the 1948–1949 year. The college's first graduate program, a master of arts in religion, admitted its first students in 1944, and the school's first international program, a year-long program in Heidelberg, Germany, was launched in 1963. Racial unrest, murder, and move to Malibu By 1957, when M. Norvel Young was named president, the young college faced serious problems, not least of which was the high cost of expansion in South Los Angeles. The area around the Vermont Avenue campus was developing issues including rising crime and urban decay, and racial tensions had arisen that led to the 1965 Watts Riots. Before the worst of the tensions began, President Young had begun to look for suburban sites to expand the university's footprint. In 1966, a committee was formed to look at potential locations, including sites in Westlake Village and Calabasas. Pepperdine favored the Westlake Village location until the Adamson-Rindge family, who owned hundreds of acres near Malibu, offered to donate and to sell 58.7 adjacent acres. Despite concerns over building costs on the mountainous site, the school decided to move forward based on its prime location and potential for raising donations, accepting the land in Malibu in 1968. In March 1969, Larry Kimmons, a Black teenager from the South LA neighborhood, was killed by Pepperdine campus security officer Charlie Lane following a verbal argument. Protests ensued, with Black students opposing the college's administration. Some have attributed the killing to racism. In December 1970, student activists threatened to burn down the campus, even setting small fires in three buildings. Students later occupied the academic life building, leading to a standoff with the Los Angeles Police Department that was defused by negotiations with Vice President William S. Banowsky. Construction in Malibu began on April 13, 1971, and the new campus opened in September 1972. The campus and many of its buildings were planned by Los Angeles–based architect William Pereira, who had also designed the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the University of California, Irvine, and much of the University of Southern California. The construction of the Malibu campus was made possible largely by gifts from Blanche Seaver, the wife of Frank R. Seaver and heir of his oil-drill manufacturing fortune, who donated to Pepperdine more than $160 million over her lifetime. The undergraduate college was officially named after Seaver in 1975. The university retained and continued to expand its original Vermont Avenue Campus, building a new academic building there in 1970, and redesigning the curriculum to serve its more urban setting. Much of the undergraduate liberal arts program, however, moved to the new Malibu campus. In the decade to come, the Vermont Avenue Campus transitioned away from its residential model, and in 1981 it was sold to Crenshaw Christian Center, whose minister, Frederick K. C. Price, then oversaw construction of the "Faith Dome," then the largest-domed church in the United States. Growth of the university In 1969, Pepperdine bought the Orange University College of Law in Santa Ana, California, which became the School of Law and moved to the Malibu campus in 1978. What had been a business division offering graduate and undergraduate degrees became a graduate business school in 1968, which in 1971 was named the School of Business and Management. Also in 1971, the School of Education was formed, which in 1981 became the Graduate School of Education and Psychology. Pepperdine administrators used these expansions as justification to change the institution's name to Pepperdine University in 1971. Pepperdine continued to expand, adding permanent international programs in London and in Florence beginning in 1984 and 1985, respectively. These were followed by similar programs in Buenos Aires, Lausanne, and Shanghai. The School of Business and Management was renamed the Graziadio Business School to honor a gift of $15 million from real estate developer George L. Graziadio Jr., and in 2019 the School of Law was renamed the Caruso School of Law after a gift of $50 million from alumnus Rick J. Caruso. The Malibu campus itself was expanded by the construction of the Drescher Graduate Campus, which was completed in 2003 under the supervision of president Andrew K. Benton. Brushfires Pepperdine's Malibu Campus has often been threatened by brushfires, including in 1985, 1993, 1996, 2007, 2007, and 2018. The university prepares for the fires by clearing brush 200 feet from all buildings and has developed plans with Los Angeles County Fire Department to shelter faculty, staff, and students in place. Campus Malibu campus Pepperdine's Malibu campus is situated on of the Santa Monica Mountains overlooking the Pacific Ocean and the Pacific Coast Highway. It is its own census-designated place, located in an unincorporated area in Los Angeles County. It is widely considered one of the most beautiful college campuses in the world in terms of scenery and architecture, and has been described as "a place that looks more like a beach resort than a private university." The campus offers views of the Santa Monica Bay, Catalina Island, the Palos Verdes Peninsula, and much of the westside of Los Angeles. Most buildings are designed in the Mediterranean Revival Style with white stucco walls, red tile roofs, and large tinted windows. The first round of construction on the site was completed in 1973. The most distinctive feature of the Malibu campus, apart from its location, is the Phillips Theme Tower, a 125-foot obelisk with an embedded cross that stands on the front lawn. The tower was designed by William Pereira in 1972, and construction was completed in 1973. The tower was dedicated in 1974 as a symbol of Pepperdine's dedication to its Christian mission. Following disputes with Malibu residents over the lighting of the cross, the tower has not been illuminated since 1980. Alumni Park is located on the lowest part of the Malibu campus, adjacent to the Pacific Coast Highway. It is a 30-acre expanse of lawns, trails, hills, ponds and coral trees overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Landscape architects Eric Armstrong and S. Lee Scharfman were responsible for the campus green space planning and design. The park was dedicated in 1979, and it now serves as the location for the university's commencement exercises and other campus activities that need a large open space. Overlooking Alumni Park is Stauffer Chapel, with its 3,000 square feet of stained-glass windows designed by Robert and Bette Donovan and constructed in 1973. The main academic plaza for the undergraduate programs of Seaver College lies on a knoll above Alumni Park and includes Tyler Campus Center, Payson Library, and the Weisman Museum of Art. Undergraduate housing and athletic facilities sit to the northwest of the academic complex. The Caruso School of Law is situated on a hill above these areas. Banowsky Boulevard separates Alumni Park from the main academic complex and is named in honor of William S. Banowsky, the fourth president of Pepperdine. Spur roads to the east lead to faculty housing. The Drescher Graduate Campus is contiguous with and northwest of the central campus. Construction was completed in 2003, and it is now home to the School of Public Policy, the Villa Graziadio Executive Center, and the full-time programs of the Graziadio Business School and the Graduate School of Education and Psychology, as well as housing for students and faculty. Graduate campuses The Graziadio Business School and the Graduate School of Education and Psychology are headquartered in West Los Angeles at the Howard Hughes Center next to Interstate 405. These two schools also offer programs at campuses in Malibu, Irvine, and Calabasas. International campuses Pepperdine owns and operates permanent satellite campuses in five countries, with each campus offering semester- and year-long programs for students of Seaver College. The first such program was opened in 1963 in Heidelberg. Programs were then introduced in the South Kensington district of London in 1984 and in Florence in 1985. Since then, programs have been launched in Buenos Aires, Lausanne, and Shanghai. In 2021, Seaver College announced the permanent closure of its Shanghai campus due to “operational difficulties and decreased enrollment.” The Caruso School of Law also offers regular programs at the campus in London. In addition to these regular offerings, international programs of the university's various schools have also taken place in Paris, Madrid, Johannesburg, Tegucigalpa, Brisbane, Chiang Mai, Hong Kong, Uganda and Tokyo. Academics Frank R. Seaver College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences Seaver College is named for Frank R. Seaver and his wife Blanche, the principal benefactors of Pepperdine's Malibu campus. The college offers undergraduates a liberal arts education; each candidate for a bachelor's degree must complete a broad program of general education courses. Seaver's general education requirements have received an A rating from ACTA's annual What Will They Learn report for several years running. Seaver students attend classes at the Malibu campus, and most students study abroad either at one of the University's permanent international campuses in Buenos Aires, Florence, Heidelberg, Lausanne, and London or at one of several summer programs. Seaver College offers 46 majors and 47 minors across eight academic divisions: business administration, communication, fine arts, humanities and teacher education, international studies and languages, natural science, religion and philosophy, and social science. In addition to bachelor's degrees, the college offers the following graduate degrees: master of arts (MA) in American studies, master of arts (MA) in religion, master of science (MS) in ministry, master of divinity (MDiv), and master of fine arts (MFA) in screen and television writing. Seaver students can also earn both single-subject and multiple-subject teaching credentials. The Religion Division offers undergraduate and graduate education in ministry, works with Pepperdine's Center for Faith and Learning and Office of Church Relations, and publishes Leaven: A Journal of Christian Ministry. Graziadio Business School Pepperdine University's Graziadio Business School enrolls approximately 2,000 students in its full-time and part-time degree programs. The school was founded in 1969, and has since graduated more than 47,000 alumni. In 2016, U.S. News & World Report ranked the online MBA program tied for 15th best in the country, and the part-time MBA program was ranked at 29th nationally. In 2016, U.S. News & World Report ranked Pepperdine overall 65th out of 437 business programs in the United States. Caruso School of Law The Caruso School of Law is located on the Malibu campus adjacent to Seaver College, and enrolls about 500 students. It is accredited by the American Bar Association, is a member of the Association of American Law Schools, and hosts a chapter of the Order of the Coif. The school's Straus Institute of Dispute Resolution is consistently ranked as a leading dispute resolution program, offering master's and certificate programs. Other degree programs include the Juris Doctor/Master of Divinity with Seaver College, the JD/MBA, JD/MPP, and JD/MDR. The school offers both a summer session and a fall semester at the university's campus in London. The school is ranked 52nd among the nation's 199 American Bar Association–approved law schools by the 2023 U.S. News & World Report rankings. It is known for its entertainment law program. Graduate School of Education and Psychology The Graduate School of Education and Psychology (GSEP) offers both masters and doctorate programs, including EdD, PsyD, and PhD degrees. Student enrollment is about 1,600. Its programs are accredited by the APA. School of Public Policy The School of Public Policy enrolls approximately 70 graduate students in its two-year master's degree in public policy (MPP). Joint degree programs include the following: MPP/Juris Doctor with the law school. MPP/Masters of Dispute Resolution with the law school's highly-rated Straus Institute for Dispute Resolution. MPP/MBA degree with the Graziadio Business School. Student body Pepperdine's fall 2018 enrollment was 7,961 students, of whom 3,627 were at the undergraduate and 4,334 at the graduate and professional levels. In the 2017 academic year, the freshman retention rate was 91%. Fall freshman profile Admissions Some 13,721 students applied for admission to the undergraduate class of 2023, and 4,241 were admitted (30%); Among admitted freshmen, the interquartile ranges for SAT composite scores, ACT composite scores, and unweighted GPAs were 1,300–1,450, 28-32, and 3.64–3.97, respectively. Admission to Pepperdine is rated as "more selective" by U.S. News & World Report and by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Yellow Ribbon Program for Veterans Pepperdine University is part of the Yellow Ribbon Program for Veterans. Like several other colleges and universities that participate in the program, Pepperdine University offers support for an unlimited number of veteran students as well as an unlimited monetary contribution toward each veteran's tuition assistance. As of 2016, 72% of Pepperdine students who are veterans are in the Yellow Ribbon Program which enables Veterans to attend tuition-free. Rankings and reputation U.S. News & World Report ranked Pepperdine tied for the 55th best national university, tied for 26th in undergraduate teaching, and tied for 27th best college for veterans in its rankings for 2022. Pepperdine was ranked number 1 in the Institute of International Education's 2015 Open Doors Report, with 86.5 percent of all undergraduate students studying abroad during the 2013–2014 academic year. The law school placed 45th among the 199 American Bar Association accredited law schools by the 2023 U.S. News & World Report rankings. It is known for its entertainment law and dispute resolution program which is currently ranked No. 2 in the nation. In 2018, U.S. News & World Report ranked Pepperdine's business school 65th out of 437 business programs in the United States. In 2019, the American Council of Trustees and Alumni included Pepperdine in its What Will They Learn? study, which is an annual evaluation system of colleges and universities. The report assigns a letter grade to 1,120 universities based on how many of the following seven core subjects are required: composition, literature, foreign language, American history, economics, mathematics and science. Pepperdine was one of 23 schools to receive an "A" grade, which is assigned to schools that include at least six of the seven designated subjects in their core curriculum. Athletics Pepperdine University competes in NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics. Most teams play in the West Coast Conference, but men's volleyball plays in the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation and men's water polo plays in the Golden Coast Conference. Pepperdine's teams are known as the Waves. Pepperdine University is often ranked by the NACDA Director's Cup as having one of the most successful athletic programs for non-football Division I schools, ranking first on three occasions (most recently in 2011–12) and finishing in the top three eight times in the last fifteen years. Pepperdine University sponsors seventeen NCAA Division I intercollegiate athletics teams: baseball, basketball, cross country, golf, tennis, track, volleyball, and water polo teams for men; and basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track, indoor volleyball, and beach volleyball for women. There are also several intercollegiate sports clubs such as women's lacrosse, surfing, and men's rugby. NCAA Division I team championships: Baseball (1992) Men's golf (1997, 2021) Men's tennis (2006) Men's volleyball (1978, 1985, 1986, 1992, 2005) Water polo (1997) NCAA Division I individual titles: Robbie Weiss (1988 tennis – singles) Carlos Di Laura & Kelly Jones (1985 tennis – doubles) Jerome Jones & Kelly Jones (1984 tennis – doubles) The water polo competitions for the 1984 Summer Olympics were held at Raleigh Runnels Memorial Pool on campus. Notable people There are currently over 100,000 living alumni worldwide. Notable alumni of Pepperdine University include prominent scientists, musicians, businessmen and businesswomen, engineers, architects, athletes, actors, politicians, and those who have gained both national and international success. The Pepperdine alumni network consists of over 30 alumni groups on four continents. Demographics The United States Census Bureau has designated the Pepperdine University campus as a separate census-designated place (CDP) for statistical purposes. It first appeared as a CDP in the 2020 Census with a population of 2,747. 2020 census Note: The US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race. In popular culture Battle of the Network Stars (1976–1988; 2017) and Zoey 101 (2005–2008) were filmed on the campus. See also List of universities and colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ Explanatory notes References Citations General and cited references External links Pepperdine University Athletics website Image of Black students protesting the college's decision to not renew the contract of African American public relations writer, Ron Ellerbe, 1970s. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. 1937 establishments in California Business schools in California Universities and colleges established in 1937 Malibu, California Private universities and colleges in California Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges Seminaries and theological colleges in California Tourist attractions in Malibu, California Universities and colleges affiliated with the Churches of Christ Universities and colleges in Los Angeles County, California

424348

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac%20muscle

Cardiac muscle

Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle or myocardium) is one of three types of vertebrate muscle tissues, with the other two being skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the wall of the heart. The cardiac muscle (myocardium) forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the pericardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual cardiac muscle cells joined by intercalated discs, and encased by collagen fibers and other substances that form the extracellular matrix. Cardiac muscle contracts in a similar manner to skeletal muscle, although with some important differences. Electrical stimulation in the form of a cardiac action potential triggers the release of calcium from the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The rise in calcium causes the cell's myofilaments to slide past each other in a process called excitation-contraction coupling. Diseases of the heart muscle known as cardiomyopathies are of major importance. These include ischemic conditions caused by a restricted blood supply to the muscle such as angina, and myocardial infarction. Structure Gross anatomy Cardiac muscle tissue or myocardium forms the bulk of the heart. The heart wall is a three-layered structure with a thick layer of myocardium sandwiched between the inner endocardium and the outer epicardium (also known as the visceral pericardium). The inner endocardium lines the cardiac chambers, covers the cardiac valves, and joins with the endothelium that lines the blood vessels that connect to the heart. On the outer aspect of the myocardium is the epicardium which forms part of the pericardial sac that surrounds, protects, and lubricates the heart. Within the myocardium, there are several sheets of cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes. The sheets of muscle that wrap around the left ventricle closest to the endocardium are oriented perpendicularly to those closest to the epicardium. When these sheets contract in a coordinated manner they allow the ventricle to squeeze in several directions simultaneously – longitudinally (becoming shorter from apex to base), radially (becoming narrower from side to side), and with a twisting motion (similar to wringing out a damp cloth) to squeeze the maximum possible amount of blood out of the heart with each heartbeat. Contracting heart muscle uses a lot of energy, and therefore requires a constant flow of blood to provide oxygen and nutrients. Blood is brought to the myocardium by the coronary arteries. These originate from the aortic root and lie on the outer or epicardial surface of the heart. Blood is then drained away by the coronary veins into the right atrium. Microanatomy Cardiac muscle cells also called cardiomyocytes are the contractile myocytes of the cardiac muscle. The cells are surrounded by an extracellular matrix produced by supporting fibroblast cells. Specialised modified cardiomyocytes known as pacemaker cells, set the rhythm of the heart contractions. The pacemaker cells are only weakly contractile without sarcomeres, and are connected to neighboring contractile cells via gap junctions. They are located in the sinoatrial node (the primary pacemaker) positioned on the wall of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. Other pacemaker cells are found in the atrioventricular node (secondary pacemaker). Pacemaker cells carry the impulses that are responsible for the beating of the heart. They are distributed throughout the heart and are responsible for several functions. First, they are responsible for being able to spontaneously generate and send out electrical impulses. They also must be able to receive and respond to electrical impulses from the brain. Lastly, they must be able to transfer electrical impulses from cell to cell. Pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node, and atrioventricular node are smaller and conduct at a relatively slow rate between the cells. Specialized conductive cells in the bundle of His, and the Purkinje fibers are larger in diameter and conduct signals at a fast rate. The Purkinje fibers rapidly conduct electrical signals; coronary arteries to bring nutrients to the muscle cells, and veins and a capillary network to take away waste products. Cardiac muscle cells are the contracting cells that allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighboring cells - known as a functional syncytium - working to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation. Viewed through a microscope, cardiac muscle cells are roughly rectangular, measuring 100–150μm by 30–40μm. Individual cardiac muscle cells are joined at their ends by intercalated discs to form long fibers. Each cell contains myofibrils, specialized protein contractile fibers of actin and myosin that slide past each other. These are organized into sarcomeres, the fundamental contractile units of muscle cells. The regular organization of myofibrils into sarcomeres gives cardiac muscle cells a striped or striated appearance when looked at through a microscope, similar to skeletal muscle. These striations are caused by lighter I bands composed mainly of actin, and darker A bands composed mainly of myosin. Cardiomyocytes contain T-tubules, pouches of cell membrane that run from the cell surface to the cell's interior which help to improve the efficiency of contraction. The majority of these cells contain only one nucleus (some may have two central nuclei), unlike skeletal muscle cells which contain many nuclei. Cardiac muscle cells contain many mitochondria which provide the energy needed for the cell in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), making them highly resistant to fatigue. T-tubules T-tubules are microscopic tubes that run from the cell surface to deep within the cell. They are continuous with the cell membrane, are composed of the same phospholipid bilayer, and are open at the cell surface to the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cell. T-tubules in cardiac muscle are bigger and wider than those in skeletal muscle, but fewer in number. In the centre of the cell they join, running into and along the cell as a transverse-axial network. Inside the cell they lie close to the cell's internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Here, a single tubule pairs with part of the sarcoplasmic reticulum called a terminal cisterna in a combination known as a diad. The functions of T-tubules include rapidly transmitting electrical impulses known as action potentials from the cell surface to the cell's core, and helping to regulate the concentration of calcium within the cell in a process known as excitation-contraction coupling. They are also involved in mechano-electric feedback, as evident from cell contraction induced T-tubular content exchange (advection-assisted diffusion), which was confirmed by confocal and 3D electron tomography observations. Intercalated discs The cardiac syncytium is a network of cardiomyocytes connected by intercalated discs that enable the rapid transmission of electrical impulses through the network, enabling the syncytium to act in a coordinated contraction of the myocardium. There is an atrial syncytium and a ventricular syncytium that are connected by cardiac connection fibres. Electrical resistance through intercalated discs is very low, thus allowing free diffusion of ions. The ease of ion movement along cardiac muscle fibers axes is such that action potentials are able to travel from one cardiac muscle cell to the next, facing only slight resistance. Each syncytium obeys the all or none law. Intercalated discs are complex adhering structures that connect the single cardiomyocytes to an electrochemical syncytium (in contrast to the skeletal muscle, which becomes a multicellular syncytium during embryonic development). The discs are responsible mainly for force transmission during muscle contraction. Intercalated discs consist of three different types of cell-cell junctions: the actin filament anchoring fascia adherens junctions, the intermediate filament anchoring desmosomes, and gap junctions. They allow action potentials to spread between cardiac cells by permitting the passage of ions between cells, producing depolarization of the heart muscle. The three types of junction act together as a single area composita. Under light microscopy, intercalated discs appear as thin, typically dark-staining lines dividing adjacent cardiac muscle cells. The intercalated discs run perpendicular to the direction of muscle fibers. Under electron microscopy, an intercalated disc's path appears more complex. At low magnification, this may appear as a convoluted electron dense structure overlying the location of the obscured Z-line. At high magnification, the intercalated disc's path appears even more convoluted, with both longitudinal and transverse areas appearing in longitudinal section. Fibroblasts Cardiac fibroblasts are vital supporting cells within cardiac muscle. They are unable to provide forceful contractions like cardiomyocytes, but instead are largely responsible for creating and maintaining the extracellular matrix which surrounds the cardiomyocytes. Fibroblasts play a crucial role in responding to injury, such as a myocardial infarction. Following injury, fibroblasts can become activated and turn into myofibroblasts – cells which exhibit behaviour somewhere between a fibroblast (generating extracellular matrix) and a smooth muscle cell (ability to contract). In this capacity, fibroblasts can repair an injury by creating collagen while gently contracting to pull the edges of the injured area together. Fibroblasts are smaller but more numerous than cardiomyocytes, and several fibroblasts can be attached to a cardiomyocyte at once. When attached to a cardiomyocyte they can influence the electrical currents passing across the muscle cell's surface membrane, and in the context are referred to as being electrically coupled, as originally shown in vitro in the 1960s, and ultimately confirmed in native cardiac tissue with the help of optogenetic techniques. Other potential roles for fibroblasts include electrical insulation of the cardiac conduction system, and the ability to transform into other cell types including cardiomyocytes and adipocytes. Extracellular matrix The extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds the cardiomyocyte and fibroblasts. The ECM is composed of proteins including collagen and elastin along with polysaccharides (sugar chains) known as glycosaminoglycans. Together, these substances give support and strength to the muscle cells, create elasticity in cardiac muscle, and keep the muscle cells hydrated by binding water molecules. The matrix in immediate contact with the muscle cells is referred to as the basement membrane, mainly composed of type IV collagen and laminin. Cardiomyocytes are linked to the basement membrane via specialised glycoproteins called integrins. Development Humans are born with a set number of heart muscle cells, or cardiomyocytes, which increase in size as the heart grows larger during childhood development. Evidence suggests that cardiomyocytes are slowly turned over during aging, but less than 50% of the cardiomyocytes present at birth are replaced during a normal life span. The growth of individual cardiomyocytes not only occurs during normal heart development, it also occurs in response to extensive exercise (athletic heart syndrome), heart disease, or heart muscle injury such as after a myocardial infarction. A healthy adult cardiomyocyte has a cylindrical shape that is approximately 100μm long and 10–25μm in diameter. Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy occurs through sarcomerogenesis, the creation of new sarcomere units in the cell. During heart volume overload, cardiomyocytes grow through eccentric hypertrophy. The cardiomyocytes extend lengthwise but have the same diameter, resulting in ventricular dilation. During heart pressure overload, cardiomyocytes grow through concentric hypertrophy. The cardiomyocytes grow larger in diameter but have the same length, resulting in heart wall thickening. Physiology The physiology of cardiac muscle shares many similarities with that of skeletal muscle. The primary function of both muscle types is to contract, and in both cases, a contraction begins with a characteristic flow of ions across the cell membrane known as an action potential. The cardiac action potential subsequently triggers muscle contraction by increasing the concentration of calcium within the cytosol. Cardiac cycle The cardiac cycle is the performance of the human heart from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. It consists of two periods: one during which the heart muscle relaxes and refills with blood, called diastole, following a period of robust contraction and pumping of blood, dubbed systole. After emptying, the heart immediately relaxes and expands to receive another influx of blood returning from the lungs and other systems of the body, before again contracting to pump blood to the lungs and those systems. A normally performing heart must be fully expanded before it can efficiently pump again. The rest phase is considered polarized. The resting potential during this phase of the beat separates the ions such as sodium, potassium, and calcium. Myocardial cells possess the property of automaticity or spontaneous depolarization. This is the direct result of a membrane which allows sodium ions to slowly enter the cell until the threshold is reached for depolarization. Calcium ions follow and extend the depolarization even further. Once calcium stops moving inward, potassium ions move out slowly to produce repolarization. The very slow repolarization of the CMC membrane is responsible for the long refractory period. However, the mechanism by which calcium concentrations within the cytosol rise differ between skeletal and cardiac muscle. In cardiac muscle, the action potential comprises an inward flow of both sodium and calcium ions. The flow of sodium ions is rapid but very short-lived, while the flow of calcium is sustained and gives the plateau phase characteristic of cardiac muscle action potentials. The comparatively small flow of calcium through the L-type calcium channels triggers a much larger release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a phenomenon known as calcium-induced calcium release. In contrast, in skeletal muscle, minimal calcium flows into the cell during action potential and instead the sarcoplasmic reticulum in these cells is directly coupled to the surface membrane. This difference can be illustrated by the observation that cardiac muscle fibers require calcium to be present in the solution surrounding the cell to contract, while skeletal muscle fibers will contract without extracellular calcium. During contraction of a cardiac muscle cell, the long protein myofilaments oriented along the length of the cell slide over each other in what is known as the sliding filament theory. There are two kinds of myofilaments, thick filaments composed of the protein myosin, and thin filaments composed of the proteins actin, troponin and tropomyosin. As the thick and thin filaments slide past each other the cell becomes shorter and fatter. In a mechanism known as cross-bridge cycling, calcium ions bind to the protein troponin, which along with tropomyosin then uncover key binding sites on actin. Myosin, in the thick filament, can then bind to actin, pulling the thick filaments along the thin filaments. When the concentration of calcium within the cell falls, troponin and tropomyosin once again cover the binding sites on actin, causing the cell to relax. Regeneration It was commonly believed that cardiac muscle cells could not be regenerated. However, this was contradicted by a report published in 2009. Olaf Bergmann and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm tested samples of heart muscle from people born before 1955 who had very little cardiac muscle around their heart, many showing with disabilities from this abnormality. By using DNA samples from many hearts, the researchers estimated that a 4-year-old renews about 20% of heart muscle cells per year, and about 69 percent of the heart muscle cells of a 50-year-old were generated after he or she was born. One way that cardiomyocyte regeneration occurs is through the division of pre-existing cardiomyocytes during the normal aging process. In the 2000s, the discovery of adult endogenous cardiac stem cells was reported, and studies were published that claimed that various stem cell lineages, including bone marrow stem cells were able to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, and could be used to treat heart failure. However, other teams were unable to replicate these findings, and many of the original studies were later retracted for scientific fraud. Differences between atria and ventricles Cardiac muscle forms both the atria and the ventricles of the heart. Although this muscle tissue is very similar between cardiac chambers, some differences exist. The myocardium found in the ventricles is thick to allow forceful contractions, while the myocardium in the atria is much thinner. The individual myocytes that make up the myocardium also differ between cardiac chambers. Ventricular cardiomyocytes are longer and wider, with a denser T-tubule network. Although the fundamental mechanisms of calcium handling are similar between ventricular and atrial cardiomyocytes, the calcium transient is smaller and decays more rapidly in atrial myocytes, with a corresponding increase in calcium buffering capacity. The complement of ion channels differs between chambers, leading to longer action potential durations and effective refractory periods in the ventricles. Certain ion currents such as IK(UR) are highly specific to atrial cardiomyocytes, making them a potential target for treatments for atrial fibrillation. Clinical significance Diseases affecting cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyopathies, are the leading cause of death in developed countries. The most common condition is coronary artery disease, in which the blood supply to the heart is reduced. The coronary arteries become narrowed by the formation of atherosclerotic plaques. If these narrowings become severe enough to partially restrict blood flow, the syndrome of angina pectoris may occur. This typically causes chest pain during exertion that is relieved by rest. If a coronary artery suddenly becomes very narrowed or completely blocked, interrupting or severely reducing blood flow through the vessel, a myocardial infarction or heart attack occurs. If the blockage is not relieved promptly by medication, percutaneous coronary intervention, or surgery, then a heart muscle region may become permanently scarred and damaged. A specific cardiomyopathy, can cause heart muscle to become abnormally thick (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), abnormally large (dilated cardiomyopathy), or abnormally stiff (restrictive cardiomyopathy). Some of these conditions are caused by genetic mutations and can be inherited. Heart muscle can also become damaged despite a normal blood supply. The heart muscle may become inflamed in a condition called myocarditis, most commonly caused by a viral infection but sometimes caused by the body's own immune system. Heart muscle can also be damaged by drugs such as alcohol, long standing high blood pressure or hypertension, or persistent abnormal heart racing. Many of these conditions, if severe enough, can damage the heart so much that the pumping function of the heart is reduced. If the heart is no longer able to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs, this is described as heart failure. Significant damage to cardiac muscle cells is referred to as myocytolysis which is considered a type of cellular necrosis defined as either coagulative or colliquative. See also Frank–Starling law of the heart Nebulette Protein S100-A1 Regional function of the heart List of distinct cell types in the adult human body References External links Cardiac muscle histology Cardiac anatomy Muscular system Cardiac electrophysiology Muscle tissue Articles containing video clips Histology

424358

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20Motor%20Company

Morgan Motor Company

The Morgan Motor Company is a British motor car manufacturer owned by Italian investment group Investindustrial. It was founded in 1910 by Henry Frederick Stanley Morgan. Morgan is based in Malvern Link, an area of Malvern, and employs approximately 220 people. Morgan produce 850 cars per year, all assembled by hand. The waiting list for a car is approximately six months, but it has sometimes been as long as ten years. Morgan cars are unusual in that wood has been used in their construction for a century, and is still used in the 21st century for framing the body shell. A visitor centre and museum have exhibits about the company's history from Edwardian times until the present day, developments in automobile technology, and a display of automobiles. There are also guided tours of the factory. Company history H.F.S. Morgan quit the Great Western Railway in 1904 and co-founded a motor sales and servicing garage in Malvern Link. In 1909 he designed and built a car for his own use. Previously he developed the first independent front suspension in the engineering shop of Malvern College. He began production a year later and the company prospered. Production of three-wheelers approached 1000 by World War I and quickly resumed with both racing and touring models. Morgan's first four-wheeler came in 1935 with three-wheelers phased out in 1952. Morgan continued to run it until he died at age 77 in 1959. In 1990, the company was subject of a critique by Sir John Harvey-Jones for his television programme Troubleshooter. Harvey-Jones recommended modernising production and clearing the order backlog. The company rejected the advice, arguing that traditional techniques were part of the appeal of the company, and that a waiting list helped the company deal with recessions and preserved their exclusivity. Sales increased as a result of the programme and the company prospered. Sir John said he was very pleased to have been proven wrong in Morgan's case. Peter Morgan, son of HFS, ran the company until a few years before his death in 2003. He was replaced as chairman by Alan Garnett, a non-family director, from 2003 to 2006. After Garnett's resignation, a four-man management team was established. Charles Morgan (son of Peter), Matthew Parkin, Tim Whitworth and Steve Morris made up the new management team, and in 2010, after Parkin's resignation, Charles Morgan was named managing director. In 2010, the MMC became dormant and all assets were sold to a new company called Morgan Technologies for an unpaid 15 million and which took over all the former assets of the Morgan Motor Company, Aero Racing, the Morgan M3W Company and all other companies bearing the Morgan name. This cured the negative equity that had occurred over the Charles Morgan tenure. UK Company House In January, 2013, Morgan was removed as managing director, replaced by Morris, but continued as strategy director until October 2013 when he was removed both as an employee and member of the board of directors. At the end of 2013, the shareholders appointed Andrew Duncan, a local solicitor and very close friend of the late Peter Morgan, as chairman. In 2016, he resigned as chairman and company director and was replaced as chairman by a new director, Dominic Riley. In January 2016, the company was once again UK government funded by a £6 million grant by the British Government after a series of visits from UK politicians and Royals. In August 2018, the name of Morgan Technologies, was allowed to change its name back to The Morgan Motor Company while the original company, founded by HFS Morgan in 1957, had its name changed to a numbered company and accordingly registered at UK Companies House. For most of its history, the company was owned by the Morgan family. A press release dated 5 March 2019 announced the acquisition of a majority stake in Morgan Motor Company Ltd by the Italian investment group Investindustrial. Though it was announced that as a part of Investindustrial's investment, management and staff were rewarded with shares in the company, this appears nowhere in the information registered at Companies House. And though it was also announced that the Morgan family retained a minority shareholding and would continue to be involved in the company this does not appear on any statement filed with Companies House. The price of sale was approximately the amount of the 2016 government grant which was used, at the time, to purchase back the land and buildings on Pickersleigh Road, that had been sold in 2005/6 to fund the company. Early cars: three-wheelers and 4/4s The early cars were two-seat or four-seat three-wheelers, and are therefore considered to be cyclecars. Three-wheeled vehicles avoided the British tax on cars by being classified as motorcycles. Competition from small cars like the Austin 7 and the original Morris Minor, with comparable economy and price and better comfort, made cyclecars less attractive. V-Twin three-wheelers (1911–1939) H.F.S. Morgan's first car design was a single-seat three-wheeled runabout, which was fabricated for his personal use in 1908, with help from William Stephenson-Peach, the father of friends, and the engineering master at Malvern College. Powered by a Peugeot twin-cylinder engine (from an abandoned motorcycle project), the car had a backbone chassis, an idea retained for all following Morgan three-wheelers, and used as little material and labour as Morgan could manage. A single-seat three-wheeler with coil-spring independent front suspension, unusual at the time, the driveshaft ran through the backbone tube to a two-speed transmission (with no reverse), and chain drive to each of the rear wheels. The steering was by tiller, and it had band brakes. It also had no body. With financial help from his father and his wife, the car went into production at premises in Pickersleigh Road, Malvern Link. Three single-seater cars were exhibited at the 1910 Motor Show at Olympia in London. In spite of great interest being shown, only a few orders were taken, and Morgan decided a two-seater was needed to meet market demand. This was built in 1911, adding a bonnet, windscreen, wheel steering, and crank starting; it was displayed at the 1911 Motor Cycle Show. An agency was taken up by the Harrod's department store in London, with a selling price of £65. The Morgan became the only car ever to appear in a shop window at Harrods. Interest in his runabout led him to patent his design and begin production. While he initially showed single-seat and two-seat versions of his runabout at the 1911 Olympia Motor Exhibition, he was convinced at the exhibition that there would be greater demand for a two-seat model. The Morgan Motor Company was registered as a private limited company only in 1912 with H.F.S. Morgan as managing director and his father, who had invested in his son's business, as its first chairman. In 1912, Morgan set out to win the trophy offered by The Light Car & Cyclecar for greatest distance covered in an hour, at Brooklands. The single-seater covered , only to be narrowly beaten by a GWK; Morgan returned later the same year, reaching nearly . Morgan established its reputation via competition such as winning the 1913 Cyclecar Grand Prix at Amiens in France, driven by W. G. McMinnies, with an average speed of for the distance. This became the basis for the 'Grand Prix' model of 1913 to 1926, from which evolved the 'Aero', and 'Sports' models. Morgan himself won the "very tough" ACU Six Days' Trial in 1913, in the sidecar class. The same year, the company entered the MCC reliability trial, which it continued to do until 1975. Racing success led to demand the company proved unable to meet. These models used air-cooled or liquid-cooled variations of motorcycle engines. The engine was placed ahead of the axis of the front wheels in a chassis made of steel tubes brazed into cast lugs. After the First World War, the company introduced an easily changed rear wheel, which customers had been seeking for several years. The 1921 Popular, powered by an JAP and bodied in poplar, sold for £150. It was a sales success, the price dropping to £128, and the name changing to Standard, by 1923, when a Blackburne engine was also available. The Grand Prix was priced £155, and the Family (with two notional child seats behind the front bench, setting a standard 2+2s would follow for generations) was £148 with air-cooled engine, or £158 with water-cooled engine. The Anzani-powered Aero was also available, for £148. MAG engines were also optional. Morgan's racing efforts suffered a blow in 1924, when E. B. Ware's JAP-engined car rolled at the JCC at Brooklands; Ware was seriously hurt, leading to a ban on three-wheelers competing as cars. Electric headlamps were made available in 1924, at an £8 cost. The Popular, powered by a engine, sold for £110, the Aero for £148, and the one-seater £160. Like motorcycles, Morgans had hand throttles, Bowden-wire control mechanisms, and drip lubrication. Racing Morgans included Harold Beart's Blackburne-engined special, with 3.33:1 top gear and a streamlined body, which covered in a one-hour trial at Brooklands, with a peak speed of over . In 1925, the Standard's price had dropped to £95, and the Aero £130, compared to £149 for an Austin Chummy. Electric lighting by dynamo became standard that year. Front-wheel brakes and electric start (a £10 option) became available in 1927, while the Standard's price fell to £89, complete with a double-thickness windscreen and "electric hooter". By year's end, the Standard was even cheaper, £85, while the new Super Sports debuted, with an overhead valve JAP 10/40 water-cooled vee-twin, priced £155. The 10/40 engine was also available in the Aero, at £132, while a more sedate air-cooled JAP-powered Aero went for £119. The Family was priced at £102 (air-cooled) or £112 (water-cooled). These new, lower prices persisted through 1928. They would be lower still in 1929: the Standard and Family at £87 10s, the Aero £110, and the Super Sports £145. In 1933, the Family was priced at only £80. Morgan's racing programme in 1927 earned the marque eleven gold medals and three silvers from fourteen entrants at MCC's London-Edinburgh Trials alone. The team was joined by Clive Lones and C. T. Jay, who won the 1929 Cyclecar Grand Prix at Brooklands, driving a Morgan-JAP, with an average speed of . And in 1930, Gwenda Stewart turned in a speed of in a race-tuned Super Sports. Morgan three-wheelers benefitted from an annual tax of just £4, half the tax on the Austin 7, provided they remained under 8 cwt. Morgans were also licence-built in France by Darmont. By 1930, however, inexpensive four-wheeled cars were proliferating, led by the £100 Ford Popular. Morgan, and partner George Goodall, countered by putting the and Ford engine in their own cars. Morgan's last vee-twins were powered by Matchless engines displacing ; they were delivered to Australia after the Second World War. The vee-twin models were not returned to production after World War II. The Morgan Three Wheeler Club was formed in 1945. F-Series three-wheelers (1932–1952) The Morgan F-4 was introduced in 1933 at the Olympia Motor Cycle Show. The F-4 had a new pressed-steel chassis the four-cylinder Ford Sidevalve engine used in the Model Y, and a four-seat body. The F-4 was supplemented by the two-seat F-2 in 1935 and the more sporting F Super, with cycle-type wings and louvred bonnet tops, in 1937. Production of the Ford-engined three-wheelers continued until 1952. 4/4 Morgan's first four-wheeler, designated by the factory as the 4/4 because it had a four-cylinder engine and four wheels, was released to the public in 1936. Powered by a Coventry Climax engine, and carrying a pair of rear-mounted spare wheels, the new two-seater 4/4 sold for 185 guineas (£194 5s). It proved popular, and a four-place model was added in 1937, joined by a £236 drophead in 1938. Coventry Climax eventually ceased making engines available, so Morgan switched to a tuned Standard Motor Company Ten, producing . In 1938, a 4/4 was entered at Le Mans. This led to production of factory replicas, with fold-down windscreen, cycle fenders (mudguards), smaller-displacement engine, and single spare wheels, with a price of £250. Post-war cars Morgan +4 The Morgan +4 was introduced in 1950 as a larger-engined ("plus") car than the 4/4. The +4 initially used the Standard Vanguard engine and at introduction sold for £625 (two-seater) or £723 (coupé). The +4 used Triumph TR2 (in 1953), TR3 (1956), or TR4A engines (until 1969). Plus 4 production was suspended in 1969 but brought back in 1985 with a Fiat engine (1985–1988) and then a 4-cylinder Rover engine (1988–2000). Production was again suspended and the Plus 4 returned once more in 2004 with a Ford 4-cylinder. From October 1965 to April 1967 Morgan produced the two-seat +4 Competition, of which only 42 were built, about 11 of which survive. A limited edition Plus 4 was re-introduced in 2014 as the Plus 4 Super Sports. Only 60 cars were made available, all right-hand-drive. Morgan +4+ A version of the +4, the +4+, was made from 1964 to 1967 with a fibreglass coupé body. The light weight and reduced drag improved the performance of the +4+ over the standard +4 in every aspect. However, traditional Morgan enthusiasts did not embrace this departure from Morgan custom, and mainstream enthusiasts did not embrace the seemingly archaic +4 chassis. Fifty were planned, but only 26 were built. Morgan 4/4 Production of the 4/4 was halted during World War II but resumed afterwards. Production halted again in 1950 when the Standard engine ceased to be available but resumed in 1955 when a suitable replacement, the side-valve 1,172 cc Ford 100E engine was found and has continued ever since. The 4/4 now uses the +8 chassis and a Ford engine. Morgan +8 Faced with the decreasing availability of large four-cylinder engines for use in their +4 models, Morgan began to install the recently available Rover V8 engine in their cars in 1968, giving these cars the model designation "+8". The engine displacement jumped from the 2.3 L of the Triumph TR4 engine to 3.5 L, then 3.9 L (1990), 4.0 (1998–2004) with an optional 4.6L (1996–2000) all based on the same Land Rover block. However, this V-8 was no heavier than the Triumph engine. These features made the +8 accelerate much more quickly than the early +4 and also improved its road-holding capability. Horsepower (143–204 bhp), weight and performance varied with emission and structural laws through its history. Thus powered, the car could accelerate from 0–60 mph in 5.6 seconds. In its final form, the GEMS Land Rover V8 produced . Roadster In 2004, Morgan came out with a traditional styled model to replace the departing Plus 8. The Mk I Roadsters with the Ford UK Mondeo V6 produced 223 bhp (166 kW, 226 PS) at 6150 rev/min. It had a Getrag gearbox with direct drive in 5th with a 3.08 axle ratio. Later Marks had a Ford gearbox with direct drive in 4th with a 3.73 axle ratio. The overall gearing is virtually the same. The later Roadsters were powered by a Ford UK Mondeo V6 producing . In 2007, the Mondeo engine was replaced by a US-specification version of the same engine in the Roadster II. In 2011–12, the engine was replaced by the 3.7 Duratec Cyclone engine and output increased to . The company calls this latest model the Roadster 3.7. Morgan Aero 8 (Series I-V) In 2000, the Morgan Aero 8 was introduced and, as always, the wooden body substructure was ash. (Contrary to popular myth, however, the chassis is metal; aluminium for the Aero 8.) The Aero 8, with a BMW V8 engine in a car weighing less than a BMW Z4 and considerably less than a BMW M3, (though more than traditional Morgans) is even faster than the Plus 8, delivering what Autoweek magazine termed supercar performance. The newest Aero 8 (series V), presented in March 2015, puts out at 6100 rpm with the company suggesting a top speed of over . Due to the Aero 8's light weight it can do 0–62 mph (100 km/h) in 4.5 seconds. During its customer production lifetime (2002–2009), the Aero was configured in five official versions, (I, II, III, IV, the Aero America and V) with mild variations in styling, engines, transmissions, braking and suspension. The company cancelled the model in 2009 but relaunched it in 2015 for 2016 deliveries. The year of highest production for any Aero variation was 2002. Morgan AeroMax The Aero was followed by the Aeromax, a limited edition of 100 units produced between 2008 and early 2010. The Aeromax was a coupé variation of the Aero 8. Customers have included Richard Hammond, Rowan Atkinson and Paul O'Grady. Morgan Aero SuperSports The Morgan Aero SuperSports is a targa-roofed version of the AeroMax, sharing its bonded aluminium chassis and lower bodywork with the coupe. It was launched at the 2009 Pebble Beach car show in California. Its cancellation was announced in March 2015. Morgan Aero Coupé The Morgan Aero Coupé is a hard top version of the Aero SuperSports, sharing its bonded aluminium chassis, bodywork, suspension and engine. It was launched at the end of 2011. It is not available in the United States. Its cancellation was announced in March 2015. Morgan Plus 8 The new Morgan Plus 8 is a classic body version of the Aero SuperSports and Aero Coupé, sharing their bonded aluminium chassis, bodywork, suspension and engine. It was launched at the end of 2011. It is not available in the United States. In 2019, Morgan announced its cancellation. Morgan Plus E The Morgan Plus E is an electric version of a classical Morgan, a joint project of Morgan with Zytek and Radshape (Radshape Sheet Metal Ltd.), funded by the UK government. It was displayed at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show. It has never been produced and the project was abandoned. Morgan Eva GT Based on the same chassis as the Aero Supersports, the Eva GT would have been a 2+2 grand tourer, and as such it would be longer in the body. The Eva GT would use BMW N54 twin-turbo straight-6 producing 302 bhp, Euro-6 emissions compliant. Shown at Pebble Beach in clay in 2010 and expected to go on sale in 2012, deposits have been taken since 2010. At the end of 2011, Morgan announced that it would use new magnesium technology for the body and therefore it would not be represented until 2014 with deliveries after that. In 2013 dealers confirmed that the EvaGT had been cancelled. Morgan 3-Wheeler The Morgan Motor Company announced that they would launch the "3 Wheeler" in 2011 at the Geneva Motor Show. The 3 Wheeler was initially said to have a Harley-Davidson Screaming Eagle V-twin engine and a Mazda 5-speed manual transmission, and was estimated to deliver at the rear wheel. However, the prototype that was shown at Geneva had an S&S engine. Production three-wheelers turned out to have S&S engines. The kerb weight was originally estimated to be less than , but the final weight was tested at . The acceleration from zero to was estimated by Morgan as 4.5 seconds, with an (estimated) top speed of . The three-wheeler is to be homologated as a motorcycle in the United States. The company states that 850 deposits have been taken since the announcement in 2011. Customer deliveries began in Europe in February 2012. US deliveries were not expected before June 2012, when the first imported three-wheeler was displayed in New York City and at the Greenwich Concours d'Elegance. The Morgan 3 Wheeler was featured in a Series 18 episode of UK motoring show Top Gear where presenter Richard Hammond selected the Morgan 3 Wheeler in a comparison of track-day cars. The 3 Wheeler won the "Not-A-Car of the Year 2011" in Top Gear magazine. Morgan SP1 In September 2014, Morgan introduced the Morgan SP1 as well as its newly formed Special Projects division. The one-off coupe uses the same Ford 3.7L V6 as in the Morgan Roadster. The exterior is inspired by Morgan's LIFEcar concept and its egg-crate wooden frame is made of ash and African Bubinga red hardwood. Morgan Plus Six The Morgan Plus Six was announced in March 2019 at the Geneva Motor Show. Instead of the traditional Morgan ladder frame and sliding-pillar suspension, it has a new bonded aluminium chassis and all-independent suspension design, with double wishbones at the front and a multi-link system for the rear. The Plus Six is powered by a BMW B58 turbocharged in-line six-cylinder petrol engine, producing 335 bhp, coupled to an eight-speed ZF automatic transmission. Morgan Plus Four The Morgan Plus Four was revealed online in March 2020. Like the Plus Six, it uses a "CX-Generation" bonded aluminium chassis and all-independent suspension design. The Plus Four is powered by a BMW B48 turbocharged in-line four-cylinder petrol engine producing 255 bhp, with either a six-speed manual transmission or an eight-speed automatic transmission. Availability in the United States For part of the 1950s and 1960s, the United States provided the company with its largest market worldwide, taking up to 85% of all production. This ended with the first wave of US safety and emission regulations in 1971. For many years (1974 to 1992), all Morgans imported into the United States were converted to run on propane as fuel to pass the US emissions regulations. However, this conversion, along with bringing the cars into compliance with US vehicle safety legislation, was carried out by the dealership, and not by the factory, making the cars grey market vehicles. However, when the Rover Group re-certified their V8 engine for use in the Range Rover 4x4 sold in the US, Morgan was able to use the same engine for a fully US-compliant stock Morgan from 1992 to 1996, and again from 1998 to 2004. In 2005, the engine was replaced with the US-version of another traditionally shaped model (with a V6), called the Roadster. In 2002, Morgan centralised its international compliancy development and regulatory interaction in-house. In 2005, its right to import its classic models ceased when supplies of its necessary airbag were exhausted and no replacement was developed. In 2006, a request for an airbag exemption to the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration was refused, and the import of classic Morgans ceased. In 2005, the new Morgan Aero 8 model (versions 2 and 3) received a three-year exemption from rear impact non-compliance, along with a separate exemption for compliance with "advanced airbag requirements". The rear-impact exemption lapsed in May 2008 without further application. Morgan has indicated to its US dealers that it plans to re-apply for US certification for some model at as yet an undetermined date in the future. In April 2012, the new Morgan 3-Wheeler was showcased at the New York International Auto Show, at the Jacob Javits Center, by Bobby Singh and Gideon Lang-Laddie of Manhattan Motorsports. This was the first time in 10 years that Morgan had had a presence at the largest of the American car shows and was the first US specification Morgan 3-Wheeler in the United States. The Morgan 3 Wheeler was voted one of the "Hottest Cars Of The Show" by G4TV. In May 2012, Manhattan Motorsports took delivery of Charles Morgan's Superdry edition Morgan 3-Wheeler and prepared it for its first major American trial. This vehicle was driven across the States, from New York to Los Angeles by Charles Morgan and his wife, covering 3000 miles, in the Gumball 3000. At the end of the seven-day drive, the Morgan 3 Wheeler was awarded the "Spirit of Gumball" prize. General characteristics In spite of their traditional design, Morgans have always had sporting or "sports car" performance, due to their extremely low weight. Among their Australian enthusiasts, Morgans are affectionately known as "Moggies". Suspension H.F.S. Morgan's 1909 runabout used sliding pillar suspension, an independent front suspension system with each front wheel mounted on a stub axle able to slide up and down a fixed pillar that also acts as the kingpin and supported by a spring and external shock absorber (damper). One advantage is reduced unsprung weight, theoretically allowing the tyre and wheel to better respond to road surface irregularities. The Morgan system is described as an 'inverted' sliding pillar, as the pillar is fixed and the hub carrier slides over it. Earlier systems had the wheel carried on the pillar, sliding through a bush on the axle. Morgan used developments of this suspension system throughout its existence, and it is still used on Morgan's "classic" line, although not on the Aero 8 or its derivatives. It has been cancelled, along with all the Morgan Classic line, in 2019. However, some "classics", shipped in parts to avoid the need for normal compliancy, will be shipped to the US, and assembled there for an indefinite period. Models 1909 Runabout 1911–1939 V-Twin 3-wheeler 1932–1952 F-Series 3-wheeler 1936–2019 4/4 Two-Seater and Four-Seater 1950–1969 Plus 4 1964–1967 Plus 4 Plus 1965-1967 Morgan +4 Competition two seater 1968–2004 (and 2012–19) Plus 8 1985–2000 Plus 4 2001–2009 Aero 8 2004–2012 V6 Roadster 2005–present Plus 4 2006–cancelled Morgan LIFEcar 2008–2009 AeroMax 2009–present Morgan 4/4 Sport 2010–2015 Aero SuperSports 2010–cancelled Morgan Eva GT 2011–cancelled Morgan Plus E 2011–2012 Morgan Plus 4 Supersports 2011–present Morgan Anniversary 4/4 2012–2015 Aero Coupe 2012–2021 Morgan 3-Wheeler 2012–19 Morgan Aero 8 2012–present Roadster 3.7 2015–19 Morgan Aero 8 2018 Morgan EV3 2019–present Morgan Plus Six 2020–present Morgan Plus Four 2022–present Morgan Super 3 Motorsports Morgan cars can be found in many areas of motorsport, from club and historic racing to more prominent examples, including the Le Mans 24hr race. A notable Morgan racecar was the Aero 8 GT car that campaigned in 2008 Britcar races and the 2008 Britcar 24hrs at Silverstone, prepared and run by Mark Bailey Racing. Pescarolo Sport rebranded its Le Mans Prototype as a Morgan for the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans, partly to mark the 50th anniversary of a class victory for a Morgan Plus Four Super Sports at Le Mans. See also List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom List of motorized trikes References External links The Morgan Motor Company Morgan Motor Company Visitors Centre and Museum GoMoG Workshop Manual Morganatica – A Technical Manual Resource For Morgan Motor Cars Morgan History Info site Car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Sports car manufacturers Three-wheeled motor vehicles Automobile museums in England Museums in Worcestershire Malvern, Worcestershire Companies based in Worcestershire Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1910 Family-owned companies of England

424365

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Lee

Martin Lee

Martin Lee Chu-ming (; born 8 June 1938) is a Hong Kong politician and barrister. He is the founding chairman of the United Democrats of Hong Kong and its successor, the Democratic Party, Hong Kong's flagship pro-democracy party. He was also a member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1985 to 1997 and from 1998 to 2008. Nicknamed the "Father of Democracy" in Hong Kong, he is recognised as one of the most prominent advocates for democracy and human rights in Hong Kong and China. A barrister by profession, Lee served as the chairman of the Hong Kong Bar Association from 1980 to 1983. He became involved in discussions over Hong Kong's handover to China, and in 1985 he joined the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee to assist in the drafting of Hong Kong's Basic Law, the city's mini-constitution post-handover. He was, however, expelled from the body in 1989 in the wake of the 1989 Tiananmen square crackdown, due to his condemnation of the Beijing government's role in the incident and his vocal support for the student protestors. In 1985 he was elected to the Legislative Council, where he advocated strongly for the protection of human rights and democratic reform. In 1990, he became the founding chairman of the first pro-democracy party in Hong Kong, the United Democrats of Hong Kong, and later its successor, the Democratic Party. Under his leadership, the party won two landslide victories in the direct elections of 1991 and 1995, and emerged as one of the largest political parties in Hong Kong. He worked closely with the last Hong Kong Governor Chris Patten in an attempt to push forward constitutional reform in relation to democratic elections, attracting strong criticism from the Beijing government. In June 1997, he was forced to step down from his office when the colonial legislature was dissolved, alongside a number of other legislators; they later won back their seats in the Legislative Council in 1998. He resigned as the chairman of the Democratic Party in December 2002, and in 2008 he retired as a member of the Legislative Council. Prior to July 2020 he remained active in advocating and lobbying for the democratic cause both locally and internationally. This ended with the passage of the Hong Kong National Security Law on 1 July 2020. Early life, education and legal career A son of Kuomintang Lieutenant General Lee Yin-wo, Lee was born in Hong Kong on 8 June 1938, his mother having journeyed to the British colony on a vacation. His father fought against the Empire of Japan during World War II. In 1949, the family moved to Hong Kong after the Communist takeover of China. Lee's father taught at Wah Yan College, a Jesuit school in Kowloon, for nine years, and then taught part time at the Institute of Chinese Studies. His father maintained a good relationship with the Communist leadership, notably Premier Zhou Enlai, who repeatedly invited him back to the Mainland. Lee Yin-wo's funeral in 1989 was attended by people from both sides of the political spectrum. Martin Lee studied at Wah Yan College, Kowloon and read English Literature and Philosophy at the University of Hong Kong, sponsored by his mentor, the renowned barrister Dr. Patrick Yu. After graduating in 1960, Lee taught for three years before training as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in England. He was called to the bar and began practising law in Hong Kong in 1966. During the 1967 Hong Kong riots, Lee defended the pro-Beijing Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions at court, thus laying the foundations of his future relationship with the Chinese Communist Party. In 1979, he was made Queen's Counsel. From 1980 to 1983, he was the chairman of the Hong Kong Bar Association. Political career Entry into politics Lee began his involvement in politics when the British and Chinese governments began their negotiations over Hong Kong's sovereignty in the early 1980s. Lee was in the delegation consisting of Hong Kong's young professionals led by Allen Lee, a member of the Executive and the Legislative Councils of Hong Kong in Beijing in May 1983. The delegation sought to maintain the status quo in Hong Kong and extend British rule by an additional 15 to 30 years. Their requests were turned down by Beijing officials. Lee was concerned about the maintenance of judicial independence under Chinese rule and called for the preservation of Hong Kong's legal system. He also suggested the creation of an independent Court of Final Appeal in place of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council after 1997. In December 1984, he was invited as one of the attendees at the signing ceremony of the Sino-British Joint Declaration. In 1985, he was among the 23 Hong Kong representatives invited by Beijing to sit on the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee to draft the mini-constitution of post-1997 Hong Kong, the Basic Law of Hong Kong, where he met another outspoken democrat Szeto Wah. Lee and Szeto became the two lone dissidents in the heavily Beijing-influenced Drafting Committee. Lee's father warned him that the Chinese Communists liked to use people and then get rid of them. Lee said he told his father that "I know the chances of implementing this policy 'One Country, Two Systems' and Hong Kong people ruling Hong Kong are not great. But then I know if I don't even try, the chances are zero." In September 1985, Martin Lee ran in the Legislative Council elections when the Hong Kong government decided to introduce a handful of indirectly elected seats. His surprise victory over another prominent barrister Henry Litton and lawyer Edmund Chow in a three-way contest in the Legal functional constituency, elected by all the lawyers in Hong Kong, catapulted him to the political stage. He retained his seat in the 1988 re-election unopposed. He became the most recognisable and consistent voice pressing for rapid democratic reform. In the debate on the 1988 Green Paper on the Further Development of Representative Government, Lee was at the forefront of a campaign to introduce direct elections in the 1988 election with Szeto Wah, who won a seat in 1985 through the Teaching constituency. He and other liberals formed the Joint Committee on the Promotion of Democratic Government in 1986, which consisted of about 190 organisations who rallied support for direct elections, including the collection of 220,000 signatures (incl. names and identity card numbers). However, the government concluded in the White Paper that direct elections should not be introduced in 1988 based on public opinion. Lee condemned the government for mishandling the consultative exercise, accusing them of backing down on direct elections in the face of Beijing's pressure. He also campaigned against the construction of the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant in 1986 in which the Chernobyl disaster sparked fears over safety among the Hong Kong public. Lee actively sought for public support through meetings and a signature campaign, which collected over one million signatures. He criticised the government for not disclosing information about the project and attempted to force the government to disclose information under the Legislative Council Power and Privilege Ordinance. He again rallied public support against the amendment of the Public Order Ordinance in 1987 in which the government sought to criminalise the "publishing of false news likely to cause public alarm." Lee worked diligently against the provision, moving the amendment "that any prosecution could only be made upon official proof that a report is false and reckless and that the defendant knew that the facts are false or failed to prove the validity of the facts out of rash" but failed. The case was submitted before the United Nations Human Rights Committee in November 1988 and was eventually repealed in January 1989. From 1988 to 1991, he was appointed chairman of the Hong Kong Consumer Council. He also served as legal adviser to the Hong Kong Journalists Association, the Scout Association of Hong Kong and numerous professional bodies. Tiananmen Square protests and democracy movements In the Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee, Lee also actively lobbied for a democratic post-1997 political system with Szeto Wah. He and the liberals proposed the "Group of 190" proposal which demanded a directly elected government set up as soon as possible. Their view was countered bya number of conservatives in the Drafting and Consultative Committees who rallied under the name of the "Group of 89" backed by big-business interests. During the Tiananmen protests May and June 1989, Martin Lee was an outspoken supporter of the student movement for more democracy and freedom in China. He, Szeto Wah and other liberals formed the Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China in May of which he was the vice-chairman, organising multiple rallies in support of the students in Hong Kong which attracted hundreds of thousands of attendees. After the military crackdown, Lee led the Hong Kong demonstration against the Beijing authorities. He told BBC's Jonathan Dimbleby that "handing over 5.5 million people to China who are deemed counter-revolutionary is like handing over 5.5 million Jews to Nazi Germany during the Second World War, when they were born in a British territory." He also said that it could not be presumed that "the Joint Declaration is as inviolable as the Bible. Britain and China should restart talks to reach a better agreement for Hong Kong than the declaration decided in 1984." He also testified before the United States Congress Committee on human rights and aired support to imposing economic sanctions against for the massacre. In July 1989, he and Szeto Wah were labelled as "counter-revolutionaries" by the state-owned People's Daily. The duo's membership in the Drafting Committee was subsequently stripped by the National People's Congress Standing Committee after they were barred from attending any meetings due to their "anti-China stance". He was then barred from entering Mainland China, with the only exception of a brief visit in Guangdong in 2005 as a Legislative Council member, in which he responded: "As a Chinese citizen, I am not allowed back to my own country even though I'm welcome in every country in the world." The strained relationship between Lee and the Communist Party also led to the constant attacks from the pro-Beijing media. In response to the worsening crisis of confidence in Hong Kong, he joined hands with many politicians from different spectrum to advocating the granting of the right of abode in Britain to Hong Kong people as a "safety exit". He also called for the rapid introduction of the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance and a fully democratically elected Legislative Council before 1997. He also began to lobby the United States to develop a specific policy on Hong Kong's democracy development. However he opposed the US idea of withdrawing "most favoured nation" status from Beijing. Martin Lee's efforts resulted in the adoption of the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act in 1992. Martin Lee has increasingly been seen as the spokesman for Hong Kong democracy on the international stage. In June 1995, Asiaweek magazine named Lee one of Twenty Great Asians "who have changed the region over the past two decades." In September 1995, ABC TV named Martin Lee its "Person of the Week" for leading Hong Kong's pro-democracy forces to electoral success. Lee was also awarded by a number of international organisations, including the "1995 International Human Rights Award" by the American Bar Association, the Prize For Freedom by the Liberal International in 1996, the "Democracy Award" by the US National Endowment for Democracy in 1997, and the "Schuman Medal" in 2000 which Lee was the first non-European to receive from the European Peoples Party and European Democrats. In November 2004 he was awarded by Rutgers College with the Brennan Human Rights Award. In preparation for the first direct elections of the Legislative Council in 1991, the liberals gathered themselves on the basis of the Joint Committee on the Promotion of Democratic Government to form a first major political party in Hong Kong, the United Democrats of Hong Kong in April 1990. Martin Lee was elected the party's founding chairman. Under Lee's leadership, the United Democrats won a landslide victory in the election, pocketing 12 of the 18 directly elected seats, out of the total number of 60 seats in the Legislative Council. Martin Lee himself was elected through the Hong Kong Island East constituency, receiving the most votes in the election. After the election, the United Democrats became the largest party in the legislature. In response to the election, the British government decided to appoint Chris Patten to become the last Hong Kong Governor. Chris Patten announced the constitutional reform package which largely expanded the electorates of the nine newly created functional constituencies. The package was strongly opposed by the Beijing government and alienated the pro-government Liberal Party led by Allen Lee who now became Beijing's allies in the legislature. The United Democrats generally supported the Chris Patten's package and eventually helped it to get passed in the Legislative Council. In response to Patten's proposal, the Beijing government decided to dismantle the "through train" agreement, which allowed the 1995 elected legislature to transition beyond 1997, and replace it with the Provisional Legislative Council in which Lee deemed "an illegal and unconstitutional body". In preparation for the 1995 three-tier elections, the pro-democracy camp further consolidated themselves by merging the United Democrats and another moderate pro-democracy party Meeting Point into the Democratic Party in 1994 in which Martin Lee was elected the founding chairman. In the 1995 Legislative Council election in which all seats were elected, the Democratic Party scored another landslide victory, winning 12 seats of the 20 directly elected seats and 19 seats out of the total 60 seats, almost double than the second party Liberal Party. With other pro-democracy parties and individuals, the pro-democracy camp commanded about half of the seats in the legislature in the last two years of the colonial rule. On 30 June 1997 the eve of the handover of Hong Kong, the pro-democrats were forced to step down from the Legislative Council as the "through train" was dissolved. On the eve of the handover of Hong Kong on 1 July 1997, Lee travelled to Europe, Australia and the United States to express his concerns to officials, politicians and business leaders. He met in April with US Secretary of State Madeleine K. Albright and later with President Bill Clinton, who had openly voiced out his support in democracy and human rights in China and Hong Kong. However he was dissatisfied with the Clinton administration's unwillingness to take a tough line on the Beijing's policy of Provisional Legislative Council. He met with Clinton again in 1998 during his visit to Hong Kong. It was widely speculated that whether Martin Lee would become "Martyr Lee", a nickname given by some in the business community, after 1997 given his high-profile pro-democracy and anti-Beijing stance which was seen as "counter-revolutionary" and "subversive" by Beijing. Lee said he would never leave Hong Kong and stressed that he was not anti-China but only opposed the regime in Beijing. Lee under Chinese rule Martin Lee and the Democratic Party was elected back to the Legislative Council in the 1998 first election. Despite winning the most votes, the party seats decreased to 13, as their advantage was undermined by the proportional representation system installed by the Beijing-controlled Provisional Legislative Council. He went on getting re-elected for two more terms in 2000 and 2004. A major concern about Hong Kong's legal and political autonomy was raised in January 1999 when the government sought to the interpretation of the Basic Law by the National People's Congress Standing Committee after it was defeated in the Court of Final Appeal over the legal challenges over the right of abode of a person with at least one parent was a Hong Kong resident, as the Provisional Legislative Council passed ordinances restricting the right. The Basic Law interpretation sparked outcry from various sectors. Martin Lee accused the government of "giving away" Hong Kong's autonomy and condemned this move as "a dagger striking at the heart of the rule of law" and in symbolic protest walked out of the Legislative Council with 18 other members, all dressed in black, while 600 lawyers dressed in black held a silent protest against the interpretation. Martin Lee's Democratic Party chairmanship was also embattled with the intra-party factional struggles, in which he failed to resolve the ideological differences between the party members. The radical "Young Turks" faction launched a coup d'état in the 2000 leadership election by challenging the vice-chairman post held by Anthony Cheung from the moderate faction and eventually ousted Cheung from the vice-chairman post. The factional struggles intensified the "Young Turk" leader Andrew To proposed to put the minimum wage legislation on the 2000 Legislative Council election platform which caused a fierce debate within the party and resulted in great disunity that led to the exodus of the "Young Turks" from the party and created a bad image in front of the public. Martin Lee's decision to support former Bar Association chairman and barrister Audrey Eu over his Democratic Party member in the 2000 Hong Kong Island by-election also received criticism within the party. In 2002, Martin Lee decided to step down as party chairman and was succeeded by Yeung Sum. In 2002 and 2003, Martin Lee and the Democratic Party opposed the proposed national security legislation on the basis of the Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23 which they feared would undermine the Hong Kong people's civil liberties. Martin Lee traveled to the West to rally for international support. Chief Executive Tung Chee-hwa bashed Lee for "bad mouthing" the Special Administrative Region in front of the international audience for six years. Lee replied by saying that they were merely bad-mouthing a law that would be "thoroughly bad for Hong Kong". The protest against the Article 23 legislation eventually drew more than 500,000 people on 1 July 2003 and the government announced to shelve the bill indefinitely knowing that it could not get enough votes in the legislature. In March 2004 when Martin Lee went to Washington to testify on Hong Kong's democracy development at a US Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the Beijing officials took rounds to attack Lee for inviting foreign power meddling in Hong Kong's internal affairs. Lee was called "traitor" upon his return to Hong Kong by pro-Beijing media and supporters. In the 2004 Legislative Council election, the pro-democracy camp filled two tickets in the Hong Kong Island geographical constituency, the Democratic Party's Yeung Sum and Martin Lee and independent–Frontier joint ticket of Audrey Eu and Cyd Ho in hope of taking four seats out of six seats with the slogan "1+1=4". However the pre-election polls showed that the Eu-Ho ticket had far more support and Lee was in danger of losing, causing the Democratic Party to request all supporters to vote instead for their ticket. As a result, the Yeung-Lee ticket drew too many votes from the Eu-Ho ticket, causing the defeat of Cyd Ho by Choy So-yuk of the pro-Beijing Democratic Alliance for the Betterment of Hong Kong, by a slim margin of 815 votes. When the results were announced in the morning of the following day, Martin Lee said in tears before cameras "I'd rather lose with dignity than win like this", on the "unexpected" defeat of Cyd Ho. It also caused disaffection from the pro-democracy supporters. In October 2007, Lee published an article named "China's Olympic Opportunity" in The Wall Street Journal criticising Beijing for not living up to its promise to improve its human rights status during the Summer Olympic bid. Lee urged the West, particularly the United States, not to boycott the 2008 Olympic games but to instead take the opportunity while China is opening itself up to the world to "engage" China directly to bring China closer to the international community in terms of its human rights. His article received rounds of criticism from the pro-Beijing media for asking the West to "intervene" China's internal affairs. Some media even claimed that Lee asked United States to boycott the games. That immediately stirred backlash from Beijing loyalists, who virtually accused Lee of being a hanjian, traitor of the Han people. On 27 October, the Democratic Party issued an announcement to newspapers setting out the party's position regarding the article Lee published. Chairman Albert Ho reiterated, "It is not an apology, but a clear declaration of what we stand for." After being a member of the Legislative Council for 23 years, Lee announced on 27 March 2008 that he would not seek re-election when his term ended in September of that year. After Legislative Council Martin Lee remained active in commenting politics and his legal practise after his retirement from the Legislative Council, especially taking cases of defending the pro-democracy activists who were charged for obstructing public order among other offences. In 2009, he was marginalised by his party when he held different stance on the "Five Constituencies Referendum" proposed by the radical League of Social Democrats to press the government to implement the universal suffrage of the Chief Executive and the Legislative Council in 2012 by launching a territory-wide by-election after five pro-democracy Legislative Councillor resigned from their offices at the same time, while the majority wing of the party led by Szeto Wah openly opposed the plan who criticised Lee for "not quite understanding politics". Lee attended the rally in support of the five resigned Legislative Councillors. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party began to negotiate with the Beijing authorities and reached an agreement with the government. After the agreement, Lee expressed his disappointment and his consideration of quitting the party. Martin Lee actively lobbied in the West with former Chief Secretary for Administration and Hong Kong 2020 convenor Anson Chan for the support in the Hong Kong's democracy movement during the debate on the 2017/2020 electoral reform in 2014. The duo went to the United States and met Joe Biden, US vice-president, Nancy Pelosi, minority leader of the House of Representatives, and members of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China and spoke out against Beijing increasing control over Hong Kong and their fear of only candidates picked by Beijing would be allowed to take part in the 2017 Chief Executive election. In July 2014, Martin Lee and Anson Chan visited the United Kingdom and met with Deputy Prime Minister and the leader of the Liberal Democrats Nick Clegg and attended a Foreign Affairs Select Committee hearing, speaking out that they were "concerned that neither of the two signatories to the Joint Declaration – that is, China and Britain – is adequately fulfilling their respective responsibilities on the terms of this internationally binding treaty." Liu Xiaoming, Chinese ambassador to Britain, described Martin Lee and Anson Chan as "bent on undermining the stability of Hong Kong". In the massive pro-democracy Occupy protests from October to December 2014, he was among the pro-democracy activists staging a final sit-in and arrested, putting an end to a 75-day street occupation. Small House Policy In December 2018, Lee represented Kwok Cheuk-kin and Hendrick Lui Chi-hang in an attempt to repeal the Small House Policy, a policy which Lee said discriminates against the majority of people in Hong Kong by discriminating based on descent and gender. In his arguments, Lee said that Qing dynasty laws did not forbid females or outsiders to buy land in the New Territories. Lee mentioned that the policy for villagers to build homes without paying land fees was only implemented after the British began to rule the New Territories in 1898, and that before then, there was no mention of such a policy under Qing dynasty rule. Therefore, Lee said that the right for male villagers to build homes without paying land fees are based on British policies and were never part of the indigenous traditions that the Basic Law protects under Article 40, which does not specifically mention small houses and only says "The lawful traditional rights and interests of the indigenous inhabitants of the 'New Territories' shall be protected by the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region." Finally, Lee also argued that the policy is based on a person's descent and sex (women are excluded), which is "unconstitutional" as it was against Basic Law Article 25, which states "All Hong Kong residents shall be equal before the law." In response, Kenneth Lau Ip-keung of the Heung Yee Kuk, an organization that supports the small house policy, said that villagers "firmly believe" that the small house policy is protected under Article 40. Short arrest On 18 April 2020, Martin Lee was arrested as one of 15 Hong Kong high-profile democracy figures, on suspicion of organizing, publicizing or taking part in several unauthorized assemblies between August and October 2019 in the course of the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests. Following protocol, the police statement did not disclose the names of the accused. He was freed the same day on bail. After, Martin Lee said that he was arrested for the first time in his life but has no regrets and is proud of his democratic work: "Over the months and years, I've felt bad to see so many outstanding youngsters being arrested and prosecuted, but I was not charged. Now I've finally become a defendant. I feel proud that I have a chance to walk this path of democracy together with them." On 1 April 2021, judge Amanda Jane Woodcock (胡雅文) convicted Martin Lee of "holding an unauthorised assembly". On 16 April, Lee received a sentence of 11 months in jail, suspended for 24 months, for his part in the 2019 unauthorised assemblies. National Security Law Lee stopped his public activism as a result of the Hong Kong National Security Law which went into effect on 1 July 2020. He stopped granting interviews to media organisations. Recognition Lee was nominated for the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize by multiple Norwegian members of parliament. Personal life Lee is a devoted Roman Catholic and a close friend with Cardinal Joseph Zen. Lee's wife is Amelia Lee Fong Yee-ngor (方綺娥). They have one son, Joseph Lee, also a barrister. See also Human rights in Hong Kong Liberal International Liberalism in Hong Kong List of graduates of University of Hong Kong Politics of Hong Kong References External links 1992 U.S.–Hong Kong Policy Act Expert addresses Hong Kong political system The Daily Cardinal Biography on liberal-international.org 1938 births Living people Alumni of the University of Hong Kong People from Huizhou Hong Kong democracy activists Hong Kong people of Hakka descent Hong Kong politicians of Hakka descent Hong Kong Roman Catholics Politicians from Guangzhou Hong Kong Senior Counsel Alumni of Wah Yan Democratic Party (Hong Kong) politicians 20th-century King's Counsel United Democrats of Hong Kong politicians HK LegCo Members 1985–1988 HK LegCo Members 1988–1991 HK LegCo Members 1991–1995 HK LegCo Members 1995–1997 HK LegCo Members 1998–2000 HK LegCo Members 2000–2004 HK LegCo Members 2004–2008 Hong Kong Basic Law Drafting Committee members Hong Kong Queen's Counsel

424402

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-market%20environmentalism

Free-market environmentalism

Free-market environmentalism argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best means of preserving the environment, internalizing pollution costs, and conserving resources. Free-market environmentalists therefore argue that the best way to protect the environment is to clarify and protect property rights. This allows parties to negotiate improvements in environmental quality. It also allows them to use torts to stop environmental harm. If affected parties can compel polluters to compensate them they will reduce or eliminate the externality. Market proponents advocate changes to the legal system that empower affected parties to obtain such compensation. They further claim that governments have limited affected parties' ability to do so by complicating the tort system to benefit producers over others. Tenets While environmental problems may be viewed as market failures, free market environmentalists argue that environmental problems arise because: The state encodes, provides and enforces laws which override or obscure property rights and thus fail to protect them adequately. Given the technological and legal context in which people operate, transaction costs are too high to allow parties to negotiate to a solution better for the environment. Laws governing class or individual tort claims provide polluters with immunity from tort claims, or interfere with those claims in such a way as to make it difficult to legally sustain them. Though many environmentalists blame markets for many of today's environmental problems, free-market environmentalists blame many of these problems on distortions of the market and the lack of markets. Government actions are blamed for a number of environmental detriments. A misunderstanding of the tragedy of the commons, which is seen as a fundamental problem for the environment. When land is held in common, anybody may use it. Since resources are consumable, this creates the incentive for entrepreneurs to use common resources before somebody else does. Many environmental resources are held by the government or in common, such as air, water, forests. A claimed problem with regulation is that it puts property into a political commons, where individuals try to appropriate public resources for their own gain, a phenomenon called rent-seeking. Tenure – Renters do not benefit from value accrued during their tenure and thus face an incentive to extract as much value as possible without conservation. Political allocation – Political information does not have the incentives that markets do to seek superior information (profit and loss). Though many participants provide input to governments, they can only make one decision. This means that governments create rules that are not well crafted for local situations. The government's strategy is that of anticipation, to hide from danger through regulations. A healthier society would use resilience, facing and overcoming risks. Perverse subsidies – Governments offer cross subsidies that distort price systems. This means that underconsumers and overconsumers are paying the same rates, so the underconsumer is overpaying and the overconsumer is underpaying. The incentive leads to more overconsumers and fewer underconsumers. Increased transaction costs – Governments may create rules that make it difficult to transfer rights in ways that benefit the environment. For example, in the western United States, many states have laws over water rights that make it difficult for environmental groups to purchase in-stream flows from farmers. Market tools Markets are not perfect, and free-market environmentalists assert that market-based solutions will have their mistakes. Through strong feedback mechanisms such as risk, profit and loss, market-driven have strong incentives to learn from mistakes. Individual choice Consumers have the incentive to maximize their satisfaction and try to find low cost, high value options. Markets allocate resources to the highest bidder. Producers make purchases on behalf of the consumer. Due to many actors in the market, there is no one-size-fits-all solution and entrepreneurs will seek to fulfill many values of society, including conservation. Entrepreneurship – Entrepreneurs seek value, problem-solve, and coordinate resources. Price system – When resources become scarce, prices rise. Rising prices incentivize entrepreneurs to find substitutions for these resources. These resources are often conserved. E.g. as prices for coal rise, consumers will use less and higher prices will drive substitution for different energy sources. Property rights – Owners face a strong incentive to take care of and protect their property. They must decide how much to use today and how much to use tomorrow. Everybody is trying to grow value. Corporate value and share price is based on their anticipated future profits. Owners with the possibility of transferring their property, either to an heir or through sale want their property to grow in value. Property rights encourage conservation and defend resources against depletion, since there is a strong incentive to maximize the value of the resource for the future. Common law – In order to have working property rights, you need a good system to defend them. When rights are weak, people will violate them. By creating a strong system, where common resources can be homesteaded, transferred, and defended against harm, resources can be protected, managed, allocated with the results that aggregate and balance humanity's needs and wants. The market is a non-political allocation device. Many environmentalists proposals call to return resources from markets to become political problems. Issues Coasian bargaining Some economists argue that, if industries internalized the costs of negative externalities, they would face an incentive to reduce them, perhaps even becoming enthusiastic about taking advantage of opportunities to improve profitability through lower costs. Moreover, economists claim this would lead to the optimal balance between the marginal benefits of pursuing an activity and the marginal cost of its environmental consequences. One well-known means of internalizing a negative consequence is to establish a property right over some phenomenon formerly in the public domain. The Coase theorem is one extreme version of this logic. If property rights are well defined and if there are no transaction costs, then market participants can negotiate to a solution that internalizes the externality. Moreover, this solution will not depend on who is allocated the property right. For example, a paper mill and a resort might be on the same lake. Suppose the benefits to the resort of a clean lake outweigh the benefits to the mill of being able to pollute. If the mill has the right to pollute, the resort will pay it not to. If the resort has the right to a pollution-free lake, it will keep that right, as the mill will be unable to compensate it for its pollution. However, critics have charged that the "theorem" attributed to Coase is of extremely limited practicability because of its assumptions, including no transaction costs, and is ill-suited to real world externalities which have high bargaining costs due to many factors. More generally, free-market environmentalists argue that transaction costs "count" as real costs. If the cost of re-allocating property rights exceeds the benefits of doing so, then it is actually optimal to stay in the status quo. This means the initial allocation of property rights is not neutral and also that it has important implications for efficiency. Nevertheless, given the existing property rights regime, costly changes to it are not necessarily efficient, even if in hindsight an alternative regime would have been better. But if there are opportunities for property rights to evolve, entrepreneurs can find them to create new wealth. Geolibertarianism Libertarian Georgists (or Geolibertarians) maintain a strong essential commitment to free markets but reject the Coasian solution in favor of land value taxation, wherein the economic rent of land is collected by the community and either equally distributed to adult residents in the form of universal basic income, called the citizen's dividend, or used to fund necessary functions of a minimal government. Under the LVT system, only landholders are taxed and on the basis of the market value of the earth in its unimproved state, that is to say, apart from the value of any structures or products of human labor. Geolibertarians regard the LVT as just compensation for a legal land title granting exclusive access to that which logically precedes and generates private capital, whose supply is inelastic, which properly belongs to all, and to which all have an equal right because it is vital to human existence and economic activity—the ground itself—and thus consider land value capture both morally imperative and a natural source of revenue. Taxation of land values has been advocated by many classical economists and theorists of classical liberalism, but this approach was popularized as the Single Tax by political economist and public intellectual Henry George in the late 19th century. Geolibertarians generally also support Pigouvian taxes on pollution and fees as compensation for natural resource extraction, negative externalities which adversely affect land values in particular. Many argue the monopolization of land promotes idle land speculation, real estate bubbles, urban sprawl and artificially severe wealth inequality, while violating the Lockean proviso and denying others rightful access to the earth. Anarcho-capitalism Rothbardian anarcho-capitalists also reject the proposed Coasian solution as making invalid assumptions about the purely subjective notion of costs being measurable in monetary terms, and also of making unexamined and invalid value judgments (i.e., ethical judgments). (Wayback Machine PDF) The Rothbardians' solution is to recognize individuals' Lockean property rights, of which the Rothbardians maintain that Wertfreiheit (i.e., value-free) economic analysis demonstrates that this arrangement necessarily maximizes social utility. (Toward a Reconstruction of Utility and Welfare Economics PDF) Murray Rothbard himself believed the term "free-market environmentalism" to be oxymoronic. On his view the unimproved natural environment, undeveloped and unowned, can in no sense be considered property until it is transformed via Lockean homesteading. Unlike geolibertarians and many classical liberals, however, Rothbard emphatically rejected Locke's proviso as inconsistent with his theory of property acquisition. Against environmentalism Rothbard said: "The problem is that environmentalists are not interested in efficiency or preserving private property....The environmentalists are acolytes and prisoners of a monstrous literally anti-human philosophy. They despise and condemn the human race, which by its very nature and in contrast to other creatures, changes and transforms the environment instead of being passively subjected to it....I have come to the conclusion that a 'free-market environmentalist' is an oxymoron. Scratch one and you get...an environmentalist." Markets and ecosystems as spontaneous orders Recent arguments in the academic literature have used Friedrich Hayek's concept of a spontaneous order to defend a broadly non-interventionist environmental policy. Hayek originally used the concept of a spontaneous order to argue against government intervention in the market. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being directed by a conscious mind. On this analysis, species takes the place of price as a visible element of the system formed by a complex set of largely unknowable elements. Human ignorance about the countless interactions between the organisms of an ecosystem limits our ability to manipulate nature. Since humans rely on the ecosystem to sustain themselves, it is argued that we have an obligation to not disrupt such systems. This analysis of ecosystems as spontaneous orders does not rely on markets qualifying as spontaneous orders. As such, one need not endorse Hayek's analysis of markets to endorse ecosystems as spontaneous orders. Others Proponents of free-market environmentalism use the example of the recent destruction of the once prosperous Grand Banks fishery off Newfoundland. Once one of the world's most abundant fisheries, it has been almost completely depleted of fish. Those primarily responsible were large "factory-fishing" enterprises driven by the imperative to realize profits in a competitive global market. It is contended that if the fishery had been owned by a single entity, the owner would have had an interest in keeping a renewable supply of fish to maintain profits over the long term. The owner would thus have charged high fees to fish in the area, sharply reducing how many fish were caught. The owner also would have closely enforced rules on not catching young fish. Instead commercial ships from around the world raced to get the fish out of the water before competitors could, including catching fish that had not yet reproduced. Another example is in the 19th century early gold miners in California developed a trade in rights to draw from water courses based on the doctrine of prior appropriation. This was curtailed in 1902 by the Newlands Reclamation Act which introduced subsidies for irrigation projects. This had the effect of sending a signal to farmers that water was inexpensive and abundant, leading to uneconomic use of a scarce resource. Increasing difficulties in meeting demand for water in the western United States have been blamed on the continuing establishment of governmental control and a return to tradable property rights has been proposed. Notable free-market environmentalists Terry L. Anderson Jonathan H. Adler John Baden Ralph Borsodi Bolton Hall Laura Jones (Fraser Institute) Gary Libecap Preston Manning Bruce Yandle Notable free-market environmentalist groups Political parties that have supported free-market environmentalism: Property and Environment Research Center (PERC) (United States) Liberal Democratic Party (Australia) Libertarian Party (United Kingdom) Libertarian Party (United States) Criticisms Critics argue that free-market environmentalists have no method of dealing with collective problems like environmental degradation and natural resource depletion because of their rejection of collective regulation and control. They see natural resources as too difficult to privatize (e.g. water), as well as legal responsibility for pollution and degrading biodiversity as too hard to trace. See also Eco-capitalism Ecological economics Enviro-Capitalists: Doing Good While Doing Well Environmental economics Foundation for Research on Economics and the Environment Green conservatism Green economy Green libertarianism Ecotax Natural capitalism Natural resource economics Physiocracy Property rights (economics) Waterkeeper Alliance Wise use Notes Bibliography Anderson, T L & Leal, D R (2001) Free-market environmentalism, 2nd ed., Stroup, Richard L. (2003) Eco-nomics: What Everyone Should Know About Economics and the Environment Krugman, Paul (1999) "Earth in the balance sheet: economists go for the green" and "Taxes and traffic jams" reprinted in The Accidental Theorist Ridley, M & Low, B S (1993) "Can selfishness save the environment?", The Atlantic Monthly vol. 272, pp. 76–86 Simon, Julian (1998) The Ultimate Resource 2 External links A Hayekian Defense of Free-Market Environmentalism The sale of trees for profit, Trees Instead The Thoreau Institute – a pro-free market environmentalism group The Nature Conservancy has posted much information on conservation easements and other tools pertaining to free-market environmentalism Association of Environmental and Resource Economists (AERE). JEEM: Journal of Environmental Economics and Management (AERE's official "technical" journal). REEP: Review of Environmental Economics and Policy (AERE's official "accessible" journal). Environmental economics Environmentalism Green politics Libertarian theory Free market

424408

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Services%20Administration

General Services Administration

The General Services Administration (GSA) is an independent agency of the United States government established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA supplies products and communications for U.S. government offices, provides transportation and office space to federal employees, and develops government-wide cost-minimizing policies and other management tasks. GSA employs about 12,000 federal workers. It has an annual operating budget of roughly $33 billion and oversees $66 billion of procurement annually. It contributes to the management of about $500 billion in U.S. federal property, divided chiefly among 8,700 owned and leased buildings and a 215,000 vehicle motor pool. Among the real estate assets it manages are the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center in Washington, D.C., which is the largest U.S. federal building after the Pentagon. GSA's business lines include the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS) and the Public Buildings Service (PBS), as well as several Staff Offices including the Office of Government-wide Policy, the Office of Small Business Utilization, and the Office of Mission Assurance. As part of FAS, GSA's Technology Transformation Services (TTS) helps federal agencies improve the delivery of information and services to the public. Key initiatives include the Presidential Innovation Fellows program, 18F (includes login.gov and cloud.gov), FedRAMP, the USAGov platform (USA.gov, GobiernoUSA.gov), Data.gov, and Challenge.gov, the U.S. Web Design System, and I.T. Modernization Centers of Excellence. GSA is a member of the Procurement G6, an informal group leading the use of framework agreements and e-procurement instruments in public procurement. History In 1947, President Harry Truman asked former president Herbert Hoover to lead what became known as the Hoover Commission to make recommendations to reorganize the operations of the federal government. One of the commission's recommendations was the establishment of an "Office of the General Services", to combine the responsibilities of the following organizations: U.S. Treasury Department's Bureau of Federal Supply U.S. Treasury Department's Office of Contract Settlement National Archives Establishment All functions of the Federal Works Agency, including the Public Buildings Administration and the Public Roads Administration War Assets Administration GSA became an independent agency on July 1, 1949, after the passage of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act. General Jess Larson, administrator of the War Assets Administration, was named GSA's first administrator. The first job awaiting Administrator Larson and the newly formed GSA was a complete renovation of the White House. The structure had fallen into such a state of disrepair by 1949 that one inspector said it was standing "purely from habit". Larson later explained the total renovation in depth by saying, "In order to make the White House structurally sound, it was necessary to completely dismantle, and I mean completely dismantle, everything from the White House except the four walls, which were constructed of stone. Everything, except the four walls without a roof, was finally stripped down, and that's where the work started." GSA worked closely with President Truman and First Lady Bess Truman to ensure that the new agency's first major project would be a success. GSA completed the renovation in 1952. In 1960, GSA created the Federal Telecommunications System, a government-wide intercity telephone system. In 1962 the Ad Hoc Committee on Federal Office Space created a new building program to address obsolete office buildings in Washington, D.C., resulting in the construction of many of the offices that now line Independence Avenue. In 1970, the Nixon administration created the Consumer Product Information Coordinating Center, now part of USAGov. In 1974 the Federal Buildings Fund was initiated, allowing GSA to issue rent bills to federal agencies. In 1972 GSA established the Automated Data and Telecommunications Service, which later became the Office of Information Resources Management. In 1973 GSA created the Office of Federal Management Policy. GSA's Office of Acquisition Policy centralized procurement policy in 1978. GSA was initially responsible for emergency preparedness and stockpiling strategic materials to be used in wartime until those functions were transferred to the newly created Federal Emergency Management Agency in 1979. In 1984, GSA introduced the federal government to the use of charge cards, known as the GSA SmartPay system. The National Archives and Records Administration was spun off into an independent agency in 1985. The same year, GSA began providing government-wide policy oversight and guidance for federal real property management as a result of an executive order signed by President Ronald Reagan. In 1986, GSA headquarters, U.S. General Services Administration Building, located at Eighteenth and F Streets, NW, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, at the time serving as Interior Department offices. In 2003, the Federal Protective Service, which secures GSA-managed (and other) buildings, was moved to the United States Department of Homeland Security. In 2005, GSA reorganized to merge the Federal Supply Service (FSS) and Federal Technology Service (FTS) business lines into the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS). On April 3, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Martha N. Johnson to serve as GSA Administrator. After a nine-month delay, the United States Senate confirmed her nomination on February 4, 2010. On April 2, 2012, Johnson resigned in the wake of a management-deficiency report that detailed improper payments for a 2010 "Western Regions" training conference held by the Public Buildings Service in Las Vegas. In 2013, a result of the Open Government Initiative's instruction for federal agencies to open their activities to the public, GSA developed Data.gov to foster transparency and information sharing. That same year GSA also launched the Total Workplace initiative to modernize the workplace of federal agencies and increase efficiency, alongside the Presidential Innovation Fellows and the 18F programs. In 2016, the Acquisition Gateway and Making It Easier programs were launched to assist buyers from federal agencies in acquisitions, and to assist new companies in doing business with the government. Improvements were also made in the deliverance of digital government services with the creation of the Technology Transformation Services. Controversies Ted Weiss Federal Building controversy In July 1991, GSA contractors began the excavation of what is now the Ted Weiss Federal Building in New York City. The planning for that building did not take into account the possibility of encountering the historic cemetery for colonial-era African New Yorkers located beneath the footprint of the $276 million office building. When initial excavation disturbed burials, destroying skeletons and artifacts, GSA sent archaeologists to excavate—but hid their findings from the public. Revelation of the discoveries led to 18 months of activism by African-descendant community members, public officials, academics, and concerned citizens. Ultimately, GSA made public amends by funding extensive scientific research under the auspices of Michael Blakey; creating a new subagency, the Office of Public Education and Interpretation; truncating the building plan; and funding public reports on the story of the African Burial Ground. The efforts led to the creation of a new unit of the National Park Service, The African Burial Ground National Monument, at the facility. GSA fully funded that portion of the National Park Service until 2010, when GSA's formal involvement with the African Burial Ground ceased. Lurita Doan controversy During President George W. Bush's Administration GSA Administrator, Lurita Doan, was forced to resign after GSA had awarded a sole source contract for $20,000 to her friend. Doan appeared to have violated the Hatch Act and was criticized for political activity while on the job. The investigating team recommended she be punished to the fullest extent, and she resigned soon after. Western Regions Training Conference controversy In 2012, U.S. representative John Mica, chairman of the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, called for a congressional investigation into the misuse of federal money by GSA. Lawmakers accused GSA of "lavish spending" following the 2010 Western Regions Training Conference at the M Resort in Las Vegas. GSA spent $823,000 in taxpayer money toward the October 2010 convention, including $100,405.37 spent on employee travel costs for a total of eight pre-planning meetings, scouting trips, and a "dry run". The report also found excessive spending for event planners, gifts for participants, and lavish meals. The conference had been the most recent in a series of similar lavish conferences organized by regions of GSA's Public Buildings Service. In May 2010 GSA treated 120 interns to a five-day conference at a Palm Springs, California, resort. An additional investigation led by Inspector General Brian D. Miller found 115 missing Apple iPods meant for an employee rewards program. GSA administrator Martha N. Johnson resigned in the wake of the controversy. Before turning in her own resignation, Johnson fired two other GSA senior executives, Public Buildings Service head Robert Peck and senior advisor Stephen Leeds. Four PBS (Public Buildings Service, not Public Broadcasting Services) regional commissioners, who had been responsible for planning the conference, were placed on administrative leave. Trump–Biden presidential transition controversy After Joe Biden was called by media outlets as the president-elect of the United States – defeating Donald Trump in the November 2020 election – Emily W. Murphy, the chief executive of the General Services Administration, initially refused to sign a letter authorizing Biden's transition team to begin work and access federal agencies and transition funds, according to The Washington Post. This came as Trump refused to concede Biden's presumptive – but not yet certified – victory and follow the norm of facilitating a peaceful transition of power to the presumptive winner. There are no firm rules on how the GSA determines the president-elect. Typically, the GSA chief might make the decision after reliable news organizations have declared the winner or following a concession by the loser. On November 23, 2020, Murphy issued the letter of ascertainment that meant the Trump administration was ready to begin the formal transition. Login.gov Digital Identity Standards controversy In April 2022, the Office of Inspector General (OIG), Office of Inspections, initiated an evaluation of the GSA's Login.gov services. OIG initiated this evaluation based on a notification received from GSA's Office of General Counsel identifying potential misconduct within Login.gov, a component of GSA's Technology Transformation Services (TTS) under the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS). OIG's evaluation found that GSA misled their customer agencies when GSA failed to communicate Login.gov's known noncompliance with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-63-3, Digital Identity Guidelines. Notwithstanding GSA officials' assertions that Login.gov met SP 800-63-3 Identity Assurance Level 2 (IAL2) requirements, Login.gov has never included a physical or biometric comparison for its customer agencies. Further, GSA continued to mislead customer agencies even after GSA suspended efforts to meet SP 800-63-3. GSA knowingly billed IAL2 customer agencies over $10 million for services, including alleged IAL2 services that did not meet IAL2 standards. Furthermore, GSA used misleading language to secure additional funds for Login.gov. Finally, GSA lacked adequate controls over the Login.gov program and allowed it to operate under a hands-off culture. OIG found that because of its failure to exercise management oversight and internal controls over Login.gov, FAS shares responsibility for the misrepresentations to GSA's customers. In response to OIG's report, GSA management agreed with the findings and recommendations. Organization Structure The administrator is a presidential political appointee and the chief executive of the General Services Administration. On April 12, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Robin Carnahan to serve as administrator. She was confirmed by the US Senate on June 23, 2021. GSA consists of two major services: the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS), and the Public Buildings Service (PBS). In addition to these two major services, the agency also consists of twelve staff offices and two independent offices. The FAS provides both strategic and operational support for acquisition of goods and services for other federal departments. Past administrators Staff offices Office of Government-wide Policy Office of the Chief Financial Officer Office of Human Resources Management Office of GSA IT Office of Administrative Services Office of Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs Office of Strategic Communication Office of Small Business Utilization Office of General Counsel Office of Civil Rights Office of Mission Assurance Office of Customer Experience Independent offices Office of Inspector General Civilian Board of Contract Appeals Regions GSA conducts its business activities through 11 offices (known as GSA regions) throughout the United States. These regional offices are located in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Fort Worth, Kansas City (Missouri), New York City, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle (Auburn), and Washington, D.C. Operations Procurement and the GSA Schedule The Federal Acquisition Service (FAS) provides products and services available to federal agencies across the U.S. government. GSA assists with procurement work for other government agencies. As part of this effort, it maintains the GSA Schedule Program, which other agencies can use to buy goods and services. The GSA Schedule can be thought of as a collection of pre-negotiated contracts. Procurement managers from government agencies can view these agreements and make purchases from the GSA Schedule by following the appropriate procedures prescribed by Federal Acquisition Regulation, or FAR, Subpart 8.4. The GSA Schedule is awarded as a prime contract entered into by the federal government and a vendor that has submitted an acceptable proposal. At the core of the GSA Schedule contract lie two key concepts: 1) Basis of Award customer or group of customers and 2) Price Reduction Clause. The two concepts are applied in concert to achieve the government's pricing objectives for the GSA Schedule program. Namely, the government wants to ensure that when the vendor experiences competitive pressures to reduce its pricing, then the government can benefit from these and be extended reduced pricing as well. The Basis of Award customer or group of customers represents the customer or group of customers whose sales are affected on the same terms and conditions as those with GSA, and whose pricing is used: 1) as the baseline during negotiations to establish discounts offered to GSA, and 2) as a price floor that, when breached, constitutes additional discounting that triggers the Price Reduction Clause. The Price Reduction Clause ensures that vendor discounting practices and GSA Schedule prices maintain a fixed relationship. The vendor specifies in its GSA proposal, and during negotiations of GSA Schedule contract prices, the discounts to be given to Basis of Award customer(s). If the vendor then provides a larger discount to a Basis of Award customer than what was agreed upon in the GSA Schedule contract (i.e., if the price floor is breached), then the vendor's GSA price will be reduced proportionately and retroactively. Effective Price Reduction Clause compliance procedures will protect vendors if their discounting practices are fully and accurately disclosed in their original proposals to GSA, and then are used as a basis for compliance over the term of the contract. Although not ideal, a compliance system implemented after a contract has been awarded can bring a contract into compliance, although sometimes at the expense of profits. If implementing a system in the middle of a contract period, inaccuracies that turn up should be corrected immediately, and the GSA contracting officer should be made aware of them. Price Reduction Clause compliance systems and procedures can range from simple to complex. A simple, manual system would be appropriate for a service contractor with standard labor rates that are not discounted. A complex system would be required for a reseller with thousands of products and discounting policies that differ among product groups. In response to increased mandates and standards required by the Federal Government of its agencies and in a push to plan for federal sustainability, GSA offers online tools to aid in the building and management of government offices that are subject to these requirements. GSA has delegated authority to the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) to procure medical supplies under the VA Federal Supply Schedules Program. In 2018, GSA awarded federal government debt collection services to IC System. Federal property and buildings The Public Buildings Service (PBS) acquires and manages thousands of federal properties. In accordance with Title 40 of the United States Code, GSA is charged with promulgating regulations governing the acquisition, use, and disposal of real property (real estate and land) and personal property (essentially all other property). This activity is centered in GSA's Office of Governmentwide Policy. Policies promulgated by GSA are developed in collaboration with federal agencies and are typically published for public comment in the Federal Register before publication as a Final Rule. The Public Buildings Service provides workplaces for federal customer agencies, and United States courthouses at good economies to the American taxpayer. PBS is funded primarily through the Federal Buildings Fund, which is supported by the rent from federal customer agencies. The Office of Property Disposal within the Public Buildings Service manages the disposal of surplus real property. The Office is responsible for property which includes land, office buildings, warehouses, former post offices, farms, family residences, commercial facilities, or airfields located in the United States, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, or the U.S. Pacific Territories. Surplus property is made available to both government and private bidders and, in some cases, land sold for public purposes (such as parks or welfare) may be made available for a discount of up to 100% of the fair market value. GSA has earned a LEED rating for 24 green buildings. Some of green offerings at new buildings includes green roofs (planted roofs that can substantially reduce rainwater run-off during storms and provide significant insulation for the buildings), underfloor air distribution (that delivers cooling and heating air at floor level instead of from the ceiling), purchasing and using renewable power from utility companies, and light shelves (located outside of the building that reduce the amount of heat radiating into the building from the sun while increasing the amount of natural light and high ceilings that help direct daylight deep into the work environment). The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 made available not less than $4.5 billion for measures necessary to convert GSA facilities to High-Performance Green Buildings, as defined in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Public Law 110-140). The Department of Energy's Federal Energy Management Program facilitates to GSA the implementation, through project transaction services, applied technology services, and decision support services, to deploy renewable energy technologies and cultivate change to embrace energy efficiency. In 2004, GSA was presented with the Honor Award from the National Building Museum for "success in creating and maintaining innovative environments for the federal community as well as providing a positive federal presence for the public". Federal vehicle fleet management GSA contributes to the management of U.S. Federal property, including a 215,000 vehicle motor pool. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (stimulus bill) included $300 million to acquire energy-efficient motor vehicles for the federal fleet. President Barack Obama announced that GSA was to support the U.S. auto industry with orders for about 17,600 new fuel-efficient vehicles by June 1, 2009, on an accelerated schedule, with money from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. GSA was to pay $285 million to General Motors Corporation, Chrysler LLC, and Ford Motor Company. It was to include 2,500 hybrid sedans—the largest one-time purchase yet of hybrid vehicles for the federal government—and each new vehicle was claimed to yield at least a 10% fuel economy improvement over its predecessor. GSA was to spend $15 million more that year on a pilot fleet of advanced-technology vehicles, including all-electric vehicles and hybrid buses. Hybrids accounted for about 10 percent of the 145,473 vehicles the U.S. General Services Administration bought during the fiscal years 2009 and 2010, after making up less than 1 percent of government vehicle purchases in 2008. As for specific models, Obama took a buy-American stance. The U.S. government bought about two-thirds of the Chevrolet Malibu Hybrids sold during the past two years, and almost a third of the Ford Fusion Hybrids, but only 17 Toyota Prius hybrids and five Honda Civic Hybrids. Ground Force One, so designated when transporting the POTUS, is one of two armored buses procured in 2010 for the transportation of dignitaries under protection of the Secret Service, at a cost of $1.1 million each. The coaches were assembled in Tennessee on frames made in Canada. Interagency Resources Management Conference The Interagency Resources Management Conference (IRMCO) was a federal executive conference of the General Services Administration, hosting about 300 federal and industry leaders each year. The Interagency Resources Management Conference began in 1961 as the ADPCO conference. In 1979, the Department of Commerce, GSA, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) jointly sponsored a conference for Senior Executive Service (SES) officials at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. At the same time, the National Archives hosted a small records management conference for senior executives, also located in Gettysburg. These two conferences merged with ADPCO and became The Interagency Resources Management Conference. Over the years, the conference has evolved its focus from highly specialized to integrated. In 1996, when U.S. Congress mandated the role of chief information officer (CIO), these new federal executives were invited to attend The Interagency Resources Management Conference. The Interagency Resources Management Conference was the government's primary senior executive conference when it was held as an offsite retreat for leaders from across the government. Originally, industry participation was managed by a division of The Washington Post, Post-Newsweek Tech Media, and from 1999 to 2008, Post-Newsweek, with the assistance of a small, woman-owned business, Hosky Communications Inc., developed a strong following from the SES community for the event, on average generating 300–400 attendees with a 3:1 government to industry ratio. In 2008, Hosky was awarded a competitive contract to continue to manage and develop the forum. From 2008 to 2010, IRMCO drew attendees from about 65 federal agencies and diverse disciplines, including information technology, human resources, acquisition, management, and finance. Once travel restrictions and budget concerns surfaced in late 2010, IRMCO was moved to a local venue under the management services of A-S-K Associates, where primary attendance by industry was established as a means to inform commercial firms on GSA policies. IRMCO 2011 was held in Washington, D.C., at the Kellogg Conference Center and Hotel on the campus of Gallaudet University. Shortly after IRMCO 2011, GSA's Associate Administrator for Governmentwide Policy, Kathleen Turco, announced to the media that she and other GSA officials felt that IRMCO had lost its spark and retired from the event. Technology Transformation Services Beginning with the Federal Citizen Information Center in 1970, GSA has had a long history of connecting the public to government information and services. In 2009, a new Office of Citizen Services and Innovative Technologies (now the Office of Products and Programs) was created to expand the effort to serve the public through technology. GSA began managing the Presidential Innovation Fellows program the same year it launched 18F with a team focused on improving the federal government's digital services. The Centers of Excellence, introduced in October 2017, are working to accelerate the modernization of IT infrastructure and reduce legacy IT spending across the government. Now all of those offices have joined forces under the Technology Transformation Services sub-unit of the Federal Acquisition Service. Its mission is to improve the lives of the public and public servants by transforming how the government uses technology. TTS aims to meet the government's technology needs: acquisition, omnichannel experience, intelligent process automation, infrastructure optimization and cloud, accelerators and innovation, data and analytics, and identity management. TTS offices and programs also include: United States Digital Corps: Fellowship program for early-career technologists to launch impactful careers in public service and create a more effective, equitable government. TTS Solutions: A diverse portfolio of mature products and services that help agencies improve the delivery of information and services to the public. Section 1122 Program Section 1122 of the 1994 National Defense Authorization Act enabled state and local government agencies to purchase defense and other federal equipment to support drug enforcement activity. In 2009, the reauthorization bill expanded the program to purchases for use in homeland security and emergency response operations. The program is owned and managed by the Department of Defense (DOD), and equipment is made available by the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) and GSA, as is also done under the 1033 program. See also Building code Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grants Federal Building (disambiguation) Geographic Locator Codes GSA Advantage Public Works and Government Services Canada References External links GSA list of past administrators General Services Administration in the Federal Register GSA Schedule Contract in the Top 100 Contractors of the U.S. federal government 1949 establishments in Washington, D.C. Government agencies established in 1949 Organizations based in Washington, D.C. Sustainable building in the United States

424409

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Huttleston%20Rogers

Henry Huttleston Rogers

Henry Huttleston Rogers (January 29, 1840 – May 19, 1909) was an American industrialist and financier. He made his fortune in the oil refining business, becoming a leader at Standard Oil. He also played a major role in numerous corporations and business enterprises in the gas industry, copper, and railroads. He became a close friend of Mark Twain. Rogers' success in the oil industry began with Charles Pratt in 1866, when he invented an improved process by which naphtha was separated from crude oil during oil refining. John D. Rockefeller bought his and Pratt's business in 1874, and Rogers rose rapidly in Standard Oil. He designed the idea of a very long pipeline for transporting oil, as opposed to using railway cars. In the 1880s, he broadened his interests beyond oil to include copper, steel, banking, and railroads, as well as the Consolidated Gas Company that provided coal gas to major cities. By the 1890s, as Rockefeller was withdrawing from the oil business, Rogers was a dominant figure at Standard Oil. In 1899, Rogers set up the Amalgamated Copper trust, based in Butte, Montana, that dominated an industry in high demand as the nation needed wire to build its electric networks. His last major enterprise was building the Virginian Railway to service the West Virginia coal fields. After 1890, he became a prominent philanthropist, as well as a friend and supporter of Mark Twain and Booker T. Washington. His biographer states: A strange dualism characterized Rogers. Pitiless in business deals, in his personal affairs he was warm and generous, and at sixty, according to Tarbell, "by all odds, the handsomest and most distinguished figure in Wall Street." ...Rogers delighted in outwitting his contemporaries and in exercising power that comes from great wealth. However, he flourished just as the Gilded Age was giving way to the Progressive Era, and therefore his drive to power was frustrated by reforms and changes to more acceptable management styles that the twentieth century was ushering in. Early life and education Rogers was born in Fairhaven, Massachusetts, on January 29, 1840. He was the elder son of Rowland Rogers (a former ship captain, bookkeeper and grocer) and his wife, Mary Eldredge Huttleston. Both parents were Yankees and were descended from the Pilgrims who arrived in 1620 aboard the Mayflower. His mother's family had earlier used the spelling "Huddleston" rather than "Huttleston". (Consequently, Rogers' name is often misspelled.) Except for a brief move to Mattapoisett, Massachusetts, during Rogers' early childhood, the family lived in Fairhaven, a fishing village across the Acushnet River from the whaling port of New Bedford. Fairhaven is a small seaside town on the south coast, bordering the Acushnet River to the west and Buzzards Bay to the south. In the mid-1850s, whaling was already an industry in decline in New England. Whale oil was soon replaced by kerosene and natural gas. Henry Rogers' father was one of the many men of New England who changed from a life on the sea to other work to provide for their families. Rogers was an average student, and he was in the first graduating class of the local high school in 1856. Continuing to live with his parents, he was hired on with the Fairhaven Branch Railroad, an early precursor of the Old Colony Railroad, as an expressman and brakeman. He worked there for three to four years, while carefully saving his earnings. Marriages and family While vacationing in Fairhaven in 1862, Rogers married his childhood sweetheart, Abbie Palmer Gifford, who was also of Mayflower lineage. She returned with him to the oil fields where they lived in a one-room shack along Oil Creek, where her young husband and Ellis worked the Wamsutta Oil Refinery. While they lived in Pennsylvania, their first daughter, Anne Engle Rogers, was born in 1865. They had five surviving children together, four girls and a boy. Another son died at birth. After the family moved to New York in 1866, Cara Leland Rogers was born in Fairhaven in 1867, Millicent Gifford Rogers was born in 1873, followed by Mary Huttleston Rogers (known as "Mai") in 1875. Their son, Henry Huttleston Rogers Jr., was born in 1879 and was known as Harry. He lived in New York City and became a colonel in the New York Militia. He served on the Mexican border in 1916, and with the U.S. Army in France from 1917 to 1919 as a lieutenant colonel in the Field Artillery during the First World War. He was also a member of the Rhode Island Society of the Cincinnati. Abbie Palmer Gifford Rogers died unexpectedly on May 21, 1894. Her childhood home, a two-story, gable-end frame house built in the Greek Revival style, has been preserved. It is made available for tours of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, where she and her husband grew up. In 1896, Rogers remarried to Emelie Augusta Randel Hart, a divorcée and New York socialite. They had no children. Career In 1861, 21-year-old Henry pooled his savings of approximately US$600 with a friend, Charles P. Ellis. They set out to western Pennsylvania and its newly discovered oil fields. Borrowing another US$600, the young partners began a small refinery at McClintocksville near Oil City. They named their new enterprise Wamsutta Oil Refinery. Rogers and Ellis and their refinery made US$30,000 during their first year. This amount was more than the earnings of three whaling ship trips during an average voyage of more than a year's duration. When Rogers returned home to Fairhaven for a short vacation the next year, he was greeted as a success. In Pennsylvania, Rogers was introduced to Charles Pratt (1830–91). Born in Watertown, Massachusetts, Pratt had been one of eleven children. His father, Asa Pratt, was a carpenter. Of modest means, he spent three winters as a student at Wesleyan Academy, and is said to have lived on a dollar a week at times. In nearby Boston, Massachusetts, Pratt joined a company specializing in paints and whale oil products. In 1850 or 1851, he came to New York City, where he worked for a similar company handling paint and oil. Pratt was a pioneer of the natural oil industry, and established his kerosene refinery Astral Oil Works in the Greenpoint section of Brooklyn, New York. Pratt's product later gave rise to the slogan, "The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil". He also later founded the Pratt Institute. When Pratt met Rogers at McClintocksville on a business trip, he already knew Charles Ellis, having earlier bought whale oil from him back east in Fairhaven. Although Ellis and Rogers had no wells and were dependent upon purchasing crude oil to refine and sell to Pratt, the two young men agreed to sell the entire output of their small Wamsutta refinery to Pratt's company at a fixed price. This worked well at first. Then, a few months later, crude oil prices suddenly increased due to manipulation by speculators. The young entrepreneurs struggled to try to live up to their contract with Pratt, but soon their surplus was wiped out. Before long, they were heavily in debt to Pratt. Charles Ellis gave up, but in 1866, Henry Rogers went to Pratt in New York and told him he would take personal responsibility for the entire debt. This so impressed Pratt that he immediately hired him for his own organization. New York, oil refining Pratt made Rogers foreman of his Brooklyn refinery, with a promise of a partnership if sales ran over $50,000 a year. The Rogers' family moved to Brooklyn. Rogers moved steadily from foreman to manager, and then superintendent of Pratt's Astral Oil Refinery. He accomplished and exceeded the substantial sales increase goal which Pratt had set when recruiting him. As promised, Pratt gave Rogers an interest in the business. In 1867, with Henry Rogers as a partner, he established the firm of Charles Pratt and Company. In the next few years, Rogers became, in the words of Elbert Hubbard, Pratt's "hands and feet and eyes and ears" (Little Journeys to the Homes, 1909). As their family grew, Henry and Abbie continued to live in New York City, but vacationed frequently at Fairhaven. While working with Pratt, Rogers invented an improved way of separating naphtha, a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds produced during the distillation of crude oil, from the oil. He was granted U.S. Patent # 120,539 on October 31, 1871. Fighting Rockefeller In the early 1871–1872, Pratt and Company and other refiners became involved in a conflict with John D. Rockefeller, Samuel Andrews, and Henry M. Flagler (of Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler, a Cleveland-based refining company) and the South Improvement Company. In developing what would become Standard Oil, Rockefeller, a manager of extraordinary abilities, and Flagler, an exceptional marketer, recognized that the costs and control of the shipment of crude oil would be key elements in competition with other refiners. With its combination of clever market manipulation, and hard-nosed dealings with the powerful Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), the South Improvement scheme was an example of the type of business tactics which Rockefeller and his associates used to become successful. Although Rockefeller became the target of many who decried Standard Oil's ruthlessness in subsequent years, the South Improvement rebate scheme was Flagler's idea. South Improvement was basically a mechanism to obtain secret favorable net rates from Tom Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) and other railroads through secret rebates from the common carrier. A "common carrier" is somewhat like a utility, inasmuch as it often has certain rights, powers and monopolies on its services beyond those normally afforded regular business enterprises. A common carrier was expected to serve the public good and treat its customers uniformly. Rates in that era were promulgated and published in what was called "tariffs" and were public information. The rebate scheme was done outside of that process. As an opposite effect, normally afforded "tariffs" were increased and charged to customers not privy to the scheme. Newspapers were quick to publicize the issue. The injustice of the South Improvement scheme outraged many independent oil producers and owners of refineries. Rogers led the opposition among the New York refiners. The New York interests formed an association, and about the middle of March 1872 sent a committee of three, with Rogers as head, to Oil City to consult with the Oil Producers' Union. Working with the Pennsylvania independents, Rogers and the New York delegation managed to forge an agreement with the railroads, whose leaders eventually agreed to open their rates to all and promised to end their shady dealings with South Improvement. Rockefeller and his associates quickly started another approach, which frequently included buying up opposing interests. Their dominance of the growing industry and the squeezing out of smaller competitors continued and expanded. But, the South Improvement incident prompted growing public sentiment to support governmental oversight and regulation of large businesses, including the railroads. Congress passed new antitrust laws, the administration created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), and the courts eventually ordered the breakup of the Standard Oil Trust in the early 20th century. Combining forces: joining Standard Oil In 1874, Rockefeller approached Pratt with a plan to cooperate and consolidate their businesses. Pratt discussed it with Rogers, and they decided that the combination would benefit them. Rogers formulated terms, which guaranteed financial security and jobs for Pratt and himself. Rockefeller had apparently learned a lot about Rogers' talents and negotiating skills during the South Improvement conflict. He quietly accepted the offer on the exact terms Rogers had laid out. In this manner, Charles Pratt and Company (including Astral Oil) became one of the important independent refiners to join the Standard Oil Trust. By this date, Charles Pratt was reaching an age to consider retirement, and he subsequently devoted much of his time and interests to activities such as founding the Pratt Institute. However, Pratt's son, Charles Millard Pratt (1858 to 1913), became Corporate Secretary of Standard Oil. As a part owner of Pratt and Company, Rogers, who was about 35 years old, now owned a share of Standard Oil himself. In the deal, Rockefeller had also added Henry Rogers to his team. He undoubtedly placed a high value on Rogers' potential. History does not tell us if he foresaw that the promising young man was destined to become one of his major partners. Building Standard Oil with John D. Rockefeller Standard Oil was an oil refining conglomerate. Its successors continued to be among the world's biggest corporations over 140 years later. John D. Rockefeller, long regarded as the principal founder, was of a modest background and education. Born in New York in 1839, he moved with his family to Cleveland in 1855. His first job was as an assistant bookkeeper for a produce company. He delighted, as he later recalled, in "all the methods and systems of the office". He became particularly well skilled at calculating transportation costs, a skill which would later serve him well. He worked in variety of small business enterprises during the next few years, owning interests in several. During this time, Rockefeller became friends with Henry Morrison Flagler. The two men had much in common, as they were both conservative, hard-working, energetic, and driven to make money. Their backgrounds included working separately for a number of years in various retail enterprises, including the grain business. Although they were teetotalers personally, distilled spirits were a byproduct of the handling of corn, and both embraced the business opportunity that they presented; making money was clearly paramount. In their separate forays into business, financial results for the two had been mixed. Flagler, nine years senior to Rockefeller, had been completely wiped out financially in a venture into salt. Only a loan from a relative, Stephen V. Harkness, allowed him to keep creditors at bay and stay out of total ruin. In the second half of the 19th century, the United States began a transition from use of whale oil to petroleum for heating and lighting. Discovery of oil fields in western Pennsylvania in the late 1850s and the promise of increased industrial activity and economic growth after the end of the American Civil War combined to make the refining of crude oil seem an attractive business to Rockefeller. He and Flagler enlisted chemist Samuel Andrews and with his brother, William Rockefeller, Jabez Bostwick, and Flagler's relative and silent partner, Stephen V. Harkness, went into the refining business in Cleveland as Rockefeller, Andrews & Flagler. By all accounts, Rockefeller was an extraordinarily talented manager and financial planner, Flagler was an exceptional marketer, and Andrews had the know-how to oversee refining aspects. It was to be a very successful combination. As the demand for kerosene and a new byproduct, gasoline, grew in the United States, by 1868, what was to become Standard Oil was the world's largest oil refinery. In 1870, Rockefeller formed Standard Oil Company of Ohio and started his strategy of buying up the competition and consolidating all oil refining under one company. It was during this period that the Pratt interests and Henry Rogers were brought into the fold. By 1878 Standard Oil held about 90% of the refining capacity in the United States. Flagler's wife was in failing health due to what was later determined to be tuberculosis. On advice of her physician, he took her to Florida for the winter months beginning in 1877, and she did seem to improve with the gentle winter and cool ocean breezes there. While in Florida, Flagler was struck with the lack of good rail transportation south of Jacksonville, the equally poor availability of good lodging, and the potential the impoverished state held as a vacation destination for northerners. Sensing a major business opportunity, he began to invest and become a major developer of Florida's east coast in what many regard as his "second career." However, his ventures in Florida marked the beginning of his gradual reduction in management participation at Standard Oil. In 1881 the company was reorganized as the Standard Oil Trust. In 1885, the headquarters were relocated from Cleveland to New York City. By this time, the three main men of Standard Oil Trust had become John D. Rockefeller, his brother William, and Henry Rogers, who had emerged as a key financial strategist. By 1890, Rogers was a vice president of Standard Oil and chairman of the organization's operating committee. Oil and gas pipelines Petroleum pipelines were first developed in Pennsylvania in the 1860s to replace transport in wooden barrels loaded on wagons drawn by mules and driven by teamsters. This mule-drawn transportation was expensive and fraught with difficulties: leaking barrels, muddy trails, wagon breakdowns and mule/driver problems. The first successful metal pipeline was completed in 1865, when Samuel Van Syckel built a four-mile (6 km) pipeline from Pithole, Pennsylvania, to the nearest railroad. This initial success led to the construction of pipelines to connect crude oil production, increasingly moving west as new fields were discovered and Pennsylvania fields declined, to refineries located near major demand centers in the Northeast. Biographer Z. James Varanini writes, "the completion of these pipelines represented a move towards a new type of interconnectivity of previously isolated states." When Rockefeller observed this, he began to acquire many of the new pipelines. Soon, his Standard Oil companies owned a majority of the lines, which provided cheap, efficient transportation for oil. Cleveland, Ohio, became a center of the refining industry principally because of its transportation systems. Rogers conceived the idea of long pipelines for transporting oil and natural gas. In 1881, the National Transit Company was formed by Standard Oil to own and operate Standard's pipelines. The National Transit Company remained one of Rogers' favorite projects throughout the rest of his life. East Ohio Gas Company (EOG) was incorporated on September 8, 1898, as a marketing company for the National Transit Company, the natural gas arm of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. The company launched its business by selling to consumers in northeast Ohio gas produced by another National Transit subsidiary, Hope Natural Gas Company. Rubber-manufacturing city Akron, Ohio, was the first to take advantage of the lower prices for natural gas. It granted the East Ohio Gas Company a franchise in September 1898, the same month that the company was founded. During the winter of 1898–99, the National Transit Company built a 10-inch wrought iron pipeline that stretched from the Pipe Creek on the Ohio River to Akron, with branches to Canton, Massillon, Dover, New Philadelphia, Uhrichsville, and Dennison. The first gas from the pipeline burned in Akron on May 10, 1899. Steel Andrew Carnegie, long the leading steel magnate of Pittsburgh, retired at the turn of the 20th century, and refocused his interests on philanthropy. His steel holdings were consolidated into the new United States Steel Corporation. Standard Oil's interest in steel properties led to Rogers becoming one of the directors when it was organized in 1901. Regulating Standard Oil In 1890 the U.S. Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act. This act is the source of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbids every contract, scheme, deal, conspiracy to restrain trade. It also forbids inspirations to secure monopoly of a given industry. The Standard Oil Trust attracted attention from antitrust authorities. The Ohio Attorney General filed and won an antitrust suit in 1892. Ida M. Tarbell, an American author and journalist, who was known as one of the leading muckrakers, criticized Standard Oil practices. Tarbell met Rogers, by then the most senior and powerful director of Standard Oil, through his friend, Mark Twain. They began to meet in January 1902 and continued for the next two years. As Tarbell brought up case histories, Rogers provided an explanation, documents and figures concerning the case. Rogers may have believed Tarbell intended a complimentary work, as he was apparently candid. Her interviews with him were the basis of her negative exposé of Standard Oil's questionable business practices. Tarbell's investigations of Standard Oil for McClure's, ran in 19 parts from November 1902 to October 1904. They were collected and published as The History of the Standard Oil Company in 1904. Although public opposition to Rockefeller and Standard Oil existed prior to Tarbell's investigation, there had been general opposition to Standard Oil and trusts. Her book is widely credited with hastening the 1911 breakup of Standard Oil by the United States Supreme Court. "They had never played fair, and that ruined their greatness for me", Tarbell wrote about the company. Tarbell blasted Standard Oil for dubious business practices, including subduing competitors and engaging in illegal transportation deals with the railroad companies to undercut competitors' prices. Natural gas Rogers joined in the organization of holding companies aimed at controlling natural gas production and distribution. In 1884, with associates, Rogers formed the Consolidated Gas Company, and thereafter for several years he was instrumental in gaining control of great city plants, fighting terrific battles with rivals for some of them, as in the case of Boston. Almost the whole story of his natural gas interests was one of business warfare. Copper During the 1890s, Rogers became interested in Anaconda and other copper properties in the western United States. In 1899, with William Rockefeller, and Thomas W. Lawson, he formed the first $75,000,000 section of the gigantic trust, Amalgamated Copper Mining Company, which was the subject of much acrid criticism then and for years afterward. In the building of this great trust, some of the most ruthless strokes in modern business history were dealt: the $38,000,000 "watering" of the stock of the first corporation, its subsequent manipulation, the seizure of the copper property of the Butte & Boston Consolidated Mining Company, the using of the latter as a weapon against the Boston & Montana Consolidated Copper and Silver Mining Company, the guerrilla warfare against certain private interests, and the wrecking of the Globe Bank of Boston. A holding company aimed at controlling copper production and distribution, Amalgamated Copper controlled the copper mines of Butte, Montana and later became Anaconda Copper Company, a revert to its original name. Transit: Staten Island On July 1, 1892, Staten Island, New York's first trolley line opened, running between Port Richmond and Meiers Corners. Trolleys, which cost only a nickel a ride through most of their existence, help facilitate mass transit across the Island by reaching communities not serviced by trains. Henry H. Rogers was long-known as the Staten Island transit magnate, and was also involved with the Staten Island-Manhattan Ferry Service and the Richmond Power and Light Company. Railroads Rogers was also close associate of E. H. Harriman in the latter's extensive railroad operations. He was a director of the Santa Fe, St. Paul, Erie, Lackawanna, Union Pacific, and several other large railroads. However, he also involved himself in at least three West Virginia short-line railroad projects, one of which would grow much larger than he probably anticipated. Ohio River Railroad In mid-1890s, Rogers became president of the Ohio River Railroad, founded by Johnson Newlon Camden, a United States senator from West Virginia who was also secretly involved with Standard Oil. Charles M. Pratt and Rogers were two of the largest owners and the Ohio River Railroad's General Manager was C.M. Burt. Its General Solicitor was former West Virginia governor William A. MacCorkle. The owners wished to sell the railroad, which was losing money. Under Rogers' leadership, they formed a subsidiary, West Virginia Short Line Railroad, to build a new line between New Martinsville and Clarksburg to reach new coal mining areas, into territory already planned for expansion by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O). The expansion plans had the desired effect of essentially forcing B&O to purchase the Ohio River Railroad to block the competition in the new coal areas. The Ohio River Railroad was sold to B&O in 1898. Kanawha and Pocahontas Railroad Company The Kanawha and Pocahontas Railroad Company was incorporated in West Virginia in 1898 by either a son of Charles Pratt or the estate of Charles Pratt. Its line ran from the Kanawha River up a tributary called Paint Creek. Once again, new coal mining territory was involved. Rogers, acting on behalf of Charles Pratt and Company negotiated its lease to the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway (C&O) in 1901 and its sale to a newly formed C&O subsidiary, Kanawha and Paint Creek Railway Company, in 1902. (I have never seen any documentation that involves Rogers in this railroad, and comments by Gov. MacCorkle in his book suggest that Rogers was not involved with this deal.) TWS Virginian Railway His final achievement, working with consulting engineer William Nelson Page, was the building of the Virginian Railway (VGN), which eventually extended from the coal fields of southern West Virginia to port near Norfolk at Sewell's Point, Virginia in the harbor of Hampton Roads. Initially, Rogers' involvement in the project began in 1902 with Page's Deepwater Railway, planned as an short line to reach untapped coal reserves in a very rugged portion of southern West Virginia, and interchange its traffic with the C&O and/or the N&W. Some speculate that the Deepwater Railway was probably intended for resale in the manner of the earlier two West Virginia short lines. However, if so, the ploy was foiled by collusion of the bigger railroads, who were both controlled by the Pennsylvania Railroad and agreed with each other to neither purchase it or grant favorable interchange rates. Page was the "front man" for the Deepwater project, and it is likely the leaders of the big railroads were unaware that their foe was backed by the wealthy Rogers, who did not give up a good fight easily. Instead of abandoning the project, Page and Rogers secretly developed a plan to extend their new railroad all the way across West Virginia and Virginia to port at Hampton Roads. They modified the Deepwater Railway charter to reach the Virginia-state line. A Rogers coal property attorney in Staunton, Virginia formed another intrastate railroad in Virginia, the Tidewater Railway. The battle for the Tidewater Railway's rights-of-way displayed Rogers at his most crafty and ingenious. He was able to persuade the leading citizens of Roanoke and Norfolk, both strongholds of the rival Norfolk and Western, that his new railroad would be a boon to both communities, secretly securing crucial rights-of-way in the process. In 1907, the name of the Tidewater Railway was changed to The Virginian Railway Company, and it acquired the Deepwater Railway to form the needed West Virginia-Virginia link. Financed almost entirely from Rogers' own resources, and completed in 1909, instead of interchanging, the new Virginian Railway competed with the much larger Chesapeake and Ohio Railway and Norfolk and Western Railway for coal traffic. Built following his policy of investing in the best route and equipment on initial selection and purchase to save operating expenses, the VGN enjoyed a more modern pathway built to the highest standards, and provided major competition to its larger neighboring railroads, each of whom tried several times unsuccessfully to acquire it after they realized it could not be blocked from completion. However, the time and enormous effort Rogers expended on the project continued to undermine his already declining health, not only because of his Herculean work but also because of the uncertain economy of the period, exacerbated by the financial Panic of 1907 which began in March of that year. To obtain the needed financing, he was forced to pour many of his own assets into the railroad. Management of the funding Rogers was providing was handled by Boston financier Godfrey M. Hyams, with whom he had also worked on the Anaconda Company, and many other natural resource projects. On July 22, 1907, he suffered a debilitating stroke. Over a period of about five months, he gradually recovered. In 1908, he put the remaining financing in place needed to see his railroad to completion. When completed the following year, the Virginian Railway was called by the newspapers "the biggest little railway in the world" and proved both viable and profitable. Many historians consider the Virginian Railway to be one of Henry Rogers' greatest legacies. The Virginian Railway (VGN) followed his philosophy regarding investing in the best equipment and paying its employees and vendors well throughout its profitable history. It operated some of the largest and most powerful steam, electric, and diesel locomotives throughout its 50-year history. Chronicled by rail historian and rail photographer H. Reid in The Virginian Railway (Kalmbach, 1961), the VGN gained a following of railway enthusiasts which continues to the present day. The VGN was merged into the Norfolk & Western in 1959. However, almost all of the former VGN mainline trackage in West Virginia and about 50% of that in Virginia is still in use in 2006 as the preferred route for eastbound coal trains for Norfolk Southern Corporation due to the more favorable gradients while crossing the Allegheny Mountains' continental divide and the Blue Ridge Mountains east of Roanoke, while most westbound traffic of empty coal cars uses the original Norfolk and Western main line. Banking and trading When the newly formed Mutual Alliance Trust Company opened for business in New York on the Tuesday after June 29, 1902, there were 13 directors, including Emanuel Lehman, William Rockefeller, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and Rogers. By 1907, Rogers was a member of the Consolidated Stock Exchange of New York, one of around 13,000. Business summary: "Hell Hound" Rogers was an energetic man, and exhibited ruthlessness, and iron determination. In the financial and business world he could be grasping and greedy, and operated under a flexible moral code that often stretched the rules of both honesty and fair play. On Wall Street in New York City, he became known as "Hell Hound Rogers" and "The Brains of the Standard Oil Trust." He was considered one of the last and great "robber barons" of his day, as times were changing. Nevertheless, Rogers amassed a great fortune, estimated at over $100 million. He invested heavily in various industries, including copper, steel, mining, and railways. Much of what we know about Rogers and his style in business dealings was recorded by others. His behavior in public Court Proceedings provide some of the better examples and some insight. Rogers' business style extended to his testimony in many court settings. Before the Hepburn Committee of 1879, investigating the railroads of New York, he fine-tuned his circumlocutory, ambiguous, and haughty responses. His most intractable performance was later in a 1906 lawsuit by the state of Missouri, which claimed that two companies in that state registered as independents were actually subsidiaries of Standard Oil, a secret ownership Rogers finally acknowledged. In Marquis Who's Who for 1908, Rogers listed more than twenty corporations of which he was either president and director or vice president and director. At his death he held assets later estimated to be worth $100 million, but a 2012 critical examination of his wealth considers a closer estimate. Philanthropy in Fairhaven Rogers was a modest man, and some of his generosity became known only after his death. Examples are found in writings by Helen Keller, Mark Twain, and Booker T. Washington. Beginning in 1885, he began to donate buildings to his hometown of Fairhaven, Massachusetts. These included a grammar school, Rogers School, built in 1885. The Millicent Library was completed in 1893 and was a gift to the Town by the Rogers children in memory of their sister Millicent, who had died in 1890 at the age of 17. Abbie Palmer (née Gifford) Rogers presented the new Town Hall in 1894. The George H. Taber Masonic Lodge building, named for Rogers' "uncle" and boyhood mentor, was completed in 1901. The Unitarian Memorial Church was dedicated in 1904 to the memory of Rogers' mother, Mary Huttleston (née Eldredge) Rogers. He had the Tabitha Inn built in 1905, and a new Fairhaven High School, called "Castle on the Hill," was completed in 1906. Rogers funded the draining of the mill pond to create a park, installed the town's public water and sewer systems, and served as superintendent of streets for his hometown. Years later, Henry H. Rogers' daughter, Cara Leland Rogers Broughton (Lady Fairhaven), purchased the site of Fort Phoenix, and donated it to the Town of Fairhaven in her father's memory. After Abbie's death, Rogers developed close friendships with two other notable Americans: Mark Twain and Booker T. Washington. He was instrumental in the education of Helen Keller. Urged on by Twain, Rogers and his second wife financed her college education. In 1899, Rogers had a luxury steam yacht built by a shipyard in the Bronx. The Kanawha, at 471-tons, was long and manned by a crew of 39. For the final ten years of his life, Rogers entertained friends as they sailed on cruises mostly along the East Coast of the United States, north to Maine and Canada, and south to Virginia. With Mark Twain among his frequent guests, the movements of the Kanawha attracted great attention from the newspapers, the major public media of the era. Death On May 19, 1909, Rogers died suddenly of a stroke. It was less than six weeks before full operations were scheduled to begin on his Virginian Railway. After a funeral at the First Unitarian Church in Manhattan, his body was transported to Fairhaven by a New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad train. He was interred beside Abbie in Fairhaven's Riverside Cemetery. Friendships and philanthropy Mark Twain In 1893, a mutual friend introduced Rogers to humorist Mark Twain. Rogers reorganized Twain's tangled finances, and the two became close friends for the rest of Rogers' life. By the 1890s, Twain's fortunes began to decline; in his later life, Twain suffered from depression. He lost three of his four children, and his wife, Olivia Langdon, before his death in 1910. Twain had some very bad times with his businesses. His publishing company ended up going bankrupt, and he lost thousands of dollars on a typesetting machine that was never quite perfected for commercial use. He also lost a great deal of revenue on royalties from his books being plagiarized before he had a chance to publish them himself. Rogers and Twain enjoyed a more than 16-year friendship. Rogers' family became Twain's surrogate family, and he was a frequent guest at the Rogers townhouse in New York City. Earl J. Dias described the relationship in these words: "Rogers and Twain were kindred spirits—fond of poker, billiards, the theater, practical jokes, mild profanity, the good-natured spoof. Their friendship, in short, was based on a community of interests and on the fact that each, in some way, needed the other." Their letters were published as Mark Twain's Correspondence with Henry Huttleston Rogers, 1893–1909, They had a standing joke that Twain was inclined to pilfer items from the Rogers household whenever he spent the night there as a guest. Two letters provide an illustration. Twain wrote to Anne Rogers that he had packed: some articles that was laying around...two books, Mr. Rogers' brown slippers, and a ham. I thought it was one of ourn. It looked like one we used to have, but it shan't occur again, and don't you worry. He will temper the wind to the shorn lamb, and I will send some of the things back if there is some that won't keep. Yores in Jesus, S.L.C. Rogers responded on October 31, 1906, with the following: Before I forget it, let me remind you that I shall want the trunk and the things you took away from my house as soon as possible. I learn that instead of taking old things, you took my best. Mrs. Rogers is at the White Mountains. I am going to Fairhaven this afternoon. I hope you will not be there. By the way, I have been using a pair of your gloves in the Mountains, and they don't seem to be much of an attraction. In April 1907, they traveled together on the Kanawha to the Jamestown Exposition in celebration of the 300th anniversary of the founding of the Jamestown Colony. Twain returned to Norfolk, Virginia with Rogers in April 1909, and was the guest speaker at the dedication dinner held for the newly completed Virginian Railway, a "Mountains to Sea" engineering marvel of the day. The construction of the new railroad had been solely financed by industrialist Rogers. Helen Keller's education In May 1896, at the home in New York City of editor-essayist Laurence Hutton, Rogers and Mark Twain first saw Helen Keller, then sixteen years old. Although she had been made blind and deaf by illness as a young child, she had been reached by her teacher-companion, Anne Sullivan. When she was 20, Keller passed with distinction the entrance examination to Radcliffe College. Twain praised "this marvelous child" and hoped that Helen would not be forced to retire from her studies because of poverty. He urged the Rogerses to aid Keller and to solicit other Standard Oil chiefs to help her. Rogers helped pay for her education at Radcliffe and arranged a monthly stipend. Keller dedicated her book, The World I Live In, "To Henry H. Rogers, my Dear Friend of Many Years." On the fly leaf of Rogers's copy, she wrote: To Mrs Rogers The best of the world I live in is the kindness of friends like you and Mr Rogers Booker T. Washington Around 1894, Rogers attended one of Booker T. Washington's speeches at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The next day, Rogers contacted the educator and invited him to his offices. They had common ground in relatively humble beginnings and became strong friends. Washington became a frequent visitor to Rogers' office, his 85-room mansion in Fairhaven, and the yacht. Although Rogers had died suddenly a few weeks earlier, in June 1909 Dr. Washington went on a previously arranged speaking tour along the newly completed Virginian Railway. He rode in Rogers' personal rail car, Dixie, making speeches at many locations over a seven-day period. Washington said Rogers had urged the trip to explore how to improve race relations and economic conditions for African Americans along the route of the new railway. It connected many previously isolated rural communities in the southern portions of Virginia and West Virginia. Washington told about Rogers' philanthropy: "funding the operation of at least 65 small country schools for the education and betterment of African Americans in Virginia and other portions of the South, all unknown to the recipients." Rogers had also generously provided support to Tuskegee Institute and Hampton Institute. Rogers supported projects with at least partial matching funds, in order to achieve more work, and to ensure recipients were also stakeholders. Legacy In Fairhaven, the Rogers family gifts are located throughout the town. These include Rogers School, Town Hall, Millicent Library, Unitarian Memorial Church, and Fairhaven High School. A granite shaft on the High School lawn is dedicated to Rogers. In Riverside Cemetery, the Henry Huttleston Rogers Mausoleum is patterned after the Temple of Minerva in Athens, Greece. Henry, his first wife Abbie, and several family members are interred there. In 1916, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company launched the SS H.H. Rogers, a Pratt-class tanker of 8,807 tons with a capacity of of oil. It was operated by Panama Transport Co., a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey. During World War II, on February 21, 1943, it was torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat in the North Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Ireland while en route from Liverpool, England to the United States. All 73 persons aboard were saved. In Virginia and West Virginia, former employees, area residents, and enthusiasts of the Virginian Railway consider the entire railroad to have been a memorial to him. Almost 50 years after it was merged into a competitor, Rogers' railroad has a remarkable following. One of the most active Yahoo! railway enthusiasts groups has more than 800 members. A passenger station has been restored in Suffolk, Virginia, a replica built and museum established in Princeton, West Virginia, and work is underway on a larger former VGN station in Roanoke. In 2004, volunteers engraved Rogers' initials (and those of VGN co-founder William Nelson Page) into new rail laid in Victoria, Virginia. It carries a VGN Class 10-A caboose, built by the company and restored by members of the National Railway Historical Society (NRHS) chapter in Roanoke. Fully equipped, it offers an interpretive display of the business conducted in a caboose along the historic right-of-way. Commentaries Biographer Earl J. Dias, a professor at Southeastern Massachusetts Technological Institute, has analyzed the career and personality of Henry Huttleston Rogers:What is the final verdict on Rogers? First of all, he was a child of his times—an era that historian Howard Mumford Jones has dubbed 'the Age of Energy'. It was a time during which Americans of vast wealth, the Rockefellers, the Goulds, the Pratts, the Harrimans, the Archbolds, exploited and experimented with ideas, styles, fads, and each other. And, surprisingly, they also made invaluable contributions to libraries, schools, universities, charities, and the like. In fact, these rip roaring capitalists were striking examples of the gleeful swashbuckling, the innocence and guilt of what Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner called 'The Gilded Age.' Perhaps the central truth about Rogers was that he was a role player, a born actor. From his experiences on the Phoenix Hall stage in Fairhaven in his youth, he learned the art of being theatrical in the dramatic situations that cropped up in his life. In the business world he was the 'man of steel': hard, shrewd, ruthless, giving no quarter. In his social life, he was amicable, popular, charismatic, a boon companion, a genial host.... Unquestionably, some of this idealism and altruism became tarnished in later years when he encountered the grim realities of the business world, in which to survive required ruthlessness and a great many Machiavellian machinations. He remained the Fairhaven boy in his friendships, in his domestic life. But in the financial world he could be grasping, greedy, operating under a flexible code that often stretched the rules of both honesty and fair play. See also National Transit Building William N. Page Julius Rosenwald South Improvement Company References Further reading Chernow, Ron. Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. London: Warner Books, 1998. Dias, Earl J. "Henry Huttleston Rogers (1840 – 1909): An evaluation on the 150th Anniversary of his Birth" (The Millicent Library, 2009) online Dias, Earl J. Henry Huttleston Rogers: Portrait of a "Capitalist" (1974) 190pp; biography Dias, Earl J. Mark Twain and Henry Huttleston Rogers: An Odd Couple (Millicent Library, 1984), scholarly study. Dias, Earl J. ed. Mark Twain's Letters to the Rogers Family: The Millicent Library Collection (1970). Dias, Earl J. "Mark Twain in Fairhaven." Mark Twain Journal 13.4 (1967): 11–15. online Hidy, Ralph W. and Muriel E. Hidy. History of Standard Oil Co. (New Jersey): Pioneering in Big Business 1882–1911). (1956); 869pp; a standard scholarly study of the company. Huddleston, Eugene L. "Rogers, Henry Huttleston"; American National Biography Online (2000). Access Apr 28 2016 Latham, Earl ed. John D. Rockefeller: Robber Baron or Industrial Statesman? (1949). Primary and secondary sources. Manns, Leslie D. "Dominance in the Oil Industry: Standard Oil from 1865 to 1911" in David I. Rosenbaum ed, Market Dominance: How Firms Gain, Hold, or Lose it and the Impact on Economic Performance. Praeger, 1998. online edition Messent, Peter. "Mark Twain, Manhood, The Henry H. Rogers Friendship, and 'Which Was the Dream?'." Arizona Quarterly 61.1 (2005): 57–84. online Montague, Gilbert Holland. The Rise And Progress of the Standard Oil Co. (1902) online edition Montague, Gilbert Holland. "The Rise and Supremacy of the Standard Oil Co.," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 16, No. 2 (February, 1902), pp. 265–292 in JSTOR Montague, Gilbert Holland. "The Later History of the Standard Oil Co.," Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 17, No. 2 (February, 1903), pp. 293–325 in JSTOR Nevins, Allan. John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise. (1940), vol 1. Tarbell, Ida M. The History of the Standard Oil Co., 1904. The famous original exposé in McClure's Magazine of Standard Oil. Williamson, Harold F. and Arnold R. Daum. The American Petroleum Industry: The Age of Illumination, 1859–1899, 1959: vol 2, American Petroleum Industry: the Age of Energy 1899–1959, 1964. The standard history of the oil industry. online edition of vol 1 Primary sources Mark Twain's Correspondence with Henry Huttleston Rogers, 1893–1909, ed. by Lewis Leary (1969). Contains 464 letters by Rogers. External links Millicent Library, Fairhaven MA, Henry Rogers homepage Henry H. Rogers, Fairhaven, MA, Office of Tourism Mark Twain and Henry Huttleston Rogers in Virginia. Excerpts from their trips together to the 1907 Jamestown Exposition and the 1909 Dedication of the Virginian Railway Mark Twain's Correspondence with Henry Huttleston Rogers, 1893–1909 Dr. Booker T. Washington papers—comments about Henry Rogers Virginian Railway (VGN) Enthusiasts Group of preservationists, authors, photographers, historians, modelers, and rail fans The Story of Fairhaven compiled by Thomas Tripp in 1929 1840 births 1909 deaths People from Fairhaven, Massachusetts Businesspeople from Massachusetts American people of English descent American financiers American businesspeople in the oil industry American philanthropists American railway entrepreneurs American steel industry businesspeople Founders of the petroleum industry American mining businesspeople Standard Oil Mutual Alliance Trust Company people People from Venango County, Pennsylvania 19th-century American railroad executives 20th-century American railroad executives

424417

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie%20Irvine

Eddie Irvine

Edmund Irvine Jr. (; born 10 November 1965) is a former racing driver from Northern Ireland. He competed in Formula One between 1993 and 2002, and finished runner-up in the 1999 World Drivers' Championship, driving for Scuderia Ferrari. He began his career at the age of seventeen when he entered the Formula Ford Championship, achieving early success, before progressing to the Formula Three and Formula 3000 Championships. He made his Formula One debut in 1993 with Jordan Grand Prix, where he achieved early notoriety for his involvement in incidents on and off the track. He scored his first podium in with Jordan, before moving to Ferrari in . His most successful season was in 1999 when he took four victories and finished second in the World Championship, two points behind McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen. In his four years with Ferrari he also finished fourth overall in and scored 22 podiums. As of 2023, he remains the last driver from the United Kingdom to have represented Ferrari. He moved to Jaguar Racing in , scoring the team's first podium in and his final podium in 2002. Irvine retired from competitive motorsport at the end of the 2002 season. Since retiring, Irvine became a media personality in Great Britain. He was linked with the takeover of the Jordan and Minardi Formula One teams in 2005, but talks came to nothing. Irvine also expanded his interests in the property market, having built up an investment portfolio during his racing career. Early life and career Irvine was born on 10 November 1965 in Newtownards, County Down in Northern Ireland, to Edmund Sr. and Kathleen. He grew up in the village of Conlig and was educated at Regent House Grammar School in Newtownards. He has one older sister, Sonia, who acted as Irvine's physiotherapist until 1999. Irvine's first taste of motorsport came when his family spent their holidays attending the British Grand Prix. His father also raced in single-seaters for fun. His childhood hero was countryman John Watson. Irvine began to compete with racing cars in 1983. He was initially interested in motorcycle racing, but his parents thought the sport too dangerous and was encouraged by his father to race in Formula Ford. Irvine worked unpaid in his father's scrapyard, in return for which, his father funded his racing hobby. He won his first race at Brands Hatch in 1984, and an award for best driver. In 1987 he joined the Van Diemen team and won the Esso Formula Ford series, the RAC Formula Ford series, and the Formula Ford Festival. In the winter of 1987, Marlboro organised a test in which the fastest driver would be offered a drive for the following British Formula 3 season. Irvine was that driver and joined West Surrey Racing for 1988. It was a season without any success and Irvine ended it in fifth place. He raced at the Macau Grand Prix for the first time and started the race from pole position, but failed to finish. In 1989 Irvine competed in the International Formula 3000 Championship with Pacific Racing. Irvine finished the season in ninth place, ahead of teammate JJ Lehto in thirteenth, who was then considered to be a promising young driver. In 1990 he joined the Jordan Formula 3000 team. He won in Germany and ended the season in third place, beating his teammates Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Emanuele Naspetti. Irvine finished on the podium at both the Macau Grand Prix and the Fuji F3 Cup. At the end of the season Irvine moved to Japan to compete in that country's Formula 3000 championship. In 1991 he raced for Cerumo Racing and won one race and amassed 14 points to finish seventh in the Drivers' Championship. Irvine's first race at the 24 Hours of Le Mans was in 1992 driving a SARD Toyota Group C car alongside Roland Ratzenberger and Eje Elgh. The team finished ninth overall and came second in the Group C class. Formula One career Jordan (1993–1995) 1993 Irvine made his Formula One debut in the penultimate race of the season, the Japanese Grand Prix, partnering Rubens Barrichello at the Jordan Grand Prix team. He made an immediate impact, not only by scoring a point with sixth place, but by unlapping himself against race leader, and subsequent winner, Ayrton Senna. After the race, Senna, angry at what he perceived to be "unprofessional" driving, approached Irvine in the Jordan hospitality unit, and following an altercation, threw a punch at Irvine, for which he received a suspended two-race ban. Irvine retired from the final race in Australia with accident damage. After two races, Irvine finished 22nd in the Drivers' Championship with his sole point. Irvine raced at the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the second time, driving a Toyota Group C car alongside Toshio Suzuki and Masanori Sekiya. The team finished fourth overall. 1994 Irvine remained at Jordan for 1994 and was again partnered by Barrichello. At the opening round in Brazil, Irvine was involved in a four car crash. He later received a one-race ban and a $10,000 fine by the race stewards. Irvine appealed to the FIA against the decision, but his appeal was rejected on 6 April, and the penalty increased to a three-race ban. His seat was filled by Aguri Suzuki for the following Pacific Grand Prix, and Andrea de Cesaris for the races in San Marino and Monaco. Irvine returned for the Spanish Grand Prix where he scored his first points of the season with sixth place. Five consecutive retirements followed, and he was unable to finish the Belgian Grand Prix due to an alternator failure, although he was classified 13th due to having completed over 90% of the race distance. Irvine retired from the Italian Grand Prix due to an engine failure and was later given a one-race ban, suspended for three races, for an incident with Team Lotus driver Johnny Herbert on the opening lap. Irvine garnered further controversy during the first qualifying session of the Portuguese Grand Prix when he clipped Williams driver Damon Hill. Irvine was warned a similar incident would see his Super Licence revoked. He took consecutive points scoring finishes in the next two races—fourth at the European Grand Prix and fifth at the Japanese Grand Prix. Irvine retired from the season closing race in Australia when he spun off. He finished the year 16th in the Drivers' Championship, with 6 points. Outside of Formula One, Irvine participated in his third consecutive 24 Hours of Le Mans as a substitute for the late Roland Ratzenberger, who died after crashing in qualifying for the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, driving for SARD alongside Mauro Martini and Jeff Krosnoff. The team were leading with 90 minutes to go when a gearbox issue forced the car to slow, costing them victory. They finished second overall and first in the LMP1/C90 class. 1995 Irvine remained at Jordan for and was again partnered by Barrichello. It was a bad start: Irvine was forced into retirement at the opening race, in Brazil, due to a gearbox actuator problem. In the following race in Argentina he was involved in a first-lap collision with McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen, and retired with an engine failure after only six laps. He finished eighth at the San Marino Grand Prix, and scored points with a fifth-place finish in Spain. Irvine secured the first podium of his Formula One career with third place in Canada. At the Belgian Grand Prix, his car caught fire during a pitstop as the fuel valve was jammed open, and although uninjured, he was forced to retire from the race. In the week before the European Grand Prix, Jordan announced that Irvine would be retained on a two-year contract. However, Ferrari then announced that it had bought out Irvine's contract, and that he would be partnering Michael Schumacher at the team for 1996. He fared well in the race by finishing sixth, although he finished outside the points in the Pacific Grand Prix. Irvine scored his final points of the season with a fifth in Japan, and finished the season with a retirement in Australia, due to pneumatic pressure. He finished the year 12th in the Drivers' Championship with 10 points. Ferrari (1996–1999) 1996 At the season opener in Australia, Irvine finished in third place, where he started, after out-qualifying new teammate, and then double World Champion, Michael Schumacher. At the following race in Brazil he finished outside the points in seventh position, and took fifth in Argentina. At the European Grand Prix he was involved in an incident with Olivier Panis, resulting in both drivers retiring from the race. Fourth place in the San Marino Grand Prix preceded eight consecutive retirements, due to unreliability or being involved in racing incidents. Irvine finished the Portuguese Grand Prix in fifth, but retired again from the final race of the season at Suzuka. Irvine finished tenth in the Drivers' Championship with 11 points. 1997 The first race of the season in Australia saw Irvine involved in a race ending first lap crash with Williams driver Jacques Villeneuve. Two races later, he finished a career high second place in Argentina, where Irvine challenged Villeneuve for the lead, who was suffering with a stomach ailment, and his car with brake problems. The result ended demands in the Italian press for Irvine to be sacked. Two consecutive third places in San Marino and Monaco, gave Irvine his best string of finishes to date. At the Spanish Grand Prix Irvine finished only twelfth and was given a 10-second stop-go penalty, after he held up Olivier Panis and Jean Alesi when running a lap down. At the Canadian Grand Prix Irvine was involved in another first lap incident, this time with McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen. He was back on the podium with third place at the French Grand Prix, before a run of seven races where he was either out of the points or out of the race. During the summer, it was announced that Irvine would remain at Ferrari for 1998. His run of poor results ended with a third-place finish at the Japanese Grand Prix, and he concluded the season with a fifth place at the European Grand Prix. Irvine finished seventh in the Drivers' Championship with 24 points. 1998 Irvine remained at Ferrari for and was again partnered with Schumacher. Irvine's fitness level was placed in doubt when he suffered from back pain. To combat the issue, a new seat was installed in his car. Irvine had very little running in the new Ferrari F300 during pre-season testing, and was concerned with the tyre war between Goodyear, Ferrari's tyre supplier, and Bridgestone, but was nevertheless confident about his chances over the coming season. At the first race of the season in Australia Irvine finished in fourth, and in the following race in Brazil, outside the points in eighth place. Irvine finished on the podium six times in the next seven races, including a second-place finish in France, behind teammate Schumacher. In July, it was announced Irvine had signed a two-year extension to his contract. The contract stipulated that Irvine was permitted to choose his own strategy and setup, although he would remain in a supporting role to Schumacher. After two retirements in the next three races, Irvine finished the season with three points scoring finishes, including two second places in Italy and Japan. Irvine finished the season fourth in the Drivers' Championship with 47 points. 1999 For 1999, Irvine was confident heading into the season, saying: "After last year's results where I got my best ever championship finish with fourth place overall, now, for this year, I want to do even better". His season got off to a good start: after 81 Grand Prix, Irvine scored his maiden Formula One victory at the season opening round in Australia, giving him the lead of the World Drivers' Championship for the first time. In the following race in Brazil an unscheduled pitstop, due to blocked radiators, cost Irvine a podium finish, and he ultimately finished fifth. Three weeks later in the San Marino Grand Prix, Irvine would miss out on another podium finish, after his car suffered an engine failure on lap 47 (of 62) while in a comfortable third place, losing him the lead of the Drivers' Championship to teammate Schumacher. Irvine finished second at Monaco and set the fastest lap (his career one and only) and survived a collision with McLaren driver David Coulthard on the way to a third-place finish in Canada. On the first lap of the British Grand Prix, which Irvine finished in second place, Schumacher broke his right leg in a crash at the high-speed Stowe Corner when his car's rear brakes failed. Irvine assumed the role of team leader and was partnered by Finnish driver Mika Salo for the next six races. Irvine won the next race in Austria and was gifted the win by Mika Salo a week later in Germany, helping him to regain the lead of the Drivers' Championship. A further podium finish in Hungary followed, where he struggled with oversteer. In September it was announced that Irvine would move to the Jaguar team, which had purchased Stewart Grand Prix in June, and would be partnered by Johnny Herbert. Irvine finished out of the points in seventh place at the European Grand Prix after enduring an embarrassing 48-second pitstop while his mechanics searched for a missing tyre as they only had three ready for him when he came in. Schumacher returned from injury at the penultimate race of the season, in Malaysia, and in a remarkable display, helped Irvine to win his fourth race of the season and head another Ferrari one-two, ahead of Häkkinen. Both Ferraris were later disqualified as it was discovered their car's bargeboards did not comply with Formula One's technical regulations. Ferrari appealed to the FIA, and it was held five days after the race, on 22 October. The following day, it was announced that the Court of Appeal overturned the decision, ensuring a Championship showdown at Suzuka. At the final race of the season in Japan, Irvine struggled in qualifying and crashed heavily, managing only fifth place; in the race he finished third, over a minute and a half behind Schumacher in second, and race winner Häkkinen. Irvine lost the Drivers' Championship to Häkkinen by just 2 points, but Irvine's efforts during the season helped Ferrari to clinch their first World Constructors' Championship in 16 years. Irvine was awarded the Hawthorn Memorial Trophy, an annual award given to the most successful British or Commonwealth driver in Formula One over the course of one season. He was also named Autosports British Competition Driver of the Year for 1999. Jaguar (2000–2002) 2000 Former British racing driver Stirling Moss aired doubts over Irvine's hopes to be a championship contender at Jaguar over the coming season. Former British World Drivers' Champion Jackie Stewart, said: "He really has come together. He's been in the shadow of a number one driver at Ferrari. I think it was time that he shed that shadow and went on to race for himself." Irvine endured a torrid start: At the opening two races held in Australia and Brazil, Irvine suffered consecutive retirements due to spinning out. However, he later managed to finish in the next three races, albeit outside of the points scoring positions. He retired from the European Grand Prix from a collision with Williams driver Ralf Schumacher after spinning from being overtaken by Arrows driver Jos Verstappen. At the next race in Monaco, Irvine scored Jaguar's first points with fourth place. He was forced to withdraw from the Austrian Grand Prix due to abdominal pains caused by a bout of appendicitis although he participated in the event's first free practice session. He was replaced by the team's test driver Luciano Burti. Irvine was passed fit for the German Grand Prix, where he secured tenth position despite a spin. He was unable to score further points in the next five races, which included a retirement in Italy when he collided with Salo on the first lap. He finished off the season by finishing the final three races which included a sixth-place points scoring finish at the season closing Malaysian Grand Prix. Irvine finished the season 13th in the Drivers' Championship and scored four points. Outside of Formula One, Irvine took part in the Belfast City Open and Direct Millennium Motorsport Festival driving a Jaguar sportscar to celebrate the marque's participation in the Tourist Trophy. 2001 Irvine remained at Jaguar for 2001 and was partnered by Luciano Burti. Despite his vocal frustrations, Jaguar team principal Bobby Rahal backed Irvine for the upcoming season, although Irvine was not confident citing his uncertainty about his team becoming competitive which he has made vocal. Rahal became concerned over Irvine's attitude when the team's car, the Jaguar R2, was underperforming during pre-season testing. Irvine supported the view of being sacked at the end of the season if his performances did not satisfy the team. Irvine clinched 11th place in the first round in Australia and failed to finish in the next four consecutive races. Before the Spanish Grand Prix, Burti left Jaguar to join the Prost team so Irvine was partnered with Pedro de la Rosa. Irvine took Jaguar's first podium finish with third place in the following round in Monaco. In June, it was confirmed that Irvine and de la Rosa would be retained by Jaguar for 2002. Despite this success, Irvine failed to finish five of the next eight races. He suffered from a neck strain at a test session at Silverstone and took time resting during the summer break. During this period, Rahal attempted to sell Irvine to the Jordan team with an additional $10 million to Irvine's salary. Irvine rejected the contract as he wanted to help Jaguar become more competitive. The contract, originally mooted by Rahal as a joke, led to his sacking and he was replaced by Austrian World Champion Niki Lauda. At the Belgian Grand Prix, Irvine was involved in a collision with Burti who was trying to overtake him. Burti crashed at over 240 km/h and absolved any blame placed upon Irvine. Irvine managed to clinch his final points of the season with fifth in the United States and ended the season by retiring from the Japanese Grand Prix from a failure of his car's power generators on the fuel rig. Irvine finished the season 12th in the Drivers' Championship having scored six points. 2002 Irvine remained at Jaguar for 2002 and was again partnered by de la Rosa. In preparation for the upcoming season, Irvine undertook a fitness examination and recorded a high score. However, he was cautious about his team's prospects going into the year, saying: "We've just got to wait and see what happens with this car, that's the question mark". At the opening round in Australia, Irvine finished fourth; and in the following race in Malaysia, he was forced to retire with an hydraulics problem. Irvine later managed to clinch seventh place in the Brazilian Grand Prix, before he suffered consecutive retirements in the next three races. He later finished the Monaco Grand Prix in ninth position, which was followed up with further consecutive retirements in the seven races. However, this marked a turning point as Irvine managed to finish in all of the remaining races. He was in the points scoring positions twice in this period—a sixth-place finish in Belgium and took his final career podium with third in Italy. He finished the season ninth in the Drivers' Championship, with eight points. During the season, friction developed between Irvine and his team due to his vocal frustration at the lack of development of his car. In an effort to retain Irvine, Jaguar offered him a $6 million reduction in his salary, however no agreement was reached. He considered a return to his former team Jordan for the 2003 season, with no agreement reached due to the team's financial problems. Irvine also denied rumours that he would move into either the CART World Series or the IndyCar Series. Post-Formula One (2003–present) In 2002, Irvine successfully sued TalkSport Radio for passing off his image in a print advertisement, as if he had personally endorsed the station. The case, the first UK legal decision in which a passing-off action had succeeded in a false endorsement case, was resolved in the Court of Appeal in 2003. Eight years later, Irvine fronted a half-hour programme on the station, the LG Grand Prix Show, alongside regular Sunday evening presenter Andy Goldstein. On 24 July 2003, Irvine was arrested after being caught driving a scooter over 30 mph through Hyde Park without a licence or insurance. He was to be sentenced at Bow Street Magistrates but did not attend. An arrest warrant with bail was issued. Irvine played himself in the 2004 comedy The Prince & Me, which starred Julia Stiles. He was executive producer of a film produced about Paddy Mayne. In late 2006 he launched a new television programme on the Sky One channel called The Race, in which two teams of celebrity racing drivers competed against each other. David Coulthard was captain and coach of the girls team, and Irvine of the boys. In May 2005, Irvine was rumoured to be heading a consortium to buy the Jordan Grand Prix team, and stated his interest in running the team. He was later linked to a possible sale of the Minardi team and held talks with team principal Paul Stoddart. Irvine was a millionaire through property investment before reaching Formula One. He has a multi-million pound property portfolio, owning around forty properties throughout the world. According to the Sunday Times Rich List, published in April 2006, Irvine was the fifth richest person of Northern Ireland at that time, having increased his personal fortune to approximately £160 million. He is also the owner of Eddie Irvine Sports, a snooker, pool, kart racing, paintballing, and football facility in Bangor, close to his native Conlig. Before pulling out because of a leg injury, Irvine was due to be one of the celebrities taking part in the 2006 ITV Soccer Aid. In aid of UNICEF, this television show featured an England vs the rest of the world football match, with teams made up of a mix of celebrities and ex-professionals. On 9 January 2014, Irvine was sentenced to six months in prison in Italy after being found guilty of "mutual injury" following a brawl in a night club in Milan, Italy with Gabriele Moratti, son of former mayor of Milan Letizia Moratti. Moratti's lawyer Vincenzo Saponara told the media that the sentence was likely to be suspended and that neither man would go to jail. Nationality By virtue of being from Northern Ireland, a constituent country of the United Kingdom, Irvine was a British citizen throughout his career. He also held a racing licence issued by the National Sporting Authority of the Republic of Ireland (drivers are not compelled to obtain their licence from their home country). The FIA's International Sporting Regulations state that drivers competing in FIA World Championships shall compete under the nationality of their passport, rather than that of the National Sporting Authority that issued their racing licence, as is the case in other racing series. Relating to Irvine's nationality, the FIA repeatedly mistakenly issued official entry lists that claimed Irvine was competing under the Irish nationality (e.g. entry list for the 1995 and 1996 season). This situation created some confusion as to Irvine's nationality when he appeared at podium ceremonies in the Formula One World Championship. During his earliest podium appearances (at the 1995 Canadian Grand Prix, 1996 Australian Grand Prix, 1997 Argentine Grand Prix and 1997 Monaco Grand Prix), an Irish Tricolour was mistakenly flown by the race organisers. After the 1997 Argentine Grand Prix his family received threatening phone calls. Irvine then requested that at subsequent races, a politically neutral shamrock flag be flown, and the non-sectarian "Londonderry Air" be played to mark a victory. Irvine has self-identified as being Irish: Personal life Irvine named his biggest influence as his former girlfriend Maria Drummond, whom he met at the Macau Grand Prix in 1988. The pair remained friends for a year, staying in regular contact, until the relationship became deeper when Drummond split up from her boyfriend. From the relationship Irvine has a daughter, Zoe. He said that the birth of his daughter was the best moment of his life, despite not being a natural lover of babies. Irvine is seen by many as a playboy in the mould of James Hunt, in contrast to the sport's modern stars, most of whom are seen as staid and less flamboyant. Irvine is also remembered for his tendency to speak his mind, often to the irritation of some. Despite this, Irvine does not consider himself to be a playboy stating his life is "90% work". He was nicknamed "Irv the Swerve" and later "Fast Eddie". Irvine is a supporter of the Scottish club Rangers F.C. Racing record Career summary Complete British Formula 3 results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete International Formula 3000 results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap.) Complete Japanese Formula 3000 Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Complete Formula One Grand Prix results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap) Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as they had completed over 90% of the race distance. References Bibliography Further reading External links 1965 births Living people Jordan Formula One drivers Ferrari Formula One drivers Jaguar Formula One drivers Formula One race winners Racing drivers from Northern Ireland Formula One drivers from Northern Ireland Japanese Formula 3000 Championship drivers British Formula Three Championship drivers 24 Hours of Le Mans drivers Sportspeople from Newtownards International Formula 3000 drivers Formula Ford drivers People educated at Regent House Grammar School World Sportscar Championship drivers TOM'S drivers Motorsport people from County Down

424421

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/160th%20Special%20Operations%20Aviation%20Regiment%20%28Airborne%29

160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne)

The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne), abbreviated as 160th SOAR (A), is a special operations force of the United States Army that provides helicopter aviation support for special operations forces. Its missions have included attack, assault, and reconnaissance, and these missions are usually conducted at night, at high speeds, low altitudes, and on short notice. Nicknamed the Night Stalkers and called Task Force Brown within the JSOC, the 160th SOAR(A) is headquartered at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. Overview The 160th SOAR (A) consists of some of the Army's best-qualified aviators, crew chiefs, and support soldiers. Officers are all volunteers; enlisted soldiers volunteer or are assigned by the U.S. Army Human Resources Command. Until 2013, only men were allowed to be pilots in the 160th. Upon joining the 160th, all soldiers are assigned to "Green Platoon", in which they receive intensive training in "advanced methods of the five basic combat skills: first responder, land navigation, combatives, weapons and teamwork". The weapons training includes firing thousands of rounds with AK-47/AK-74 rifles, Beretta M9 pistols, M4/M4A1 carbines, and SIG Sauer M17/M18 pistols. Soldiers who fail to pass the course the first time may retake it, but there is no guarantee that anyone assigned to Green Platoon will pass and continue on with the 160th. The basic Night Stalker course for enlisted soldiers lasts five weeks; the officer course lasts 20 to 28 weeks. A new Night Stalker pilot arrives at a unit as Basic Mission Qualified (BMQ). After a series of skills test qualifications, experience, leadership, and oral review boards lasting up to three years, the Night Stalker is designated Fully Mission Qualified (FMQ). After three to five years as an FMQ, the Night Stalker may try out for flight lead qualification. SOAR flight medics can qualify as special operations combat medics by completing the 36-week long Special Operations Combat Medic (SOCM) course at Fort Bragg. History 1980s and 1990s After the April 1980 Operation Eagle Claw attempt to rescue American hostages held in Tehran, Iran, failed, President Jimmy Carter ordered former Chief of Naval Operations Adm. James L. Holloway III to figure out how the U.S. military could best mount another attempt. At the time there were no U.S. helicopter units trained in this kind of stealthy, short-notice Special Operations mission. The Army looked to the 101st Aviation Group, the air arm of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault), which had the most diverse operating experience of the service's helicopter units, and selected elements of the 158th Aviation Battalion, 101st Aviation Battalion, 229th Aviation Battalion, and the 159th Aviation Battalion. The chosen pilots immediately entered intensive training in night flying. This provisional unit was dubbed Task Force 158, since most of its pilots were Black Hawk aviators detached from the 158th. Their distinctive 101st "Screaming Eagle" patches remained on their uniforms. The Black Hawks and Chinooks continued to operate around Campbell Army Airfield at the north of post, and Saber Army Heliport at the south. The OH-6 Cayuses, aircraft that had vanished from the division's regular inventory after Vietnam, were hidden on base in an ammunition holding area still known as the "SHOC Pad", for "Special Helicopter Operations Company". As the first batch of pilots completed training in the fall of 1980, a second attempt to rescue the hostages was planned for early 1981. Dubbed Operation Honey Badger, it was called off when the hostages were released on the morning of President Ronald Reagan's inauguration. Task Force 158 was the Army's only special operations aviation unit, and its members had already become recognized as the Army's premier aviation night fighters. Their capability was judged too useful to lose, and so instead of returning to the 101st, the pilots and modified aircraft became a new unit. (Original members of the Night Stalkers refer to it as "the day the Eagles came off".) Originally created as Task Force 160 when the 101st Airborne Division was commanded by Jack V. Mackmull from June 1980 to August 1981. When the command was formally organized as a regiment, Mackmull was chosen to serve as its honorary colonel. The unit was officially established on 16 October 1981, when it was designated as the 160th Aviation Battalion. The 160th first saw combat during 1983's Operation Urgent Fury, the U.S. invasion of Grenada. In 1986, it was renamed the 160th Aviation Group (Airborne); and in May 1990, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne). As demand for highly trained special operations aviation assets bloomed, the regiment activated three battalions, a separate detachment, and incorporated one Army National Guard unit, the 1st Battalion, 245th Aviation (OK ARNG). In 1987 and 1988, its pilots took part in Operation Earnest Will, the protection of re-flagged Kuwaiti tankers in the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War. They flew from US Navy warships and leased oil barges in a secret sub-part called Operation Prime Chance, and became the first helicopter pilots to use night vision goggles and forward looking infrared (FLIR) devices in night combat. In June 1988, the unit received a short-notice directive to recover a Soviet made Mi-25 Hind (Mi-24 Hind export version) attack helicopter from a remote location in Chad. The Hind was abandoned by the Libyans after 15 years of fighting, and was of great intelligence value to the U.S. In April 1988, two CH-47 Chinooks, a U.S. Air Force C-5 Galaxy, and 75 maintenance personnel and crew flew to White Sands AFB, New Mexico to rehearse the mission. In late May of that year an advance team went to Ndjamena, Chad, to await their aircraft. Two weeks later two Chinooks and 76 crew members and maintenance personnel arrived by C-5. At midnight on 11 June 1988, two MH-47s flew 490 miles at night without outside navigational aids to the target location, the Ouadi Doum Airfield in northern Chad. The first Chinook landed and configured the Hind, while the second hovered overhead and sling loaded it for return to Ndjamena. A surprise sandstorm slowed the return trip, but less than 67 hours after the arrival of the C-5 in Chad, the ground crew had the Hind and Chinooks aboard and ready for return to the U.S. The Night Stalkers spearheaded Operation Just Cause, the 1989 invasion of Panama, and they were also used in Operation Desert Storm in 1991. In October 1993 in Somalia, Night Stalkers became involved in the Battle of Mogadishu, which later became the subject of the book Black Hawk Down, and its film adaptation. Two Night Stalker Black Hawks, Super 6-1 (piloted by Cliff Wolcott), and Super 6-4 (piloted by Mike Durant), were shot down in the battle. Five of the eighteen men killed (not counting a nineteenth post-operation casualty) in the Battle of Mogadishu were members of the Night Stalkers team, who were lost along with the two Black Hawks. Global War on Terrorism 2001–2005 During the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, the Night Stalkers from 2nd Battalion supported two task forces established in early October 2001: Dagger and Sword. (Their unit in TF Sword was designated Task Force Brown.) In the evening of 18 October into 19 October 2001, two SOAR MH-47E helicopters, escorted by MH-60L (Direct Action Penetrators) (DAPs), airlifted U.S. troops from the Karshi-Khanabad Air Base in Uzbekistan more than across the Hindu Kush mountains into Afghanistan. The pilots of the Chinooks, flying in zero-visibility conditions, were refueled in flight three times during the 11-hour mission, establishing a new world record for combat rotorcraft. The troops—two 12-man Green Beret teams from the 5th Special Forces Group dubbed Operational Detachment Alpha (ODA) 555 and 595 plus four Air Force Combat Controllers—linked up with the CIA and Northern Alliance. Within a few weeks, the Northern Alliance, assisted by U.S. ground and air forces, captured several key cities from the Taliban. In November 2001, Night Stalker AH-6J Little Birds took part in Objective Wolverine and Raptor missions and Operation Relentless Strike. In December 2001, Night Stalker crews resupplied more than 150 Delta Force, British Special Boat Service, and CIA Special Activities Division operatives as they hunted for Osama bin Laden in the Tora Bora mountain complex. On 21 February 2002, while scouting Islamist terrorists on Basilan Island as part of Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines and seeking to rescue a nurse and an American missionary couple, a MH-47 crashed at sea in the southern Philippines' Bohol Strait, killing 10 servicemen (eight from E company, 160th SOAR and two from the 353rd Special Operations Group). In March 2002, Night Stalkers from B Company, 2nd Battalion, 160th SOAR supported coalition troops during Operation Anaconda, particularly at the Battle of Takur Ghar on 4 March, where one of their MH-47Es, callsign Razor 03, was damaged by rocket-propelled grenades and crash-landed carrying Mako 30. A second MH-47E, callsign Razor 01, responded to the shoot down with a Quick Reaction Force; it was damaged by small arms and rocket-propelled grenades, and crash-landed. One Night Stalker was killed in the battle. On 21 June 2002 in the Philippines, Night Stalker MH-47Es were involved in the operation that killed Abu Sabaya, a senior leader in Abu Sayyef. A U.S. Predator drone marked the person with an infrared laser as he tried to escape in a smuggler's boat. The MH-47Es trained searchlights on the boat while operators from the Philippine Naval Special Operations Group opened fire, killing the terrorist leader and capturing four other terrorists with him. Later in 2002, in Afghanistan, Task Force 11 (previously known as Task Force Sword but renamed in January 2002) was composed of DEVGRU, and a company of Rangers, and was supported by a company of helicopters from the 160th SOAR. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, 3rd Battalion, 160th SOAR, deployed as the Joint Special Operations Air Detachment-West under CJSOTF-West (Combined Joint Special Operations Task Force-West/Task Force Dagger). It was equipped with eight MH-47E Chinooks, four MH-60L DAPs, and two MH-60L Black Hawks. At 9 p.m. on 19 March 2003, the first strike of Operation Iraqi Freedom was carried out by members of the 160th SOAR, on Iraqi visual observation posts along the southern and western borders of Iraq. The strike groups included one flight of MH-60L DAPs and four "Black Swarm" flights, each consisting of a pair of AH-6M Little Birds; a FLIR-equipped, target-spotting MH-6M; and a pair of U.S. Air Force A-10As. In seven hours, more than 70 sites were destroyed, effectively depriving the Iraqi military of any early warning of the coming invasion. As the sites were eliminated the first heliborne SOF teams launched from H-5 airbase in Jordan, including vehicle-mounted patrols from the British and Australian special forces, who were transported by the MH-47Es of the 160th SOAR. Night Stalkers from 1st Battalion 160th SOAR were tasked with supporting Task Force 20 with its MH-60L/K Black Hawks, MH-60L DAPs, MH-6M transport and AH-6M Little Birds; they were based at Ar'Ar. On 26 March, the 160th SOAR took part in the Objective Beaver mission, a raid by DEVGRU on a complex known as al Qadisiyah Research Centre that was suspected to have stocks of chemical and biological weapons. On 1 April 2003, the 160th SOAR took part in the rescue mission of PFC Jessica Lynch who was taken prisoner during the Battle of Nasiriyah. On 2 April, a Delta Force squadron operating in Iraq was ambushed by a half-dozen armed technicals from an anti-special forces Fedayeen. Two MH-60K Black Hawks carrying a parajumper medical team and two MH-60L DAPs of the 160th SOAR responded and engaged the Iraqis, which allowed the Delta operators to move their two casualties to an emergency HLZ. However, one Delta Force operator succumbed to his wounds. On the evening of 13 December 2003, Saddam Hussein was captured by U.S. forces in Operation Red Dawn, he was exfiltrated by a MH-6 Little Bird from the 160th SOAR and he was taken into custody at Baghdad International Airport. In 2004 they took part in the rescue of three Italian contractors and one Polish businessman held for ransom by Iraqi insurgents. In Afghanistan in 2005: Eight Night Stalkers (four from HHC and four from Bravo company of 3rd Battalion) were killed along with eight Navy SEALs on a rescue mission for Marcus Luttrell, after their MH-47 Chinook helicopter was hit by an RPG (rocket propelled grenade). They were sent out to look for Luttrell after Operation Red Wings, in which he was involved with three other SEALs, was compromised and Luttrell's teammates killed. 2006–2009 In March 2006, SEALs from DEVGRU and Rangers were flown by the 160th SOAR into in North Waziristan, Pakistan, to assault an al-Qaeda training camp, allegedly under the codename: Operation Vigilant Harvest, the assaulters killed as many as 30 terrorists including the camps commandant. On 14 May 2006, helicopters from the 160th SOAR brought operators from Delta Force's B Squadron to Yusufiyah, Iraq, to fight al-Qaeda fighters in several buildings. As the operators disembarked their helicopters, they came under fire from a nearby house, and more al-Qaeda fighters soon joined the firefight. The door gunners of the 160th's Black Hawks fired at the insurgents; a pair of AH-6M Little Birds carried out strafing runs. One Little Bird from the 160th's 1st Battalion, B Company, was shot down. An estimated 25 al-Qaeda fighters were killed. In July 2006, a pair of MH-47Es from 160th SOAR attempted to insert a combined strike element of DEVGRU, Rangers, and Afghan commandos in Helmand Province, Afghanistan, to attack a compound. With some troops on the ground, a large insurgent force ambushed them. Both helicopters were struck by small arms fire. One MH-47E pilot put his aircraft in the line of fire to protect the other MH-47E as its assault team disembarked. An RPG hit the shielding MH-47E, whose pilot crash-landed with no serious injuries to operators or aircrew. The Ranger commander and an attached 2nd Commando Regiment operator organised an all-round defence while the other MH-47E held back the advancing insurgents until its miniguns ran out of ammunition. An AC-130 Spectre joined the battle and kept the down crew and passengers safe until a British Immediate Response Team helicopter recovered them. The AC-130 then destroyed the MH-47E wreck, denying it to the Taliban. Elements of 3rd Battalion 160th SOAR have conducted episodic deployments in support of Operation Enduring Freedom—Caribbean and Central America, begun in 2008. Night Stalker helicopters were present during the 2008 SOCOM counter-terror exercises in Denver. On 24 April 2008, Company D, 3rd Battalion, 160th SOAR was inactivated at a ceremony conducted at Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia, as part of a regimental transformation plan. The 160th SOAR also took part in the 2008 Abu Kamal raid. On 19 August 2009, four Night Stalkers from D Company, 1st Battalion, 160th SOAR lost their lives in a MH-60 Black Hawk helicopter crash in Leadville, Colorado, during mountain and environmental training. On 9 September 2009 in Afghanistan, Night Stalkers inserted the British SBS and SFSG into Kunduz Province to rescue Times journalist Stephen Farrell after he and his Afghan interpreter were captured by the Taliban. On 19 September 2009 in Somalia, the Night Stalkers took part in Operation Celestial Balance, whose target was a senior terrorist leader connected to al-Qaeda affiliated organizations. The assault force (4 AH-6M Little Birds and 4 MH-60L Black Hawks) carried in DEVGRU operators to kill or capture the leader. AH-6Ms strafed the two-vehicle convoy, killing the leader along with three other al-Shabaab terrorists, then carried out an overwatch while DEVGRU cleared the vehicles and recovered the body. On 22 October 2009, a 3rd Battalion helicopter crashed into the USNS Arctic during a joint training exercise involving fast roping about 20 miles off Fort Story, Virginia. The crash killed a soldier, Sergeant First Class James R. Stright, 29, and injured eight others, three seriously. 2010–2020 In May 2011, the Night Stalkers took part in the raid on Osama bin Laden's compound. The operation involved flying covertly into Abbottabad, Pakistan in a pair of MH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, specially modified for stealth and piloted by the 160th SOAR, to take a team of Navy SEALs directly to bin Laden's compound. While one of the helicopters crash landed on arrival, all on board survived. The SEALs were successfully inserted onto the property while the crew was able to extract themselves, provide cover for the SEALs and then leave on the other helicopter. The mission was overall considered a success. The dramatic nighttime raid was "painstakingly recreated" in the film Zero Dark Thirty, which covers the CIA's efforts to track down bin Laden, from just after the September 11th attacks to the daring raid ten years later. On 28 May 2012, Operation Jubilee took place: Black Hawks from the 160th SOAR flew in teams from the British 22 SAS and DEVGRU into Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan so they could rescue a British aid worker, a Kenyan NGO worker and 2 Afghans who were taken hostage by Bandits in the province. The rescue was a success. On 15 January 2014, a MH-60M Black Hawk of the 160th performed a hard landing at Hunter Army Airfield in Georgia. One soldier, CPT Clayton Carpenter of NY (posthumously promoted to MAJ), was killed with another two injured. On 4 July 2014, during Operation Inherent Resolve, the Night Stalkers inserted Delta Force operators into Syria to rescue James Foley and other US hostages. One American was wounded, no hostages were found, but a substantial number of terrorists were killed. CENTCOM mistakenly posted a video on the internet of a flight of four MH-60Ms of the 160th SOAR conducting a mid-air refueling over Iraq in October 2014, the video was hastily taken down. On 26 November 2014, MH-60s flown by Nightstalkers took part in the first raid in the 2014 hostage rescue operations in Yemen. The Night Stalkers continue to be deployed to Afghanistan as part of NATO's Resolute Support Mission after Operation Enduring Freedom-Afghanistan ended in late 2014 and was replaced with Operation Freedom's Sentinel. Throughout that night of 5 December 2015, a group of Rangers engaged in a firefight with enemy troops near the Afghan-Pakistan border; after about 5 a.m. their commander called for an extraction after they learned of a larger enemy group approaching. A helicopter from the 160th SOAR arrived and began receiving heavy fire from the enemy, with an AH-64 Apache helicopter from the 1st Battalion 101st Aviation Regiment escorting the helicopter, put their Apache directly between the U.S. troops, the helicopter and the enemy forces to draw the fire. As a result, the extraction was a success. The Washington Post reported that 160th SOAR took part in the Yakla raid in Yemen on 29 January 2017, distinguishing itself when its helicopters flew repeatedly into heavy enemy fire to support U.S. Navy SEALs pinned down on the ground. On 25 August 2017, a Black Hawk helicopter flown by the 160th SOAR crashed off the coast of Yemen while conducting hoist training when it lost power and crashed into the sea, six servicemen survived, one US service member remained missing. CNN reported that on 27 October 2017, a US helicopter from 4th Battalion 160th SOAR crashed in Logar province, Afghanistan, killing one and injuring six more US service members; the crash was not a result of enemy action. On 20 August 2018, CW3 Taylor Galvin died from injuries resulting from an MH-60M crash while conducting a partnered counter-terrorism mission in support of the Operation Inherent Resolve. On the morning of September 18, 2021, "according to what appears to be a military incident report shared on Instagram and Reddit", a katana-wielding man attacked several SOAR soldiers at a California airport, forcing over twenty of them to "hunker down" in a hangar at Inyokern Airport, resulting in wounds to two soldiers that required stitches. "The soldiers' names were redacted in the photo shared on social media—but one was identified as a staff sergeant and the other as a captain." Aircraft List of known operations Organization 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) (160th SOAR) (A) See also Black helicopter Fort Campbell, Kentucky Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia Joint Base Lewis–McChord, Washington Comparable U.S. units 8th Special Operations Squadron (1st Special Operations Wing, Air Force Special Operations Command) 20th Special Operations Squadron (27th Special Operations Wing, Air Force Special Operations Command) 7th Special Operations Squadron (352d Special Operations Wing, Air Force Special Operations Command) Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron 85 (HSC-85) (US Navy Reserve, Naval Special Warfare Command) Comparable international units Australian 171st Special Operations Aviation Squadron British Joint Special Forces Aviation Wing Canadian 427 Special Operations Aviation Squadron French 4th Special Forces Helicopter Regiment Italian 3rd Special Operations Helicopter Regiment Japanese 1st Helicopter Brigade References External links of the 160th SOAR(A) Photographs of 160th SOAR (archived 22 June 2008) 1981 establishments in the United States Aviation regiments of the United States Army Battle of Mogadishu (1993) Helicopter units and formations Killing of Osama bin Laden Military units and formations established in 1981 Night flying Military units and formations involved in the Somali Civil War Special operations regiments of the United States Army United States Army Special Operations Command

424440

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-theorem

H-theorem

In classical statistical mechanics, the H-theorem, introduced by Ludwig Boltzmann in 1872, describes the tendency to decrease in the quantity H (defined below) in a nearly-ideal gas of molecules. As this quantity H was meant to represent the entropy of thermodynamics, the H-theorem was an early demonstration of the power of statistical mechanics as it claimed to derive the second law of thermodynamics—a statement about fundamentally irreversible processes—from reversible microscopic mechanics. It is thought to prove the second law of thermodynamics, albeit under the assumption of low-entropy initial conditions. The H-theorem is a natural consequence of the kinetic equation derived by Boltzmann that has come to be known as Boltzmann's equation. The H-theorem has led to considerable discussion about its actual implications, with major themes being: What is entropy? In what sense does Boltzmann's quantity H correspond to the thermodynamic entropy? Are the assumptions (especially the assumption of molecular chaos) behind Boltzmann's equation too strong? When are these assumptions violated? Name and pronunciation Boltzmann in his original publication writes the symbol E (as in entropy) for its statistical function. Years later, Samuel Hawksley Burbury, one of the critics of the theorem, wrote the function with the symbol H, a notation that was subsequently adopted by Boltzmann when referring to his "H-theorem". The notation has led to some confusion regarding the name of the theorem. Even though the statement is usually referred to as the "Aitch theorem", sometimes it is instead called the "Eta theorem", as the capital Greek letter Eta (Η) is undistinguishable from the capital version of Latin letter h (H). Discussions have been raised on how the symbol should be understood, but it remains unclear due to the lack of written sources from the time of the theorem. Studies of the typography and the work of J.W. Gibbs seem to favour the interpretation of H as Eta. Definition and meaning of Boltzmann's H The H value is determined from the function f(E, t) dE, which is the energy distribution function of molecules at time t. The value f(E, t) dE is the number of molecules that have kinetic energy between E and E + dE. H itself is defined as For an isolated ideal gas (with fixed total energy and fixed total number of particles), the function H is at a minimum when the particles have a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution; if the molecules of the ideal gas are distributed in some other way (say, all having the same kinetic energy), then the value of H will be higher. Boltzmann's H-theorem, described in the next section, shows that when collisions between molecules are allowed, such distributions are unstable and tend to irreversibly seek towards the minimum value of H (towards the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution). (Note on notation: Boltzmann originally used the letter E for quantity H; most of the literature after Boltzmann uses the letter H as here. Boltzmann also used the symbol x to refer to the kinetic energy of a particle.) Boltzmann's H theorem Boltzmann considered what happens during the collision between two particles. It is a basic fact of mechanics that in the elastic collision between two particles (such as hard spheres), the energy transferred between the particles varies depending on initial conditions (angle of collision, etc.). Boltzmann made a key assumption known as the Stosszahlansatz (molecular chaos assumption), that during any collision event in the gas, the two particles participating in the collision have 1) independently chosen kinetic energies from the distribution, 2) independent velocity directions, 3) independent starting points. Under these assumptions, and given the mechanics of energy transfer, the energies of the particles after the collision will obey a certain new random distribution that can be computed. Considering repeated uncorrelated collisions, between any and all of the molecules in the gas, Boltzmann constructed his kinetic equation (Boltzmann's equation). From this kinetic equation, a natural outcome is that the continual process of collision causes the quantity H to decrease until it has reached a minimum. Impact Although Boltzmann's H-theorem turned out not to be the absolute proof of the second law of thermodynamics as originally claimed (see Criticisms below), the H-theorem led Boltzmann in the last years of the 19th century to more and more probabilistic arguments about the nature of thermodynamics. The probabilistic view of thermodynamics culminated in 1902 with Josiah Willard Gibbs's statistical mechanics for fully general systems (not just gases), and the introduction of generalized statistical ensembles. The kinetic equation and in particular Boltzmann's molecular chaos assumption inspired a whole family of Boltzmann equations that are still used today to model the motions of particles, such as the electrons in a semiconductor. In many cases the molecular chaos assumption is highly accurate, and the ability to discard complex correlations between particles makes calculations much simpler. The process of thermalisation can be described using the H-theorem or the relaxation theorem. Criticism and exceptions There are several notable reasons described below why the H-theorem, at least in its original 1871 form, is not completely rigorous. As Boltzmann would eventually go on to admit, the arrow of time in the H-theorem is not in fact purely mechanical, but really a consequence of assumptions about initial conditions. Loschmidt's paradox Soon after Boltzmann published his H theorem, Johann Josef Loschmidt objected that it should not be possible to deduce an irreversible process from time-symmetric dynamics and a time-symmetric formalism. If the H decreases over time in one state, then there must be a matching reversed state where H increases over time (Loschmidt's paradox). The explanation is that Boltzmann's equation is based on the assumption of "molecular chaos", i.e., that it follows from, or at least is consistent with, the underlying kinetic model that the particles be considered independent and uncorrelated. It turns out that this assumption breaks time reversal symmetry in a subtle sense, and therefore begs the question. Once the particles are allowed to collide, their velocity directions and positions in fact do become correlated (however, these correlations are encoded in an extremely complex manner). This shows that an (ongoing) assumption of independence is not consistent with the underlying particle model. Boltzmann's reply to Loschmidt was to concede the possibility of these states, but noting that these sorts of states were so rare and unusual as to be impossible in practice. Boltzmann would go on to sharpen this notion of the "rarity" of states, resulting in his famous equation, his entropy formula of 1877 (see Boltzmann's entropy formula). Spin echo As a demonstration of Loschmidt's paradox, a famous modern counter example (not to Boltzmann's original gas-related H-theorem, but to a closely related analogue) is the phenomenon of spin echo. In the spin echo effect, it is physically possible to induce time reversal in an interacting system of spins. An analogue to Boltzmann's H for the spin system can be defined in terms of the distribution of spin states in the system. In the experiment, the spin system is initially perturbed into a non-equilibrium state (high H), and, as predicted by the H theorem the quantity H soon decreases to the equilibrium value. At some point, a carefully constructed electromagnetic pulse is applied that reverses the motions of all the spins. The spins then undo the time evolution from before the pulse, and after some time the H actually increases away from equilibrium (once the evolution has completely unwound, the H decreases once again to the minimum value). In some sense, the time reversed states noted by Loschmidt turned out to be not completely impractical. Poincaré recurrence In 1896, Ernst Zermelo noted a further problem with the H theorem, which was that if the system's H is at any time not a minimum, then by Poincaré recurrence, the non-minimal H must recur (though after some extremely long time). Boltzmann admitted that these recurring rises in H technically would occur, but pointed out that, over long times, the system spends only a tiny fraction of its time in one of these recurring states. The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases to a maximum equilibrium value. This is strictly true only in the thermodynamic limit of an infinite number of particles. For a finite number of particles, there will always be entropy fluctuations. For example, in the fixed volume of the isolated system, the maximum entropy is obtained when half the particles are in one half of the volume, half in the other, but sometimes there will be temporarily a few more particles on one side than the other, and this will constitute a very small reduction in entropy. These entropy fluctuations are such that the longer one waits, the larger an entropy fluctuation one will probably see during that time, and the time one must wait for a given entropy fluctuation is always finite, even for a fluctuation to its minimum possible value. For example, one might have an extremely low entropy condition of all particles being in one half of the container. The gas will quickly attain its equilibrium value of entropy, but given enough time, this same situation will happen again. For practical systems, e.g. a gas in a 1-liter container at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, this time is truly enormous, many multiples of the age of the universe, and, practically speaking, one can ignore the possibility. Fluctuations of H in small systems Since H is a mechanically defined variable that is not conserved, then like any other such variable (pressure, etc.) it will show thermal fluctuations. This means that H regularly shows spontaneous increases from the minimum value. Technically this is not an exception to the H theorem, since the H theorem was only intended to apply for a gas with a very large number of particles. These fluctuations are only perceptible when the system is small and the time interval over which it is observed is not enormously large. If H is interpreted as entropy as Boltzmann intended, then this can be seen as a manifestation of the fluctuation theorem. Connection to information theory H is a forerunner of Shannon's information entropy. Claude Shannon denoted his measure of information entropy H after the H-theorem. The article on Shannon's information entropy contains an explanation of the discrete counterpart of the quantity H, known as the information entropy or information uncertainty (with a minus sign). By extending the discrete information entropy to the continuous information entropy, also called differential entropy, one obtains the expression in the equation from the section above, Definition and Meaning of Boltzmann's H, and thus a better feel for the meaning of H. The H-theorem's connection between information and entropy plays a central role in a recent controversy called the Black hole information paradox. Tolman's H-theorem Richard C. Tolman's 1938 book The Principles of Statistical Mechanics dedicates a whole chapter to the study of Boltzmann's H theorem, and its extension in the generalized classical statistical mechanics of Gibbs. A further chapter is devoted to the quantum mechanical version of the H-theorem. Classical mechanical We let and be our generalized coordinates for a set of particles. Then we consider a function that returns the probability density of particles, over the states in phase space. Note how this can be multiplied by a small region in phase space, denoted by , to yield the (average) expected number of particles in that region. Tolman offers the following equations for the definition of the quantity H in Boltzmann's original H theorem. Here we sum over the regions into which phase space is divided, indexed by . And in the limit for an infinitesimal phase space volume , we can write the sum as an integral. H can also be written in terms of the number of molecules present in each of the cells. An additional way to calculate the quantity H is: where P is the probability of finding a system chosen at random from the specified microcanonical ensemble. It can finally be written as: where G is the number of classical states. The quantity H can also be defined as the integral over velocity space : {| style="width:100%" border="0" |- | style="width:95%" | | style= | (1) |} where P(v) is the probability distribution. Using the Boltzmann equation one can prove that H can only decrease. For a system of N statistically independent particles, H is related to the thermodynamic entropy S through: So, according to the H-theorem, S can only increase. Quantum mechanical In quantum statistical mechanics (which is the quantum version of classical statistical mechanics), the H-function is the function: where summation runs over all possible distinct states of the system, and pi is the probability that the system could be found in the i-th state. This is closely related to the entropy formula of Gibbs, and we shall (following e.g., Waldram (1985), p. 39) proceed using S rather than H. First, differentiating with respect to time gives (using the fact that Σ dpi/dt = 0, since Σ pi = 1, so the second term vanishes. We will see later that it will be useful to break this into two sums.) Now Fermi's golden rule gives a master equation for the average rate of quantum jumps from state α to β; and from state β to α. (Of course, Fermi's golden rule itself makes certain approximations, and the introduction of this rule is what introduces irreversibility. It is essentially the quantum version of Boltzmann's Stosszahlansatz.) For an isolated system the jumps will make contributions where the reversibility of the dynamics ensures that the same transition constant ναβ appears in both expressions. So The two differences terms in the summation always have the same sign. For example: then so overall the two negative signs will cancel. Therefore, for an isolated system. The same mathematics is sometimes used to show that relative entropy is a Lyapunov function of a Markov process in detailed balance, and other chemistry contexts. Gibbs' H-theorem Josiah Willard Gibbs described another way in which the entropy of a microscopic system would tend to increase over time. Later writers have called this "Gibbs' H-theorem" as its conclusion resembles that of Boltzmann's. Gibbs himself never called it an H-theorem, and in fact his definition of entropy—and mechanism of increase—are very different from Boltzmann's. This section is included for historical completeness. The setting of Gibbs' entropy production theorem is in ensemble statistical mechanics, and the entropy quantity is the Gibbs entropy (information entropy) defined in terms of the probability distribution for the entire state of the system. This is in contrast to Boltzmann's H defined in terms of the distribution of states of individual molecules, within a specific state of the system. Gibbs considered the motion of an ensemble which initially starts out confined to a small region of phase space, meaning that the state of the system is known with fair precision though not quite exactly (low Gibbs entropy). The evolution of this ensemble over time proceeds according to Liouville's equation. For almost any kind of realistic system, the Liouville evolution tends to "stir" the ensemble over phase space, a process analogous to the mixing of a dye in an incompressible fluid. After some time, the ensemble appears to be spread out over phase space, although it is actually a finely striped pattern, with the total volume of the ensemble (and its Gibbs entropy) conserved. Liouville's equation is guaranteed to conserve Gibbs entropy since there is no random process acting on the system; in principle, the original ensemble can be recovered at any time by reversing the motion. The critical point of the theorem is thus: If the fine structure in the stirred-up ensemble is very slightly blurred, for any reason, then the Gibbs entropy increases, and the ensemble becomes an equilibrium ensemble. As to why this blurring should occur in reality, there are a variety of suggested mechanisms. For example, one suggested mechanism is that the phase space is coarse-grained for some reason (analogous to the pixelization in the simulation of phase space shown in the figure). For any required finite degree of fineness the ensemble becomes "sensibly uniform" after a finite time. Or, if the system experiences a tiny uncontrolled interaction with its environment, the sharp coherence of the ensemble will be lost. Edwin Thompson Jaynes argued that the blurring is subjective in nature, simply corresponding to a loss of knowledge about the state of the system. In any case, however it occurs, the Gibbs entropy increase is irreversible provided the blurring cannot be reversed. The exactly evolving entropy, which does not increase, is known as fine-grained entropy. The blurred entropy is known as coarse-grained entropy. Leonard Susskind analogizes this distinction to the notion of the volume of a fibrous ball of cotton: On one hand the volume of the fibers themselves is constant, but in another sense there is a larger coarse-grained volume, corresponding to the outline of the ball. Gibbs' entropy increase mechanism solves some of the technical difficulties found in Boltzmann's H-theorem: The Gibbs entropy does not fluctuate nor does it exhibit Poincare recurrence, and so the increase in Gibbs entropy, when it occurs, is therefore irreversible as expected from thermodynamics. The Gibbs mechanism also applies equally well to systems with very few degrees of freedom, such as the single-particle system shown in the figure. To the extent that one accepts that the ensemble becomes blurred, then, Gibbs' approach is a cleaner proof of the second law of thermodynamics. Unfortunately, as pointed out early on in the development of quantum statistical mechanics by John von Neumann and others, this kind of argument does not carry over to quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the ensemble cannot support an ever-finer mixing process, because of the finite dimensionality of the relevant portion of Hilbert space. Instead of converging closer and closer to the equilibrium ensemble (time-averaged ensemble) as in the classical case, the density matrix of the quantum system will constantly show evolution, even showing recurrences. Developing a quantum version of the H-theorem without appeal to the Stosszahlansatz is thus significantly more complicated. See also Loschmidt's paradox Arrow of time Second law of thermodynamics Fluctuation theorem Ehrenfest diffusion model Notes References Non-equilibrium thermodynamics Thermodynamic entropy Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics Physics theorems Statistical mechanics theorems

424464

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linezolid

Linezolid

Linezolid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. Linezolid is active against most Gram-positive bacteria that cause disease, including streptococci, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The main uses are infections of the skin and pneumonia although it may be used for a variety of other infections including drug-resistant tuberculosis. It is used either by injection into a vein or by mouth. When given for short periods, linezolid is a relatively safe antibiotic. It can be used in people of all ages and in people with liver disease or poor kidney function. Common side effects with short-term use include headache, diarrhea, rash, and nausea. Serious side effects may include serotonin syndrome, bone marrow suppression, and high blood lactate levels, particularly when used for more than two weeks. If used for longer periods it may cause nerve damage, including optic nerve damage, which may be irreversible. As a protein synthesis inhibitor, linezolid works by suppressing bacterial protein production. This either stops growth or results in bacterial death. Although many antibiotics work this way, the exact mechanism of action of linezolid appears to be unique in that it blocks the initiation of protein production, rather than one of the later steps. As of 2014, bacterial resistance to linezolid has remained low. Linezolid is a member of the oxazolidinone class of medications. Linezolid was discovered in the mid-1990s, and was approved for commercial use in 2000. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies linezolid as critically important for human medicine. Linezolid is available as a generic medication. Medical uses The main use of linezolid is the treatment of severe infections caused by aerobic Gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics; it should not be used against bacteria that are sensitive to drugs with a narrower spectrum of activity, such as penicillins and cephalosporins. In both the popular press and the scientific literature, linezolid has been called a "reserve antibiotic"—one that should be used sparingly so that it will remain effective as a drug of last resort against potentially intractable infections. In the United States, the indications for linezolid use approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are the treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium infections, with or without bacterial invasion of the bloodstream; nosocomial pneumonia (hospital-acquired) and community-acquired pneumonia caused by S. aureus or S. pneumoniae; complicated skin and skin structure infections (cSSSI) caused by susceptible bacteria, including diabetic foot infection, unless complicated by osteomyelitis (infection of the bone and bone marrow); and uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by S. pyogenes or S. aureus. The manufacturer advises against the use of linezolid for community-acquired pneumonia or uncomplicated skin and soft tissue infections caused by MRSA. In the United Kingdom, pneumonia and cSSSIs are the only indications noted in the product labeling. Linezolid appears to be as safe and effective for use in children and newborns as it is in adults. Skin and soft tissue infections A large meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found linezolid to be more effective than glycopeptide antibiotics (such as vancomycin and teicoplanin) and beta-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs) caused by Gram-positive bacteria, and smaller studies appear to confirm its superiority over teicoplanin in the treatment of all serious Gram-positive infections. In the treatment of diabetic foot infections, linezolid appears to be cheaper and more effective than vancomycin. In a 2004 open-label study, it was as effective as ampicillin/sulbactam and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, and far superior in patients with foot ulcers and no osteomyelitis, but with significantly higher rates of adverse effects. A 2008 meta-analysis of 18 randomized controlled trials, however, found that linezolid treatment failed as often as other antibiotics, regardless of whether patients had osteomyelitis. Some authors have recommended that combinations of cheaper or more cost-effective drugs (such as co-trimoxazole with rifampicin or clindamycin) be tried before linezolid in the treatment of SSTIs when susceptibility of the causative organism allows it. Pneumonia No significant difference appears in treatment success rates between linezolid, glycopeptides, or appropriate beta-lactam antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia. Clinical guidelines for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia developed by the American Thoracic Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend that linezolid be reserved for cases in which MRSA has been confirmed as the causative organism, or when MRSA infection is suspected based on the clinical presentation. The guidelines of the British Thoracic Society do not recommend it as first-line treatment, but rather as an alternative to vancomycin. Linezolid is also an acceptable second-line treatment for community-acquired pneumococcal pneumonia when penicillin resistance is present. U.S. guidelines recommend either linezolid or vancomycin as the first-line treatment for hospital-acquired (nosocomial) MRSA pneumonia. Some studies have suggested that linezolid is better than vancomycin against nosocomial pneumonia, particularly ventilator-associated pneumonia caused by MRSA, perhaps because the penetration of linezolid into bronchial fluids is much higher than that of vancomycin. Several issues in study design have been raised, however, calling into question results that suggest the superiority of linezolid. Regardless, linezolid's advantages include its high oral bioavailability—which allows easy switching to oral therapy—and the fact that poor kidney function is not an obstacle to use. In contrast, achieving the correct dosage of vancomycin in patients with kidney failure is very difficult. Other It is traditionally believed that so-called "deep" infections—such as osteomyelitis or infective endocarditis—should be treated with bactericidal antibiotics, not bacteriostatic ones. Nevertheless, preclinical studies were conducted to assess the efficacy of linezolid for these infections, and the drug has been used successfully to treat them in clinical practice. Linezolid appears to be a reasonable therapeutic option for infective endocarditis caused by multi-resistant Gram-positive bacteria, despite a lack of high-quality evidence to support this use. Results in the treatment of enterococcal endocarditis have varied, with some cases treated successfully and others not responding to therapy. Low- to medium-quality evidence is also mounting for its use in bone and joint infections, including chronic osteomyelitis, although adverse effects are a significant concern when long-term use is necessary. In combination with other drugs, linezolid has been used to treat tuberculosis. The optimal dose for this purpose has not been established. In adults, daily and twice-daily dosing have been used to good effect. Many months of treatment are often required, and the rate of adverse effects is high regardless of dosage. There is not enough reliable evidence of efficacy and safety to support this indication as a routine use. Linezolid has been studied as an alternative to vancomycin in the treatment of febrile neutropenia in cancer patients when Gram-positive infection is suspected. It is also one of few antibiotics that diffuse into the vitreous humor, and may therefore be effective in treating endophthalmitis (inflammation of the inner linings and cavities of the eye) caused by susceptible bacteria. Again, there is little evidence for its use in this setting, as infectious endophthalmitis is treated widely and effectively with vancomycin injected directly into the eye. Infections of the central nervous system In animal studies of meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, linezolid was found to penetrate well into cerebrospinal fluid, but its effectiveness was inferior to that of other antibiotics. There does not appear to be enough high-quality evidence to support the routine use of linezolid to treat bacterial meningitis. Nonetheless, it has been used successfully in many cases of central nervous system infection—including meningitis—caused by susceptible bacteria, and has also been suggested as a reasonable choice for this indication when treatment options are limited or when other antibiotics have failed. The guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Society of America recommend linezolid as the first-line drug of choice for VRE meningitis, and as an alternative to vancomycin for MRSA meningitis. Linezolid appears superior to vancomycin in treating community-acquired MRSA infections of the central nervous system, although very few cases of such infections have been published (). Catheter-related infections In March 2007, the FDA reported the results of a randomized, open-label, phase III clinical trial comparing linezolid to vancomycin in the treatment of catheter-related bloodstream infections. Patients treated with vancomycin could be switched to oxacillin or dicloxacillin if the bacteria that caused their infection was found to be susceptible, and patients in both groups (linezolid and vancomycin) could receive specific treatment against Gram-negative bacteria if necessary. The study itself was published in January 2009. Linezolid was associated with significantly greater mortality than the comparator antibiotics. When data from all participants were pooled, the study found that 21.5% of those given linezolid died, compared to 16% of those not receiving it. The difference was found to be due to the inferiority of linezolid in the treatment of Gram-negative infections alone or mixed Gram-negative/Gram-positive infections. In participants whose infection was due to Gram-positive bacteria alone, linezolid was as safe and effective as vancomycin. In light of these results, the FDA issued an alert reminding healthcare professionals that linezolid is not approved for the treatment of catheter-related infections or infections caused by Gram-negative organisms, and that more appropriate therapy should be instituted whenever a Gram-negative infection is confirmed or suspected. Specific populations In adults and children over the age of 12, linezolid is usually given every 12 hours, whether orally or intravenously. In younger children and infants, it is given every eight hours. No dosage adjustments are required in the elderly, in people with mild-to-moderate liver failure, or in those with impaired kidney function. In people requiring hemodialysis, care should be taken to give linezolid after a session, because dialysis removes 30–40% of a dose from the body; no dosage adjustments are needed in people undergoing continuous hemofiltration, although more frequent administration may be warranted in some cases. According to one study, linezolid may need to be given more frequently than normal in people with burns affecting more than 20% of body area, due to increased nonrenal clearance of the drug. Linezolid is in U.S. pregnancy category C, meaning there have been no adequate studies of its safety when used by pregnant women, and although animal studies have shown mild toxicity to the fetus, the benefits of using the drug may outweigh its risks. It also passes into breast milk, although the clinical significance of this (if any) is unknown. Spectrum of activity Linezolid is effective against all clinically important Gram-positive bacteria—those whose cell wall contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan and no outer membrane—notably Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis (including vancomycin-resistant enterococci), Staphylococcus aureus (including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA), Streptococcus agalactiae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, the viridans group streptococci, Listeria monocytogenes, and Corynebacterium species (the latter being among the most susceptible to linezolid, with minimum inhibitory concentrations routinely below 0.5 mg/L). Linezolid is also highly active in vitro against several mycobacteria. It appears to be very effective against Nocardia, but because of high cost and potentially serious adverse effects, authors have recommended that it be combined with other antibiotics or reserved for cases that have failed traditional treatment. Linezolid is considered bacteriostatic against most organisms—that is, it stops their growth and reproduction without actually killing them—but has some bactericidal (killing) activity against streptococci. Some authors have noted that, despite its bacteriostatic effect in vitro, linezolid "behaves" as a bactericidal antibiotic in vivo because it inhibits the production of toxins by staphylococci and streptococci. It also has a post-antibiotic effect lasting one to four hours for most bacteria, meaning that bacterial growth is temporarily suppressed even after the drug is discontinued. Gram-negative bacteria Linezolid has no clinically significant effect on most Gram-negative bacteria. Pseudomonas and the Enterobacteriaceae, for instance, are not susceptible. In vitro, it is active against Pasteurella multocida, Fusobacterium, Moraxella catarrhalis, Legionella, Bordetella, and Elizabethkingia meningoseptica, and moderately active (having a minimum inhibitory concentration for 90% of strains of 8 mg/L) against Haemophilus influenzae. It has also been used to great effect as a second-line treatment for Capnocytophaga infections. Comparable antibiotics Linezolid's spectrum of activity against Gram-positive bacteria is similar to that of the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin, which has long been the standard for treatment of MRSA infections, and the two drugs are often compared. Other comparable antibiotics include glycopeptide antibiotics such as teicoplanin (trade name Targocid), dalbavancin (Dalvance), and telavancin (Vibativ); quinupristin/dalfopristin (Synercid, a combination of two streptogramins, not active against E. faecalis); daptomycin (Cubicin, a lipopeptide); and ceftobiprole (Zevtera, a 5th-generation cephalosporin). Linezolid is the only one that can be taken by mouth for the treatment of systemic infections. In the future, oritavancin and iclaprim may be useful oral alternatives to linezolid—both are in the early stages of clinical development. Adverse effects When used for short periods, linezolid is a relatively safe drug. Common side effects of linezolid use (those occurring in more than 1% of people taking linezolid) include diarrhea (reported by 3–11% of clinical trial participants), headache (1–11%), nausea (3–10%), vomiting (1–4%), rash (2%), constipation (2%), altered taste perception (1–2%), and discoloration of the tongue (0.2–1%). It has also been known to cause thrombocytopenia. Fungal infections such as thrush and vaginal candidiasis may also occur as linezolid suppresses normal bacterial flora and opens a niche for fungi (so-called antibiotic candidiasis). Less common (and potentially more serious) adverse effects include allergic reactions, pancreatitis, and elevated transaminases, which may be a sign of liver damage. Unlike some antibiotics, such as erythromycin and the quinolones, linezolid has no effect on the QT interval, a measure of cardiac electrical conduction. Adverse effects in children are similar to those that occur in adults. Like nearly all antibiotics, linezolid has been associated with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) and pseudomembranous colitis, although the latter is uncommon, occurring in about one in two thousand patients in clinical trials. C. difficile appears to be susceptible to linezolid in vitro, and linezolid was even considered as a possible treatment for CDAD. Long-term use Bone marrow suppression, characterized particularly by thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), may occur during linezolid treatment; it appears to be the only adverse effect that occurs significantly more frequently with linezolid than with glycopeptides or beta-lactams. It is uncommon in patients who receive the drug for 14 days or fewer, but occurs much more frequently in patients who receive longer courses or who have renal failure. A 2004 case report suggested that pyridoxine (a form of vitamin B6) could reverse the anemia and thrombocytopenia caused by linezolid, but a later, larger study found no protective effect. Long-term use of linezolid has also been associated with chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, a progressive and enduring often irreversible tingling numbness, intense pain, and hypersensitivity to cold, beginning in the hands and feet and sometimes involving the arms and legs. Chemotherapy drugs associated with CIPN include thalidomide, the epothilones such as ixabepilone, the vinca alkaloids vincristine and vinblastine, the taxanes paclitaxel and docetaxel, the proteasome inhibitors such as bortezomib, and the platinum-based drugs cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin. and optic neuropathy, which is most common after several months of treatment and may also be irreversible. Although the mechanism of injury is still poorly understood, mitochondrial toxicity has been proposed as a cause; linezolid is toxic to mitochondria, probably because of the similarity between mitochondrial and bacterial ribosomes. Lactic acidosis, a potentially life-threatening buildup of lactic acid in the body, may also occur due to mitochondrial toxicity. Because of these long-term effects, the manufacturer recommends weekly complete blood counts during linezolid therapy to monitor for possible bone marrow suppression, and recommends that treatment last no more than 28 days. A more extensive monitoring protocol for early detection of toxicity in seriously ill patients receiving linezolid has been developed and proposed by a team of researchers in Melbourne, Australia. The protocol includes twice-weekly blood tests and liver function tests; measurement of serum lactate levels, for early detection of lactic acidosis; a review of all medications taken by the patient, interrupting the use of those that may interact with linezolid; and periodic eye and neurological exams in patients set to receive linezolid for longer than four weeks. The adverse effects of long-term linezolid therapy were first identified during postmarketing surveillance. Bone marrow suppression was not identified during Phase III trials, in which treatment did not exceed 21 days. Although some participants of early trials did experience thrombocytopenia, it was found to be reversible and did not occur significantly more frequently than in controls (participants not taking linezolid). There have also been postmarketing reports of seizures, and, , a single case each of Bell's palsy (paralysis of the facial nerve) and kidney toxicity. Evidence of protein synthesis inhibition in mammalian cells by linezolid has been published. Interactions Linezolid is a weak, non-selective, reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), and should not be used concomitantly with other MAOIs, large amounts of tyramine-rich foods (such as pork, aged cheeses, alcoholic beverages, or smoked and pickled foods), or serotonergic drugs. There have been postmarketing reports of serotonin syndrome when linezolid was given with or soon after the discontinuation of serotonergic drugs, particularly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as paroxetine and sertraline. It may also enhance the blood pressure-increasing effects of sympathomimetic drugs such as pseudoephedrine or phenylpropanolamine. It should also not be given in combination with pethidine (meperidine) under any circumstance due to the risk of serotonin syndrome. Linezolid does not inhibit or induce the cytochrome P450 (CYP) system, which is responsible for the metabolism of many commonly used drugs, and therefore does not have any CYP-related interactions. Pharmacology Pharmacodynamics Linezolid, like other oxazolidinones, is a bacterial protein synthesis inhibitor and a weak, non-selective, reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor. As a protein synthesis inhibitor, linezolid stops the growth and reproduction of bacteria by disrupting translation of messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins in bacterial ribosomes. Linezolid inhibits translation at the first step of protein synthesis, initiation, unlike most other protein synthesis inhibitors, which inhibit elongation. It does so by preventing the formation of the initiation complex, composed of the 30S and 50S subunits of the ribosome, tRNA, and mRNA. Linezolid binds to the 23S portion of the 50S subunit (the center of peptidyl transferase activity), close to the binding sites of chloramphenicol, lincomycin, and other antibiotics. Due to this unique mechanism of action, cross-resistance between linezolid and other protein synthesis inhibitors is highly infrequent or nonexistent. In 2008, the crystal structure of linezolid bound to the 50S subunit of a ribosome from the archaean Haloarcula marismortui was elucidated by a team of scientists from Yale University and deposited in the Protein Data Bank. Another team in 2008 determined the structure of linezolid bound to a 50S subunit of Deinococcus radiodurans. The authors proposed a refined model for the mechanism of action of oxazolidinones, finding that linezolid occupies the A site of the 50S ribosomal subunit, inducing a conformational change that prevents tRNA from entering the site and ultimately forcing tRNA to separate from the ribosome. Pharmacokinetics One of the advantages of linezolid is that it has an absolute oral bioavailability of 100% due to its rapid and complete absorption after oral administration; in other words, the entire dose reaches the bloodstream, as if it had been given intravenously. This means that people receiving intravenous linezolid may be switched to oral linezolid as soon as their condition allows it, whereas comparable antibiotics (such as vancomycin and quinupristin/dalfopristin) can only be given intravenously. Taking linezolid with food somewhat slows its absorption, but the area under the curve is not affected. Linezolid's plasma protein binding is approximately 31% (range ) and its volume of distribution at steady state averages  liters in healthy adult volunteers. Peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) are reached one to two hours after administration of the drug. Linezolid is readily distributed to all tissues in the body apart from bone matrix and white adipose tissue. Notably, the concentration of linezolid in the epithelial lining fluid (ELF) of the lower respiratory tract is at least equal to, and often higher than, that achieved in serum (some authors have reported bronchial fluid concentrations up to four times higher than serum concentrations), which may account for its efficacy in treating pneumonia. However, a meta-analysis of clinical trials found that linezolid was not superior to vancomycin, which achieves lower concentrations in the ELF. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations vary; peak CSF concentrations are lower than serum ones, due to slow diffusion across the blood–brain barrier, and trough concentrations in the CSF are higher for the same reason. The average half-life is three hours in children, four hours in teenagers, and five hours in adults. Linezolid is metabolized in the liver, by oxidation of the morpholine ring, without involvement of the cytochrome P450 system. This metabolic pathway leads to two major inactive metabolites (which each account for around 45% and 10% of an excreted dose at steady state), one minor metabolite, and several trace metabolites, none of which accounts for more than 1% of an excreted dose. Clearance of linezolid varies with age and gender; it is fastest in children (which accounts for the shorter half-life), and appears to be 20% lower in women than in men. There is a strong correlation between linezolid clearance and creatinine clearance. Chemistry At physiological pH (7.4), linezolid exists in an uncharged state. It is moderately water-soluble (approximately 3 mg/mL), with a logP of 0.55. The oxazolidinone pharmacophore—the chemical "template" essential for antimicrobial activity—consists of a 1,3-oxazolidin-2-one moiety with an aryl group at position 3 and an S-methyl group, with another substituent attached to it, at position 5 (the R-enantiomers of all oxazolidinones are devoid of antibiotic properties). In addition to this essential core, linezolid also contains several structural characteristics that improve its effectiveness and safety. An acetamide substituent on the 5-methyl group is the best choice in terms of antibacterial efficacy, and is used in all of the more active oxazolidinones developed thus far; in fact, straying too far from an acetamide group at this position makes the drug lose its antimicrobial power, although weak to moderate activity is maintained when some isosteric groups are used. A fluorine atom at the 3′ position practically doubles in vitro and in vivo activity, and the electron-donating nitrogen atom in the morpholine ring helps maintain high antibiotic potency and an acceptable safety profile. The anticoagulant rivaroxaban (Xarelto) bears a striking structural similarity to linezolid; both drugs share the oxazolidinone pharmacophore, differing in only three areas (an extra ketone and chlorothiophene, and missing the fluorine atom). However this similarity appears to carry no clinical significance. Synthesis Linezolid is a completely synthetic drug: it does not occur in nature (unlike erythromycin and many other antibiotics) and was not developed by building upon a naturally occurring skeleton (unlike most beta-lactams, which are semisynthetic). Many approaches are available for oxazolidinone synthesis, and several routes for the synthesis of linezolid have been reported in the chemistry literature. Despite good yields, the original method (developed by Upjohn for pilot plant-scale production of linezolid and eperezolid) is lengthy, requires the use of expensive chemicals—such as palladium on carbon and the highly sensitive reagents methanesulfonyl chloride and n-butyllithium—and needs low-temperature conditions. Much of the high cost of linezolid has been attributed to the expense of its synthesis. A somewhat more concise and cost-effective route better suited to large-scale production was patented by Upjohn in 1998. Later syntheses have included an "atom-economical" method starting from D-mannitol, developed by Indian pharmaceutical company Dr. Reddy's and reported in 1999, and a route starting from (S)-glyceraldehyde acetonide (prepared from ascorbic acid), developed by a team of researchers from Hunan Normal University in Changsha, Hunan, China. On 25 June 2008, during the 12th Annual Green Chemistry and Engineering Conference in New York, Pfizer reported the development of their "second-generation" synthesis of linezolid: a convergent, green synthesis starting from (S)-epichlorohydrin, with higher yield and a 56% reduction in total waste. Resistance Acquired resistance to linezolid was reported as early as 1999, in two patients with severe, multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium infection who received the drug through a compassionate use program. Linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was first isolated in 2001. In the United States, resistance to linezolid has been monitored and tracked since 2004 through a program named LEADER, which () was conducted in 60 medical institutions throughout the country. Resistance has remained stable and extremely low—less than one-half of one percent of isolates overall, and less than one-tenth of one percent of S. aureus samples. A similar, worldwide program—the "Zyvox Annual Appraisal of Potency and Spectrum Study", or ZAAPS—has been conducted since 2002. , overall resistance to linezolid in 23 countries was less than 0.2%, and nonexistent among streptococci. Resistance was only found in Brazil, China, Ireland, and Italy, among coagulase-negative staphylococci (0.28% of samples resistant), enterococci (0.11%), and S. aureus (0.03%). In the United Kingdom and Ireland, no resistance was found in staphylococci collected from bacteremia cases between 2001 and 2006, although resistance in enterococci has been reported. Some authors have predicted that resistance in E. faecium will increase if linezolid use continues at current levels or increases. Nevertheless, linezolid continues to be an important antimicrobial agent with near-complete activity (0.05% resistance). Mechanism The intrinsic resistance of most Gram-negative bacteria to linezolid is due to the activity of efflux pumps, which actively "pump" linezolid out of the cell faster than it can accumulate. Gram-positive bacteria usually develop resistance to linezolid as the result of a point mutation known as G2576T, in which a guanine base is replaced with thymine in base pair 2576 of the genes coding for 23S ribosomal RNA. This is the most common mechanism of resistance in staphylococci, and the only one known to date in isolates of E. faecium. Other mechanisms have been identified in Streptococcus pneumoniae (including mutations in an RNA methyltransferase that methylates G2445 of the 23S rRNA and mutations causing increased expression of ABC transporter genes) and in Staphylococcus epidermidis. History The oxazolidinones have been known as monoamine oxidase inhibitors since the late 1950s. Their antimicrobial properties were discovered by researchers at E.I. duPont de Nemours in the 1970s. In 1978, DuPont patented a series of oxazolidinone derivatives as being effective in the treatment of bacterial and fungal plant diseases, and in 1984, another patent described their usefulness in treating bacterial infections in mammals. In 1987, DuPont scientists presented a detailed description of the oxazolidinones as a new class of antibiotics with a novel mechanism of action. Early compounds were found to produce liver toxicity, however, and development was discontinued. Pharmacia & Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) started its own oxazolidinone research program in the 1990s. Studies of the compounds' structure–activity relationships led to the development of several subclasses of oxazolidinone derivatives, with varying safety profiles and antimicrobial activity. Two compounds were considered drug candidates: eperezolid (codenamed PNU-100592) and linezolid (PNU-100766). In the preclinical stages of development, they were similar in safety and antibacterial activity, so they were taken to Phase I clinical trials to identify any difference in pharmacokinetics. Linezolid was found to have a pharmacokinetic advantage—requiring only twice-daily dosage, while eperezolid needed to be given three times a day to achieve similar exposure—and therefore proceeded to further trials. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved linezolid on 18 April 2000. Approval followed in Brazil (June 2000), the United Kingdom (January 2001), Japan and Canada (April 2001), Europe (throughout 2001), and other countries in Latin America and Asia. , linezolid was the only oxazolidinone antibiotic available. Other members of this class have entered development, such as posizolid (AZD2563), ranbezolid (RBx 7644), and radezolid (RX-1741). In 2014, the FDA approved tedizolid phosphate, a second-generation oxazolidinone derivative, for acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection. Society and culture Economics Linezolid was quite expensive in 2009; a course of treatment may cost one or two thousand U.S. dollars for the drug alone, not to mention other costs (such as those associated with hospital stay). With the medication becoming generic the price has decreased. In India as of 2015 a month of linezolid, as would be used to treat tuberculosis cost about US$60. However, because intravenous linezolid may be switched to an oral formulation (tablets or oral solution) without jeopardizing efficacy, people may be discharged from hospital relatively early and continue treatment at home, whereas home treatment with injectable antibiotics may be impractical. Reducing the length of hospital stay reduces the overall cost of treatment, even though linezolid may have a higher acquisition cost—that is, it may be more expensive—than comparable antibiotics. Studies have been conducted in several countries with different health care system models to assess the cost-effectiveness of linezolid compared to glycopeptides such as vancomycin or teicoplanin. In most countries, linezolid was more cost-effective than comparable antibiotics for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia and complicated skin and skin structure infections, either due to higher cure and survival rates or lower overall treatment costs. In 2009, Pfizer paid $2.3 billion and entered a corporate integrity agreement to settle charges that it had misbranded and illegally promoted four drugs, and caused false claims to be submitted to government healthcare programs for uses that had not been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration. $1.3 billion was paid to settle criminal charges of illegally marketing the anti-inflammatory valdecoxib, while $1 billion was paid in civil fines regarding illegal marketing of three other drugs, including Zyvox. Brand names References 2000 introductions American inventions Anti-tuberculosis drugs Fluoroarenes Hepatotoxins Monoamine oxidase inhibitors 4-Morpholinyl compounds Oxazolidinone antibiotics Pfizer brands World Health Organization essential medicines Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate

424499

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douay%E2%80%93Rheims%20Bible

Douay–Rheims Bible

The Douay–Rheims Bible (, ), also known as the Douay–Rheims Version, Rheims–Douai Bible or Douai Bible, and abbreviated as D–R, DRB, and DRV, is a translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into English made by members of the English College, Douai, in the service of the Catholic Church. The New Testament portion was published in Reims, France, in 1582, in one volume with extensive commentary and notes. The Old Testament portion was published in two volumes twenty-seven years later in 1609 and 1610 by the University of Douai. The first volume, covering Genesis to Job, was published in 1609; the second, covering the Book of Psalms to 2 Maccabees (spelt "Machabees") plus the three apocryphal books of the Vulgate appendix following the Old Testament (Prayer of Manasseh, 3 Esdras, and 4 Esdras), was published in 1610. Marginal notes took up the bulk of the volumes and offered insights on issues of translation, and on the Hebrew and Greek source texts of the Vulgate. The purpose of the version, both the text and notes, was to uphold Catholic tradition in the face of the Protestant Reformation which up until the time of its publication had dominated Elizabethan religion and academic debate. As such it was an effort by English Catholics to support the Counter-Reformation. The New Testament was reprinted in 1600, 1621 and 1633. The Old Testament volumes were reprinted in 1635 but neither thereafter for another hundred years. In 1589, William Fulke collated the complete Rheims text and notes in parallel columns with those of the Bishops' Bible. This work sold widely in England, being re-issued in three further editions to 1633. It was predominantly through Fulke's editions that the Rheims New Testament came to exercise a significant influence on the development of 17th-century English. Much of the text of the 1582/1610 bible employed a densely Latinate vocabulary, making it extremely difficult to read the text in places. Consequently, this translation was replaced by a revision undertaken by bishop Richard Challoner; the New Testament in three editions of 1749, 1750, and 1752; the Old Testament (minus the Vulgate apocrypha), in 1750. Although retaining the title Douay–Rheims Bible, the Challoner revision (DRC) was a new version, tending to take as its base text the King James Version rigorously checked and extensively adjusted for improved readability and consistency with the Clementine edition of the Vulgate. Subsequent editions of the Challoner revision, of which there have been very many, reproduce his Old Testament of 1750 with very few changes. Challoner's New Testament was, however, extensively revised by Bernard MacMahon in a series of Dublin editions from 1783 to 1810. These Dublin versions are the source of some Challoner bibles printed in the United States in the 19th century. Subsequent editions of the Challoner Bible printed in England most often follow Challoner's earlier New Testament texts of 1749 and 1750, as do most 20th-century printings and online versions of the Douay–Rheims bible circulating on the internet. Although the Jerusalem Bible, New American Bible Revised Edition, Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition, and New Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition are the most commonly used Bibles in English-speaking Catholic churches, the Challoner revision of the Douay–Rheims often remains the Bible of choice of more-traditional English-speaking Catholics. Origin Following the English Reformation, some Catholics went in exile to the European mainland. The centre of English Catholicism was the English College at Douai (University of Douai, France) founded in 1568 by William Allen, formerly of Queen's College, Oxford, and Canon of York, and subsequently cardinal, for the purpose of training priests to convert the English again to Catholicism. And it was here where the Catholic translation of the Bible into English was produced. A run of a few hundred or more of the New Testament, in quarto form (not large folio), was published in the last months of 1582 (Herbert #177), during a temporary migration of the college to Rheims; consequently, it has been commonly known as the Rheims New Testament. Though he died in the same year as its publication, this translation was principally the work of Gregory Martin, formerly Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, close friend of Edmund Campion. He was assisted by others at Douai, notably Allen, Richard Bristow, William Reynolds and Thomas Worthington, who proofed and provided notes and annotations. The Old Testament is stated to have been ready at the same time but, for want of funds, it could not be printed until later, after the college had returned to Douai. It is commonly known as the Douay Old Testament. It was issued as two quarto volumes dated 1609 and 1610 (Herbert #300). Surprisingly these first New Testament and Old Testament editions followed the Geneva Bible not only in their quarto format but also in the use of Roman type. As a recent translation, the Rheims New Testament had an influence on the translators of the King James Version. Afterwards it ceased to be of interest to the Anglican church. Although the cities are now commonly spelled as Douai and as Reims, the Bible continues to be published as the Douay–Rheims Bible and has formed the basis of some later Catholic Bibles in English. The title page runs: "The Holy Bible, faithfully translated into English out of the authentic Latin. Diligently conferred with the Hebrew, Greek and other Editions". The cause of the delay was "our poor state of banishment", but there was also the matter of reconciling the Latin to the other editions. William Allen went to Rome and worked, with others, on the revision of the Vulgate. The Sixtine Vulgate edition was published in 1590. The definitive Clementine text followed in 1592. Worthington, responsible for many of the annotations for the 1609 and 1610 volumes, states in the preface: "we have again conferred this English translation and conformed it to the most perfect Latin Edition." Style The Douay–Rheims Bible is a translation of the Latin Vulgate, which is itself a translation of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts. The Vulgate was largely created due to the efforts of Saint Jerome (345–420), whose translation was declared to be the authentic Latin version of the Bible by the Council of Trent. While the Catholic scholars "conferred" with the Hebrew and Greek originals, as well as with "other editions in diverse languages", their avowed purpose was to translate after a strongly literal manner from the Latin Vulgate, for reasons of accuracy as stated in their Preface and which tended to produce, in places, stilted syntax and Latinisms. The following short passage (Ephesians 3:6–12), is a fair example, admittedly without updating the spelling conventions then in use: Other than when rendering the particular readings of the Vulgate Latin, the English wording of the Rheims New Testament follows more or less closely the Protestant version first produced by William Tyndale in 1525, an important source for the Rheims translators having been identified as that of the revision of Tyndale found in an English and Latin diglot New Testament, published by Miles Coverdale in Paris in 1538. Furthermore, the translators are especially accurate in their rendition of the definite article from Greek to English, and in their recognition of subtle distinctions of the Greek past tense, neither of which is capable of being represented in Latin. Consequently, the Rheims New Testament is much less of a new version, and owes rather more to the original languages, than the translators admit in their preface. Where the Rheims translators depart from the Coverdale text, they frequently adopt readings found in the Protestant Geneva Bible or those of the Wycliffe Bible, as this latter version had been translated from the Vulgate, and had been widely used by English Catholic churchmen unaware of its Lollard origins. Nevertheless, it was a translation of a translation of the Bible. Many highly regarded translations of the Bible routinely consult Vulgate readings, especially in certain difficult Old Testament passages; but nearly all modern Bible versions, Protestant and Catholic, go directly to original-language Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek biblical texts as their translation base, and not to a secondary version like the Vulgate. The translators justified their preference for the Vulgate in their Preface, pointing to accumulated corruptions within the original language manuscripts available in that era, and asserting that Jerome would have had access to better manuscripts in the original tongues that had not survived. Moreover, they could point to the Council of Trent’s decree that the Vulgate was, for Catholics, free of doctrinal error. In their decision consistently to apply Latinate language, rather than everyday English, to render religious terminology, the Rheims–Douay translators continued a tradition established by Thomas More and Stephen Gardiner in their criticisms of the biblical translations of William Tyndale. Gardiner indeed had himself applied these principles in 1535 to produce a heavily revised version, which has not survived, of Tyndale's translations of the Gospels of Luke and John. More and Gardiner had argued that Latin terms were more precise in meaning than their English equivalents, and consequently should be retained in Englished form to avoid ambiguity. However, David Norton observes that the Rheims–Douay version extends the principle much further. In the preface to the Rheims New Testament the translators criticise the Geneva Bible for their policy of striving always for clear and unambiguous readings; the Rheims translators proposed rather a rendering of the English biblical text that is faithful to the Latin text, whether or not such a word-for-word translation results in hard to understand English, or transmits ambiguity from the Latin phrasings: This adds to More and Gardiner the opposite argument, that previous versions in standard English had improperly imputed clear meanings for obscure passages in the Greek source text where the Latin Vulgate had often tended to rather render the Greek literally, even to the extent of generating improper Latin constructions. In effect, the Rheims translators argue that, where the source text is ambiguous or obscure, then a faithful English translation should also be ambiguous or obscure, with the options for understanding the text discussed in a marginal note: The translation was prepared with a definite polemical purpose in opposition to Protestant translations (which also had polemical motives). Prior to the Douay-Rheims, the only printed English language Bibles available had been Protestant translations. The Tridentine–Florentine Biblical canon was naturally used, with the Deuterocanonical books incorporated into the Douay–Rheims Old Testament, and only 3 Esdras, 4 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasses in the Apocrypha section. The translators excluded the apocryphal Psalm 151, this unusual oversight given the otherwise "complete" nature of the book is explained in passing by the annotations to Psalm 150 that "S. Augustin in the conclusion of his ... Sermons upon the Psalms, explicateth a mysterie in the number of an hundred and fieftie[.]" Influence In England the Protestant William Fulke unintentionally popularized the Rheims New Testament through his collation of the Rheims text and annotations in parallel columns alongside the 1572 Protestant Bishops' Bible. Fulke's original intention through his first combined edition of the Rheims New Testament with the so-called Bishops' Bible was to prove that the Catholic-inspired text was inferior to the Protestant-influenced Bishops' Bible, then the official Bible of the Church of England. Fulke's work was first published in 1589; and as a consequence the Rheims text and notes became easily available without fear of criminal sanctions. The translators of the Rheims appended a list of these unfamiliar words; examples include "acquisition", "adulterate", "advent", "allegory", "verity", "calumniate", "character", "cooperate", "prescience", "resuscitate", "victim", and "evangelise". In addition the editors chose to transliterate rather than translate a number of technical Greek or Hebrew terms, such as "azymes" for unleavened bread, and "pasch" for Passover. Challoner Revision Translation The original Douay–Rheims Bible was published during a time when Catholics were being persecuted in Britain and Ireland and possession of the Douay-Rheims Bible was a crime. By the time possession was not a crime the English of the Douay-Rheims Bible was a hundred years out-of-date. It was thus substantially "revised" between 1749 and 1777 by Richard Challoner, the Vicar Apostolic of London. Bishop Challoner was assisted by Father Francis Blyth, a Carmelite Friar. Challoner's revisions borrowed heavily from the King James Version (being a convert from Protestantism to Catholicism and thus familiar with its style). The use of the Rheims New Testament by the translators of the King James Version is discussed below. Challoner not only addressed the odd prose and much of the Latinisms, but produced a version which, while still called the Douay–Rheims, was little like it, notably removing most of the lengthy annotations and marginal notes of the original translators, the lectionary table of gospel and epistle readings for the Mass. He retained the full 73 books of the Vulgate proper, aside from Psalm 151. At the same time he aimed for improved readability and comprehensibility, rephrasing obscure and obsolete terms and constructions and, in the process, consistently removing ambiguities of meaning that the original Rheims–Douay version had intentionally striven to retain. This is Ephesians 3:6–12 in the original 1582 Douay-Rheims New Testament: The same passage in Challoner's revision gives a hint of the thorough stylistic editing he did of the text: For comparison, the same passage of Ephesians in the King James Version and the 1534 Tyndale Version, which influenced the King James Version: Publication Challoner issued a New Testament edition in 1749. He followed this with an edition of the whole bible in 1750, making some 200 further changes to the New Testament. He issued a further version of the New Testament in 1752, which differed in about 2,000 readings from the 1750 edition, and which remained the base text for further editions of the bible in Challoner's lifetime. In all three editions the extensive notes and commentary of the 1582/1610 original were drastically reduced, resulting in a compact one-volume edition of the Bible, which contributed greatly to its popularity. Gone also was the longer paragraph formatting of the text; instead, the text was broken up so that each verse was its own paragraph. The three apocrypha, which had been placed in an appendix to the second volume of the Old Testament, were dropped. Subsequent editions of the Challoner revision, of which there have been very many, reproduce his Old Testament of 1750 with very few changes. Challoner's 1752 New Testament was extensively further revised by Bernard MacMahon in a series of Dublin editions from 1783 to 1810, for the most part adjusting the text away from agreement with that of the King James Version, and these various Dublin versions are the source of many, but not all, Challoner versions printed in the United States in the 19th century. Editions of the Challoner Bible printed in England sometimes follow one or another of the revised Dublin New Testament texts, but more often tend to follow Challoner's earlier editions of 1749 and 1750 (as do most 20th-century printings, and on-line versions of the Douay–Rheims bible circulating on the internet). An edition of the Challoner-MacMahon revision with commentary by George Leo Haydock and Benedict Rayment was completed in 1814, and a reprint of Haydock by F. C. Husenbeth in 1850 was approved by Bishop Wareing. A reprint of an approved 1859 edition with Haydock's unabridged notes was published in 2014 by Loreto Publications. The Challoner version, officially approved by the Church, remained the Bible of the majority of English-speaking Catholics well into the 20th century. It was first published in America in 1790 by Mathew Carey of Philadelphia. Several American editions followed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, prominent among them an edition published in 1899 by the John Murphy Company of Baltimore, with the imprimatur of James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore. This edition included a chronology that was consistent with young-earth creationism (specifically, one based on James Ussher's calculation of the year of creation as 4004 BC). In 1914, the John Murphy Company published a new edition with a modified chronology consistent with new findings in Catholic scholarship; in this edition, no attempt was made to attach precise dates to the events of the first eleven chapters of Genesis, and many of the dates calculated in the 1899 edition were wholly revised. This edition received the approval of John Cardinal Farley and William Cardinal O'Connell and was subsequently reprinted, with new type, by P. J. Kenedy & Sons. Yet another edition was published in the United States by the Douay Bible House in 1941 with the imprimatur of Francis Cardinal Spellman, Archbishop of New York. In 1941 the New Testament and Psalms of the Douay-Rheims Bible were again heavily revised to produce the New Testament (and in some editions, the Psalms) of the Confraternity Bible. However, so extensive were these changes that it was no longer identified as the Douay–Rheims. In the wake of the 1943 promulgation of Pope Pius XII's encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu, which authorized the creation of vernacular translations of the Catholic Bible based upon the original Hebrew and Greek, the Douay-Rheims/Challoner Bible was supplanted by subsequent Catholic English translations. The Challoner revision ultimately fell out of print by the late 1960s, only coming back into circulation when TAN Books reprinted the 1899 Murphy edition in 1971. Names of books The names, numbers, and chapters of the Douay–Rheims Bible and the Challoner revision follow that of the Vulgate and therefore differ from those of the King James Version and its modern successors, making direct comparison of versions tricky in some places. For instance, the books called Ezra and Nehemiah in the King James Version are called 1 and 2 Esdras in the Douay–Rheims Bible. The books called 1 and 2 Esdras in the King James Version are called 3 and 4 Esdras in the Douay, and were classed as apocrypha. A table illustrating the differences can be found here. The names, numbers, and order of the books in the Douay–Rheims Bible follow those of the Vulgate except that the three apocryphal books are placed after the Old Testament in the Douay–Rheims Bible; in the Clementine Vulgate they come after the New Testament. These three apocrypha are omitted entirely in the Challoner revision. The Psalms of the Douay–Rheims Bible follow the numbering of the Vulgate and the Septuagint, whereas those in the KJV follow that of Masoretic Text. For details of the differences see the article on the Psalms. A summary list is shown below: Influence on the King James Version The Old Testament "Douay" translation of the Latin Vulgate arrived too late on the scene to have played any part in influencing the King James Version. The Rheims New Testament had, however, been available for over twenty years. In the form of William Fulke's parallel version, it was readily accessible. Nevertheless, the official instructions to the King James Version translators omitted the Rheims version from the list of previous English translations that should be consulted, probably deliberately. The degree to which the King James Version drew on the Rheims version has, therefore, been the subject of considerable debate; with James G Carleton in his book The Part of Rheims in the Making of the English Bible arguing for a very extensive influence, while Charles C Butterworth proposed that the actual influence was small, relative to those of the Bishops' Bible and the Geneva Bible. Fortunately, much of this debate was resolved in 1969, when Ward Allen published a partial transcript of the minutes made by John Bois of the proceedings of the General Committee of Review for the King James Version (i.e., the supervisory committee which met in 1610 to review the work of each of the separate translation 'companies'). Bois records the policy of the review committee in relation to a discussion of 1 Peter 1:7 "we have not thought the indefinite sense ought to be defined"; which reflects the strictures expressed by the Rheims translators against concealing ambiguities in the original text. Allen shows that in several places, notably in the reading "manner of time" at Revelation 13:8, the reviewers incorporated a reading from the Rheims text specifically in accordance with this principle. More usually, however, the King James Version handles obscurity in the source text by supplementing their preferred clear English formulation with a literal translation as a marginal note. Bois shows that many of these marginal translations are derived, more or less modified, from the text or notes of the Rheims New Testament; indeed Rheims is explicitly stated as the source for the marginal reading at Colossians 2:18. In 1995, Ward Allen in collaboration with Edward Jacobs further published a collation, for the four Gospels, of the marginal amendments made to a copy of the Bishops' Bible (now conserved in the Bodleian Library), which transpired to be the formal record of the textual changes being proposed by several of the companies of King James Version translators. They found around a quarter of the proposed amendments to be original to the translators; but that three-quarters had been taken over from other English versions. Overall, about one-fourth of the proposed amendments adopted the text of the Rheims New Testament. "And the debts of the [KJV] translators to earlier English Bibles are substantial. The translators, for example, in revising the text of the synoptic Gospels in the Bishops' Bible, owe about one-fourth of their revisions, each, to the Geneva and Rheims New Testaments. Another fourth of their work can be traced to the work of Tyndale and Coverdale. And the final fourth of their revisions is original to the translators themselves". Otherwise the English text of the King James New Testament can often be demonstrated as adopting latinate terminology also found in the Rheims version of the same text. In the majority of cases, these Latinisms could also have been derived directly from the versions of Miles Coverdale or the Wyclif Bible (i.e., the source texts for the Rheims translators), but they would have been most readily accessible to the King James translators in Fulke's parallel editions. This also explains the incorporation into the King James Version from the Rheims New Testament of a number of striking English phrases, such as "publish and blaze abroad" at Mark 1:45. Douay-Rheims Only movement Much like the case with the King James Version, the Douay–Rheims has a number of devotees who believe that it is a superiorly authentic translation in the English language, or, more broadly, that the Douay is to be preferred over all other English translations of Scripture. Apologist Jimmy Akin opposes this view, arguing that while the Douay is an important translation in Catholic history, it is not to be elevated to such status, as new manuscript discoveries and scholarship have challenged that view. Modern Harvard-Dumbarton Oaks Vulgate Harvard University Press, and Swift Edgar and Angela Kinney at Dumbarton Oaks Library have used a version of Challoner's Douay-Rheims Bible as both the basis for the English text in a dual Latin-English Bible (The Vulgate Bible, six volumes) and, unusually, they have also used the English text of the Douay-Rheims in combination with the modern Biblia Sacra Vulgata to reconstruct (in part) the pre-Clementine Vulgate that was the basis for the Douay-Rheims for the Latin text. This is possible only because the Douay-Rheims, alone among English Bibles, and even in the Challoner revision, attempted a word-for-word translation of the underlying Vulgate. A noted example of the literalness of the translation is the differing versions of the Lord's Prayer, which has two versions in the Douay-Rheims: the Luke version uses 'daily bread' (translating the Vulgate quotidianum) and the version in Matthew reads "supersubstantial bread" (translating from the Vulgate supersubstantialem). Every other English Bible translation uses "daily" in both places; the underlying Greek word is the same in both places, and Jerome translated the word in two different ways because then, as now, the actual meaning of the Greek word epiousion was unclear. The Harvard–Dumbarton Oaks editors have been criticized in the Medieval Review for being "idiosyncratic" in their approach; their decision to use Challoner's 18th-century revision of the Douay-Rheims, especially in places where it imitates the King James Version, rather than producing a fresh translation into contemporary English from the Latin, despite the Challoner edition being "not relevant to the Middle Ages"; and the "artificial" nature of their Latin text which "is neither a medieval text nor a critical edition of one." See also Latin Vulgate Council of Trent Dei Verbum Liturgiam Authenticam Motu Proprio Sacrosanctum Concilium George Leo Haydock Citations General references Much of the above text was taken from the article "English Versions" by Sir Frederic G. Kenyon in the Dictionary of the Bible edited by James Hastings (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909). "English Translations of the Bible", The Catholic World, Vol. XII, October 1870/March 1871. Hugh Pope. English Versions of the Bible, B. Herder Book Co., 1952. A. S. Herbert, Historical Catalogue of Printed Editions of the English Bible 1525–1961, London: British and Foreign Bible Society; New York: American Bible Society, 1968. . External links Online and print editions of the 16th/17th century Douay–Rheims Bible: Complete Douay-Rheims Bible: Complete Douay-Rheims Bible (a scan of the 1635 reprint, Old and New Testaments); Douay-Rheims 1582 and 1610 Online (this site offers the text in easily navigable HTML, but is currently incomplete) Facsimile Rheims New Testament of 1582: Google Books; facsimile from Gallica; 1872 edition in parallel with Vulgate Facsimile Douay Old Testament of 1609/1610, as reprinted in 1635: Vol. I Vol. II Online text of the Challoner revision: , including EPUB and Kindle editions Douay-Rheims (Challoner rev.), fully searchable, including all references and possible to compare with both the Latin Vulgate and Knox Bibles side by side. Douay-Rheims (Challoner rev.), searchable, with tabs to switch between DR, DR+LV, and Latin Vulgate Douay-Rheims (Challoner rev.) as plain text files (OT ZIP, NT ZIP) Douay-Rheims (Challoner rev.), with definitions of unfamiliar words, and searchable via concordance. Douay-Rheims (Challoner rev.) as HTML files The Douay-Rheims, 1914 John Murphy edition at Internet Archive The History of the Text of the Rheims and Douay Version of Holy Scripture (1859), by John Henry Newman History of the Douay Bible and Online Text History of the Douay Bible Title Pages of Early Editions 1582 books 1609 books 1610 books 16th-century Christian texts 17th-century Christian texts Bible translations into English Catholic bibles Counter-Reformation Early printed Bibles History of Catholicism in England

424511

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Wiesenthal%20Center

Simon Wiesenthal Center

The Simon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) is a Jewish human rights organization established in 1977 by Rabbi Marvin Hier. The center is known for Holocaust research and remembrance, hunting Nazi war criminals, combating anti-Semitism, tolerance education, defending Israel, and its Museum of Tolerance. The center publishes a seasonal magazine, In Motion. The center has close ties to public and private agencies, and regularly meets with elected officials of the United States and foreign governments and with diplomats and heads of state. It is accredited as a non-governmental organization (NGO) at the United Nations, UNESCO, and the Council of Europe. The center is named in honor of Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal. Wiesenthal had nothing to do with its operation or activities other than giving its name, but he remained supportive of it. "I have received many honors in my lifetime," Wiesenthal once said, "when I die, these honors will die with me. But the Simon Wiesenthal Center will live on as my legacy." Leadership and organization The center is headed by Hier, its dean and founder, Rabbi Abraham Cooper the associate dean and Director of Global Social Action Agenda and Rabbi Meyer May, the executive director. Hier's wife, Marlene Hier, is the Director of Membership development. Shimon Samuels is the Director for International Relations. In 2016, the center had 136 employees. The headquarters of the Simon Wiesenthal Center is in Los Angeles. However, there are also international offices located in New York City, Miami, Toronto, Jerusalem, Paris, Chicago, and Buenos Aires. Finances According to Charity Navigator the center's total revenue and expenses was $25,359,129 and $26,181,569 in 2018. 52.8% of the revenue came from contributions, gifts and grants, 31.4% from fundraising events and 15.8% from government grants. In its 2013 survey of Jewish charity compensation, the Jewish-American magazine The Forward singled out Hier as "by far the most overpaid CEO" earning double the amount of what would be expected. He and his family members received nearly $1.3 million in 2012 from the center. In 2017, The Forward again rated Hier as the most overpaid Jewish charity leader with a total salary of $818,148. Family members of his earned over $600,000 from the organization. History Founding Hier was born and raised in New York City and became an ordained rabbi at the Rabbi Jacob Joseph School. At the age of 22 he moved to Vancouver, Canada and became the rabbi of the city's orthodox synagogue. He became friends with the mostly non-Orthodox Belzberg family who would help him fund the Simon Wiesenthal Center. In 1977, he moved to Los Angeles and bought a building on Pico Boulevard using a $500,000 donation from Samuel Belzberg which was matched with another half a million from Toronto-based real estate maven Joseph Tannenbaum. In the building he founded a yeshiva, a religious Jewish school, today known as Yeshiva University High Schools of Los Angeles, and a small Holocaust museum, with Belzberg as founding chairman. Famous Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal was convinced to bless the museum with his name. Edward Norden, writing for Commentary, dismissed the museum as "a low-tech affair fashioned by and for Jews and holding nothing against the Gentiles back—an outsized portrait of Pius XII was given a prominent place among pictures of those who 'didn't care.' The message was that Jews have enemies, murderous enemies, and should look out." Hier, a skillful fundraiser, networked with the Hollywood célébrité, local politicians, and businessmen and raised large sums of money which he used to expand his operations. Museum of Tolerance In 1985, the center was incorporated separately from the yeshiva in order to bid for state funding for the construction of a bigger Holocaust museum. This bid was vociferously opposed by the American Civil Liberties Union, the Anti-Defamation League and secular Jewish organizations due to the unclear separation between the yeshiva and the center. At the time, the same persons sat on the board of both the center and the yeshiva. Another reason for the opposition was that Los Angeles already had a Holocaust museum; the Martyrs' Memorial Museum (later renamed to the Los Angeles Museum of the Holocaust) and Hier's bid was seen as undue competition by parts of Los Angeles Jewish community which also criticized him for exploiting the memory of the Holocaust. Fred Diament, president of the Holocaust survivor group 1939 Club who helped establish the competing Martyrs' Memorial, blasted the organization in an interview with the Los Angeles Times in 1985: Rabbi Chaim Seidler-Feller, director of the Hillel Jewish Student Union at UCLA, in an interview with the same paper in 1990 claimed that he confronted Hier about the unwelcome competition: Wiesenthal himself, however, was fully supportive of Hier's museum. Despite the opposition and by using the connections with the Los Angeles elite Hier had formented, he secured a grant for $5 million from the state. According to Karl Katz, designer of the museum, over 10,000 Californians sent messages to the state Senate in support of the grant. The Center later netted an additional $5 million through a bill introduced by Democratic Representative Henry Waxman. One reason for the approval of the funding was that Hier in 1985 had promised to commemorate the Armenian genocide in the museum. California's governor at the time George Deukmejian was of Armenian descent and the legislation which approved the funding explicitly referred to the Armenian genocide: "which have so adversely affected the lives and well-being of so many human beings, through such mass murder as the Armenian genocide and the Nazi Holocaust and other genocides." In interviews Hier repeatedly assured people that the Armenian genocide would be featured. This drew the ire of some parts of Los Angeles Jewish community because of the precarious situation for Jews in Turkey, which doesn't recognize the Armenian genocide. Hier took the position that the Armenian genocide did happen and that it should be included, regardless of any diplomatic issues. Michael Berenbaum of the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington praised Hier for not allowing the "rewriting of history to the exclusion of Armenian genocide." But to the Armenian community's dismay, the exhibits commemorating the Armenian genocide were removed in 1997. The museum finally opened in 1993, in an 8-story building on Pico Boulevard opposite to Hier's yeshiva. It was given the English name the Museum of Tolerance and the Hebrew name Beit HaShoah, the House of the Holocaust. The total construction costs amounted to some $50 million, with the majority of the funding coming from donations and $10 million from government funding. Today the museum hosts 350,000 visitors annually, among them 110,000 schoolchildren. Branches of the Museum have been built in New York and Jerusalem. The Center and its Museum of Tolerance is one of many partner organizations of the Austrian Service Abroad (Auslandsdienst) and the corresponding Austrian Holocaust Memorial Service (Gedenkdienst). Rapid growth From the very start, the center grew rapidly. In 1985 the museum claimed to have 25,000 visitors annually and the center 273,000 contributing members, including 47,000 Californians. Between 1984 and 1990 the center published seven volumes of the Simon Wiesenthal Center Annual, that focused on the scholarly study of the Holocaust. In 1990, it had become one of the largest Jewish organizations in America with 380,000 members. The same year, Sheldon Teitelbaum and Tom Waldman profiled Hier in the Los Angeles Times, describing him as the "unorthodox rabbi", and characterized his success as follows: Between 1984 and 1990 the center published seven volumes of the Simon Wiesenthal Center Annual, that focused on the scholarly study of the Holocaust, broadly defined. This series is . The archives of the center in Los Angeles have grown to a collection of about 50,000 volumes and non-print materials. Moreover, the archives incorporates photographs, diaries, letters, artifacts, artwork and rare books, which are available to researchers, students and the general public. New York branch In 2005, the New York branch of the Museum of Tolerance opened to the public under the name New York Tolerance Center, providing tolerance training to police officers, prosecutors, schoolteachers and teenagers. In its first four years, over 10,000 people, mostly law enforcement officers, underwent tolerance training at the facility. In April 2016, the New York City Council stopped funding the Tolerance Center following the arrest of a former board member who has been accused of raising $20 million from a city correctional officers' union through kickbacks. The Center stated that the member had resigned from its board on June 15, and that it was unaware of any unethical or illegal activities regarding its donors. Jerusalem branch A branch museum in Jerusalem, expected to be completed in 2021, sparked protests from the city's Muslim population. The museum is being built on a thousand-year-old Muslim graveyard called the Mamilla Cemetery, much of which has already been paved over. The complaints were rejected by Israel's Supreme Court, leading to a demonstration by hundreds of people in November 2008. On November 19, 2008, a group of US Jewish and Muslim leaders sent a letter to the Wiesenthal Center urging it to halt the construction of the museum on the site. As of February 2010, the Museum of Tolerance's plan for construction has been fully approved by Israeli courts and is proceeding at the compound of Mamilla Cemetery. The courts ruled that the compound had been neglected as a spiritual site by the Muslim community, in effect not functioning as a cemetery for decades (while simultaneously used for other purposes), and was thus mundra, i.e. abandoned, under Muslim laws. Search for Nazi war criminals The center used to hunt Nazi war criminals, often in collaboration with Simon Wiesenthal. Its first claim to fame came in 1979 when it successfully petitioned West Germany to revoke a statute of limitations on Nazi war criminals. Efraim Zuroff, director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center office in Jerusalem, is the coordinator of Nazi war crimes research worldwide for the Wiesenthal Center and he is also the author of its annual (since 2001) "Status Report" on the worldwide investigation and prosecution of Nazi war criminals which includes a "most wanted" list of Nazi war criminals. In November 2005, the Simon Wiesenthal Center gave the name of four suspected former Nazi criminals to German authorities. The names were the first results of Operation Last Chance, a drive launched that year by the center to track down former Nazis for World War II-era crimes before they die of old age. According to the center, about 2,000 Nazi war criminals obtained Canadian citizenship by providing false documents, but the Canadian government largely ignored their presence until the mid-1980s. They also claim that when they were exposed the government made their deportations harder to carry out. One example is Vladimir Katriuk, who the center said was involved in the Khatyn massacre in 1943 and who came to Canada in 1951. Katriuk, who denied the allegations, died in 2015 before he could be extradited to Russia to face charges. Black Hebrew Israelite awareness In 2022, the Center published their first report about the rise of the anti-semitic Black Hebrew Israelite movement. The report profiled the Israelites' belief system, in the wake of the Hebrews to Negroes: Wake Up Black America documentary, promoted by NBA star Kyrie Irving. The documentary contained antisemitic tropes, Holocaust denial, and claims of an international Jewish conspiracy. The center reported that individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motived murders between 2019 and 2022. The report stated that BHIs believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black American's true racial and religious identity. Black Hebrew Israelites promulgate the anti-semitic Khazar conspiracy theory about Jewish origins. In a 2019 survey of 1,019 African Americans, 4% of respondents self-identified as Black Hebrew Israelites. Moriah Films Moriah Films, also known as the Jack and Pearl Resnick Film Division of the SWC, was created to produce theatrical documentaries to educate both national and international audiences, with a focus on contemporary human rights and ethical issues and Jewish experience. Two films produced by the division, Genocide and The Long Way Home have received the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. Moriah Films has worked with numerous actors to narrate their productions. Including but not limited to Elizabeth Taylor, Michael Douglas, Nicole Kidman, Morgan Freeman, Patrick Stewart, and Sandra Bullock. Top ten anti-Semitic/anti-Israel slurs Since 2010, the center has published annual lists of individuals who they consider to have uttered the most antisemitic or anti-Israel "slurs" for the year. The rankings have often been criticized for labeling criticism of Israel anti-Semitism. Examples include Swedish Foreign Minister Margot Wallström's call for an investigation into "extra-judicial killings" by Israeli police during the Knife intifada in 2015 which the center ranked as the eight worst slur that year, and Berlin's mayor Michael Müller who the center considered placing on the list in 2016 for "mainstreaming the BDS movement that never contributes to the daily life of Palestinians." The inclusion of German journalist Jakob Augstein on their 2012 list sparked a controversy in German media. The center's 2021 edition of its "Global Anti-Semitism Top Ten" list included in seventh place the entire country of Germany, particularly , the commissioner against antisemitism of the German state of Baden-Württemberg, alleging that he had liked a 2019 Facebook post equating Zionism with Nazism. Blume told the Jewish Telegraphic Agency in an interview that he has no recollection of liking any such post, and that it was possible that the post had been edited after he had liked it; he also described himself as a "friend and ally" of Israel who believes that "Zionism is fully legitimate" and that "anti-Zionism equates [to] antisemitism, pure and simple". The European Union's coordinator for combatting antisemitism, Katharina von Schnurbein, said that by including Blume on its list, the center "discredit[s] the invaluable legacy of Simon Wiesenthal". Blume's inclusion was also criticised by representatives of Baden-Württemberg's Jewish community and the Central Council of Jews in Germany. In January 2023 the Managing editor of the biggest Jewish Newspaper in Germany, jüdische Allgemeine, criticised the Wiesenthal Center for integrating Christoph Heusgen, Jakob Augstein and Michael Blume in its lists and for naming them next to terrorists and anti-Semites. He wrote with regard to the Wiesenthal Center and its lists: "The fight against anti-Semitism is too serious to be pursued in the way the Wiesenthal Center unfortunately did with the list. [...] Truth instead of fake news: For Simon Wiesenthal, that was a matter of course. Obviously, this is only a very limited part of the Simon Wiesenthal Center's self-image." Humanitarian Award dinners The center hosts dinners during which it awards people the prizes Humanitarian Award and the less prestigious Medal of Valor. It is one of the center's main fundraising events. The winners of the Humanitarian Award for each year were: 1983: Jeane Kirkpatrick, American diplomat 1994: Margaret Thatcher, former prime minister 1995: Sidney Sheinberg, president and CEO of MCA Inc. and Universal Studios and his wife actress Lorraine Gary 1997: Jonathan Dolgen, chairman of Viacom 2002: Jean-Marie Messier, CEO of Vivendi 2008: Rupert Murdoch, media mogul 2011: Jeffrey Immelt, chairman and CEO of General Electric 2013: Jim Gianopulos, chairman and CEO of Paramount Pictures 2014: Ted Sarandos, Chief content officer for Netflix 2015: Harvey Weinstein, Co-chairman of The Weinstein Company 2016: Jon Feltheimer, CEO of Lions Gate Entertainment and Indra Nooyi, chairman and CEO of PepsiCo 2017: Ronald Meyer, vice chairman of NBCUniversal 2018: Leslie Moonves, chairman and CEO of CBS 2019: Bob Iger, chairman and CEO of The Walt Disney Company Official statements and controversies Controversies include aiding Washington Redskins owner Dan Snyder in a lawsuit against the Washington City Paper. German reunification Hier was skeptical of the reunification of Germany because he feared that anti-Semitism might reemerge in a reunified Germany. On February 9, 1990, he sent a letter to Chancellor Helmut Kohl and in it, he expressed his fears: "I am not among those in the cheering section applauding the rush towards German reunification." In his reply to Hier's letter three weeks later, Kohl expressed his disappointment "at how little many opponents of German unity take note of the fact that for decades now especially the young generation in the free part of Germany has been informed without any taboos of the causes and consequences of the National Socialist tyranny: in schools, universities, church or other educational institutions and the media." He added that East Germans are "immune to any new totalitarian temptations" and he also emphasized the fact that hate crimes are punishable with fines or prison sentences. However, the last communist premier of East Germany, Hans Modrow, wrote a letter to Hier and in it, he wrote that Hier's fears were "definitely justified in the light of the formation of a multi-party landscape." Hier welcomed the frankness of Modrow's reply, adding that "[t]he legacy of the Holocaust in a united Germany should be institutionalized. It should be on the conscience of every German from cradle to grave in a formalized way." Later, in the early stages of the First Gulf War, the center released a report which accused Western companies of complicity in Iraq's chemical weapons program. The report said that 207 companies, 86 of which were West German, had supplied Iraq with chemical weapons components as late as 1989. German companies had sold Zyklon-B to Iraq and they also helped it build gas chambers - modeled on those which were used by the Nazis - to exterminate Iranian prisoners of war, according to the report. Kenneth R. Timmerman, who prepared the report, wrote: "The picture beginning to emerge is of a vast Iraqi pillage of the treasures of West German technology, aided and abetted by the West German authorities in their lust to increase the nation's export earnings." Despite the allegations in the report, fully endorsed by Hier, the relationship between him and Kohl remained cordial. World Social Forum The center is very critical of the annual World Economic Forum-alternative the World Social Forum. In 2002, the center's Shimon Samuels published in essay titled With a Clenched First and an Outstretched Arm: Antisemitism, Globalization, and the NGO Challenge in the International Area in the journal Jewish Political Studies Review run by the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. In the essay, he claimed that the WSF was an amalgamation of "anti-Globalism, anti-Americanism, anti-capitalism, anti-Zionism, and antisemitism." Relationship with Barack Obama The center was a harsh critic of president Barack Obama's Middle Eastern policy. In May 2011, Obama proposed that "the borders of Israel and Palestine should be based on the 1967 lines with mutually agreed swaps" which implied that Israel should withdraw from most of the territory it occupied in the Six-day war in 1967. The proposal drew ire from the center which claimed that such a withdrawal "would be Auschwitz borders for Israel," alluding to the infamous Auschwitz concentration camp. In December 2016 it ranked the Obama administrations refusal to veto a UN resolution condemning Israeli settlement construction as the most anti-semitic/anti-Israel incident that year. The center wrote "The most stunning 2016 U.N. attack on Israel was facilitated by President Obama when the U.S. abstained on a U.N. Security Council resolution condemning Israel for settlement construction." Relationship with Donald Trump In 2017, Hier faced harsh criticism from the Jewish-American community for accepting an invite by the Trump campaign to hold a prayer at the president elect's inauguration. Hier defended his decision by saying that he had offered his blessings to presidential candidates before. That didn't placate his critics who claimed that Trump was a different kind of president who targeted minorities and had at times used tropes considered by many to be antisemitic. Criticism came from Peter Beinart writing in The Forward that "they will reserve a special mention for the Simon Wiesenthal Center's Rabbi Marvin Hier. Last week, Trump rewarded him by asking him to offer an inaugural prayer." In an interview in The Times of Israel in 2019 Hier praised Trump for his decision to relocate the US embassy in Israel to Jerusalem and to recognize the Golan Heights as Israeli territory: "Speaking as a Jew, so many presidents talked about making Jerusalem the capital of Israel. They made nice speeches, but in the end they couldn't deliver. Trump delivered." Hier and his wife have participated in fundraising events for Trump's 2020 reelection campaign. The center has also at times criticized Trump. In January 2018 it asked the president to withdraw his statements about wanting more immigration from places from Norway, rather than from "shithole countries" like Haiti and those in Africa. Meir and the Kushner family who are Trump's in-laws (related via Jared Kushner) have known each other for decades. The Kushner family has made several large donations to the center via the Charles and Seryl Kushner Family Foundation. Opposition to the BDS movement In 2013, the SWC released a report on the BDS movement which calls for boycotting Israel until it stops the occupation and discrimination against Palestinian citizens, and allows the Palestinian refugees to return. The report claimed that BDS is a "thinly-disguised effort to coordinate and complement the violent strategy of Palestinian, Arab, and Muslim 'rejectionists' who have refused to make peace with Israel for over six decades, and to pursue a high-profile campaign composed of anti-Israel big lies to help destroy the Jewish State by any and all means". The report also said that BDS attacks Israel's entire economy and society, holding all (Jewish) Israelis as collectively guilty. Allegations against the Committee for Charity and Support for the Palestinians On March 8, 2007, the head of international relations for the Simon Wiesenthal Center, Stanley Trevor Samuels, was convicted (and later acquitted in an appeal) of defamation by a Paris courthouse for accusing the French-based Committee for Charity and Support for the Palestinians (CBSP) of sending funds to the families of Palestinian suicide bombers. In its filing of the suit, the CBSP labelled the accusations "ridiculous", stating that its charitable work consisted of providing aid to some 3,000 Palestinian orphans. The court ruled that documents produced by the Wiesenthal Center established no "direct or indirect participation in financing terrorism" on the part of the CBSP, and that the allegations were "seriously defamatory". The Wiesenthal Center appealed the court ruling, and the appeal was granted in July 2009. 2006 Iranian sumptuary law hoax In the spring of 2006, Douglas Kelly, the editor of the Canadian National Post found a column by Iranian in exile, Amir Taheri, alleging that the Iranian parliament might force minorities to wear identifiable clothing. Kelly phoned the center and spoke with Abraham Cooper and Hier who both confirmed the story as "absolutely true." On May 18, 2006, one day before Kelly's story was to be published, the center wrote a letter to United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan urging the international community to pressure Iran to drop the measure. The letter characterized Taheri as "a well known and well respected analyst on Iranian affairs" and claimed that "a consensus has developed regarding color badges to be worn by non-Moslems: yellow for Jews, red for Christians, blue for Zoroastrians and other colors for other religions." At that point, neither Cooper nor Hier had actually tried to verify the story. The day after, Taylor Marsh called Aaron Breitbart, a researcher at the center to verify the story. He too said that the story was "very true" and "very scary." He added that Hier had been on the phone for four hours to confirm the story, something Marsh found odd and she wondered how the confirmation could have taken four hours. The same day the story was published, several Iranian experts doubted its veracity and it was soon found out to have been a complete fabrication by Taheri. The newspaper that published the story retracted it and apologized for it, but the center never did apologize and refused to admit any mistake on their part. Hunt Museum controversy In January 2004, Shimon Samuels of the Paris branch of the center published an open letter to the president of Ireland, Mary McAleese, requesting the "Irish Museum of the Year Award" recently given to the Hunt Museum in Limerick to be retracted, until the conclusion of a demanded inquiry into the provenance of a significant number of items in the collection. In the letter he alleged that the founders of the museum, John and Gertrude Hunt, had close ties to the head of the Nazi Party (NSDP-AO) in Ireland, among others, and that the British had suspected the couple of espionage during the Second world war. The center also claimed, 'The "Hunt Museum Essential Guide" describes only 150 of the over 2000 objects in the Museum's collection and, notably, without providing information on their provenance – data that all museums are now required to provide in accordance with international procedure.' This essentially accused the Hunt Museum in Limerick of keeping art and artifacts looted during the Second World War, which was described as "unprofessional in the extreme" by the expert Lynn Nicholas that cleared the museum of wrongdoing. The claim was taken so seriously that the examination was supervised by the prestigious Royal Irish Academy, whose 2006 report is available online. McAleese, who had been written to by the center, then criticized Samuels for "a tissue of lies", adding that the center had diminished the name of Simon Wiesenthal. The center said that it had prepared its own 150-page report in May 2008 that would be published after vetting by its lawyers, but had not done so as of November 2008. The report was finally made on December 12, 2008. Opposition to Park51 The Simon Wiesenthal Center opposed the construction of Park51, a Muslim community center in Manhattan in New York, because the planned location was only two blocks away from Ground Zero where the September 11 attacks had taken place. The executive director of the center's Museum of Tolerance in Manhattan, Meyer May said it was "insensitive" to locate the centre there. The Jewish Week noted that the center itself was accused of intolerance when it built a museum in Jerusalem on land that was once a Muslim cemetery, after gaining approval from Israeli courts. Accusations of antisemitism against Hugo Chávez The Center criticized Hugo Chávez for various statements, including a statement in his Christmas speech in 2005: The reference was to Simon Bolívar, a South American folk hero who led several countries to independence from Spain in the 19th century. But the center in its press release omitted the reference to Bolívar and quoted Chávez as follows: "the world has wealth for all, but some minorities, the descendants of the same people that crucified Christ, have taken over all the wealth of the world." It asserted that he was referring to Jews, and denounced the remarks as antisemitic by way of his allusions to wealth. The American Jewish Committee, the American Jewish Congress, and the Confederation of Jewish Associations of Venezuela defended Chávez, stating that he was speaking not of Jews, but of South America's white oligarchy. The center's representative in Latin America replied that Chávez's mention of Christ-killers was "ambiguous at best" and that the "decision to criticize Chávez had been taken after careful consideration". Band attire controversies The center has on two occasions criticized bands for wearing attire resembling Nazi uniforms or using Nazi symbolism. In 2011, Abraham Cooper, condemned the Japanese band Kishidan for wearing uniforms resembling those of the SS, the armed wing of the Nazi party. The band wore military-inspired uniforms, adorned with the German medal Iron Cross and Nazi insignia such as the death skull and SS eagle on MTV Japan's primetime program "Mega Vector". Cooper said in a written protest to the band's management company Sony Music Artists, MTV Japan and the Japanese entertainment group Avex (Kishidan's label at the time being and also the current one) that "there is no excuse for such an outrage" and that "many young Japanese are "woefully uneducated" about the crimes against humanity committed by Nazi Germany and Japan during the second world war, but global entities like MTV and Sony Music should know better". As a result, Sony Music Artists and Avex issued a joint statement of public apology on their respective websites. On November 11, 2018, Cooper denounced the South Korean band BTS with the following statement: "Flags appearing on stage at their concert were eerily similar to the Nazi Swastika. It goes without saying that this group, which was invited to speak at the UN, owes the people of Japan and the victims of the Nazism an apology." The band's management responded to the charge and offered their "sincerest apologies" but claimed that the similarities with Nazi symbols were unintentional. Praise and criticism Simon Wiesenthal, the Holocaust survivor the center is named after, remained a strong supporter of Hier and his center. In an interview with the Los Angeles Times in 1990 he said: "The man is never quiet. He is always trying to do things no one else has ever tried. I know that he makes other Jewish organizations nervous. This center is young and aggressive. I hope this aggressivity will survive me." Wendy Brown in her 2009 dissertation criticized the use of tolerance for what she identify as a "Zionist political agenda of the Wiesenthal Center", and the museum, for offering a one-sided view of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Lawrence Swaim in 2012 criticized the center for conflating criticism of Israel with anti-Semitism and for lying, comparing it to its eponym Simon Wiesenthal: In Beyond Chutzpah, Norman Finkelstein accuses the center of exaggerating and fabricating anti-Semitism for monetary gain: In popular culture The center is featured in the movie Freedom Writers. An exterior view of the center is given, and there are scenes inside the museum, showing simulation entrances to gas chambers in death camps. See also AMCHA Initiative References External links Simon Wiesenthal Centre Europe Holocaust studies Jewish-American political organizations Jewish anti-racism Jewish educational organizations Jewish organizations based in the United States Jewish political organizations Lobbying organizations in the United States Opposition to antisemitism in the United States Organizations based in Los Angeles Organizations established in 1977 Political advocacy groups in the United States The Holocaust and the United States Zionist organizations in the United States 1977 establishments in the United States

424531

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrians

Illyrians

The Illyrians (, Illyrioi; ) were a group of Indo-European-speaking peoples who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan populations, along with the Thracians and Greeks. The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as Illyria to later Greek and Roman authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to most of Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo, much of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, western and central Serbia and some parts of Slovenia between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the Ceraunian Mountains in the south. The first account of Illyrian peoples dates back to the 6th century BC, in the works of the ancient Greek writer Hecataeus of Miletus. The name "Illyrians", as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples. It has been suggested that the Illyrian tribes never collectively identified as "Illyrians", and that it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all. Illyrians seems to be the name of a specific Illyrian tribe who were among the first to encounter the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age. The Greeks later applied this term Illyrians, pars pro toto, to all people with similar language and customs. In archaeological, historical and linguistic studies, research about the Illyrians, from the late 19th to the 21st century, has moved from Pan-Illyrian theories, which identified as Illyrian even groups north of the Balkans to more well-defined groupings based on Illyrian onomastics and material anthropology since the 1960s as newer inscriptions were found and sites excavated. There are two principal Illyrian onomastic areas: the southern and the Dalmatian-Pannonian, with the area of the Dardani as a region of overlapping between the two. A third area, to the north of them – which in ancient literature was usually identified as part of Illyria – has been connected more to the Venetic language than to Illyrian. Illyric settlement in Italy was and still is attributed to a few ancient tribes which are thought to have migrated along the Adriatic shorelines to the Italian peninsula from the geographic "Illyria": the Dauni, the Peuceti and Messapi (collectively known as Iapyges). The term "Illyrians" last appears in the historical record in the 7th century, referring to a Byzantine garrison operating within the former Roman province of Illyricum. What happened to the Illyrians after the settlement of the Slavs in the region is a matter of debate among scholars, and includes the question whether the Albanian language is a descendant of an Illyrian language. Etymology While the Illyrians are largely recorded under the ethnonyms of Illyrioi () and Illyrii, these appear to be misspelt renditions by Greek or Latin-speaking writers. Based on historically attested forms denoting specific Illyrian tribes or the Illyrians as a whole (e.g., () and Hil(l)uri), the native tribal name from which these renditions were based has been reconstructed by linguists such as Heiner Eichner as *Hillurio- (< older *Hullurio-). According to Eichner, this ethnonym, translating to 'water snake', is derived from Proto-Indo-European *ud-lo ('of water, aquatic') sharing a common root with Ancient Greek () meaning 'fish' or a 'small water snake'. The Illyrian ethnonym shows a dl > ll shift via assimilation as well as the addition of the suffix -uri(o) which is found in Illyrian toponyms such as Tragurium. Eichner also points out the tribal name's close semantic correspondence to that of the Enchelei which translates to 'eel-people', depicting a similar motif of aquatic snake-like fauna. It is also pointed out that the Ancient Greeks must have learned this name from a tribe in southern Illyria, later applying it to all related and neighbouring peoples. Terminology and attestation The terms Illyrians, Illyria and Illyricum have been used throughout history for ethnic and geographic contextualizations that have changed over time. Re-contextualizations of these terms often confused ancient writers and modern scholars. Notable scholarly efforts have been dedicated to trying to analyze and explain these changes. The first known mention of Illyrians occurred in the late 6th and the early 5th century BC in fragments of Hecataeus of Miletus, the author of Genealogies () and of Description of the Earth or Periegesis ( or ), where the Illyrians are described as a barbarian people. In the Macedonian history during the 6th and 5th century BC, the term Illyrian had a political meaning that was quite definite, denoting a kingdom established on the north-western borders of Upper Macedonia. From the 5th century BC onwards, the term Illyrian was already applied to a large ethnic group whose territory extended deep into the Balkan mainland. Ancient Greeks clearly considered the Illyrians as a completely distinct ethnos from both the neighboring Thracians and the Macedonians. Most scholars hold that the territory originally designated as 'Illyrian' was roughly located in the region of the south-eastern Adriatic (modern Albania and Montenegro) and its hinterland, then was later extended to the whole Roman Illyricum province, which stretched from the eastern Adriatic to the Danube. After the Illyrians had come to be widely known to the Greeks due to their proximity, this ethnic designation was broadened to include other peoples who, for some reason, were considered by ancient writers to be related with those peoples originally designated as Illyrians (, ). The original designation may have occurred either during the Middle/Late Bronze Age or at the beginning of the 8th century BC. According to the former hypothesis, the name was taken by traders from southern Greece from a small group of people on the coast, the /Illyrii (first mentioned by Pseudo-Skylax and later described by Pliny the Elder), and thereafter applied to all of the people of the region; this has been explained by the substantial evidence of Minoan and Mycenaean contact in the valley where the Illyrioi/Illyrii presumably lived. According to the latter hypothesis the label Illyrians was first used by outsiders, in particular Ancient Greeks; this has been argued on the basis that when the Greeks began to frequent the eastern Adriatic coast with the colonization of Corcyra, they started to have some knowledge and perceptions of the indigenous peoples of western Balkans. It has been suggested that the Illyrian tribes evidently never collectively identified themselves as Illyrians and that it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature at all. Most modern scholars are certain that all the peoples of western Balkans that were collectively labeled as 'Illyrians' were not a culturally or linguistically homogeneous entity. For instance, some tribes like the Bryges would not have been identified as Illyrian. What criteria were initially used to define this group of peoples or how and why the term 'Illyrians' began to be used to describe the indigenous population of western Balkans cannot be said with certainty. Scholarly debates have been waged to find an answer to the question whether the term 'Illyrians' () derived from some eponymous tribe, or whether it has been applied to designate the indigenous population as a general term for some other specific reason. Illyrii proprie dicti Ancient Roman writers Pliny the Elder and Pomponius Mela used the term ('properly called Illyrians') to designate a people that was located in the coast of modern Albania and Montenegro. Many modern scholars view the 'properly called Illyrians' as a trace of the Illyrian kingdom known in the sources from the 4th century BC until 167 BC, which was ruled in Roman times by the Ardiaei and Labeatae when it was centered in the Bay of Kotor and Lake Skadar. According to other modern scholars, the term may have originally referred only to a small ethnos in the area between Epidaurum and Lissus, and Pliny and Mela may have followed a literary tradition that dates back as early as Hecataeus of Miletus. Placed in central Albania, the also might have been Rome's first contact with Illyrian peoples. In that case, it did not indicate an original area from which the Illyrians expanded. The area of the Illyrii proprie dicti is largely included in the southern Illyrian onomastic province in modern linguistics. Origins Archaeology The Illyrians emerged from the fusion of PIE-descended Yamnaya-related population movements ca. 2500 BCE in the Balkans with the pre-existing Balkan Neolithic population, initially forming "Proto-Illyrian" Bronze Age cultures in the Balkans. The proto-Illyrians during the course of their settlement towards the Adriatic coast merged with such populations of a pre-Illyrian substratum – like Enchelei might have been – leading to the formation of the historical Illyrians who were attested in later times. It has been suggested that the myth of Cadmus and Harmonia may be a reflection in mythology of the end of the pre-Illyrian era in the southern Adriatic region as well as in those regions located north of Macedonia and Epirus. Older Pan-Illyrian theories which emerged in the 1920s placed the proto-Illyrians as the original inhabitants of a very large area which reached central Europe. These theories, which have been dismissed, were used in the politics of the era and its racialist notions of Nordicism and Aryanism. The main fact which these theories tried to address was the existence of traces of Illyrian toponymy in parts of Europe beyond the western Balkans, an issue whose origins are still unclear. The specific theories have found little archaeological corroboration, as no convincing evidence for significant migratory movements from the Urnfield-Lusatian culture into the west Balkans has ever been found. Archaeogenetics Mathieson et al. 2018 archaeogenetic study included three samples from Dalmatia: two Early & Middle Bronze Age (1631-1521/1618-1513 calBCE) samples from Veliki Vanik (near Vrgorac) and one Iron Age (805-761 calBCE) sample from Jazinka Cave in Krka National Park. According to ADMIXTURE analysis they had approximately 60% Early European Farmers, 33% Western Steppe Herders and 7% Western Hunter-Gatherer-related ancestry. The male individual from Veliki Vanik carried the Y-DNA haplogroup J2b2a1-L283 while his and two female individuals mtDNA haplogroup were I1a1, W3a1 and HV0e. Freilich et al. 2021 identify the Veliki Vanik samples as related to the Cetina culture (EBA-MBA western Balkans). Patterson et al. 2022 study examined 18 samples from the Middle Bronze Age up to Early Iron Age Croatia, which was part of Illyria. Out of the nine Y-DNA samples retrieved, which coincide with the historical territory where Illyrians lived (including tested Iapydes and Liburni sites), almost all belonged to the patrilineal line J2b2a1-L283 (>J-PH1602 > J-Y86930 and >J-Z1297 subclades) with the exception of one R1b-L2. The mtDNA haplogroups fell under various subclades of H, H1, H3b, H5, J1c2, J1c3, T2a1a, T2b, T2b23, U5a1g, U8b1b1, HV0e. In a three-way admixture model, they approximately had 49-59% EEF, 35-46% Steppe and 2-10% WHG-related ancestry. In Lazaridis et al. (2022) key parts of the territory of historical territory of Illyria were tested. In 18 samples from the Cetina culture, all males except for one (R-L51 > Z2118) carried Y-DNA haplogroup J-L283. Many of them could be further identified as J-L283 > Z597 (> J-Y15058 > J-Z38240 > J-PH1602). The majority of individuals carried mtDNA haplogroups J1c1 and H6a1a. The related Posušje culture yielded the same Y-DNA haplogroup (J-L283 > J-Z38240). The same J-L283 population appears in the MBA-IA Velim Kosa tumuli of Liburni in Croatia (J-PH1602), and similar in LBA-IA Velika Gruda tumuli in Montenegro (J-Z2507 > J-Z1297 > J-Y21878). The oldest J-L283 (> J-Z597) sample in the study was found in MBA Shkrel, northern Albania as early as the 19th century BCE. In northern Albania, IA Çinamak, half of them men carried J-L283 (> J-Z622, J-Y21878) and the other half R-M269 (R-CTS1450, R-PF7563). The oldest sample in Çinamak dates to the first era of post-Yamnaya movements (EBA) and carries R-M269. Autosomally, Croatian Bronze Age samples from various sites, from Cetina valley and Bezdanjača Cave were "extremely similar in their ancestral makeup", while from Montenegro's Velika Gruda mainly had an admixture of "Anatolian Neolithic (~50%), Eastern European hunter-gatherer (~12%), and Balkan hunter-gatherer ancestry (~18%)". The oldest Balkan J-L283 samples have been found in final Early Bronze Age (ca. 1950 BCE) site of Mokrin in Serbia and about 100-150 years later in Shkrel, northern Albania. Aneli et al. 2022 based on samples from EIA Dalmatia argue that the Early Iron Age Illyrians made "part of the same Mediterranean continuum" with the "autochthonous [...] Roman Republicans" and had high affinity with Daunians, part of Iapygians in Apulia, southeastern Italy. Iron Age male samples from Daunian sites have yielded J-M241>J-L283+, R-M269>Z2103+ and I-M223 lineages. Three Bronze Age males which carry J-L283 have been found in the Late Bronze Age Nuragic civilization of Sardinia. This late find in Sardinia in comparison to western Balkan samples suggests a dispersal from the western Balkans towards this region, perhaps via an intermediary group in the Italian peninsula. In ancient Greek and Roman literature Different versions of the genealogy of the Illyrians, their tribes and their eponymous ancestor, Illyrius, existed in the ancient world both in fictional and non-fictional Greco-Roman literature. The fact that there were many versions of the genealogical story of Illyrius was ascertained by Ancient Greek historian Appian (1st–2nd century AD). However, only two versions of all these genealogical stories are attested. The first version—which reports the legend of Cadmus and Harmonia—was recorded by Euripides and Strabo in accounts that would be presented in detail in Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus (1st to 2nd century AD). The second version—which reports the legend of Polyphemus and Galatea—was recorded by Appian (1st–2nd century AD) in his Illyrike. According to the first version Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia, whom the Enchelei had chosen to be their leaders. He eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people. In one of these versions, Illyrius was named so after Cadmus left him by a river named the Illyrian, where a serpent found and raised him. Appian writes that many mythological stories were still circulating in his time, and he chose a particular version because it seemed to be the most correct one. Appian's genealogy of tribes is not complete as he writes that other Illyrian tribes exist, which he hasn't included. According to Appian's tradition, Polyphemus and Galatea gave birth to Celtus, Galas, and Illyrius, three brothers, progenitors respectively of Celts, Galatians and Illyrians. Illyrius had multiple sons: Encheleus, Autarieus, Dardanus, Maedus, Taulas and Perrhaebus, and daughters: Partho, Daortho, Dassaro and others. From these, sprang the Taulantii, Parthini, Dardani, Encheleae, Autariates, Dassaretii and the Daorsi. Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus. Appian's genealogy was evidently composed in Roman times encompassing barbarian peoples other than Illyrians like Celts and Galatians. and choosing a specific story for his audience that included most of the peoples who dwelled in the Illyricum of the Antonine era. However, the inclusion in his genealogy of the Enchelei and the Autariatae, whose political strength has been highly weakened, reflects a pre-Roman historical situation. Basically, ancient Greeks included in their mythological accounts all the peoples with whom they had close contacts. In Roman times, ancient Romans created more mythical or genealogical relations to include various new peoples, regardless of their large ethnic and cultural differences. Appian's genealogy lists the earliest known peoples of Illyria in the group of the first generation, consisting mostly of southern Illyrian peoples firstly encountered by the Greeks, some of which were the Enchelei, the Taulantii, the Dassaretii and the Parthini. Some peoples that came to the Balkans at a later date such as the Scordisci are listed in the group that belongs to the third generation. The Scordisci were a Celtic people mixed with the indigenous Illyrian and Thracian population. The Pannonians have not been known to the Greeks, and it seems that before the 2nd century BC they did not come into contact with the Romans. Almost all the Greek writers referred to the Pannonians with the name Paeones until late Roman times. The Scordisci and Pannonians were considered Illyrian mainly because they belonged to Illyricum since the early Roman Imperial period. History Iron Age Depending on the complexity of the diverse physical geography of the Balkans, arable farming and livestock (mixed farming) rearing had constituted the economic basis of the Illyrians during the Iron Age. In southern Illyria organized realms were formed earlier than in other areas of this region. One of the oldest known Illyrian kingdoms is that of the Enchelei, which seems to have reached its height from the 8th–7th centuries BC, but the kingdom fell from dominant power around the 6th century BC. It seems that the weakening of the kingdom of Enchelae resulted in their assimilation and inclusion into a newly established Illyrian realm at the latest in the 5th century BC, marking the arising of the Dassaretii, who appear to have replaced the Enchelei in the lakeland area of Lychnidus. According to a number of modern scholars the dynasty of Bardylis—the first attested Illyrian dynasty—was Dassaretan. The weakening of the Enchelean realm was also caused by the strengthening of another Illyrian kingdom established in its vicinity—that of the Taulantii—which existed for some time along with that of the Enchelei. The Taulantii—another people among the more anciently known groups of Illyrian tribes—lived on the Adriatic coast of southern Illyria (modern Albania), dominating at various times much of the plain between the Drin and the Aous, comprising the area around Epidamnus/Dyrrhachium. In the 7th century BC the Taulantii invoked the aid of Corcyra and Corinth in a war against the Liburni. After the defeat and expulsion from the region of the Liburni, the Corcyreans founded in 627 BC on the Illyrian mainland a colony called Epidamnus, thought to have been the name of a barbarian king of the region. A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The Taulantii continued to play an important role in Illyrian history between the 5th and 4th–3rd centuries BC, and in particular, in the history of Epidamnus, both as its neighbors and as part of its population. Notably they influenced the affairs in the internal conflicts between aristocrats and democrats. The Taulantian kingdom seems to have reached its climax during Glaukias' rule, in the years between 335 BC and 302 BC. The Illyrian kingdoms frequently came into conflicts with the neighbouring Ancient Macedonians, and the Illyrian pirates were also seen as significant threat to the neighbouring peoples. At the Neretva Delta, there was a strong Hellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe of Daors. Their capital was Daorson located in Ošanići near Stolac in Herzegovina, which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by megalithic, 5 meter high stonewalls, composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze coins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered Greek colonies on the Dalmatian islands. After Philip II of Macedon defeated Bardylis (358 BC), the Grabaei under Grabos II became the strongest state in Illyria. Philip II killed 7,000 Illyrians in a great victory and annexed the territory up to Lake Ohrid. Next, Philip II reduced the Grabaei, and then went for the Ardiaei, defeated the Triballi (339 BC), and fought with Pleurias (337 BC). During the second part of the 3rd century BC, a number of Illyrian tribes seem to have united to form a proto-state stretching from the central part of present-day Albania up to Neretva river in Herzegovina. The political entity was financed on piracy and ruled from 250 BC by the king Agron. The Illyrian attack under Agron, against Aerolians mounted in either 232 or 231 BC, is described by Polybius: He was succeeded by his wife Teuta, who assumed the regency for her stepson Pinnes following Agron's death in 231 BC. In his work The Histories, Polybius (2nd century BC) reported first diplomatic contacts between the Romans and Illyrians. In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC, Rome overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe for Roman commerce. There were three campaigns: the first against Teuta, the second against Demetrius of Pharos and the third against Gentius. The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that the Roman Navy crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion. The impetus behind the emergence of larger regional groups, such as "Iapodes", "Liburnians", "Pannonians" etc., is traced to increased contacts with the Mediterranean and La Tène 'global worlds'. This catalyzed "the development of more complex political institutions and the increase in differences between individual communities". Emerging local elites selectively adopted either La Tène or Hellenistic and, later, Roman cultural templates "in order to legitimize and strengthen domination within their communities. They were competing fiercely through either alliance or conflict and resistance to Roman expansion. Thus, they established more complex political alliances, which convinced (Greco-Roman) sources to see them as 'ethnic' identities." The Roman Republic subdued the Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. An Illyrian revolt was crushed under Augustus, resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south. Depictions of the Illyrians, usually described as "barbarians" or "savages", are universally negative in Greek and Roman sources. Roman era and Late Antiquity Prior to the Roman conquest of Illyria, the Roman Republic had started expanding its power and territory across the Adriatic Sea. The Romans came nevertheless into a series of conflicts with the Illyrians, equally known as the Illyrian Wars, beginning in 229 BC until 168 BC as the Romans defeated Gentius at Scodra. The Great Illyrian Uprising took place in the Roman province of Illyricum in the 1st century AD, in which an alliance of native peoples revolted against the Romans. The main ancient source that describes this military conflict is Velleius Paterculus, which was incorporated into the second book of Roman History. Another ancient source about it is the biography of Octavius Augustus by Pliny the Elder. The two leaders of uprising were Bato the Breucian and Bato the Daesitiate. Geographically, the name 'Illyria' came to mean Roman Illyricum which from the 4th century to the 7th century signified the prefecture of Illyricum. It covered much of the western and central Balkans. After the defeat of the Great Illyrian Revolt and the consolidation of Roman power in the Balkans, the process of integration of Illyrians in the Roman world accelerated even further. Some Illyrian communities were organized in their pre-Roman locations under their own civitates. Others migrated or were forcefully resettled in different regions. Some groups like the Azali were transferred from their homeland to frontier areas (northern Hungary) after the Great Illyrian Revolt. In Dacia, Illyrian communities like the Pirustae who were skilled miners were settled to the gold mines of Alburnus Maior where they formed their own communities. In Trajan's period these population movements were likely part of a deliberate policy of resettling, while later they involved free migrations. In their new regions, they were free salaried workers. Inscriptions show that by that era many of Illyrians had acquired Roman citizenship. By the end of the 2nd century and beginning of the 3rd century CE, Illyrian populations had been highly integrated in the Roman Empire and formed a core population of its Balkan provinces. During the crisis of the Third Century and the establishment of the Dominate, a new elite faction of Illyrians who were part of the Roman army along the Pannonian and Danubian Limes rose in Roman politics. This faction produced many emperors from the late 3rd to the 6th century CE who are collectively known as the Illyrian Emperors and include the Constantinian, Valentinianic and Justinianic dynasties. Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius , a native of Sirmium, is usually recognized as the first Illyrian emperor in historiography. The rise of the Illyrian Emperors represents the rise of the role of the army in imperial politics and the increasing shift of the center of imperial politics from the city of Rome itself to the eastern provinces of the empire. The term Illyrians last appears in the historical record in the 7th century AD, in the Miracula Sancti Demetrii, referring to a Byzantine garrison operating within the former Roman province of Illyricum. However, in the acts of the Second Council of Nicaea from 787, Nikephoros of Durrës signed himself as "Episcopus of Durrës, province of the Illyrians". Since the Middle Ages the term "Illyrian" has been used principally in connection with the Albanians, although it was also used to describe the western wing of the Southern Slavs up to the 19th century, being revived in particular during the Habsburg monarchy. In Byzantine literature, references to Illyria as a defined region in administrative terms end after 1204 and the term specifically began to refer only to the more confined Albanian territory. Society Social and political organisation The structure of Illyrian society during classical antiquity was characterised by a conglomeration of numerous tribes and small realms ruled by warrior elites, a situation similar to that in most other societies at that time. Thucidides in the History of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC) addresses the social organisation of the Illyrian tribes via a speech he attributes to Brasidas, in which he recounts that the mode of rulership among the Illyrian tribes is that of dynasteia—which Thucidides used in reference to foreign customs—neither democratic, nor oligarchic. Brasidas then goes on to explain that in the dynasteia the ruler rose to power "by no other means than by superiority in fighting". Pseudo-Scymnus (2nd century BC) in reference to the social organisation of Illyrian tribes in earlier times than the era he lived in makes a distinction between three modes of social organisation. A part of the Illyrians were organized under hereditary kingdoms, a second part was organized under chieftains who were elected but held no hereditary power and some Illyrians were organised in autonomous communities governed by their own internal tribal laws. In these communities social stratification had not yet emerged. Warfare The history of Illyrian warfare and weaponry spanned from around the 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by the Ancient Greek and Roman historians as Illyria. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Illyrian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkan Peninsula and the Italian Peninsula as well as their pirate activity in the Adriatic Sea within the Mediterranean Sea. The Illyrians were a notorious seafaring people with a strong reputation for piracy especially common during the regency of king Agron and later queen Teuta. They used fast and maneuverable ships of types known as lembus and liburna which were subsequently used by the Ancient Macedonians and Romans. Livy described the Illyrians along the Liburnians and Istrians as nations of savages in general noted for their piracy. Illyria appears in Greco-Roman historiography from the 4th century BC. Illyrians were regarded as bloodthirsty, unpredictable, turbulent, and warlike by Ancient Greeks and Romans. They were seen as savages on the edge of their world. Polybius (3rd century BC) wrote: "the Romans had freed the Greeks from the enemies of all mankind". According to the Romans, the Illyrians were tall and well-built. Herodianus writes that "Pannonians are tall and strong always ready for a fight and to face danger but slow witted". Illyrian rulers wore bronze torques around their necks. Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighbouring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too. Culture Language The languages spoken by the Illyrian tribes are an extinct and poorly attested Indo-European language group, and it is not clear whether the languages belonged to the centum or the satem group. The Illyrians were subject to varying degrees of Celticization, Hellenization, Romanization and later Slavicization which possibly lead to the extinction of their languages. In modern research, use of concepts like "Hellenization" and "Romanization" has declined as they have been criticized as simplistic notions which can't describe the actual processes via which material development moved from the centres of the ancient Mediterranean to its periphery. The vast majority of knowledge of Illyrian is based on the Messapian language if the latter is considered an Illyrian dialect. The non-Messapian testimonies of Illyrian are too fragmentary to allow any conclusions whether Messapian should be considered part of Illyrian proper, although it has been widely thought that Messapian was related to Illyrian. An extinct Indo-European language, Messapian, was once spoken in Messapia in the southeastern Italian Peninsula. It was spoken by the three Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii. On both sides of the border region between southern Illyria and northern Epirus, the contact between the Illyrian and Greek languages produced an area of bilingualism between the two, although it is unclear how the impact of the one language to the other developed because of the scarcity of available archaeological material. However, this did not occur at the same level on both sides, with the Illyrians being more willing to adopt the more prestigious Greek language. Ongoing research may provide further knowledge about these contacts beyond present limited sources. Illyrians were exposed not only to Doric and Epirote Greek but also to Attic-Ionic. The Illyrian languages were once thought to be connected to the Venetic language in the Italian Peninsula but this view was abandoned. Other scholars have linked them with the adjacent Thracian language supposing an intermediate convergence area or dialect continuum, but this view is also not generally supported. All these languages were likely extinct by the 5th century AD although traditionally, the Albanian language is identified as the descendant of Illyrian dialects that survived in remote areas of the Balkans during the Middle Ages but evidence "is too meager and contradictory for us to know whether the term Illyrian even referred to a single language". The ancestor dialects of the Albanian language would have survived somewhere along the boundary of Latin and Ancient Greek linguistic influence, the Jireček Line. There are various modern historians and linguists who believe that the modern Albanian language might have descended from a southern Illyrian dialect whereas an alternative hypothesis holds that Albanian was descended from the Thracian language. Not enough is known of the ancient language to completely prove or disprove either hypothesis, see Origin of the Albanians. Linguistic evidence and subgrouping Modern studies about Illyrian onomastics, the main field via which the Illyrians have been linguistically investigated as no written records have been found, began in the 1920s and sought to more accurately define Illyrian tribes, the commonalities, relations and differences between each other as they were conditioned by specific local cultural, ecological and economic factors, which further subdivided them into different groupings. This approach has led in contemporary research in the definition of three main onomastic provinces in which Illyrian personal names appear near exclusively in the archaeological material of each province. The southern Illyrian or south-eastern Dalmatian province was the area of the proper Illyrians (the core of which was the territory of Illyrii proprie dicti of the classical authors, located in modern Albania) and includes most of Albania, Montenegro and their hinterlands. This area extended along the Adriatic coast from the Aous valley in the south, up to and beyond the Neretva valley in the north. The second onomastic province, the central Illyrian or middle Dalmatian-Pannonian province began to its north and covered a larger area than the southern province. It extended along the Adriatic coast between the Krka and Cetina rivers, covered much of Bosnia (except for its northern regions), central Dalmatia (Lika) and its hinterland in the central Balkans included western Serbia and Sandžak. The third onomastic province further to the north defined as North Adriatic area includes Liburnia and the region of modern Ljubljana in Slovenia. It is part of a larger linguistic area different from Illyrian that also comprises Venetic and its Istrian variety. These areas are not strictly defined geographically as there was some overlap between them. The region of the Dardani (modern Kosovo, parts of northern North Macedonia, parts of eastern Serbia) saw the overlap of the southern Illyrian and Dalmatian onomastic provinces. Local Illyrian anthroponymy is also found in the area. In its onomastics, southern Illyrian (or south-east Dalmatian) has close relations with Messapic. Most of these relations are shared with the central Dalmatian area. In older scholarship (Crossland (1982)), some toponyms in central and northern Greece show phonetic characteristics that were thought to indicate that Illyrians or closely related peoples were settled in those regions before the introduction of the Greek language. However, such views largely relied on subjective ancient testimonies and are not supported by the earliest evidence (epigraphic etc.). Religion The Illyrians, as most ancient civilizations, were polytheistic and worshipped many gods and deities developed of the powers of nature. The most numerous traces—still insufficiently studied—of religious practices of the pre-Roman era are those relating to religious symbolism. Symbols are depicted in every variety of ornament and reveal that the chief object of the prehistoric cult of the Illyrians was the Sun, worshipped in a widespread and complex religious system. The solar deity was depicted as a geometrical figure such as the spiral, the concentric circle and the swastika, or as an animal figure the likes of the birds, serpents and horses. The symbols of water-fowl and horses were more common in the north, while the serpent was more common in the south. Illyrian deities were mentioned in inscriptions on statues, monuments, and coins of the Roman period, and some interpreted by Ancient writers through comparative religion. There appears to be no single most prominent god for all the Illyrian tribes, and a number of deities evidently appear only in specific regions. In Illyris, Dei-pátrous was a god worshiped as the Sky Father, Prende was the love-goddess and the consort of the thunder-god Perendi, En or Enji was the fire-god, Jupiter Parthinus was a chief deity of the Parthini, Redon was a tutelary deity of sailors appearing on many inscriptions in the coastal towns of Lissus, Daorson, Scodra and Dyrrhachium, while Medaurus was the protector deity of Risinium, with a monumental equestrian statue dominating the city from the acropolis. In Dalmatia and Pannonia one of the most popular ritual traditions during the Roman period was the cult of the Roman tutelary deity of the wild, woods and fields Silvanus, depicted with iconography of Pan. The Roman deity of wine, fertility and freedom Liber was worshipped with the attributes of Silvanus, and those of Terminus, the god protector of boundaries. Tadenus was a Dalmatian deity bearing the identity or epithet of Apollo in inscriptions found near the source of the Bosna river. The Delmatae also had Armatus as a war god in Delminium. The Silvanae, a feminine plural of Silvanus, were featured on many dedications across Pannonia. In the hot springs of Topusko (Pannonia Superior), sacrificial altars were dedicated to Vidasus and Thana (identified with Silvanus and Diana), whose names invariably stand side by side as companions. Aecorna or Arquornia was a lake or river tutelary goddess worshipped exclusively in the cities of Nauportus and Emona, where she was the most important deity next to Jupiter. Laburus was also a local deity worshipped in Emona, perhaps a deity protecting the boatmen sailing. It seems that the Illyrians did not develop a uniform cosmology on which to center their religious practices. A number of Illyrian toponyms and anthroponyms derived from animal names and reflected the beliefs in animals as mythological ancestors and protectors. The serpent was one of the most important animal totems. Illyrians believed in the force of spells and the evil eye, in the magic power of protective and beneficial amulets which could avert the evil eye or the bad intentions of enemies. Human sacrifice also played a role in the lives of the Illyrians. Arrian records the chieftain Cleitus the Illyrian as sacrificing three boys, three girls and three rams just before his battle with Alexander the Great. The most common type of burial among the Iron Age Illyrians was tumulus or mound burial. The kin of the first tumuli was buried around that, and the higher the status of those in these burials the higher the mound. Archaeology has found many artifacts placed within these tumuli such as weapons, ornaments, garments and clay vessels. The rich spectrum in religious beliefs and burial rituals that emerged in Illyria, especially during the Roman period, may reflect the variation in cultural identities in this region. Archaeology In total, at least six material cultures have been described to have emerged in Illyrian territories. Based on existing archaeological finds, comparative archaeological and geographical definition about them has been difficult. Archaeogenetic studies have shown that a major Y-DNA haplogroup among Illyrians, J2b-L283 spread via Cetina culture across the eastern Adriatic from the Cetina valley in Croatia to Montenegro and northern Albania. The earliest archaeogenetic find related to Cetina in Albania is the Shkrel tumulus (19th century BCE). It is the oldest J2b-L283 find in the region historically known as Illyria. Freilich et al. (2021) determined that Cetina related samples from Veliki Vanik carry similar ancestry to a Copper Age sample from the site of Beli Manastir-Popova Zemlja (late Vučedol culture), eastern Croatia. The same autosomal profile persists in the Iron Age sample from Jazinka cave. Cetina finds have been found in the western Adriatic since the second half of the third millennium in southern Italy. In Albania, new excavations show spread of Cetina culture in sites of central Albania (Blazi, Nezir, Keputa). Inland Cetina spread in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in particular Kotorac, a site near Sarajevo and contacts have been demonstrated with the Belotić Bela Crkva culture. During the developed Middle Bronze Age, Belotić Bela Crkva which has been recognized as another Proto-Illyrian culture developed in northeastern Bosnia and western Serbia (Čačak area). Both inhumation and cremation have been observed in sites of this culture. Similar burial customs have been observed in the Glasinac plateau of eastern Bosnia, where the Glasinac-Mati culture first developed. During the 7th century BC, the beginning of the Iron Age, the Illyrians emerge as an ethnic group with a distinct culture and art form. Various Illyrian tribes appeared, under the influence of the Halstatt cultures from the north, and they organized their regional centers. The cult of the dead played an important role in the lives of the Illyrians, which is seen in their carefully made burials and burial ceremonies, as well as the richness of the burial sites. In the northern parts of the Balkans, there existed a long tradition of cremation and burial in shallow graves, while in the southern parts, the dead were buried in large stone, or earth tumuli (natively called gromile) that in Herzegovina were reaching monumental sizes, more than 50 meters wide and 5 meters high. The Japodian tribe (found from Istria in Croatia to Bihać in Bosnia) have had an affinity for decoration with heavy, oversized necklaces out of yellow, blue or white glass paste, and large bronze fibulas, as well as spiral bracelets, diadems and helmets out of bronze. Small sculptures out of jade in form of archaic Ionian plastic are also characteristically Japodian. Numerous monumental sculptures are preserved, as well as walls of citadel Nezakcij near Pula, one of numerous Istrian cities from Iron Age. Illyrian chiefs wore bronze torques around their necks much like the Celts did. The Illyrians were influenced by the Celts in many cultural and material aspects and some of them were Celticized, especially the tribes in Dalmatia and the Pannonians. In Slovenia, the Vače situla was discovered in 1882 and attributed to Illyrians. Prehistoric remains indicate no more than average height, male , female . Early Middle Ages It is also evident that in a region which stretches from the southern Dalmatian coast, its hinterland, Montenegro, northern Albania up to Kosovo and Dardania, apart from a uniformity in onomastics there were also some archaeological similarities. However, it cannot be determined whether these tribes living there also formed a linguistic unity. The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, non-Slavic western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Within Albanian archaeology, based on the continuity of pre-Roman Illyrian forms in the production of several types of local objects found in graves, the population of Komani-Kruja is framed as a group which descended from the local Illyrians who "re-asserted their independence" from the Roman Empire after many centuries and formed the core of the later historical region of Arbanon. Illyrian-Albanian links were the main focus of Albanian nationalism during the Communism period. What was established in this early phase of research was that Komani-Kruja settlements represented a local, non-Slavic population which has been described as Romanized Illyrian, Latin-speaking or Latin-literate. This is corroborated by the absence of Slavic toponyms and survival of Latin ones in the Komani-Kruja area. In terms of historiography, the thesis of older Albanian archaeology is an untestable hypothesis as no historical sources exist which can link Komani-Kruja to the first definite attestation of medieval Albanians in the 11th century. The nationalist interpretation of the Komani-Kruja cemeteries has been roundly rejected by non-Albanian scholars. John Wilkes has described it as "a highly improbable reconstruction of Albanian history". Some Albanian scholars even today have continued to espouse this model of continuity. Limited excavations campaigns occurred until the 1990s. Objects from a vast area covering nearby regions the entire Byzantine Empire, the northern Balkans and Hungary and sea routes from Sicily to Crimea were found in Dalmace and other sites coming from many different production centres: local, Byzantine, Sicilian, Avar-Slavic, Hungarian, Crimean and even possibly Merovingian and Carolingian. Within Albanian archaeology, based on the continuity of pre-Roman Illyrian forms in the production of several types of local objects found in graves, the population of Komani-Kruja was framed as a group which descended from the local Illyrians who "re-asserted their independence" from the Roman Empire after many centuries and formed the core of the later historical region of Arbanon. As research focused almost entirely on grave contexts and burial sites, settlements and living spaces were often ignored. Other views stressed that as an archaeological culture it shouldn't be connected to a single social or ethnic group but be contextualized in a broader Roman-Byzantine or Christian framework, nor should material finds be separated in ethnic categories as they can't be correlated to a specific culture. In this view, cemeteries from nearby regions which were classified as belonging to Slavic groups shouldn't be viewed as necessarily representing another people but as representations of class and other social factors as "ethnic identity was only one factor of varying importance". Yugoslav archaeology proposed an opposite narrative and tried to frame the population as Slavic, especially in the region of western Macedonia. Archaeological research has shown that these sites were not related to regions then inhabited by Slavs and even in regions like Macedonia, no Slavic settlements had been founded in the 7th century. Archaeologically, while it was considered possible and even likely that Komani-Kruja sites were used continuously from the 7th century onwards, it remained an untested hypothesis as research was still limited. Whether this population represented local continuity or arrived at an earlier period from a more northern location as the Slavs entered the Balkans remained unclear at the time but regardless of their ultimate geographical origins, these groups maintained Justinianic era cultural traditions of the 6th century possibly as a statement of their collective identity and derived their material cultural references from the Justinianic military system. In this context, they may have used burial customs as a means of reference to an "idealized image of the past Roman power". Research greatly expanded after 2009, and the first survey of Komani's topography was produced in 2014. Until then, except for the area of the cemetery, the size of the settlement and its extension remained unknown. In 2014, it was revealed that Komani occupied an area of more than 40 ha, a much larger territory than originally thought. Its oldest settlement phase dates to the Hellenistic era. Proper development began in late antiquity and continued well into the Middle Ages (13th-14th centuries). It indicates that Komani was a late Roman fort and an important trading node in the networks of Praevalitana and Dardania. Participation in trade networks of the eastern Mediterranean via sea routes seems to have been very limited even in nearby coastal territory in this era. The collapse of the Roman administration in the Balkans was followed by a broad demographic collapse with the exception of Komani-Kruja and neighbouring mountainous regions. In the Avar-Slavic raids, communities from present-day northern Albania and nearby areas clustered around hill sites for better protection as is the case of other areas like Lezha and Sarda. During the 7th century, as Byzantine authority was reestablished after the Avar-Slavic raids and the prosperity of the settlements increased, Komani saw an increase in population and a new elite began to take shape. Increase in population and wealth was marked by the establishment of new settlements and new churches in their vicinity. Komani formed a local network with Lezha and Kruja and in turn this network was integrated in the wider Byzantine Mediterranean world, maintained contacts with the northern Balkans and engaged in long-distance trade. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs. In Winnifrith's view, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys. He adds that the language and religion of this culture remain uncertain. With bishops absent abroad, "the mountain flocks cannot have been too versed in theological or linguistic niceties". Nationalism Albanians The possible continuity between the Illyrian populations of the Western Balkans in antiquity and the Albanians has played a significant role in Albanian nationalism from the 19th century until the present day. South Slavs At the beginning of the 19th century, many educated Europeans, based on a poor knowledge of history and ethnology, regarded the South Slavs as the descendants of ancient Illyrians. When Napoleon conquered part of the South Slavic lands, these areas were named after ancient Illyrian provinces (1809–1814). After the demise of the First French Empire in 1815, the Habsburg monarchy became increasingly centralized and authoritarian, and fear of Magyarization arouse patriotic resistance among Croatians. Under the influence of Romantic nationalism, a self-identified "Illyrian movement", in the form of a Croatian national revival, opened a literary and journalistic campaign initiated by a group of young Croatian intellectuals during the years of 1835–49. In popular culture The plot of 2022 movie Illyricvm is set in 37 BC and it deals with interactions between Romans and Illyrian tribes. See also Notes References Bibliography External links Phallic Cult of the Illyrians Indo-European peoples Ancient tribes in Albania Ancient tribes in Bosnia and Herzegovina Ancient tribes in Croatia Ancient tribes in Kosovo Ancient tribes in Montenegro Ancient tribes in Serbia Ancient tribes in the Balkans Illyrian Albania Illyrian Serbia Ancient history of Slovenia Ancient peoples of Europe

424537

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GKN

GKN

GKN Ltd is a British multinational automotive and aerospace components business headquartered in Redditch, England. It is a long-running business known for many decades as Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds. It can trace its origins back to 1759 and the birth of the Industrial Revolution. Throughout the majority of the twentieth century, though steel production remained the core of GKN it branched into tooling and component manufacturing. It was deeply impacted by government policies during the latter half of the century, during which Britain's steel industry was subject to multiple nationalisation and privatisation efforts. During the 1980s, GKN Steel reduced its presence in the steel sector, selling off or shutting down its works. GKN Steel renamed itself GKN during 1986 to indicate its shift away from steel production. Business activities were re-orientated around the aerospace, automotive and industrial services markets. In 1994, GKN purchased Westland Aircraft. The company later organised the latter's merger to form AgustaWestland and its sale to Italian defense firm Finmeccanica. During November 1995, Dana Corporation purchased GKN's axle group; the two firms continued to operate joint ventures in the field for many years. During the early 2000s, it took over Tochigi Fuji Sangyo K.K, a Japanese manufacturer of differentials and driveline torque systems. During December 2011, GKN Aerospace Engineering services division was sold to product engineering firm Quest Global. In 2012, GKN acquired the Swedish aerospace engine specialist Volvo Aero. During 2018, Melrose Industries acquired GKN through a controversial £8.1 billion deal. Name The company's name is the initials of three early figures in its history: John Guest, Arthur Keen, and Joseph Henry Nettlefold. All three were key figures in the field of iron and steel during the Industrial Revolution. Ivor Guest sold the Dowlais Iron Company in Wales to Arthur Keen and Windsor Richards of Birmingham's Patent Nut and Bolt Company in June 1900. They combined the two businesses and formed Guest, Keen & Co. Limited on 1 November 1900. A little over twelve months later, Guest Keen & Co bought and amalgamated Nettlefolds Limited into their new combine giving it the style Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds Limited. History 1759 to 1900 The origins of GKN lie in the founding of the Dowlais Ironworks in the village of Dowlais, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, by Thomas Lewis and Isaac Wilkinson. John Guest was appointed manager of the works in 1767, having moved from Broseley. In 1786, Guest was succeeded by his son, Thomas Guest, who formed the Dowlais Iron Company with his son-in-law William Taitt. Guest introduced many innovations and the works prospered. Under Guest's leadership, alongside his manager John Evans, and after his death in 1852 that of his wife Lady Charlotte Guest, the Dowlais Ironworks gained the reputation of being "one of the World's great industrial concerns". Though the Bessemer process was licensed in 1856, nine years of detailed planning and project management were needed before the first steel was produced. The company thrived with its new cost-effective production methods, forming alliances with the Consett Iron Company and Krupp. By 1857, G.T. Clark and William Menelaus, his manager, had constructed the "Goat Mill", the world's most powerful rolling mill. By the mid-1860s, Clark's reforms had borne fruit in renewed profitability. Clark delegated day-to-day management to Menelaus, his trusteeship terminating in 1864 when ownership passed to Sir Ivor Guest. Clark continued to direct policy, building a new plant at the docks at Cardiff and vetoing a joint-stock company. He formally retired in 1897. 1900 to 1966 On 9 July 1900, the Dowlais Iron Company and Arthur Keen's Patent Nut and Bolt Company merged to form Guest, Keen & Co. Ltd. Nettlefolds Limited, a leading manufacturer of fasteners, established in Smethwick, West Midlands in 1854, was acquired in 1902, leading to the change of name to Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds (GKN). In 1920 John Lysaght and Co. was acquired. Guest Keen Baldwins Steel production remained at the core of the company, but under increasing profit margin pressure. In 1930, the company combined its steel production business with that of rival Baldwins to form Guest Keen Baldwins, which now held: Baldwins: Coke ovens at Margam; Blast-furnaces and steel melting shop at Margam; steel works and rolling mills at Port Talbot; blast-furnaces at Briton Ferry; lime stone quarry at Cornelly GKN: Dowlais Iron and Steel Works; Cardiff Iron and Steel Works; coke ovens at Cwmbran; limestone and silica quarries In 1935, the company demolished the Cardiff works to construct a new production facility on the same site, funded by an issue of debentures. Due to a resultant global shortage of pig iron, in 1937, the company fired-up the single remaining blast furnace at Dowlais. During the Second World War, all of the sites were heavily bombed by Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe, and the required investment meant that all of these assets were nationalised as part of the Iron and Steel Act 1949, resultantly becoming part of the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain. GKN were still highly reliant on the supply of good quality steel thus, in 1954, the business negotiated from the asset realisation company the repurchase of key assets from ISC, which were renamed Guest Keen Iron and Steel Co. In 1961, the company's name was changed again to GKN Steel Company. Fasteners These mergers heralded half a century in which GKN became a major manufacturer of screws, nuts, bolts and other fasteners. The company reflected the vertical integration fashionable at the time embracing activities from coal and ore extraction, and iron and steel making to manufacturing finished goods. Crankshafts After the First World War, it became apparent that Britain was likely to follow France and the United States in developing a large scale automotive industry. During 1919, GKN acquired another fastener manufacturer, F. W. Cotterill Ltd. Cotterill owned a subsidiary named J. W. Garrington, which specialised in forgings; the forgings produced at the Garrington Darlaston plant, later supplemented by a large plant at Bromsgrove, enabled GKN to become a major supplier of crankshafts, connecting rods, half-shafts and numerous smaller forged components to the UK auto-industry, which had a period of massive expansion during the interwar period and beyond. Pressed steel wheels Another company, eventually acquired by GKN, was founded by another steel manufacturing entrepreneur, Joseph Sankey. After training as a mechanical engineer in the late 19th century, Sankey founding a company that became a major producer of tea trays. A pioneering motorist, Sankey became friends with figures such as Herbert Austin, and was also a supplier of sheet steel components to the nascent British car industry. Because the wooden wheels on early cars had a tendency to disintegrate after hitting roadside kerbs, Sankey developed a pioneering pressed-steel wheel. Production started in 1908, with customers including Austin Motor Company and, later, William Morris. In addition to Sankey's original factory at Bilston, a new plant was established near Wellington, Shropshire, which was devoted to wheel production. Meanwhile, by 1914, GKN's customers for sheet-steel vehicle bodies had also come to include Austin, along with Daimler, Humber, Rover, Star and Argyll. After John Lysaght acquired Joseph Sankey and Sons Ltd, GKN purchased both companies, in 1920. By the 1960s, GKN was manufacturing many other kinds of automotive components, including chassis for the Triumph Herald and its derivatives. The company also developed the GKN FV432 armoured personnel carrier. By 1969, the highly-automated Wellington plant was producing over 5½ million wheels per year, with a maximum rate of approximately 30,000 units per day. Nationalisation of steel The postwar government nationalised the steel industry under Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain. The act of parliament of 1949 took effect in February 1951. In 1951, a new subsidiary Blade Research & Development (BRD) was formed at Aldridge, Staffordshire, to produce aero-engine turbine blades. Following a fall in demand for turbine blades in the late 1950s, the BRD factory switched to producing constant-velocity joints and driveshafts for vehicles. In 1953, Britain's steel industry was de-nationalised by a new government; this policy only lasted for 14 years before being reversed. 1966 to 1991 At the end of April 1965, the recently elected Labour government published a White Paper proposing the nationalisation of 90 per cent, by output, of Britain's steel industry. GKN Steel was transferred to public ownership at the end of July 1967. Driveline Beginning a programme of diversification into the automotive field in 1966 GKN bought BRD's much larger competitor, Birfield Ltd, which held the great bulk of the British market for CVJs, constant velocity joints, and was a company that since 1938 had incorporated both the Sheffield based Laycock Engineering later best known as a postwar overdrive manufacturer, and Hardy Spicer Limited of Birmingham, England, also a manufacturer of constant-velocity joints. Historically, such joints had few applications, even following the improved design proposed by Alfred H. Rzeppa in 1936. However, in 1959, Alec Issigonis had developed the revolutionary Mini motor car that relied on the Hardy Spicer joints for its front wheel drive technology. The massive expansion in the exploitation of front wheel drive in the 1970s and 1980s led to the acquisition of other similar businesses and a 43% share of the world market by 2002. On the death of founder Tony Vandervell in 1967, GKN acquired the lucrative Maidenhead-based Vandervell bearing manufacturer that was at the time exporting more than 50% of its output to overseas vehicle manufacturers. This was part of a larger trend for GKN that during this period, under its Managing Director Raymond Brookes, was working to reduce its dependence on UK auto-maker customers at a time when the domestic industry was seen to be stumbling, in response to bewildering "Government interference and fiscal short-sightedness", with British new car registrations in the first four months of 1969 a massive 33% down on the corresponding period of the previous year. As a result of the large number of mergers, Abram Games was commissioned to develop a new corporate identity in 1969 when the distinctive angular GKN symbol was created and the new company colours of blue and white introduced. In 1974, GKN acquired Kirkstall Forge Engineering, a manufacturer of truck axles in Leeds. GKN Steel By 1968, GKN Steel had recreated its downline business, and started to build its upline business through aggressive building of a steel stockholding business. In 1972, it acquired Firth Cleveland, a hot and cold rolled strip business with a downline in sintered products, reinforcement steels, wire fasteners and garage equipment. In 1973, GKN Steel exchanged the remaining assets at Dowlais along with £30 million in cash to the nationalised British Steel Corporation, in return for the previously nationalised Brymbo Steelworks. After acquiring steel stockholding competitor Miles Druce and Co, by 1974, the company was in possession of a full integrated steel production and manufacturing business. By the late 1980s, in the face of extensive competition from Japanese firms in both the axle and constant velocity joint business, GKN Steel decided to start selling off its steel and fasteners businesses. By 1991, the firm had disposed of all of the assets within these two business lines. GKN Steel's withdrawal coincidence with the wider closure of multiple steelworks and heavy industries across Britain, which caused considerable social disruption in some areas at the time, thus becoming a topic of political debate. In 1989, GKN Steel's factory at Bilston, in the West Midlands, was permanently closed and subsequently demolished. 1990s Having disposed of its steel production asset, the company renamed itself GKN in 1986. The firm focused on military vehicles, aerospace and industrial services. During the 1990s, GKN completed a series of large acquisitions and industrial consolidations. During 1994, the firm acquired the helicopter manufacturing business of Westland Aircraft. In 1998, GKN's armoured vehicle business was sold to Alvis plc; this division was subsequently incorporated into Alvis Vickers Ltd. During November 1995, associate Dana Corporation purchased GKN's axle group; at that time, GKN held 34% of the world market for constant velocity joints. Around this same time period, GKN acquired larger shares of its other driveline joint ventures with Dana in Brazil, Argentina and Colombia. From the late 1990s, the company built up a major global business in powder metallurgy, which operates as the GKN Powdered Metallurgy group. During early 1998, GKN and Italian aerospace company Finmeccanica commenced discussions on the topic of merging their helicopter operations; French aerospace conglomerate Aérospatiale had also reportedly made its own approaches around this time. 2000s In July 2000, GKN and Finmeccanica announced an agreement to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries, Westland and Agusta respectively, to form AgustaWestland. On 20 May 2004, GKN confirmed that it was holding discussions to sell its 50% shareholding in AgustaWestland to Finmeccanica. The sale of this stake in exchange for £1 billion ($1.79 billion) from Finmeccanica was finalised later that year. In 2002, GKN acquired a significant stake in – and by 2004 took over the whole concern of – the Japanese manufacturer of differentials and driveline torque systems Tochigi Fuji Sangyo K.K, based in Tochigi, Tochigi. GKN went on to acquire Monitor Aerospace Corp in Amityville, New York and Precision Machining in Wellington, Kansas in 2006, part of the Airbus plant at Filton near Bristol for £150 million in 2008 and all of Getrag's axle business and axle manufacturing facilities in 2011. 2010s During December 2011, GKN Aerospace Engineering services division was acquired by product engineering firm Quest Global. The sale was accompanied by an agreement for QuestGlobal to provide engineering resources to GKN Aerospace; this cooperation was presented as a long-term strategy. In July 2012, GKN agreed to acquire the Swedish aerospace components manufacturer Volvo Aero from AB Volvo for £633 million (US$986 million). The takeover was seen as presenting good opportunities for the expansion of Volvo Aero's range of engine component production range via GKN's experience in producing aerostructures. In October 2015, GKN acquired Dutch aerospace company Fokker Technologies through a €706 million deal. GKN Aerospace chief Kevin Cummings stated that the Fokker purchase enhances GKN's global manufacturing footprint and brought new technology to the company. Throughout the 2010s, there was strong demand for GKN's aerostructures; earlier, the company had secured manufacturing contracts to produce elements of the Boeing 787, Airbus A350 XWB, Airbus A400M Atlas, and Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, in addition to numerous other aircraft. During early 2011, it was announced that GKN and EADS would cooperate on developing radical additive layer manufacturing technology for aerospace purposes. That same year, the Honda Aircraft Company picked GKN to produce the whole composite fuselage of its Honda HA-420 HondaJet at the latter's facility in Alabama. In late 2012, it opened a new composite manufacturing facility in Mexicali, Mexico. During the same year, GKN was contracted to provide fuselage components for the Bell 525 Relentless helicopter. During January 2018, Melrose Industries announced plans to purchase GKN and its restructuring thereafter; that same month, GKN's management rejected the initial bid made. In March 2018, Melrose submitted a revised £8.1 billion bid for the company; this bid was controversial and was subject to criticism, being branded by some press agencies as a hostile takeover. Melrose's offer received shareholder support and was accepted. Following a formal review of the purchase, including of various objections put forward by GKN workers and trade unions, the UK Government allowed the transaction to proceed in April 2018; Melrose agreed to comply with several national security measures. Since the takeover by Melrose plc, the GKN legacy group of businesses were decentralised in a move toward maximizing profitable sales in favour of focusing on pure growth of sales numbers. By the end of 2019, GKN had been restructured into three core divisions: GKN Aerospace, GKN Automotive and GKN Powder Metallurgy. 2020s On 9 July 2021, 422 workers of GKN's factory in Florence, Italy were notified that the factory was to be closed the next Monday. The same day, the unions organized a demonstration in front of the factory, and then occupied it. A workers' collective was formed with the objective of taking a shareholding in the business. In March 2023, Melrose announced that it would demerge GKN Automotive and GKN Powder Metallurgy as Dowlais Group. Operations The company is organised as follows: GKN Aerospace Aerostructures Engine Products Propulsion Systems GKN Automotive Driveshafts Freight Services Autostructures Cylinder liners, Sheepbridge Stokes Power Management PowerTrain Systems & Services Wheels and Structures Stromag GKN Powder Metallurgy Sinter Metals Hoeganaes Hydrogen Storage References Citations Bibliography James, B. Ll. (2004) "Clark, George Thomas (1809–1898)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, accessed 21 August 2007 External links GKN Powder Metallurgy Companies based in Redditch Manufacturing companies established in 1759 Auto parts suppliers of the United Kingdom Gas turbine manufacturers Aerospace companies of the United Kingdom Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange British brands Engine manufacturers of the United Kingdom British companies established in 1759 1759 establishments in England

424542

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising%20in%20video%20games

Advertising in video games

Advertising in video games is the integration of advertising into video games to promote products, organizations, or viewpoints. There are two major categories of advertising in video games: in-game advertising and advergames. In-game advertising shows the player advertisements while playing the game, whereas advergames are a type of game created to serve as an advertisement for a brand or product. Other methods of advertising in video games include in-game product placement and sponsorship of commercial games or other game-related content. Categories In-game advertising In-game advertising is similar to product placement in films and television, where the advertising content exists within the universe of the characters. These forms of product placement are common, which led to the advertisement technique being applied to video games to match evolving media consumption habits. According to the Entertainment Software Association in 2010, 42% of gamers said they play online games one or more hours per week. Game playing is considered active media consumption, which provides a unique opportunity for advertisers. The principal advantages of product placement in gaming are visibility and notoriety. A single in-game advertisement may be encountered by the player multiple times, and advertisers have an opportunity to ally a brand's image with that of a well-received game. Billboards, storefronts, posters, apparel, vehicles, weapons, fliers, sponsored product placement, and the interplay between the player and these elements in the game allow for a great degree of virtual advertisement. Examples of marketing in video games include brand integration, embedded marketing, recruitment tools, edutainment, and traditional in-game advertising. According to Forbes, in-game advertising is expected to reach $7.2 billion in 2016. Unlike television commercials and digital ads, which can be avoided by using DVRs and ad-blocking software, advertisements embedded within video games cannot be bypassed. A more recent example of in-game advertising is Google's placement of video ads between levels of games. These ads are usually branded inline, and TechCrunch reports that they have the potential to gain fast traction in Google's AdMob Service. Static in-game advertising Static in-game advertisements are embedded into the video game program. Static ads can be used in the story-line of the game and players can interact with them. The creation of the ads can take from a month or years to reach the public. These ads do not require players to have access to an Internet connection in order to display the campaigns. Limitations include ads becoming outdated or irrelevant as consumer habits change. Because these ads cannot change once released to the public, they also lack the ability to be customized based on player demographics. Examples include billboards advertising for (and product placement of) Bawls energy drink in Fallout: Brotherhood of Steel, and billboards for Adidas sportswear in FIFA International Soccer. Dynamic in-game advertising Dynamic in-game advertisements are embedded in online video games that can be changed at any time by the game programmers. Examples of this type of advertisement would be virtual billboards and updates that introduce new items into the game like clothing brands to dress characters or different cars. Dynamics ads are different from static games because companies can provide ads for specific audiences or demographics after the video game has been purchased by the consumer. This way companies can follow the consumer habits and provide ads that can address a certain context. Game developers then can dynamically change the virtual ads spaces embedded into the game to display the ads. Players have a limited interaction with these ads compared to static in-game ads. These ads required active Internet connection for the game company to showcase the ads. Dynamic ads can accommodate time sensitive campaigns and can be shown immediately. These ads can also provide data to show how well campaigns are doing unlike static in-game ads. Advergames Video games that are expressly commissioned to promote a product or service are referred to as "advergames", a portmanteau of "advertising" and "gaming". This term was coined in January 2000 by Anthony Giallourakis and later mentioned by Wired's "Jargon Watch" column in 2001. Advergames have been developed for different platforms including company websites, gaming consoles, and more recently, mobile applications and social media platforms. With the growth of the Internet, advergames have proliferated, often becoming the most visited aspect of brand websites and becoming an integrated part of brand media planning. The advergames sector reached $207 million in 2007. The earliest custom video games featuring integrated brand messages were developed and distributed on floppy disk. These games were distributed for free, often bundled with other products from the company advertised for. The first floppy disk advergames were developed to serve dual purposes—as promotional incentives that drive response and as media that deliver awareness. American Home Foods Chef Boyardee issued one of the earliest floppy-disk advergames. Some brands, like Kool-Aid and Pepsi, created early advergames on gaming platforms. They created advergames for the Atari 2600 and gave out promotional copies. The first in-box CD-ROM cereal box advergames are General Mills's Chex Quest (promoting the Chex brand) and General Mills's All-Star baseball (starring Trix Rabbit and his friends playing baseball against Major League teams and stars). Commercial examples include advergames funded by Pepsi, 7 Up, NFL, Formula One, and Burger King. Political and military examples of below-the-line (BTL) advergames include recruitment tools like America's Army, intended to boost recruitment for the United States Army, and Special Force, intended to promote Muslim resistance to the state of Israel. Educational advergaming is closely related to the Serious games initiative and falls under either Edumarket gaming or edutainment. Examples include Food Force (made by the United Nations's World Food Program) and Urban Jungle, an educational traffic simulation. Through-the-line advertising Examples of through-the-line (TTL) advertising in games include "link-chases," ARGs, and viral marketing. TTL marketing is a form of advertising in video games that involve the use of URL hyperlinks within the game designed to induce the player to visit a web page which then contains BTL advertisements. The technique used to tempt the player into visiting the intended URL varies from game to game. In games like Pikmin 2, the player is given a cryptic message with an accompanying URL designed to pique their curiosity. In games such as Enter the Matrix, Year Zero, I Love Bees, and Lost Experience, URLs make up a part of the background of the game such that certain plot details can only be learned by following the link. The knowledge of such plot details are typically not required to complete the game, but deepen the game story-line for players who follow the links. Websites of this nature often lead players on to other links which again lead to further links, thus earning these games the label "link-chases". Although TTL advertising can be an enjoyable experience for players, excessive "link-chasing" can feel obstructive and discourage them from diving deeper into a game's story-line. In another form, the URL might be part of a stage where a player can see it but it does not affect the plot. For example, in Super Monkey Ball 2, there is a stage where you can see clearly written on an obstacle a URL and the stage's name is even the word URL. Industry impact Prevalence and efficacy In 2019, a survey conducted by deltaDNA found that 94% of free-to-play video game developers incorporate some form of in-game advertising. Among those, the most common type of advertisement were rewarded videos, which are videos that players can watch to earn in-game prizes. Rewarded videos are shown to be more effective than forced advertising; players are 23% more likely to buy products and 18% more likely to make in-app purchases when shown rewarded videos instead of forced advertising. The reaction to in-game advertising has been overall positive, with 73% of players being happy with ad-funded games. The effectiveness of advertising in video games is debated by scholars. Brand name recognition in sports game has been shown to be low among college students, although players did retain fragments of the brand names. Another study found that 35% of players could recall advertised brands in car racing games. Interactive in-game advertisements, such as brand products that are used in game, are shown to produce greater brand awareness and more positive brand attitudes than passively added advertisements, such as posters or billboards. Mobile Mobile in-game advertisements are advertisements within mobile games that lead the user to the website or installation page of the advertised product or software upon being clicked. Mobile gaming advertisements can take different forms, including banner ads, pop-up ads, video ads, and interactive ads. Banner ads will display on portions of the screen while the user continues to interact with the mobile game. Pop-up ads will display the advertisement on the entire mobile screen, typically disrupting gameplay; they appear between loading screens or when in-game milestones are completed, only allowing users to close the pop-up ad once a timer runs out. Video ads will display a video advertisement of the advertised products on the entire mobile screen. Interactive ads are a form of pop-up ad that allows the user to interact with the advertisement. For instance, Candy Crush Saga, a free-to-play mobile game, uses playable ads to advertise their game on other mobile applications and provide potential customers with a demo of their game. In 2019, mobile advertising contributed $39.9 billion in revenue to the mobile gaming industry. ESRB The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) assigns ratings based on a detailed questionnaire about the game's content and a gameplay clip provided by the publisher. Possible rating categories are "Everyone", "Everyone 10+", "Teen", "Mature 17+", and "Adults Only 18+". Ratings are supplemented with content descriptions, such as "Blood", "Partial Nudity", and "Use of Alcohol". All updates and downloadable content (DLC), including both static and dynamic in-game advertising, are expected to be compliant with the game's rating and descriptors, though DLC can be submitted for its own, independent rating if necessary. If any post-release content is determined to be incompatible with the rating of the base game, publishers are required to update all physical and digital displays of the rating. In the case of physical games, where it is difficult to make these modifications once a game has shipped, sanctions and fines may be levied on the publisher. The ESRB also includes an Advertising Review Council (ARC) that oversees the marketing of video games in the United States and Canada. Cross-promotion, including when a video game is promoted within another, falls under this umbrella. The ARC ensures that the game being advertised is accurately represented and is not being marketed toward parties below the suitable age range. Legislative developments Academic research The University of Bath's Institute for Policy Research researched the use of advergames in marketing to children in the United Kingdom. The report, published in June 2014, suggested that children as old as 15 did not recognize that advergames were adverts and had their food choices influenced without their conscious awareness. Based on these findings, the University called for "urgent government action to protect children from the subconscious effects of advergames." United States legislation Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act of 1998 (COPPA) directs the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to protect the personal data collected from children online. Operators of websites or online services are barred from handling the personal information of children under the age of 13 without verifiable consent from a parent or guardian. Restrictions apply to any website or online service that is targeted toward children or has knowledge that it is collecting data from children. Do Not Track Kids Acts Representatives Edward Markey [D-MA] and Joe Barton [R-TX] proposed the Do Not Track Kids Act of 2011 as an amendment to COPPA. The bill would have extended COPPA to prohibit companies from distributing personal and geolocation information knowingly collected from minors for use in targeted advertising. It also expands the restrictions enumerated in the act to both online and mobile applications, which had previously been omitted. Regarding his motivation for co-sponsoring the Act, Representative Barton reflected, "We have reached a troubling point in the state of the business when companies that conduct business online are so eager to make a buck, they resort to targeting our children." Since the death of the 2011 bill, Markey and Barton have continued to spawn similar Do Not Track Kids legislation in both chambers of Congress. These bills were proposed in 2013, 2015, and 2018, though none of them passed through the committee stage. Targeted advergame marketing A bill was recently introduced in the Senate that proposes restrictions on the use of information obtained through advergames to market to children. Some games ask users to provide personal information, such as name, gender, and age, then display targeted advertisements based on these characteristics. This bill would prevent companies from using this information to change the game to target certain age brackets. Examples Food and beverages Mattel's M Network division released the "promogame" Kool-Aid Man for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision in 1983. The game was originally available only via mail order by sending in UPC symbols from Kool-Aid containers, but later became available for retail purchase. Purina had a mail-in offer for the Atari 2600 game Chase the Chuck Wagon for customers of Chuck Wagon dog food in 1983. Johnson & Johnson released an Atari 2600 game called Tooth Protectors in 1983, also by mail-order. In 1999, Pepsiman was released by developer KID in only Japan for the PlayStation. It focuses the player on avoiding obstacles to save dehydrated people by bringing them a can of Pepsi. In November 2006, Burger King began selling three advergaming Xbox and Xbox 360 titles for an additional $3.99 ($4.99 in Canada) each with any value meal. Known as the King Games series, these games include Sneak King (Xbox, 2006), PocketBike Racer (Xbox, 2006), and Big Bumpin' (Xbox 360, 2006). They were all developed by Blitz Games' Blitz Arcade Division and were the best selling games of the 2006 holiday season. More than 3.2 million copies are believed to have been sold in the US and Canada alone. Life Savers launched the web's first major advergaming portal, Candystand, in March 1997. The website was acquired from the Wrigley Company by Funtank in August 2008 and hosts advergames for a broad range of brands. Doritos sponsored the advergame Doritos Crash Course, which was released on the Xbox 360 in December 2010. The game included fifteen 2.5D obstacle courses for the player's Xbox Avatar to navigate. The game's sequel, Doritos Crash Course 2, was released on Xbox Live Arcade in May 2013. In 2011, Sony Interactive Entertainment and Subway launched an ad campaign that allowed players to access the multiplayer mode of Uncharted 3 a month prior to its release date. Players could earn in-game items such as a Subway uniform or sandwich. The main character of the Uncharted series also explicitly references the Subway five dollar footlong. In 2019, Sony Interactive Entertainment and Monster Energy launched an ad campaign in the PlayStation 4 title Death Stranding, in which the protagonist is able to consume the energy drink for a boost to their stamina meter. Movies and entertainment Cineplex Entertainment features an advergame open to the public, known as Top Popper during non-contest periods and Peel and Pop during contest periods. In the cinemas, there is a TimePlay advergame that plays before the show. Fortnite and Marvel Entertainment teamed up in 2018 to promote Avengers: Infinity War by bringing Thanos, the film's antagonist, into the battle royale game. A limited-time game mode allowed one player at a time to become Thanos, giving them several new abilities and a regenerating shield. Cross-franchise promotion Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games (2007) was a collaboration between Nintendo and Sega that put their mascots head-to-head in a series of Olympic events. The game was developed for both the Nintendo Wii and the Nintendo 3DS and received several sequels. In 2019, Nintendo announced a collaboration with Microsoft to debut the tag team of Banjo and Kazooie as a playable fighter in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. Players can add the duo to their roster by purchasing it as DLC. Miscellaneous BMW's BMW M3 Challenge (online, 2008) includes both ATL- and BTL-form advergaming. BMW worked with 10tacle Studios to repurpose the GT Legends game, a race simulation game, to showcase the 2008 BMW M3. In 2008, President Obama's campaign paid for billboard ads in the online game Burnout Paradise to promote his presidential bid. Adventurize.com launched the first advertising network to display ads inside of Minecraft servers in 2013. In 2014, Nintendo partnered with Mercedes-Benz to bring some of the automaker's cars to Mario Kart 8 as drivable vehicles via a DLC pack. In 2014 and 2015, British games retailer Game released a pair of advergames, Christmas Shopper Simulator and Christmas Shopper Simulator 2: Black Friday, to coincide with the Christmas shopping season. In 2017, Square Enix and Nissin Foods partnered to launch an ad campaign to bring Cup Noodle branded DLC to Final Fantasy 15. Some items included Cup Noodle hats for characters to wear and a giant fork to be used as a weapon. Players can find a Cup Noodles truck embedded in the game where they can unlock a Cup Noodle recipe. See also In-game advertising Game advertising Interactive advertising Massive Incorporated Recruitment tool Product placement References Advergaming Advergames Advergaming companies Video game types Propaganda techniques by medium

424547

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullmetal%20Alchemist

Fullmetal Alchemist

is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Hiromu Arakawa. It was serialized in Square Enix's shōnen manga anthology magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan between July 2001 and June 2010; the publisher later collected the individual chapters in 27 tankōbon volumes. The steampunk world of Fullmetal Alchemist is primarily styled after the European Industrial Revolution. Set in the early 20th century, in a fictional universe in which alchemy is a widely practiced science, the series follows the journey of two alchemist brothers, Edward and Alphonse Elric, who are searching for the philosopher's stone to restore their bodies after a failed attempt to bring their mother back to life using alchemy. Fullmetal Alchemist has been adapted into various animetwo television series, released in 2003 and 2009, and two films, released in 2005 and 2011, all animated by Bonesas well as light novels. The series has generated original video animations (OVAs), video games, supplementary books, a collectible card game, and a variety of action figures and other merchandise. A live-action film based on the series was released in 2017, and two sequels in 2022. In North America, the manga was localized and published in English by Viz Media. Yen Press has the rights for the digital release of the volumes since 2014. The manga has sold over 80 million volumes worldwide, making it one of the best-selling manga series. It received the 49th Shogakukan Manga Award for the shōnen category in 2004, the UK's Eagle Award for favorite manga in 2010 and 2011, and the Seiun Award for best science fiction comic in 2011. Reviewers from several media outlets positively critiqued the series, particularly for its character development, action scenes, symbolism, and philosophical references. Synopsis Setting Fullmetal Alchemist takes place in the fictional country of . In this world, alchemy is one of the most-practiced sciences; alchemists who work for the government are known as and are automatically given the rank of major in the military. Alchemists have the ability, with the help of patterns called transmutation circles, to create almost anything they desire. However, when they do so, they must provide something of equal value in accordance with the Law of Equivalent Exchange. The only things alchemists are forbidden from transmuting are humans and gold. There has never been a successful human transmutation; those who attempt it lose a part of their body, and the result is an inhuman mass. Attemptees are confronted by , a pantheistic and semi-cerebral God-like being who tauntingly regulates all alchemy use, and whose nigh-featureless appearance is relative to the person with whom Truth converses; it is frequently claimed and believed that Truth is a personal God who punishes the arrogant. Attemptees of human transmutation are also thrown into the , where they receive an overwhelming dose of information, but also allowing them to transmute without a circle. All living things possess their own Gate of Truth, and per the Gaea hypothesis, heavenly bodies like planets also have their own Gates of Truth. It is possible to bypass the Law of Equivalent Exchange using a Philosopher's Stone, a red, enigmatic substance. Philosopher's Stones are used to create Homunculi, artificial humans of proud nature who are named after and embody the seven deadly sins; Homunculi have numerous superhuman abilities unique among each other, and look down upon all humanity. With the exception of one, they do not age and can only be killed via the destruction of their Philosopher's Stones. There are several cities throughout Amestris. The main setting is the capital of , along with other military cities such as the northern city of . Towns featured include , the rural hometown of the Elrics; , a city tricked into following a cult; , a town that specializes in automail manufacturing; and Ishbal, a conservative-religion region that rejects alchemy and was destroyed in the Ishbalan Civil War instigated after a soldier shot an Ishbalan child. Outside of Amestris, there are few named countries, and none are seen in the main story. The main foreign country is Xing. Heavily reminiscent of China, Xing has a complex system of clans and emperors, as opposed to Amestris's government-controlled election of a Führer. It also has its own system of alchemy, called , which is more medical and can be bi-located using kunai; in turn, it is implied that all countries have different forms of alchemy. Plot Edward and Alphonse Elric live in Resembool with their mother Trisha and father Van Hohenheim. For unknown reasons, Hohenheim abandons them, and Trisha soon dies from an illness. After finishing their alchemy training under Izumi Curtis, the Elrics attempt to bring their mother back with alchemy. But the transmutation backfires, and Edward loses his left leg while Alphonse is completely deconstructed. Edward sacrifices his right arm to retrieve Alphonse's soul, binding it to a suit of armor. Edward is invited by Roy Mustang to become a State Alchemist and research a way to restore their bodies, undergoing a painful medical procedure that grants him prosthetic automail limbs. Edward becomes a State Alchemist, with the title of Fullmetal Alchemist. The Elrics spend the next three years searching for the Philosopher's Stone to achieve their goals. The Elrics are eventually attacked by an Ishbalan serial killer known as Scar, who targets State Alchemists in revenge for his people's genocide in the Ishbalan civil war. Returning to Resembool to have Edward's limbs repaired by their childhood friend and mechanic, Winry Rockbell, the Elrics meet Dr. Marcoh, who provides them with clues to learn that a Philosopher's Stone is created from human souls. They investigate a laboratory in which the Stones were created, but are hindered by the Homunculi. The Elrics decide to visit Izumi, hoping to improve their alchemy. Mustang's friend Maes Hughes continues the Elrics' research and finds out about a government conspiracy, but is killed by the homunculus Envy. The Elrics learn that Izumi also performed human transmutation, having attempted to use alchemy to revive her stillborn child. Alphonse is captured by the homunculus Greed, but is rescued by Amestris' leader King Bradley. Bradley is revealed to be the homunculus Wrath and brings the captured Greed to the Homunculi's creator, Father. When Greed refuses to rejoin his fellow Homunculi, he is reabsorbed by Father. After meeting the Xingese prince Lin Yao, who seeks a Philosopher's Stone to cement his position as heir to his country's throne, the Elrics return to Central City, where they learn of Hughes's murder. Lieutenant Maria Ross is framed for Hughes' murder, so Mustang fakes Ross's death and smuggles her out of the country. In encounters with the Homunculi, Mustang kills Lust. Lin captures Gluttony, who swallows Lin, Edward, and Envy into his void-like stomach. They escape from Gluttony's stomach after he takes Alphonse to meet Father, who makes Lin the vessel of Greed. Mustang tries to expose Bradley to the government but finds that the higher officials are complicit in Father's plans. The Elrics and Mustang are released, but warned not to oppose Father, who seeks to use them as "human sacrifices". Meanwhile, Scar heads north with the Xingese princess May Chang, fires the corrupt official Yoki, and kidnaps Dr. Marcoh. The Elrics head north as well, and reach Fort Briggs, commanded by General Olivier Armstrong. They confront the homunculus Sloth and learn that Father founded Amestris to amass enough population to create a massive Philosopher's Stone. With it, he can achieve godhood by absorbing the being beyond the Gate of Truth on the "Promised Day". Forced to work with Solf Kimblee, a murderous former State Alchemist and ally of the Homunculi, the Elrics turn on him and split up, joined by a reformed Scar, his group, Kimblee's chimera subordinates, and later Lin/Greed. Riza Hawkeye discovers that King Bradley's son Selim is the homunculus Pride. Hohenheim reveals that he was made an immortal when Father arranged the fall of Cselkcess four centuries ago and had been working since then to stop Father. The Promised Day arrives, with Father planning to use an eclipse and ‘human sacrifices’ — alchemists who have performed human transmutation — to trigger the transmutation, with Wrath and Pride forcing Mustang to perform human transmutation to make him a sacrifice. The Elrics and their comrades battle Father's minions, with Kimblee and almost all of the Homunculi dying. However, Father manages to activate the nationwide transmutation circle and absorbs the superior being. Hohenheim and Scar activate countermeasures, draining much of Father's absorbed souls, and rendering him unstable. The Elrics and their comrades face Father in a final battle, in which Greed sacrifices himself to protect Lin. Alphonse, his armor almost destroyed, sacrifices his soul to restore Edward's right arm. Edward defeats Father, who is dragged into the Gate of Truth, from which he was created. Edward sacrifices his ability to perform alchemy to fully restore Alphonse from an impressed Truth, while Lin receives a Philosopher's Stone. Hohenheim goes to visit Trisha's grave, where he dies peacefully. The Elrics return home and separate two years later to further research alchemy. Years later, Edward and Winry marry and have two children. Production Development After reading about the concept of the Philosopher's Stone, Arakawa became attracted to the idea of her characters using alchemy in the manga. She started reading books about alchemy, which she found complicated because some books contradict others. Arakawa was attracted more by the philosophical aspects than the practical ones. For the concept, she was inspired by the work of her parents, who had a farm in Hokkaido and worked hard to earn the money to eat. Arakawa wanted to integrate social problems into the story. Her research involved watching television news programs and talking to refugees, war veterans and former yakuza. Several plot elements, such as Pinako Rockbell caring for the Elric brothers after their mother dies, and the brothers helping people to understand the meaning of family, expand on these themes. When creating the fictional world of Fullmetal Alchemist, Arakawa was inspired after reading about the Industrial Revolution in Europe; she was amazed by differences in the culture, architecture, and clothes of the era and those of her own culture. She was especially interested in England during this period and incorporated these ideas into the manga. The series has a steampunk setting. The Ishbal region has similarities to the Middle East, with the plot anticipating elements of the Iraq War which later occurred in the real world. When the manga began serialization, Arakawa was considering several major plot points, including the ending. She wanted the Elric brothers to recover their bodiesat least partly. As the plot continued, she thought that some characters were maturing and decided to change some scenes. Arakawa said the manga authors Suihō Tagawa and Hiroyuki Eto are her main inspirations for her character designs; she describes her artwork as a mix of both of them. She found that the easiest of the series's characters to draw were Alex Louis Armstrong, and the little animals. Arakawa likes dogs so she included several of them in the story. Arakawa made comedy central to the manga's story because she thinks it is intended for entertainment, and tried to minimize sad scenes. Conclusion When around forty manga chapters had been published, Arakawa said that as the series was nearing its end and she would try to increase the pace of the narrative. To avoid making some chapters less entertaining than others, unnecessary details from each of them were removed and a climax was developed. The removal of minor details was also necessary because Arakawa had too few pages in Monthly Shōnen Gangan to include all the story content she wanted to add. Some characters' appearances were limited in some chapters. At first, Arakawa thought the series would last 21 volumes but the length increased to 27. Serialization finished after nine years, and Arakawa was satisfied with her work because she had told everything she wanted with the manga. During the development of the first anime, Arakawa allowed the anime staff to work independently from her and requested a different ending from that of the manga. She said that she would not like to repeat the same ending in both media, and wanted to make the manga longer so she could develop the characters. When watching the ending of the anime, she was amazed about how different the homunculi creatures were from the manga and enjoyed how the staff speculated about the origins of the villains. Because Arakawa helped the Bones staff in the making of the series, she was kept from focusing on the manga's cover illustrations and had little time to make them. Themes and analysis The series explores social problems, including discrimination, scientific advancement, political greed, brotherhood, family, and war. Scar's backstory and his hatred of the state military references the Ainu people, who had their land taken by other people. This includes the consequences of guerrilla warfare and the number of violent soldiers a military can have. Some of the people who took the Ainus' land were originally Ainu; this irony is referenced in Scar's use of alchemy to kill alchemists even though it was forbidden in his own religion. The Elrics being orphans and adopted by Pinako Rockbell reflects Arakawa's beliefs about the ways society should treat orphans. The characters' dedication to their occupations reference the need to work for food. The series also explores the concept of equivalent exchange; to obtain something new, one must pay with something of equal value. This is applied by alchemists when creating new materials and is also a philosophical belief the Elric brothers follow. Publication Written and drawn by Hiromu Arakawa, Fullmetal Alchemist was serialized in Square Enix's monthly manga magazine Monthly Shōnen Gangan. Its first installment was published in the magazine's August 2001 issue on July 12, 2001. The series finished with the 108th installment in the July 2010 issue of Monthly Shōnen Gangan, published on June 11, 2010. A side-story was published in the same magazine on September 11, 2010. In the July 2011 issue of the same magazine, the prototype version of the manga was published. Square Enix compiled the chapters in 27 tankōbon volumes, released from January 22, 2002, to November 22, 2010. A few chapters have been re-released in Japan in two "Extra number" magazines and Fullmetal Alchemist, The First Attack, which features the first nine chapters of the manga and other side stories. Square Enix republished the series in 18 kanzenban volumes, from June 22, 2011, to September 22, 2012. In North America, Viz Media licensed the series for an English language release in North America and published the 27 volumes between May 3, 2005, and December 20, 2011. From June 7, 2011, to November 11, 2014, Viz Media published the series in an omnibus format, featuring three volumes in one. In April 2014, Yen Press announced the rights for the digital release of the volumes in North America, and on December 12, 2016, has released the series on the ComiXology website. Viz Media published the 18-volume kanzenban edition, as Fullmetal Alchemist: Fullmetal Edition, from May 8, 2018, to August 23, 2022. Other English localizations were done by Madman Entertainment for Australasia and Chuang Yi in Singapore. The series has been also localized in Polish, French, Portuguese, Italian, and Korean. Related media Anime series Fullmetal Alchemist was adapted into two separate anime series for television: a loose anime adaption with a mostly original story titled Fullmetal Alchemist in 2003–2004, and a retelling that faithfully adapts the original manga in 2009–2010 titled Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood. Theatrical films Animation Two feature-length anime films were produced; Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie: Conqueror of Shamballa, a sequel/conclusion to the 2003 series, and Fullmetal Alchemist: The Sacred Star of Milos, set during the time period of Brotherhood. Live-action A live-action film based on the manga was released on November 19, 2017. Fumihiko Sori directed the film. The film stars Ryosuke Yamada as Edward Elric, Tsubasa Honda as Winry Rockbell and Dean Fujioka as Roy Mustang. The sequels and were released on May 20 and June 24, 2022, respectively. They became available on Netflix on 20 August and 24 September respectively. Light novels Square Enix has published a series of six Fullmetal Alchemist Japanese light novels, written by Makoto Inoue and illustrationsincluding covers and frontispiecesby Arakawa. The novels were licensed for an English-language release by Viz Media in North America, with translations of the first five by Alexander O. Smith. The novels are spin-offs of the manga series and follow the Elric brothers on their continued quest for the philosopher's stone. The first novel, Fullmetal Alchemist: The Land of Sand, was animated as episodes eleven and twelve of the first anime series. The fourth novel contains an extra story about the military called "Roy's Holiday". Novelizations of the PlayStation 2 games Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel, Curse of the Crimson Elixir, and The Girl Who Succeeds God have also been written, the first by Makoto Inoue and the rest by Jun Eishima. Two Wii games, Prince of the Dawn and Daughter of the Dusk, were also novelized in one volume by Sōji Machida. Audio dramas There have been two series of Fullmetal Alchemist audio dramas. The first volume of the first series, , was released before the anime and tells a similar story to the first novel. The Tringham brothers reprised their anime roles. and are stories based on different manga chapters; their State Military characters are different from those in the anime. The second series of audio dramas, available only with purchases of Shōnen Gangan, consists of two stories in this series, each with two parts. The first, , was included in Shōnen Gangan April and May 2004 issues; the second story, , was issued in the November and December 2004 issues. Video games Video games based on Fullmetal Alchemist have been released. The storylines of the games often diverge from those of the anime and manga, and feature original characters. Square Enix has released three role-playing games (RPG)—Fullmetal Alchemist and the Broken Angel, Curse of the Crimson Elixir, and Kami o Tsugu Shōjo. Bandai has released two RPG titles, and , for the Game Boy Advance on March 25 and July 22, 2004, respectively, and one, Dual Sympathy, for the Nintendo DS. They also released an action game, for the PlayStation Portable in Japan on October 15, 2009, and in Australia and Europe on June 17 and July 1, 2010, respectively. In Japan, Bandai released an RPG for the PlayStation Portable on May 20, 2010. Bandai also released a fighting game, Dream Carnival, for the PlayStation 2. For the Wii, was released in Japan on August 13, 2009. A direct sequel of the game, , was released by Square Enix on December 10, 2009, for the same console. For the 20th Anniversary of the series, Square Enix released Fullmetal Alchemist Mobile for iOS and Android devices on August 4, 2022. Of the twelve games made in Japan, Broken Angel, Curse of the Crimson Elixir, Dual Sympathy and Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood have seen international releases. Arakawa oversaw the story and designed the characters for the RPG games, while Bonesthe studio responsible for the anime seriesproduced several animation sequences. The developers looked at other titlesspecifically Square Enix's action role-playing game Kingdom Hearts and other games based on manga series, such as Dragon Ball, Naruto or One Piece gamesfor inspiration. The biggest challenge was to make a "full-fledged" game rather than a simple character-based one. Tomoya Asano, the assistant producer for the games, said that development took more than a year, unlike most character-based games. Funimation licensed the franchise to create a new series of Fullmetal Alchemist-related video games to be published by Destineer in the United States. Destineer released its first Fullmetal Alchemist game for the Nintendo DS, a translation of Bandai's Dual Sympathy, on December 15, 2006, and said that they plan to release further titles. On February 19, 2007, Destineer announced the second game in its Fullmetal Alchemist series, Fullmetal Alchemist: Trading Card Game, based on the trading card game of the series, which was released on October 15 of that same year for the Nintendo DS, in North America only. The massively multiplayer online role-playing game MapleStory received special in-game items based on the second anime series in 2010. Art and guidebooks The Fullmetal Alchemist has received several artbooks. Three artbooks called were released by Square Enix; two of those were released in the US by Viz Media. The first artbook contains illustrations made between May 2001 to April 2003, spanning the first six manga volumes, while the second has illustrations from September 2003 to October 2005, spanning the next six volumes. The last one includes illustrations from the remaining volumes. The manga also has three guidebooks; each of them contains timelines, guides to the Elric brothers' journey, and gaiden chapters that were never released in manga volumes. Only the first guidebook was released by Viz Media, titled Fullmetal Alchemist Profiles. A guidebook titled , which contains post-manga story information, was released in Japan on July 29, 2011. Merchandise Action figures, busts, and statues from the Fullmetal Alchemist anime and manga have been produced by toy companies, including Medicom and Southern Island. Medicom has created high end deluxe vinyl figures of the characters from the anime. These figures are exclusively distributed in the United States and UK by Southern Island. Southern Island released its own action figures of the main characters in 2007, and a 12" statuette was scheduled for release the same year. Southern Island has since gone bankrupt, putting the statuette's release in doubt. A trading card game was first published in 2005 in the United States by Joyride Entertainment. Six expansions have been released before the card game was withdrawn on July 11, 2007. Destineer released a Nintendo DS adaptation of the game on October 15, 2007. Reception Fullmetal Alchemist was one of the Manga Division's Jury Recommended Works at the 8th and 11th installments of Japan Media Arts Festival in 2004 and 2007, respectively. Along with Yakitate!! Japan, the series won the 49th Shogakukan Manga Award for the shōnen category in 2004. It won the public voting for Eagle Award's "Favourite Manga" in 2010 and 2011. The series won the "Shonen Tournament 2009" by the editorial staff of the French website manga-news. The manga also received the 42nd Seiun Award for best science fiction comic in 2011. Arakawa also received the New Artist Prize in the fifteenth Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prizes for the manga series in 2011. Fullmetal Alchemist ranked third on the first annual Tsutaya Comic Awards' All-Time Best Section in 2017. The manga was nominated for the Grand Prize of the 10th Sense of Gender Award in 2010. In a survey from Oricon in 2009, Fullmetal Alchemist ranked ninth as the manga that fans wanted to be turned into a live-action film. The series is also popular with amateur writers who produce dōjinshi (fan fiction) that borrows characters from the series. In the Japanese market Super Comic City, there have been over 1,100 dōjinshi based on Fullmetal Alchemist, some of which focused on romantic interactions between Edward Elric and Roy Mustang. Anime News Network said the series had the same impact in Comiket 2004 as several female fans were seen there writing dōjinshi. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150,000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Fullmetal Alchemist ranked ninth. Sales The series has become one of Square Enix's best-performing properties, along with Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest. With the release of volume 27, the manga sold over 50 million copies in Japan. By January 10, 2010, every volume of the manga has sold over a million copies each in Japan. Square Enix reported that the series had sold 70.3 million copies worldwide by April 25, 2018, 16.4 million of those outside Japan. By July 2021, the manga had 80 million copies in circulation worldwide. The series is also one of Viz Media's best sellers, appearing in "BookScan's Top 20 Graphic Novels" and the "USA Today Booklist". It was featured in the Diamond Comic Distributors' polls of graphic novels and The New York Times Best Seller Manga list. The English release of the manga's first volume was the top-selling graphic novel during 2005. During 2008, volumes 19 and 20 sold over a million copies, ranking as the tenth and eleventh best seller comics in Japan respectively. In the first half of 2009, it ranked as the seventh best-seller in Japan, having sold over 3 million copies. Volume 21 ranked fourth, with more than a million copies sold and volume 22 ranked sixth with a similar number of sold copies. Producer Kouji Taguchi of Square Enix said that Volume 1's initial sales were 150,000 copies; this grew to 1.5 million copies after the first anime aired. Prior to the second anime's premiere, each volume sold about 1.9 million copies, and then it changed to 2.1 million copies. Critical response Fullmetal Alchemist has generally been well received by critics. Though the first volumes were thought to be formulaic, critics said that the series grows in complexity as it progresses. Jason Thompson called Arakawa one of the best at creating action scenes and praised the series for having great female characters despite being a boys' manga. He also noted how the story gets dark by including real-world issues such as government corruption, war and genocide. Thompson finished by stating that Fullmetal Alchemist "will be remembered as one of the classic shonen manga series of the 2000s." Melissa Harper of Anime News Network praised Arakawa for keeping all of her character designs unique and distinguishable, despite many of them wearing the same basic uniforms. IGN's Hilary Goldstein wrote that the characterization of Edward balances between being a "typical clever kid" and a "stubborn kid", allowing him to float between the comical moments and the underlying drama without seeming false. Holly Ellingwood for Active Anime praised the development of the characters in the manga and their beliefs changing during the story, forcing them to mature. Mania Entertainment's Jarred Pine said that the manga can be enjoyed by anybody who has watched the first anime, despite the similarities in the first chapters. Like other reviewers, Pine praised the dark mood of the series and the way it balances the humor and action scenes. Pine also praised the development of characters who have few appearances in the first anime. In a review of volume 14, Sakura Eriesalso of Mania Entertainmentliked the revelations, despite the need to resolve several story arcs. She also praised the development of the homunculi, such as the return of Greed, as well as their fights. See also List of Square Enix manga franchises List of Square Enix video game franchises References External links Official Gangan Online Fullmetal Alchemist homepage (in Japanese) Official Gangan Fullmetal Alchemist manga and novel website Fullmetal Alchemist 2001 manga 2003 Japanese novels 2010 comics endings Adventure anime and manga Anime and manga about revenge Anime and manga set in a fictional country Comics set in a fictional country Coming-of-age anime and manga Dark fantasy anime and manga Fiction about alchemy Fiction about government Gangan Comics manga Genocide in fiction Light novels Madman Entertainment manga Manga adapted into films Military anime and manga Philosophical anime and manga Prosthetics in fiction Seven deadly sins in popular culture Shōnen manga Square Enix franchises Steampunk anime and manga Viz Media manga Viz Media novels War in anime and manga Winner of Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize (New Artist Prize) Winners of the Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen manga Works about brothers Yen Press titles

424580

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumbling%20Hearts

Rumbling Hearts

, or Kiminozo for short, is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Âge and released on August 3, 2001, for Windows. It was later ported to the Dreamcast and PlayStation 2. The gameplay in Kimi ga Nozomu Eien follows a branching plot line which offers pre-determined scenarios with courses of interaction, and focuses on the appeal of the eight female main characters by the player character. The game was adapted into a 14-episode anime television series, which aired between October 2003 and January 2004. Funimation licensed and distributed the anime in North America under the title Rumbling Hearts. The series was also licensed for release by Revelation Films in the United Kingdom and Madman Entertainment in Australia and New Zealand, under the title Rumbling Hearts: Kiminozo. It was one of the first anime shows to be officially made available for the iPod through the iTunes Store and is also available through Microsoft's Xbox Live Marketplace. A four-episode OVA series called Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Next Season was released between December 2007 and December 2008. The OVA series follows an alternate ending that centers around Haruka. Gameplay Kimi ga Nozomu Eien is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Takayuki Narumi. Its gameplay requires little player interaction as much of the game's duration is spent on reading the text that appears on the screen, which represents the story's narrative and dialogue. The text is accompanied by character sprites, which represent who Takayuki is talking to, over background art. Throughout the game, the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story, which take the place of the background art and character sprites. When the game is completed at least once, a gallery of the viewed CGs becomes available on the game's title screen. Kimi ga Nozomu Eien follows a branching plot line with multiple endings, and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game, the plot will progress in a specific direction. There are eight main plot lines that the player will have the chance to experience, one for each heroine. Every so often, the player will come to a point where he or she is given the chance to choose from multiple options. Text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made. To view all plot lines in their entirety, the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction. The game is divided into two chapters, with the first one revolving around the events leading up to August 20 and the second chapter set three years later. It is in the second chapter that the game allows the player to choose to pursue one of the eight heroines and also has endings if the player chooses to pursue more than one of the girls at the same time. The updated version for Windows Vista, Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Latest Edition, contains a third chapter. The original Windows edition has 14 endings, and the DVD version for Windows has two additional bad endings. In the adult versions of the game, there are scenes with sexual CGs depicting Takayuki and a given heroine having sex. Later, the consumer port versions were released without the adult content. Plot Kimi ga Nozomu Eiens story revolves around the main protagonist Takayuki Narumi, a male high school student. The first chapter, which takes place between July 6 and August 20, 1998, serves as a prologue to the second chapter. Takayuki is set up with Haruka Suzumiya by their friends Mitsuki Hayase and Shinji Taira. Takayuki ends up in bed with a nude sprawled out Haruka, but their relationship is not consummated due to performance anxiety. Mitsuki stops Takayuki on her birthday and has him buy her a ring, which results in him being late for his date with Haruka. At the end of the chapter, caused by Takayuki not being able to arrive in time, Haruka ends up in a coma because of an accident. In chapter two, during the three years since the accident, Mitsuki has been taking care of Takayuki and they have formed a relationship. Takayuki has also taken a part-time job at the Daikuuji (Sky Temple) family restaurant. Haruka's sister contacts Takayuki to tell him that Haruka has come out of her coma and is asking to see him. Characters As the protagonist, Takayuki Narumi meets Haruka a year before Mitsuki sets them up during their third year of high school. When he witnesses the still fresh pool of blood next to Haruka's bloodied hair ribbons lying among the shattered glass of the phone booth, Later in the story, he works at a restaurant chain owned by the Sky Temple financial group called "The Family Restaurant", after having regressed in his studies resulting from the accident. In Haruka's absence, he gradually begins to develop a relationship with Mitsuki. In the game the player assumes this role and can choose to pursue and end up with most of the female characters. Being a shy, timid girl, Haruka is set up with Takayuki by her friend, Mitsuki, while she is in high school. The two quickly become close, and develop an intimate relationship. She is involved in a serious accident and ends up in a coma. The main thrust of the story begins when she awakens three years later. She is afflicted with anterograde amnesia, and because of her delicate psyche, her family and Takayuki conceal the truth that three years have passed, which forms much of the tension in the series. Mitsuki is friends with both Takayuki and Haruka, but secretly she has feelings for Takayuki. In high school she was a competitive swimmer, but shortly after Haruka's accident, she finds herself leaving swimming to tend to Takayuki. She finally reveals her feelings to Takayuki. Haruka's younger sister initially treats both Takayuki and Mitsuki as older siblings until she finds out they have been seeing each other behind the comatose Haruka's back. While Haruka is in hospital, she visits her every day. She, like Mitsuki, is a competitive swimmer, but feels as if she can never match Mitsuki, who she initially looks up to. Later, there are hints given that Akane feels something more for Takayuki, but these are not explored fully in the anime television series. Although being friends with Takayuki, Haruka and Mitsuki in high school, he drifts off from the group after graduation. However, he becomes an important character towards the end of the series. He sometimes presents a counter-balance to the drama of the rest of the characters, as his relationship with his girlfriend (who remains off-screen) seems to be going well. (Ayu) (Mayu) They are two waitresses who work at the same restaurant as Takayuki. Ayu is the surly daughter of the chief executive officer of the "Sky Temple" financial group, who owns and operates the restaurant chain. As such, she is permitted to work at the restaurant as part of a market study by the financial group on the condition she does not reveal her identity. She works in order to experience society. Mayu is a soft-spoken but well-meaning klutz who has lost her parents and older brother. While serving as love interests in the game, they provide the only comic relief in the anime. After the credits of several episodes in the anime television series, a 30-second short known as the "Ayu-Mayu Theater" shows them in a comical situation totally irrelevant to the main story with all characters super deformed. (Hotaru) (Fumio) (Manami) They are three nurses at the hospital. Hotaru and Fumio attended nursing school together and are very close friends. Hotaru Amakawa suffers from a terminal illness that stopped her physical development so that she looks like a very young girl. She is often referred to as "Fumio's child", as Hotaru has a very child like stature whereas Fumio has a very curvy and maternal stature. The two are inseparable. Manami, the green-haired nurse, is a student nurse who attended the same high school as Takayuki. Manami has a very strong mothering instinct with a desire to take care of people, hence her chosen profession. In the game, Manami is introduced in the first chapter and also is in love with Takayuki, but is also too shy to express her feelings for him. All three nurses are potential love interests in the game. The original Manami ending was so disturbing that fans wrote to the company calling to change it; DVD and PS2 versions of the game have a new ending for her route. In the anime, Manami's role is reduced to one line and several silent cameos. Hotaru is given several short scenes in the hospital, where she drops many sexual innuendos into her conversations with Takayuki. She is the doctor in charge of Haruka. She is the elder sister of Mitsuko Kōzuki from Kimi ga Ita Kisetsu and Yūko Kōzuki from Muv-Luv. Development and release Kimi ga Nozomu Eien is the fourth visual novel developed by Âge. The producer and head planner for Kimi ga Nozomu Eien was Hirohiko Yoshida, the executive director of Acid, the publishing company that Âge is under. The scenario was written by three people: Hayato Tashiro (under the name Kichikujin Tam), Ai Shibuya (under the name Maro Guts), and Hokuto Matsunaga (under the name Hanjūryoku Seimei Maa). Art direction and character design was done by Kai Sugihara (under the name Baka Ōji Persia). The music in the game was produced by Lantis and composed by Abito Watarai. Kimi ga Nozomu Eien was released as an adult game on August 3, 2001, playable on Windows PC as a CD-ROM. It was re-released as a DVD on July 25, 2003, under the title Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: DVD Specification. The Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Special FanDisk released on June 25, 2004 contains , a retelling of the first chapter of the game allowing for greater control over Takayuki's actions in the first chapter. The player is now allowed to prevent the accident or end up with someone else altogether. It also includes a collection of short stories featuring the game's various characters, a game version of True Lies from the Kimi ga Nozomu Eien Drama Theater vol. 4 Radio Special, the radio special, a parody of Muv-Luv Extra featuring Kimi ga Nozomu Eiens characters called , and a version of the puzzle game . A Vista-enhanced edition titled Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Latest Edition was released on March 28, 2008. In addition to being built on an improved game engine and featuring improved graphics, the re-release also included the story content of the Special FanDisk and an all-new third chapter for selected heroines. An English version is in development. The first consumer port of the game was released for the Dreamcast on September 26, 2002, by Alchemist. A PlayStation 2 port by Princess Soft was released on May 1, 2003, under the title Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Rumbling Hearts. Adaptations Print media Two novels based on the visual novel, written by Mariko Shizimu, were published by Paradigm in February and April 2002. Three novels based on the anime adaptation, written by Kenji Nojima, were published by Media Factory between March and May 2004. An artbook for the visual novel titled Âge Official Kimi ga Nozomu Eien Memorial Art Book was published by MediaWorks on November 8, 2002. An artbook for the anime titled Kimi ga Nozomu Eien Visual Complete was published by Media Factory in April 2004. A picture book titled , written by Ann Margaret Sawyer and illustrated by Teruyo Miyazaki, was published by Media Factory on March 25, 2004. A second picture book titled , written and illustrated by Haruka Murakami, was published by Media Factory on September 25, 2004. Radio shows An original radio drama of Kimi ga Nozomu Eien aired on the radio program from July to December 2002 on Radio Osaka and NCB. Four CD compilation volumes of the radio drama titled were released between October 30, 2001, and December 22, 2002. A radio show titled to promote the anime aired 13 episodes from July 2 to September 24, 2003, on Radio Osaka and TBS Radio. A radio show titled aired 78 episodes from October 4, 2003, to March 26, 2005, on Radio Osaka and TBS Radio. Kiminozo Radio became an Internet radio show on April 1, 2005, and broadcast until December 28, 2007, spanning 144 episodes. Additional Internet radio shows followed under the Kiminozo Radio name included: , which aired 45 episodes between January 11, 2008, and January 5, 2009; , which aired 23 episodes between January 25 and June 27, 2008; and , which aired 12 episodes between July 4 and September 26, 2008. Anime An anime television series based on the game which was animated and produced by Studio Fantasia first aired across Japan from October 5, 2003 to January 4, 2004. The plot consists of a blend of multiple storylines from the game, mostly the Mitsuki route with a bit of Haruka's route mixed with elements from the Akane route. The general fate of Amakawa is also disclosed through one scene between Fumio and Takayuki with a line by Fumio at the end of the final episode indicating she died. Manami is limited to one line at the very end and several dialogueless cameos. Materials not included in the game, due to its perspective being in first person, such as depictions of Mitsuki having sex with Shinji (in certain routes) and Haruka telling Mitsuki that she has a crush on Takayuki while walking home, are also included. The anime was later licensed for American distribution by Funimation Entertainment under the title Rumbling Hearts: Kiminozo. It was originally released in three DVD volumes between December 2006 and March 2007, and was later re-released in a box set in August 2007. The writers for the English dub of the anime in the North American release received a mixed reception for taking a liberal approach while producing the script. This resulted in an interpretive script, which at several points reworks the dialogue. By contrast, the writers for the subtitle script in the North American release produced a script which is more faithful in its translation, going as far as including honorifics. In addition to the differences in dialogue, there is also a marked difference in the displayed level of affect between the Japanese and English voicework, though both were generally well received. For the most part, Takayuki's Japanese voice actor portrays him as severely emotionally numbed (dissociated), consistent with PTSD (one of the major themes). The English voice actor does not perform the role this way. A four-episode original video animation (OVA) series, animated by Brain's Base and distributed by Bandai Visual, was released between December 21, 2007, and December 19, 2008, on DVD in regular and limited editions. The limited editions contained a bonus CD soundtrack with each DVD and a different cover artwork. The story of the OVAs follows Haruka's route, in contrast to the TV series' modified version of Mitsuki's route. Haruka Suzumiya awakens after a three-year coma. Time has deprived her of many important things, but one still remains: her love for Takayuki Narumi. They visit various places they remember, as if to recover the time that was lost. However, there is one place they refuse to visit: the phone booth in front of the Hiiragi-cho station, where Haruka had her accident three years ago. A comedy ONA titled Ayumayu Gekijou that was broadcast from September to December 2006 on Kiminozo Radio's homepage with four episodes, and the remaining three episodes were included in the DVD, which was released in February 2007. The main characters are SD versions of Ayu and Mayu, and various other characters. Although it is technically a Kimi ga Nozomu Eien show, many characters and even a senjutsuki (type-00 Takemikazuchi, Meiya custom) from Muv-Luv show up. The series contains many references to Muv-Luv (for example, in the second episode, Ayu uses an S-11 SDS and Haruka is turned into a 00 Unit) and the fourth episode is more a parody of Muv-Luv Alternative. The series' main theme is by Uyamuya, while the song "Carry On" by Masaaki Endou is used as an insert song. Music Kimi ga Nozomu Eien has two pieces of theme music: one opening theme and one ending theme. The opening theme is "Rumbling hearts" by Minami Kuribayashi and the ending theme is by Rino. Four cold open theme songs were added in subsequent releases of the game: "Yours" by Kuribayashi for the Dreamcast port, by Kuribayashi for the PlayStation 2 port, "Blue tears" by Kuribayashi and Tomoko Ishibashi for Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: DVD Specification, and "Sweet Passion" by Kuribayashi for Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Latest Edition. The ending theme by CooRie was added for chapter three in Latest Edition. Kimi ga Nozomu Eien: Special Fandisk features four ending themes for the first chapter: Haruka's theme is by Kuribayashi, Mitsuki's theme is "Silver Ring" by Ishibashi, Akane's theme is "Innocence" by Tomomi Uehara, and the theme for the normal ending is "Rumbling Hearts" by Kuribayashi. The Rumbling Hearts anime television series has two main theme songs: the opening theme "Precious Memories", and the ending theme , which are both sung by Kuribayashi. Two additional songs by Kuribayashi were also used: "Kimi ga Nozomu Eien" as the ending theme of episode two, and as an insert song. The ending theme for episode 14 is "Rumbling Hearts" by Rino. For Rumbling Hearts: Next Season, the opening theme is "Next Season" and the ending theme is "Eternity"; both songs are sung by Kuribayashi. Reception and legacy On release, the video game magazine Famitsu scored the Dreamcast version of the game a 31 out of 40. The anime series was reviewed at Anime News Network, where reviewer Theron Martin commented that Rumbling Hearts "proves to be an involving and compelling look at how tragedy can impact matters of the heart." He also commented that the series' slow pacing, especially during the first two episodes, were a problem, comparing it to Saikano, although it worked better in later episodes. He also stated that the animation was not adequate, stating that "The character artistry looks good enough to support the story and offers a wide variety of physical appearances for its female characters, but often isn't fully integrated with the backgrounds and has a not-completely-refined quality about it in many scenes." Appearances in other media Characters from Kimi ga Nozomu Eien can be seen in other works by Âge. Akane is the main heroine in the Kimi ga Nozomu Eien spin-off and Muv-Luv prequel Akane Maniax. She also appears in Muv-Luv as a student in Hakuryou Hiiragi. Several characters appear in the alternate world sequel to Muv-Luv, Muv-Luv Alternative. Haruka, Mitsuki, and Akane are members of the special task force A-01, also known as the Isumi Valkyries, while Homura Manami is a nurse at the Yokohama base. Takayuki is also mentioned, but he was killed in action prior to the start of the game. In the epilogue, Haruka and Mitsuki can be seen walking around together near the station, Mitsuki with her pre-accident hairstyle. This suggests that the events of Kimi ga Nozomu Eien may be taken by future games to have never happened, allowing for Mitsuki and Haruka to show up as best friends in newer games as they did in Alternative. References External links Visual novel official website Anime official website Rumbling Hearts at Funimation 2001 video games 2003 anime television series debuts 2007 anime OVAs Anime television series based on video games Bishōjo games Brain's Base Dreamcast games Eroge Funimation Japan-exclusive video games Lantis (company) MF Bunko J OVAs based on video games PlayStation 2 games School life in anime and manga Studio Fantasia Video games developed in Japan Visual novels Windows games Alchemist (company) games

424589

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype

Skype

Skype () is a proprietary telecommunications application operated by Skype Technologies, a division of Microsoft, best known for VoIP-based videotelephony, videoconferencing and voice calls. It also has instant messaging, file transfer, debit-based calls to landline and mobile telephones (over traditional telephone networks), and other features. Skype is available on various desktop, mobile, and video game console platforms. Skype was created by Niklas Zennström, Janus Friis, and four Estonian developers and first released in August 2003. In September 2005, eBay acquired Skype for $2.6 billion. In September 2009, Silver Lake, Andreessen Horowitz, and the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board bought 65% of Skype for $1.9 billion from eBay, valuing the business at $2.92 billion. In May 2011, Microsoft bought Skype for $8.5 billion and used it to replace their Windows Live Messenger. As of 2011, most of the development team and 44% of all the division's employees were in Tallinn and Tartu, Estonia. Skype originally featured a hybrid peer-to-peer and client–server system. It became entirely powered by Microsoft-operated supernodes in May 2012; in 2017, it changed from a peer-to-peer service to a centralized Azure-based service. As of February 2023, Skype was used by 36 million people each day. Etymology The name for the software is derived from "Sky peer-to-peer", which was then abbreviated to "Skyper". However, some of the domain names associated with "Skyper" were already taken. Dropping the final "r" left the current title "Skype", for which domain names were available. History Skype was founded in 2003 by Niklas Zennström, from Sweden, and Janus Friis, from Denmark. The Skype software was created by Estonians Ahti Heinla, Priit Kasesalu, Jaan Tallinn, and Toivo Annus. Friis and Annus are credited with the idea of reducing the cost of voice calls by using a P2P protocol like that of Kazaa. An early alpha version was created and tested in spring 2003, and the first public beta version was released on 29 August 2003. In June 2005, Skype entered an agreement with the Polish web portal Onet.pl for an integrated offering on the Polish market. On 12 September 2005, eBay Inc. agreed to acquire Luxembourg-based Skype Technologies SA for approximately US$2.5 billion in up-front cash and eBay stock, plus potential performance-based consideration. On 1 September 2009, eBay announced it was selling 65% of Skype to Silver Lake, Andreessen Horowitz, and the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board for US$1.9 billion, valuing Skype at US$2.75 billion. On 14 July 2011, Skype partnered with Comcast to bring its video chat service to Comcast subscribers via HDTV sets. On 17 June 2013, Skype released a free video messaging service, which can be operated on Windows, Mac OS, iOS, iPadOS, Android, and BlackBerry. Between 2017 and 2020, Skype collaborated with PayPal to provide a money-send feature. It allowed users to transfer funds via the Skype mobile app in the middle of a conversation. In 2019, Skype was announced to be the sixth most downloaded mobile app of the decade, from 2010 to 2019. Microsoft acquisition On 10 May 2011, Microsoft Corporation acquired Skype Communications, S.à r.l for US$8.5 billion. The company was incorporated as a division of Microsoft, which acquired all its technologies with the purchase. The acquisition was completed on 13 October 2011. Shortly after the acquisition, Microsoft began integrating the Skype service with its own products. Along with taking over the development of existing Skype desktop and mobile apps, the company developed a dedicated client app for its then-newly released, touch-focused Windows 8 and Windows RT operating systems. They were made available from Windows Store when the then-new OS launched on 26 October 2012. The following year, it became the default messaging app for Windows 8.1, replacing the Windows 8 Messaging app at the time, and became pre-installed software on every device that came with or upgraded to 8.1. In a month-long transition from 8 to 30 April 2013, Microsoft discontinued two of its own products in favor of Skype, including its Windows Live Messenger instant messaging service, although Messenger continued to be available in mainland China until October 2014. On 11 November 2014, Microsoft announced that in 2015, its Lync product would be replaced by Skype for Business. This combined features of Lync and the consumer Skype software. There are two user interfaces, organizations could switch their users between the default Skype for Business interface to the Lync interface. Post-acquisition On 12 August 2013, Skype released the 4.10 update to the app for Apple iPhone and iPad that allows HD quality video for iPhone 5 and fourth-generation iPads. On 20 November 2014, Microsoft Office's team announced that a new chat powered by Skype would be implemented in their software, giving tools to be able to chat with co-workers in the same document. On 15 September 2015, Skype announced the release of Mojis, "a brand new way to express yourself on Skype". Mojis are short clips/gifs featuring characters from films and TV shows to be entered into conversations with the same ease as emoticons. They worked with Universal Studios, Disney Muppets, BBC and other studios to add to the available collection of Mojis. Later that year, Gurdeep Singh Pall, Corporate Vice President of Skype, announced that Microsoft had acquired the technology from Talko. In July 2016, Skype introduced an early Alpha version of a new Skype for Linux client, built with WebRTC technology, after several petitions had asked Microsoft to continue development for Linux. In September of that year, Skype updated their iOS app with new features, including an option to call contacts on Skype through Siri voice commands. In October of that year, Microsoft launched Skype for Business for Mac. In February 2017, Microsoft announced plans to discontinue its Skype Wi-Fi service globally. The application was delisted, and the service itself became non-functional from 31 March 2017. On 5 June 2017, Microsoft announced its plans to revamp Skype with similar features to Snapchat, allowing users to share temporary copies of their photos and video files. In late June 2017, Microsoft rolled out their latest update for iOS, incorporating a revamped design and new third-party integrations, with platforms including Gfycat, YouTube, and UpWorthy. It was not well-received, with numerous negative reviews and complaints that the new client broke existing functionality. Skype later removed this "makeover". In December 2017, Microsoft added "Skype Interviews", a shared code editing system for those wishing to hold job interviews for programming roles. Microsoft eventually moved the service from a peer-to-peer to a central server based system, and with it adjusted the user interfaces of apps to make text-based messaging more prominent than voice calling. Skype for Windows, iOS, Android, Mac and Linux all received significant visual overhauls at this time. Features Registered users of Skype are identified by a unique Skype ID and may be listed in the Skype directory under a Skype username. Skype allows these registered users to communicate through both instant messaging and voice chat. Voice chat allows telephone calls between pairs of users and conference calling and uses proprietary audio codec. Skype's text chat client allows group chats, emoticons, storing chat history, and editing of previous messages. Offline messages were implemented in a beta build of version 5 but removed after a few weeks without notification. The usual features familiar to instant messaging users—user profiles, online status indicators, and so on—are also included. The Online Number, a.k.a. SkypeIn, service allows Skype users to receive calls on their computers dialed by conventional phone subscribers to a local Skype phone number; local numbers are available for Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. A Skype user can have local numbers in any of these countries, with calls to the number charged at the same rate as calls to fixed lines in the country. Skype supports conference calls, video chats, and screen sharing between 25 people at a time for free, which then increased to 50 on 5 April 2019. Skype does not provide the ability to call emergency numbers, such as 112 in Europe, 911 in North America, 999 in the UK or 100 in India and Nepal. However, as of December 2012, there is limited support for emergency calls in the United Kingdom, Australia, Denmark, and Finland. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has ruled that, for the purposes of section 255 of the Telecommunications Act, Skype is not an "interconnected VoIP provider". As a result, the U.S. National Emergency Number Association recommends that all VoIP users have an analog line available as a backup. In 2019, Skype added an option to blur the background in a video chat interface using AI algorithms purely done using software, despite a depth-sensing camera not being present in most webcams. In 2023, Skype added the Bing AI chatbot to the platform for users who had access to the chatbot. Usage and traffic At the end of 2010, there were over 660 million worldwide users, with over 300 million estimated active each month as of August 2015. At one point in February 2012, there were 34 million users concurrently online on Skype. In January 2011, after the release of video calling on the Skype client for iPhone, Skype reached a record 27 million simultaneous online users. This record was broken with 29 million simultaneous online users on 21 February 2011 and again on 28 March 2011 with 30 million online users. On 25 February 2012, Skype announced that it has over 32 million users for the first time ever. By 5 March 2012, it had 36 million simultaneous online users, and less than a year later, on 21 January 2013, Skype had more than 50 million concurrent users online. In June 2012, Skype had surpassed 70 million downloads on Android. On 19 July 2012, Microsoft announced that Skype users had logged 115 billion minutes of calls in the quarter, up to 50% since the last quarter. On 15 January 2014, TeleGeography estimated that Skype-to-Skype international traffic has gone up to 36% in 2013 to 214 billion minutes. As of March 2020, Skype was used by 100 million people at least once a month and by 40 million people each day. At end March 2020 there was a 70% increase in the number of daily users from the previous month, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However Skype also lost a large part of its market share to Zoom. System and software Client applications and devices Windows client Multiple different versions of Skype have been released for Windows since its conception. The original line of Skype applications continued from versions 1.0 through 4.0. It has offered a desktop-only program since 2003. Later, a mobile version was created for Windows Phones. In 2012, Skype introduced a new version for Windows 8 similar to the Windows Phone version. On 7 July 2015 Skype modified the application to direct Windows users to download the desktop version, but it was set to continue working on Windows RT until October 2016. In November 2015, Skype introduced three new applications, called Messaging, Skype Video, and Phone, intended to provide an integrated Skype experience on Windows 10. On 24 March 2016, Skype announced the integrated applications did not satisfy most users' needs and announced that they and the desktop client would eventually be replaced with a new UWP application, which was released as a preview version for the Windows 10 Anniversary Update and dubbed as the stable version with the release of the Windows 10 Creators Update. The latest version of Skype for Windows is Skype 11, which is based on the Universal Windows Platform and runs on various Windows 10-related systems, including Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, Windows phones, and Microsoft Hololens. Microsoft still offers the older Skype 8, which is Win32-based and runs on all systems from Windows XP (which is otherwise unsupported by Microsoft) to the most recent release of Windows 10. In late 2017, this version was upgraded to Skype 12.9 in which several features were both removed and added. Other desktop clients macOS (10.9 or newer) Linux (Debian, Debian-based (Ubuntu, etc.), Fedora, openSUSE) Mobile clients iOS Android Skype was previously available on Java mobiles, Nokia X, Symbian, BlackBerry OS and BlackBerry 10 devices. In May 2009 a Version 3.0 was available on Windows Mobile 5 to 6.1, and in September 2015 a Version 2.29 was available on Windows Phone 8.1; in 2016 Microsoft announced that this would stop working in early 2017 once Skype's transition from peer-to-peer to client-server was complete. Other platforms The Nokia N800, N810, and N900 Internet tablets, which run Maemo The Nokia N9, which runs MeeGo, comes with Skype voice calling and text messaging integrated; however, it lacks video-calling. Both the Sony mylo COM-1 and COM-2 models The PlayStation Portable Slim and Lite series, though the user needs to purchase a specially designed microphone peripheral. The PSP-3000 has a built-in microphone, which allows communication without the Skype peripheral. The PSP Go has the ability to use Bluetooth connections with the Skype application, in addition to its built-in microphone. Skype for PlayStation Vita may be downloaded via the PlayStation Network in the U.S. It includes the capability to receive incoming calls with the application running in the background. The Samsung Smart TV had a Skype app, which could be downloaded for free. It used the built-in camera and microphone for the newer models. Alternatively, a separate mountable Skype camera with built-in speakers and microphones is available to purchase for older models. This functionality has now been disabled along with any other "TV Based" Skype clients. Some devices were made to work with Skype by talking to a desktop Skype client or by embedding Skype software into the device. These were usually either tethered to a PC or have a built-in Wi-Fi client to allow calling from Wi-Fi hotspots, like the Netgear SPH101 Skype Wi-Fi Phone, the SMC WSKP100 Skype Wi-Fi Phone, the Belkin F1PP000GN-SK Wi-Fi Skype Phone, the Panasonic KX-WP1050 Wi-Fi Phone for Skype Executive Travel Set, the IPEVO So-20 Wi-Fi Phone for Skype and the Linksys CIT200 Wi-Fi Phone. 3G Skypephone created in collaboration between Skype and 3 in 2007 Third-party licensing Third-party developers, such as Truphone, Nimbuzz, and Fring, previously allowed Skype to run in parallel with several other competing VoIP/IM networks (Truphone and Nimbuzz provide TruphoneOut and NimbuzzOut as a competing paid service) in any Symbian or Java environment. Nimbuzz made Skype available to BlackBerry users and Fring provided mobile video calling over Skype as well as support for the Android platform. Skype disabled access to Skype by Fring users in July 2010. Nimbuzz discontinued support of Skype on request in October 2010. Before and during the Microsoft acquisition, Skype withdrew licensing from several third parties producing software and hardware compatible with Skype. The Skype for Asterisk product from Digium was withdrawn as "no longer available for sale". The Senao SN358+ long-range (10–15 km) cordless phone was discontinued due to loss of licenses to participate in the Skype network as peers. In combination, these two products made it possible to create roaming cordless mesh networks with a robust handoff. Technology Protocol Skype uses a proprietary Internet telephony (VoIP) network called the Skype protocol. The protocol has not been made publicly available by Skype, and official applications using the protocol are also proprietary. Part of the Skype technology relies on the Global Index P2P protocol belonging to the Joltid Ltd. corporation. The main difference between Skype and standard VoIP clients is that Skype operates on a peer-to-peer model (originally based on the Kazaa software), rather than the more usual client–server model (note that the very popular Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) model of VoIP is also peer-to-peer, but implementation generally requires registration with a server, as does Skype). On 20 June 2014, Microsoft announced the deprecation of the old Skype protocol. Within several months from this date, in order to continue using Skype services, Skype users will have to update to Skype applications released in 2014. The new Skype protocol, Microsoft Notification Protocol 24, was released. The deprecation became effective in the second week of August 2014. Transferred files are now saved on central servers. As far as networking stack support is concerned, Skype only supports the IPv4 protocol. It lacks support for the next-generation Internet protocol, IPv6. Skype for Business, however, includes support for IPv6 addresses, along with continued support of IPv4. Protocol detection and control Many networking and security companies have claimed to detect and control Skype's protocol for enterprise and carrier applications. While the specific detection methods used by these companies are often private, Pearson's chi-squared test and naive Bayes classification are two approaches that were published in 2008. Combining statistical measurements of payload properties (such as byte frequencies and initial byte sequences) as well as flow properties (like packet sizes and packet directions) has also shown to be an effective method for identifying Skype's TCP- and UDP-based protocols. Audio codecs Skype 2.x used G.729, Skype 3.2 introduced SVOPC, and Skype 4.0 added a Skype-created codec called :SILK, intended to be "lightweight and embeddable". Additionally, Skype has released Opus as a free codec, which integrates the SILK codec principles for voice transmission with the CELT codec principles for higher-quality audio transmissions, such as live music performances. Opus was submitted to the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in September 2010. Since then, it has been standardized as RFC 6716. Video codecs VP7 is used for versions prior to Skype 5.5. As of version 7.0, H.264 is used for both group and one-on-one video chat, at standard definition, 720p and 1080p high-definition. Skype Qik Skype acquired the video service Qik in 2011. After shutting down Qik in April 2014, Skype relaunched the service as Skype Qik on 14 October 2014. Although Qik offered video conferencing and Internet streaming, the new service focuses on mobile video messaging between individuals and groups. Hyperlink format Skype uses URIs as skype:USER?call for a call. Security and privacy Skype was claimed initially to be a secure communication, with one of its early web pages stating "highly secure with end-to-end encryption". Security services were invisible to the user, and encryption cannot be disabled. Skype claims to use publicly documented, widely trusted encryption techniques for Skype-to-Skype communication: RSA for key negotiation and the Advanced Encryption Standard to encrypt conversations. However, it is impossible to verify that these algorithms are used correctly, completely, and at all times, as there is no public review possible without a protocol specification and/or the program's source code. Skype provides an uncontrolled registration system for users with no proof of identity. Instead, users may choose a screen name which does not have to relate to their real-life identity in any way; a name chosen could also be an impersonation attempt, where the user claims to be someone else for fraudulent purposes. A third-party paper analyzing the security and methodology of Skype was presented at Black Hat Europe 2006. It analyzed Skype and found a number of security issues with the then-current security model. Skype incorporates some features that tend to hide its traffic, but it is not specifically designed to thwart traffic analysis and therefore does not provide anonymous communication. Some researchers have been able to watermark the traffic so that it is identifiable even after passing through an anonymizing network. In an interview, Kurt Sauer, the Chief Security Officer of Skype, said, "We provide a safe communication option. I will not tell you whether we can listen or not." This does not deny the fact that the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) monitors Skype conversations. Skype's client uses an undocumented and proprietary protocol. The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is concerned about user privacy issues arising from using proprietary software and protocols and has made a replacement for Skype one of their high-priority projects. Security researchers Biondi and Desclaux have speculated that Skype may have a back door, since Skype sends traffic even when it is turned off and because Skype has taken extreme measures to obfuscate the program's traffic and functioning. Several media sources reported that at a meeting about the "Lawful interception of IP based services" held on 25 June 2008, high-ranking unnamed officials at the Austrian interior ministry said that they could listen in on Skype conversations without problems. Austrian public broadcasting service ORF, citing minutes from the meeting, reported that "the Austrian police are able to listen in on Skype connections". Skype declined to comment on the reports. One easily demonstrated method of monitoring is to set up two computers with the same Skype user ID and password. When a message is typed or a call is received on one computer, the second computer duplicates the audio and text. This requires knowledge of the user ID and password. The United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has interpreted the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) as requiring digital phone networks to allow wiretapping if authorized by an FBI warrant, in the same way as other phone services. In February 2009, Skype said that, not being a telephone company owning phone lines, it is exempt from CALEA and similar laws, which regulate US phone companies, and it is not clear whether Skype could support wiretapping even if it wanted to. According to the ACLU, the Act is inconsistent with the original intent of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution; more recently, the ACLU has expressed the concern that the FCC interpretation of the Act is incorrect. It has been suggested that Microsoft made changes to Skype's infrastructure to ease various wiretapping requirements; however, Skype denies the claims. Sometime before Skype was sold in 2009, the company had started Project Chess, a program to explore legal and technical ways to easily share calls with intelligence agencies and law enforcement. On 20 February 2009, the European Union's Eurojust agency announced that the Italian Desk at Eurojust would "play a key role in the coordination and cooperation of the investigations on the use of internet telephony systems (VoIP), such as 'Skype'. [...] The purpose of Eurojust's coordination role is to overcome the technical and judicial obstacles to the interception of internet telephony systems, taking into account the various data protection rules and civil rights." In November 2010, a flaw was disclosed to Skype that showed how computer crackers could secretly track any user's IP address. Due to Skype's peer-to-peer nature, this was a difficult issue to address, but this bug was eventually remedied in a 2016 update. In 2012, Skype introduced automatic updates to better protect users from security risks but received some challenge from users of the Mac product, as the updates cannot be disabled from version 5.6 on, both on Mac OS and Windows versions, although in the latter, and only from version 5.9 on, automatic updating can be turned off in certain cases. According to a 2012 Washington Post article, Skype "has expanded its cooperation with law enforcement authorities to make online chats and other user information available to police"; the article additionally mentions Skype made changes to allow authorities access to addresses and credit card numbers. In November 2012, Skype was reported to have handed over user data of a pro-WikiLeaks activist to Dallas, Texas-based private security company iSIGHT Partners without a warrant or court order. The alleged handover would be a breach of Skype's privacy policy. Skype responded with a statement that it launched an internal investigation to probe the breach of user data privacy. On 13 November 2012, a Russian user published a flaw in Skype's security, which allowed any person to take over a Skype account knowing only the victim's email by following seven steps. This vulnerability was claimed to exist for months and existed for more than 12 hours since published widely. On 14 May 2013, it was documented that a URL sent via a Skype instant messaging session was usurped by the Skype service and subsequently used in a HTTP HEAD query originating from an IP address registered to Microsoft in Redmond (the IP address used was 65.52.100.214). The Microsoft query used the full URL supplied in the IM conversation and was generated by a previously undocumented security service. Security experts speculate the action was triggered by a technology similar to Microsoft's SmartScreen Filter used in its browsers. The 2013 mass surveillance disclosures revealed that agencies such as the NSA and the FBI have the ability to eavesdrop on Skype, including the monitoring and storage of text and video calls and file transfers. The PRISM surveillance program, which requires FISA court authorization, reportedly has allowed the NSA unfettered access to its data center supernodes. According to the leaked documents, integration work began in November 2010, but it was not until February 2011 that the company was served with a directive to comply signed by the attorney general, with NSA documents showing that collection began on 31 March 2011. On 10 November 2014, Skype scored 1 out of 7 points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. Skype received a point for encryption during transit but lost points because communications are not encrypted with a key the provider does not have access to (i.e. the communications are not end-to-end encrypted), users cannot verify contacts' identities, past messages are not secure if the encryption keys are stolen (i.e. the service does not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to independent review (i.e. not available to merely view, nor under a free-software license), the security design is not properly documented, and there has not been a recent independent security audit. AIM, BlackBerry Messenger, Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail, Kik Messenger, Viber and Yahoo Messenger also scored 1 out of 7 points. As of August 2018, Skype now supports end-to-end encryption across all platforms. Cybercrime on application Cybersex trafficking has occurred on Skype and other videoconferencing applications. According to the Australian Federal Police, overseas pedophiles are directing child sex abuse using its live streaming services. Service in the People's Republic of China Since September 2007, users in China trying to download the Skype software client have been redirected to the site of TOM Online, a joint venture between a Chinese wireless operator and Skype, from which a modified Chinese version can be downloaded. The TOM client participates in China's system of Internet censorship, monitoring text messages between Skype users in China as well as messages exchanged with users outside the country. Niklas Zennström, then chief executive of Skype, told reporters that TOM "had implemented a text filter, which is what everyone else in that market is doing. Those are the regulations." He also stated, "One thing that's certain is that those things are in no way jeopardising the privacy or the security of any of the users." In October 2008, it was reported that TOM had been saving the full message contents of some Skype text conversations on its servers, apparently focusing on conversations containing political issues such as Tibet, Falun Gong, Taiwan independence, and the Chinese Communist Party. The saved messages contain personally identifiable information about the message senders and recipients, including IP addresses, usernames, landline phone numbers, and the entire content of the text messages, including the time and date of each message. Information about Skype users outside China who were communicating with a TOM-Skype user was also saved. A server misconfiguration made these log files accessible to the public for a time. Research on the TOM-Skype venture has revealed information about blacklisted keyword checks, allowing censorship and surveillance of its users. The partnership has received much criticism for the latter. Microsoft remains unavailable for comment on the issue. According to reports from the advocacy group Great Fire, Microsoft has modified censorship restrictions and ensured encryption of all user information. Furthermore, Microsoft is now partnered with Guangming Founder (GMF) in China. All attempts to visit the official Skype web page from mainland China redirects the user to skype.gmw.cn. The Linux version of Skype is unavailable. Localization Skype comes bundled with the following locales and languages: Arabic, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese (Traditional and Simplified), Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Nepali, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazilian and European), Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish, Swedish, Thai, Turkish, Ukrainian, and Vietnamese. As the Windows desktop program offers users the option of creating new language files, at least 80 other (full or partial) localizations are also available for many languages. Customer service In January 2010, Skype rescinded its policy of seizing funds in Skype accounts that have been inactive (no paid call) for 180 days. This was in settlement of a class-action lawsuit. Skype also paid up to US$4 to persons who opted into the action. As of February 2012, Skype provides support through their web support portal, support community, @skypesupport on Twitter, and Skype Facebook page. Direct contact via email and live chat is available through their web support portal. Chat Support is a premium feature available to Skype Premium and some other paid users. Skype's refund policy states that they will provide refunds in full if customers have used less than 1 euro of their Skype Credit. "Upon a duly submitted request, Skype will refund you on a pro-rata basis for the unused period of a Product". Skype has come under some criticism from users for the inability to completely close accounts. Users not wanting to continue using Skype can make their account inactive by deleting all personal information, except for the username. Due to an outage on 21 September 2015 that affected several users in New Zealand, Australia, and other countries, Skype decided to compensate their customers with 20 minutes of free calls to over 60 landline and 8 mobile phone destinations. Educational use Although Skype is a commercial product, its non-paid version is used with increasing frequency among teachers, schools, and charities interested in global education projects. A popular use case is to facilitate language learning through conversations that alternate between each participant's native language. The video conferencing aspect of the software has been praised for its ability to connect students who speak different languages, facilitate virtual field trips, and engage directly with experts. Skype in the classroom is another free-of-charge tool that Skype has set up on its website, designed to encourage teachers to make their classrooms more interactive, and collaborate with other teachers around the world. There are various Skype lessons in which students can participate. Teachers can also use a search tool and find experts in a particular field. The educational program Skype a Scientist, set up by biologist Sarah McAnulty in 2017, had in two years connected 14,312 classrooms with over 7000 volunteer scientists. However, Skype is not adopted universally, with many educational institutions in the United States and Europe blocking the application from their networks. See also Caller ID spoofing Censorship of Skype Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Comparison of VoIP software List of video telecommunication services and product brands Mobile VoIP Presence information Unified communications References External links 2003 software 2011 mergers and acquisitions Android (operating system) software Android Auto software Companies in the PRISM network Cross-platform software Estonian brands Estonian inventions Freeware Instant messaging clients IOS software MacOS instant messaging clients Microsoft acquisitions Pascal (programming language) software Peer-to-peer software Pocket PC software Portable software Proprietary freeware for Linux Proprietary software that uses Qt Silver Lake (investment firm) companies Software that uses Qt Symbian software Universal Windows Platform apps Videoconferencing software for Linux Videotelephony Voice over IP clients for Linux VoIP companies of the United States VoIP services VoIP software Windows instant messaging clients Windows Mobile Standard software Windows Phone software Microsoft software

424618

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic%20Democratic%20Party%20%28Czech%20Republic%29

Civic Democratic Party (Czech Republic)

The Civic Democratic Party (, ODS) is a conservative and soft Eurosceptic political party in the Czech Republic. The party generally sits centre-right to right-wing on the political spectrum, and holds 34 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and is the second strongest party by number of seats following the 2021 election. It is the only political party in the Czech Republic that has maintained an uninterrupted representation in the Chamber of Deputies. Founded in 1991 as the pro–free market wing of the Civic Forum by Václav Klaus and modeled on the British Conservative Party, the ODS won the 1992 legislative election, and has remained in government for most of the Czech Republic's independence. In every legislative election (except for that of 2013) it emerged as one of the two strongest parties. Václav Klaus served as the first prime minister of the Czech Republic after the partition of Czechoslovakia, from 1993 to 1997. Mirek Topolánek, who succeeded him as leader of the party in December 2002, served as prime minister from 2006 to 2009. In the 2010 election, the party lost 28 seats, finishing second, but as the largest party right of the centre, it formed a centre-right government with Petr Nečas as prime minister. In the 2013 legislative election, the party was marginalized by only securing 16 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, relegating the party to the opposition from July 2013 to December 2021. In the 2017 legislative election, it has partly recovered and secured 25 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, making it the second strongest party in chamber. The party is currently being led by Prime Minister Petr Fiala, who has been leader since the 2014 party convention. The ODS is a member of the International Democratic Union, and co-founded together with the British Conservatives the eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists Party (ECR Party) and the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR group) in the European Parliament. History Formation The party was founded in 1991 as one of two successors to the Civic Forum, which was a big tent movement that consisted of two major wings. The strongest wing was the Interparliamentary Club of the Democratic Right which was transformed into the ODS when Civic Forum split. ODS represented followers of Václav Klaus and was pro–free market, as opposed to the centrist Civic Movement. An agreement was reached to split the party in half at the Civic Forum Assembly on 23 February 1991. This was followed on 21 April by a formal declaration of a new party, and Klaus was elected its first President. The party agreed to continue in a coalition government with the Civic Movement, but this collapsed in July 1991. The Civic Democrats, who represented demands for a tighter Czechoslovak federation, began to organize in Slovakia. Ahead of the 1992 election, the ODS ruled out an electoral alliance with the Liberal Democrats, but agreed to an alliance with Václav Benda's Christian Democratic Party (KDS) to boost its appeal to conservatives. The ODS won the election, winning 66 seats (and the KDS another ten), and formed a centre-right coalition with the Civic Democratic Alliance (ODA) and the KDU-ČSL, with Klaus as prime minister. Dominant party (1992–1998) It was the dominant party in two coalition governments in the Czech Republic from 1992 to 1997, a majority administration (1992–96) and a short-lived minority government (1996–97). On 2 June 1995, the ODS and KDS signed a merger agreement, which would come into effect on 18 March 1996, ahead of that year's election. However, at the election, whilst the ODS improved to 68 seats, its allies fell, leading to the government receiving only 99 seats: two short of a majority. Klaus continued with a minority government, relying on its acceptance by the Social Democratic Party (ČSSD). In December 1997, allegations of the party receiving illegal donations and maintaining a secret slush fund caused the ODA and KDU-ČSL to withdraw from the coalition, and the government collapsed. Josef Tošovský was appointed caretaker, pending new elections in June 1998. Despite the scandal, Klaus was re-elected party chairman. In January 1998, some legislators opposed to Klaus, led by Jan Ruml and Ivan Pilip, left the party in the so-called 'Sarajevo Assassination' and formed the Freedom Union (US). Opposition agreement At the elections, the ODS fell even further, to 63 seats, while the US won 19. Due to the split, the Freedom Union refused to support the ODS, preventing them from getting a majority; the US's executive also refused to support the ČSSD. As a result, on 9 July 1998, the ODS signed the Opposition Agreement, which pledged the party to provide confidence and maintain a ČSSD government under Miloš Zeman. This agreement was then superseded by the more explicit 'Patent of Tolerance' in January 2000. Opposition (2002–2006) In the 2002 legislative election, the party went from being the largest seat holder to being the second largest party in the Chamber of Deputies with 58 of 200 seats, and for the first time in its history assumed the role of a true opposition party. Mirek Topolánek took over the party leadership. The former Czech president, Václav Klaus, has been the party's honorary president for his first term in the office. In the European Parliament elections in June 2004 and in Senate and regional assembly elections in November 2004, it received over 30% of the votes. Return to government (2006–2013) In the 2006 legislative election the ODS was the largest seat holder in the Chamber of Deputies with 81 seats. ODS originally aimed to make a deal with Czech Social Democratic Party but talks with the Social democratic leader Jiří Paroubek were unsuccessful. Mirek Topolánek then introduced his first minority cabinet that consisted of Civic Democrats and independents. It was designated on 4 September 2006 but lost a vote of confidence on 3 October 2006. ODS then formed a government in coalition with the Populars (KDU-ČSL) and the Green Party (SZ). Projects of the cabinet included reform of public finances. Topolánek also discussed possible emplacement of United States Missile defense in the Czech Republic which resulted in public resistance. The party suffered heavy losses in regional and Senate elections in 2008, losing all 12 regional governorships it had previously held. However, a year later, ODS won the European Parliament election, keeping all 9 seats and gaining more votes than in previous elections. ODS-led government during Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009. Czech presidency had to deal with problems such as Gas crisis in Ukraine, conflict in Gaza or economic crisis. There were also controversies like Entropa but some aspects such as resolution of gas crisis were positively evaluated. The Cabinet had lost a no confidence vote on 24 March 2009. The country was then governed by a newly formed caretaker Cabinet, which was nominated by ODS, ČSSD and SZ. Early elections were set for 9–10 October 2009 but were postponed to May 2010 due to unexpected developments in the Constitutional Court and House of Deputies Civic Democratic Party won the second place after Czech Social Democratic Party and formed a centre-right Government with TOP 09 and Public Affairs. Public Affairs split from the government on 22 April 2012 but were replaced by LIDEM. The Civic Democratic Party was widely defeated in the regional election that same year, finishing third overall and winning only in the Plzeň region. The party also lost 2010 and 2012 Senate elections. ODS nominated Přemysl Sobotka for president of the Czech Republic during the 2013 presidential election. Sobotka received only 2.46% of votes and didn't qualify for second round. ODS has held 2012 presidential primaries which Přemysl Sobotka has won. Sobotka's poor showing in the 2013 general election was seen as caused by the government's unpopularity and lack of support from the party. The party's leadership supported Karel Schwarzenberg of TOP 09 in the second round of the presidential election. Opposition (2013–2017) After resignation and fall of Cabinet of Prime Minister Petr Nečas ODS proposed Miroslava Němcová to the position of the prime minister to President Miloš Zeman saying that she will be able to form a coalition and succeed a vote of confidence in the Chamber of Deputies. However, President Zeman refused to appoint her and instead appointed Jiří Rusnok's Cabinet. After that, opposition called for a dissolution of Chamber of Deputies and early election (such vote was only recently made possible by a constitutional amendment). The motion of dissolution passed with 147 out of 200 votes (120 required), all parties except ODS, whose deputies left the chamber, voted for dissolution, including their former coalition partners Public Affairs and TOP 09. President Zeman then called on early elections on 25–26 October 2013. ODS suffered heavy losses. It gained only 16 seats and finished 5th. The party also lost elections of the European parliament and of Senate and municipal in 2014. The 24th Congress of the Civic Democratic Party elected on 18–19 January 2014 a new leadership of ODS. The former rector of Masaryk University and minister Petr Fiala was elected as chairman. Member of the European Parliament Jan Zahradil was elected as first-vice-chairman. In his book Citizens, Democrats and Party Members (Czech: Občané, demokraté a straníci), Fiala said the party needs to be attractive to new, young people and ODS shall have experts on economics, health care, education, etc. In the Chamber of Deputies ODS formed an informal coalition relationship with TOP 09 and both have been opposing laws such as Control report of Value-added tax. On 26 May 2015, ODS, TOP 09 and Dawn of Direct Democracy called an unsuccessful vote of no confidence of the Cabinet of Bohuslav Sobotka. As of December 2015 opinion polls showed ODS with 8.6% nationwide. Some polling agencies and political commentators are of the opinion that ODS was on the path to become main centre-right party again. On 16 January 2016, Fiala was re-elected as Leader of the ODS. ODS participated in 2016 regional and Senate election. It received about 10% of votes and its candidate's secured seats in all regions. 6 candidates nominated by ODS qualified for the second round for Senate. 4 of them were eventually elected Fiala then said that ODS returned to the position of the major right wing party. Opposition and formal cooperation with TOP 09 and KDU-ČSL (2017-2021) ODS agreed to participate in the 2017 legislative election together with Freeholder party. Parties will present themselves during the campaign as ODS with the support of Freeholders. This agreement means that Freeholders will take 40 places on ODS candidacy list. In February 2017, ODS started a campaign called "We create program." which was series of tours to Czech regions with party leaders discussing priorities with supporters and potential voters for an upcoming election. On 19 April 2017, ODS introduced its tax program. The Civic Democrats want to lower taxes which they say would increase the income of Czech citizens. ODS also wants to decrease spending in social benefits and subsidies. Chief Whip Zbyněk Stanjura said that many people take advantage of social benefits even though they don't deserve it. These plans resembled those that ODS had in the 2006 legislative election manifesto. Tours concluded with Conference "Strong program for Strong Czechia" held on 22 April where ODS presented their election manifesto and candidates. Following the 2017 Czech government crisis, ODS grew in polls, approaching the Czech Social Democratic Party. According to a poll by TNS Kantar, ODS would become the second strongest party, surpassing ČSSD and KSČM. ODS introduced its campaign for 2017 election on 29 May 2017. It is inspired by the British Conservative Party's campaign for 2017 general election. In the 2017 election, ODS sought to get more than 10%. According to poll by STEM/Mark in September. ODS would get 7.5% of votes. ODS received 11% in 2017 legislative election and became the second largest political party in the Czech Republic. The party then won 2018 Senate election confirming its position as the main right wing party. Civic Democratic Party, KDU-ČSL and TOP 09 formed bloc of conservative opposition parties in late 2020. The alliance was known as the "Three Coalition", before the parties launched their slogan and program on 9 December 2020, announcing that they would run under the name Spolu ("together") in the 2021 Czech legislative election. The conservative bloc announced that Petr Fiala would be their candidate for the post of prime minister. The Bloc ran in 2021 Czech legislative election with Fiala as a leader. Opinion polls suggested that ANO 2011 would win the election but in an electoral upset ODS-led Spolu won highest number of votes and opposition parties won majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Opposition parties signed memorandum agreeing to nominate ODS leader Fiala for the position of the new prime minister. Return to power (2021–present) ODS formed a coalition government with STAN, KDU-ČSL, TOP 09 and Piráti after the election. Petr Fiala became the new prime minister. ODS holds 6 seats in Fiala's Cabinet. Ideology The ODS is described as conservative, liberal-conservative, and conservative-liberal, supports economic liberalism, and is Eurosceptic. There are also multiple ideological factions in the party, including the national conservative faction, the national liberal faction, the social liberal faction the neoconservative faction and the Christian socially conservative faction (former Christian Democratic Party). The party's ideas are very close to those of the British Conservative Party, Swedish Moderate Party, and other liberal-conservative parties in Europe. The party's program states "low taxes, public finances and future without debts, support for families with children, addressable social system, reducing bureaucracy, better conditions for business, a safe state with the transatlantic links. No tricks and populism." Many prominent politicians in the party say they are opposed to "political correctness" and call for tougher measures to combat radical Islam which they liken to Nazism. Although the party was in power when the Treaty of Lisbon was ratified in the Czech Republic, ODS supports maintaining Czech sovereignty and integrity against the European Union, calls for a fundamental reform of the EU and strongly opposes any federalization of Europe in the form of the EU becoming a quasi-state entity. Following the EU referendum in Britain which resulted in the United Kingdom voting to leave, ODS leader Petr Fiala said the Czech Republic "should reconsider its priorities and strategy in the European Union" and if the Treaties were to be re-opened, negotiate new conditions for the country such as an opt-out from asylum rules as well as from the obligation to adopt the euro. The party is a member of the national-conservative European Conservatives and Reformists group. The ODS is against immigration. The party supports compulsory measures for immigrants to speak the Czech language, learn about Czech history and adapt to local customs and cultures. ODS is also opposed to compulsory EU migrant quotas by arguing that the Czech Republic should have sovereignty over its own border control and that forcing nations to take in migrants without sufficient vetting or orderly processing and integration poses a threat to national security, social cohesion and native European culture. ODS believes that all individual nations should have the right to determine their own immigration policies. ODS also supports the right of law abiding citizens to own and carry firearms, being the main reason Czech gun laws are much more liberal than in nearly all other European countries. This makes them different from parties they are based on, as most of them, especially British Conservatives, reject the idea that anyone has a right to own and carry firearms and other weapons, making the ODS much more similar to American Republicans in this matter, although they still support gun control measures (such as background checks, licenses and registration). ODS, especially its defense expert Jana Černochová, was one of the main supporters of embedding the right to keep and bear arms for the purposes of national security into the Czech constitution, although it was Social Democrat Milan Chovanec who originally proposed it. The amendment failed in the Senate. In 2021 a same bill passed. Symbols Name Václav Klaus stated that the party's name represents the fact that ODS is based on the idea of civic freedoms. It also shows that ODS is a Civic Party, which differentiates it from other parties that existed prior to 1991. The adjective Democratic represents that ODS should protect parliamentary democracy. Besides its official name, ODS also received some informal names from media. Party members are sometimes called "the Blues" or the "Blue Birds" and ODS is sometimes called the Blue Party due to the party's association with the color blue. Logo The first logo was introduced on 4 June 1991, created by Aleš Krejča. It was chosen from over 250 entries to a public competition. A new logo was introduced in 1992, including the silhouette of a bird in blue. The logo was created by Petr Šejdl. In 1994 when the bird's tail was shortened and in 1998 the font was changed as a result of the "Sarajevo betrayal" of autumn 1997, in which ODS colleagues used allegations of bribery to precipitate the resignation of Václav Klaus' government while he was on a trip to Sarajevo. The party used this version until 2015 with modifications for individual election campaigns. The ODS introduced a new party logo in a congress in Prague in 2015. The design of the bird was updated and flies upwards rather than to the left. The logo was designed by Libor Jelínek. Organisation Party structure The highest body of the ODS is Congress which meets every year and elects leadership every two years. The party is led by the Executive Council and Republic Assembly in time between meetings of Congress. The executive body meets every Month and the party is led by Panel between meetings of the Executive Council. Panel consists of Party's Leader, Deputy Leaders and Chief Whips of the Parliamentary ODS. ODS is structured similarly to the subdivisions of the Czech Republic. The structure consists of local associations. Group of local associations forms area. Areas are organised as parts of Region. Membership ODS had 18,500 Members in 1991. The number of members grew with the party's influence and soon rose to over 23,000. It decreased during political crisis in 1998 to 16,000. The party stopped the decrease after preliminary election and membership grew once again. It peaked in 2010 when it reached 31,011. The member base started to decline rapidly after 2010. It had only 17,994 members prior the 2013 election. ODS had 14,771 members in May 2015 and the member base was stabilised according to leaders of the party. The party runs a membership organisation known as Supporters of ODS. It is a looser form of involvement with the party. It is meant for people who doesn't want to be members of ODS but sympathize with its program. It replaced the organisation known as Blue Team Faces of ODS is a project of party's members who share their life's story. It was described as honour for all members of the party who didn't abandon it in hard times. Young Conservatives Young Conservatives (, MK) is a youth wing of ODS. Young people from the age of 15 to 35 can apply for a membership in the MK. The founding congress of MK was held on 8 December 1991 as a result of previous preparations through Charter of Young Conservatives by a group of students at the University of Technology in Brno and Law Students' Association "Všehrd" from Faculty of Law at the Charles University. The Young Conservatives organize a wide range of events from meetings with local or national politicians to elections campaigns and international events. CEVRO Liberal Conservative Academy CEVRO Liberal Conservative Academy () is a think-tank affiliated with ODS. It was established in 1999. Its goal is political education which tries to spread liberal-conservative thinking. In 2005, CEVRO established its own private university known as CEVRO Institute. CEVRO has four newspapers – CEVRO Revue, The Week in European Politics, The Week in Czech Politics and Forthnightly. International organisations ODS joined the European Democrat Union (EDU) in 1992 as one of the first parties in the former Eastern Bloc. Václav Klaus even became a Vice President of EDU. ODS remained in the EDU until it became part of the European People's Party (EPP) in 2002. ODS refused to join EPP due to its ideological differences and instead became a member of European Democrats. ODS joined International Democrat Union (IDU) in 2001. Chairmen of Civic Democratic Party served as Vice-presidents of IDU. In July 2006, the Civic Democratic Party signed an agreement with the British Conservative Party to leave the European People's Party–European Democrats (EPP-ED) Group in the European Parliament and form the Movement for European Reform in 2009. On 22 June 2009, it was announced that ODS would join the newly formed European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) parliamentary group, an anti-federalist and Eurosceptic group, which currently its third largest bloc in the European Parliament. ODS then became one of founding members of the European Conservatives and Reformists Party (ECR Party), a conservative and Eurosceptic European political party, defending broader conservative and economically liberal principles. Other members of ECR Party include Conservative Party, Law and Justice or Freedom and Solidarity. Leadership Current Leaders Note: Only properly elected leaders are included. Election results Chamber of Deputies Senate * Places are by number of votes gained. Presidential Indirect Elections Direct Election European Parliament Local election Regional election 2020 Czech regional election results Prague municipal elections Federal Assembly of Czechoslovakia House of the People House of Nations Elected representatives Civic Democratic Party has 23 members of the Chamber of Deputies. Ivan Adamec Jan Bauer Martin Baxa Petr Beitl Marek Benda Petr Bendl Stanislav Blaha Pavel Blažek Jana Černochová Petr Fiala Jakub Janda Martin Kupka Karel Krejza Jaroslav Martinů Ilona Mauritzová Vojtěch Munzar Miroslava Němcová Jan Skopeček Zbyněk Stanjura Bohuslav Svoboda Jiří Ventruba Jan Zahradník Pavel Žáček Civic Democratic Party has 16 Senators of the Senate of the Czech Republic. Lumír Aschenbrenner Jiří Burian Martin Červíček Ladislav Chlupáč Hynek Hanza Tomáš Jirsa Pavel Karpíšek Michal Kortyš Rostislav Koštial Raduan Nwelati Zdeněk Nytra Jiří Oberfalzer Jan Tecl Vladislav Vilímec Miloš Vystrčil Jaroslav Zeman Civic Democratic Party has 4 MEPs. Evžen Tošenovský Veronika Vrecionová Alexandr Vondra Jan Zahradil References Bibliography External links 1991 establishments in Czechoslovakia Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe member parties Civic Forum breakaway groups European Conservatives and Reformists member parties Eurosceptic parties in the Czech Republic International Democrat Union member parties Liberal conservative parties in the Czech Republic Political parties established in 1991 Political parties in the Czech Republic Political parties in Czechoslovakia Right-wing parties in the Czech Republic Conservatism in the Czech Republic

424627

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMRO-DPMNE

VMRO-DPMNE

The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (, simplified as VMRO-DPMNE; ) is a political party in North Macedonia and one of the two major parties in the country, the other being the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia. The party has presented itself as Christian-democratic, but it is considered nationalist. VMRO-DPMNE's support is based on ethnic Macedonians with some exceptions. The party claims that their goals and objectives are to express the tradition of the Macedonian people on whose political struggle and concepts it is based. Nevertheless, it has formed multiple coalition governments with ethnic minority parties. Under the leadership of Ljubčo Georgievski in its beginning, the party supported the Macedonian independence from Socialist Yugoslavia, and led a policy of closer relationships with Bulgaria. After accused of being a pro-Bulgarian politician, Georgievski broke off from VMRO-DPMNE in 2003. Under the leadership of Nikola Gruevski, the party promoted ultra-nationalist identity politics in the form of antiquization. Its nationalist stances are often perceived also as anti-Albanian. During Gruevski's leadership the party changed from a pro-European and а pro-NATO policy, to a pro-Russian, pro-Serbian and anti-Western one. His government also managed to build a strong anti-EU sentiments in the country. After the resignation of Gruevski in 2017, the new leader Hristijan Mickoski has opposed the Friendship treaty signed with Bulgaria in 2017, and has claimed if he came to power he would revise the Prespa Agreement signed with Greece in 2018, although, stating that he will abide to it. The party became the main oppositional force which participated in the 2022 North Macedonia protests, surrounding its accession into the EU. Background The first section of the acronym 'VMRO' which forms the party's name derives from the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, a rebel movement formed in 1893. After undergoing various transformations, the original organization was suppressed after the military coup d'état of 1934, in its headquarters in Bulgaria. At that time the territory of the current North Macedonia was a province called Vardar Banovina, part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. As the Bulgarian army entered Yugoslav Macedonia as German satellite during WWII, former IMRO members were active in organizing Bulgarian Action Committees, charged with taking over the local authorities. After Bulgaria switched to the Allied in September 1944, they tried to create a pro-Bulgarian independent Macedonian state under the protectorate of the Third Reich. The VMRO–DPMNE claims ideological descent from the old VMRO, although it was as a whole a pro-Bulgarian grouping. In fact the membership in the IMRO was allowed initially only for Bulgarians. Following the death of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito in 1980, SFR Yugoslavia began to disintegrate and democratic politics were revived in Macedonia. Many exiles returned to then SR Macedonia from abroad, and a new generation of young Macedonian intellectuals rediscovered the history of Macedonian nationalism. Dragan Bogdanovski who was a proclaimed Macedonian rights movement activist had made a blueprint for a Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity. He had also made a statute, book of rules, and an instruction of how the party is going to work. Ljubco Georgievski together with Bogdanovski, Boris Zmejkovski and few other activists had agreed to make a party for a future independent Macedonia. In these circumstances it was not surprising that the name of the famed Macedonian rebels was revived. Under the name VMRO–DPMNE, the party was founded on 17 June 1990 in Skopje. In the same year the founders of DPMNE came into contact with the Bulgarian authorities. In Sofia, they were assured that if Serbia invaded Macedonia, Bulgaria would use all necessary means to oppose it. Rise to power After the first multi-party elections in 1990, VMRO–DPMNE became the strongest party in the Parliament. It did not form a government because it did not achieve a majority of seats; this forced it to form a coalition with an ethnic Albanian party, but it refused to do so. The party boycotted the second round of the 1994 elections claiming fraud in the first round. After winning the 1998 election, VMRO–DPMNE surprised many people when finally forming a coalition government with an ethnic Albanian party, the Democratic Party of Albanians. After their victory in the elections, they formed a new government with Ljubčo Georgievski as Prime Minister. In 1999, VMRO–DPMNE's candidate Boris Trajkovski was elected President, completing VMRO–DPMNE's takeover. Once in office, Trajkovski adopted a more moderate policy than expected. VMRO–DPMNE's government was defeated at the 2002 legislative elections. In an alliance with the Liberal Party of Macedonia, VMRO–DPMNE won 28 out of 120 seats. In 2004 Trajkovski died in a plane crash and Branko Crvenkovski was elected President, defeating the VMRO–DPMNE's candidate Saško Kedev. The first President of the VMRO–DPMNE and its founder was Ljubčo Georgievski, and the former president of the party is Nikola Gruevski. Nevertheless, accused of being pro-Bulgarian politician (a stigma in Macedonia), Georgievski broke off with DPMNE and established the VMRO-NP. The party became the largest party in Parliament again after a net gain of over a dozen seats in the 2006 parliamentary elections. With 44 of 120 seats, the party formed a government in coalition with the Democratic Party of Albanians. On 15 May 2007, the party became an observer-member of the European People's Party. The party won 2008 early parliamentary elections. In the 120-seat Assembly, VMRO–DPMNE won 63 seats, enough to form its own government, and by that, the party won 4 more years of dominance in the Macedonian Parliament (mandate period 2008-2012) and government control. After the Parliament constituted itself on 21 June 2008, the President Branko Crvenkovski on 23 June 2008 gave the then VMRO–DPMNE's leader and future prime minister Nikola Gruevski the mandate to form the new government (mandate period 2008-2012). In 2009, the party had another two major successes. While the VMRO–DPMNE-led coalition "For a better Macedonia" won in 56 out of 84 municipalities, the party's presidential candidate Gjorge Ivanov also won the presidential election. The party won again 2011 early parliamentary elections. VMRO–DPMNE won 56 seats of the 120-seat Assembly of the Republic of Macedonia, the party formed a government in coalition with the Democratic Union for Integration in the Macedonian Parliament (mandate period 2011-2015). In 2014, early parliamentary elections was call togethers with Macedonian presidential election, VMRO–DPMNE won again 61 seats of the 120-seat Assembly and formed a government in coalition with the Democratic Union for Integration (DUI, mandate period 2014-2018). Criticism and controversies Antiquization VMRO–DPMNE was criticised for its "antiquisation" policy (known locally as "Antikvizacija") between 2006 and 2017, in which it sought to claim ancient Macedonian figures like Alexander the Great and Philip II of Macedon for the country. The policy was pursued since the coming to power in 2006, and especially since Macedonia's non-invitation to NATO in 2008, as a way of putting pressure on Greece as well as in an attempt to construct a new identity on the basis of a presumed link to the world of antiquity. The antiquisation policy fought criticism by academics as it demonstrated feebleness of archaeology and of other historical disciplines in public discourse, as well as a danger of marginalization. The policy also attracted criticism domestically, by ethnic Macedonians within the country, who saw as dangerously dividing the country between those who identify with classical antiquity and those who identify with the country's Slavic culture. Ethnic Albanians saw it as an attempt to marginalize them and exclude them from the national narrative. The policy, which also claimed as ethnic Macedonians figures considered national heroes in Bulgaria, such as Todor Aleksandrov and Ivan Mihailov, has drawn criticism from Bulgaria, and is regarded to have had a negative impact on the international position of the country. Foreign diplomats warned that the policy reduced international sympathy for Macedonia's position in the naming dispute with Greece. SDSM was opposed to the project and has alleged that the monuments in the project could have cost six to ten times less than what the government paid, which may already have exceeded 600 million euros. Anti-Greek attitudes VMRO-DPMNE has been criticized for its hard-line stance against the Prespa Agreement that was reached in June 2018 between the Republic of Macedonia and Greece, which resolved the long-standing Macedonia naming dispute by renaming the country as North Macedonia and recognizing that Macedonian culture and language are distinct and unrelated to ancient Hellenic civilization. On 16 October 2018, US Assistant Secretary of State Wess Mitchell sent a letter to VMRO-DPMNE leader Hristijan Mickoski, in which he expresses the disappointment of the United States with the positions of the party's leadership, including him personally, regarding its position against the Prespa agreement and asks to "set aside partisan interests" and work to get the name change approved. Mickoski expressed his hope that the Republic of Macedonia will be very soon a part of the NATO and EU families, "but proud and dignified, not humiliated, disfigured and disgraced." However in 2019, Mickoski has been criticized by the SDSM Deputy Foreign Minister Andrej Žernovski, that he has insisted, if he becomes a Prime Minister, after receiving a start date for accession negotiations on the EU membership of North Macedonia, the friendship agreements with the neighboring Greece and Bulgaria, signed by Zoran Zaev's government, would be denounced. According to the analyst Erol Rizaov, Mickoski's long-term goal is really the denouncement of both agreements. Anti-Bulgarian attitudes The party claims descent from the old VMRO which was a pro-Bulgarian organization, thus in its first leadership headed by Ljubčo Georgievski during 1990s, there were mainly Bulgarophiles. They were inclined to revise the anti-Bulgarian attitudes in the country, based on the negative historical narrative, inherited from Communist Yugoslavia. Under the leadership of the next party-leader Gruevski, there was not even a single pro-Bulgarian activist on a high-ranking position. Gruevski, started an open confrontation with Bulgaria and consistently got closer to Serbia and its policy. His successor Mickoski, has continued this line and took an openly Bulgarophobic stance. The party became the main force in the 2022 North Macedonia protests against the start of the negotiation process of North Macedonia and the EU, based on reconciliation with Bulgaria. In August 2022, Mickoski vowed to leave politics forever if Bulgarians were included in the country's constitution, a mandatory requirement included in the negotiating framework with the EU. In September 2022, the party initiated the holding of a referendum under which the friendship treaty between Bulgaria and North Macedonia would be denounced. According to the former Macedonian Prime Minister Vlado Bučkovski, Russia stays behind this anti-Bulgarian hysteria, aiming to prevent the EU-path of the country. In 2012, as part of the controversial VMRO-DPMNE project Skopje 2014, a statue of the member of the IMRO Simeon Radev, who was also a Bulgarian diplomat, was installed on the building of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The statue was later taken down, with the explanation that it had been a mistake. The explanation was that Radev's relation with Macedonia was only as his place of birth, while his entire life's work was dedicated to the Bulgarian state. In April 2022, a Bulgarian club named after the last leader of the historical IMRO, Ivan Mihailov (1924–1934), was officially opened in Bitola. After its opening, the club was set on fire, and the VMRO-DPMNE leader demanded that the arsonist, who was arrested, be released. The deputy chairman of the party Alexander Nikoloski expressed later his support to the decision of the Commission for Protection against Discrimination, which announces that the club "Ivan Mihailov" is discriminative towards the citizens of the country on national and ethnic grounds. VMRO-DPMNE deputy Rasela Mizrahi declared also the last leader of the organization whose name it bears to be a fascist. Later, the party submitted a bill demanding that such names be banned for use in the country to increase distancing from fascism, Nazism and National Socialism. Pro-Serbian attitudes Under the leadership of Nikola Gruevski VMRO-DPMNE would embrace a pro-Serbian policy. In 2015 the former Prime Minister and leader of the VMRO-NP, Ljubčo Georgievski espoused in an interview for Radio Free Europe his opinion, that the then government had a clear goal: to keep the country closer to Serbia, and at some future stage to join the northern neighbor. According to him a classical pro-Yugoslav policy of Serbianisation was being conducted, where confrontation with all the other neighbors was taking place, but the border between Macedonian and Serbian national identity had been erased. "Stop the Serbian assimilation of the Macedonian nation" was the motto of the billboards that were placed then on Skopje streets, through which the Party launched a campaign for preserving the Macedonian national identity. The pro-governmental press claimed that the "Bulgarian" Georgievski organised a new provocation. As a result the billboards were removed quickly by the VMRO-DPMNE authorities. Criminal scandals The party does not have a good reputation in the Western world. It is often associated with neo-fascism and with Marine Le Pen's party in France (i.e National Rally). VMRO-DPMNE was widely accused of nepotism and authoritarianism and was involved in a series of wiretapping, corruption and money-laundering scandals, with the Macedonian Special Prosecution ordering in 2017 a series of investigations against the party's former leader and ex-PM Nikola Gruevski, as well as ministers and other high-ranked officials, for involvement in illegal activities. In 2018, and amid ongoing investigations, a Court froze the party's property assets. Gruevski himself was sentenced in 2018 but fled when he was ordered to serve his prison sentence. Nevertheless, Gruevski has remained an honorary chairman of the party till July 2020. Georgievski Former Macedonian Prime Minister and one of the party's founders and its first leader Ljubčo Georgievski has espoused in an interview with Radio Free Europe in 2012, that VMRO-DPMNE is his personal failure. According to him, it became a fake party without any ideology. Georgievski announced that he feels obliged to nail the party every single day. According to him, if the party policy of fabricating hoaxes about the Macedonian past continues, the ethnic Macedonians will gradually lose the support of all ethnic communities in the country. Georgievski has insisted 10 years later, that it continues to be hidden by the modern Macedonian historians that the historical IMRO-activists were Bulgarians, saying that he IMRO victims for the idea of an Independent Macedonia are proclaimed traitors, while the communist spies from UDBA are seen as heroes and that this is what VMRO-DPMNE keeps doing, which is a total paradox. According to him, after his departure, agents of the former Yugoslav security service were massively introduced into the party's leadership. Youth Force Union The Youth Force Union (), also known as UMS (), is the youth wing organization of the VMRO-DPMNE. It considers itself a continuation of historical youth organizations which spread the ideals of VMRO for independent Macedonia. A number of projects arising from the Youth Force Union were conducted in the past 20 years. Formed in 1991, the most remarkable and influential President of YFU was Filip Petrovski; he was its leader in the period 1997–2000, and member of parliament 1998–2001. Electoral history Presidential elections Assembly elections See also :Category:VMRO-DPMNE politicians References Further reading External links Official website 1990 establishments in the Socialist Republic of Macedonia Anti-communist parties Christian democratic parties in Europe Conservative parties in North Macedonia Eastern Orthodox political parties Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization International Democrat Union member parties Macedonian nationalism National conservative parties Nationalist parties in North Macedonia Parties related to the European People's Party Political parties established in 1990 Pro-independence parties in Yugoslavia Right-wing populism in North Macedonia Right-wing populist parties

424637

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon%20the%20Interruption

Pardon the Interruption

Pardon the Interruption (abbreviated PTI) is an American sports talk television show that airs weekdays on various ESPN TV channels. It is hosted by Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon, who discuss, and frequently argue over, the top stories of the day in "sports... and other stuff" (as Kornheiser put it in the show's original promo). For thirteen years Tony Reali also appeared as the statistician and correcting errors that Mike and Tony made. Similar in format to Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert's At the Movies, PTI is known for its playful banter between the cohosts, humorous and often loud tone, and a "rundown" graphic which lists the topics yet to be discussed on the right-hand side of the screen. The show's popularity has led to the creation of similar shows on ESPN and similar segments on other series, and the rundown graphic has since been implemented on the morning editions of SportsCenter, among many imitators. History The show began in 2001, and has emanated from Washington, D.C. since its debut, as both Kornheiser and Wilbon were writing for The Washington Post at the time; In addition, both men appeared frequently on ESPN's Sunday-morning discussion program The Sports Reporters. The pair's frequent arguments during their time at the Post are often cited (including by Wilbon himself) as both the antecedent and inspiration for PTI. The founding production team behind PTI includes Mark Shapiro, Erik Rydholm, Todd Mason, James Cohen, and Joseph Maar. The original deal was for two years with an option for a third. Originally, the show also aired Sunday evening, but this stint was short-lived. Originally recorded at Atlantic Video's facilities in Washington, the show now occupies space at ABC News' Washington bureau. Voice actress Kat Cressida lends her voice to commercial bumpers for the series and has since its premiere. From the premiere of PTI until September 5, 2014, Tony Reali served as the show's statistician (earning him the nickname "Stat Boy") and eventually became a de facto co-host. Reali became the host of Around the Horn in 2004, but remained on PTI until 2014, when he relocated to New York City to work on Good Morning America while continuing as host of ATH. Kornheiser began exclusively hosting from his home upon the show's return from its 2020 Covid-19 hiatus. The show won a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Studio Show in 2009, 2016, and 2019. Broadcast details Pardon the Interruption airs at 5:30 p.m. Eastern Time on ESPN, occasionally moving to ESPN2 in the event of live sports or breaking news coverage airing on the main channel. Replays also appear on ESPN2 or ESPNEWS at various times. In Canada, TSN airs the show live at 5:30 p.m ET. In 2011, the SportsCentre edition following PTI now features the final segment, but previously TSN did not air it. Tony acknowledged this frequently at the end of the show, often signing off while waving a Canadian flag. Since April 17, 2006, ESPN has also offered a free audio podcast which cuts out commercials and includes all segments. The podcast is usually made available two to three hours after its original telecast on ESPN. BT Sport ESPN airs the show across the UK in a late night slot, usually at 11:30 p.m. unless pre-empted by live sports coverage. It is also repeated during the following day at 7:30am. ESPN 3 Mexico, Central America & Caribbean airs PTI in original language at 10:00 p.m. (Central Mexico Time) from Monday to Friday. The show is not broadcast in any other part of Latin America. Since May 7, 2018, PTI started to be aired on ESPN 5, the sports block of Philippine-based TV channel and ESPN affiliate The 5 Network, on a delayed telecast basis. It is aired weekdays from 9:30 a.m. to 10:00 a.m. Philippine Standard Time. Viewers Pardon the Interruption averages a little more than one million viewers daily. Famous fans include Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Tom Hanks, Bill Murray, David Letterman, Tom Cotton, Hank Azaria, Chris Christie, Eric Stonestreet, Matthew Morrison, John Heilemann, Penny Marshall, Michael Kelly, Eva Longoria, John McCain, Tim Russert, and Maury Povich. The October 24, 2011 episode featured a message from then-President Obama commemorating the tenth anniversary of the show. On July 12, 2013, Kornheiser, Wilbon, and Reali were guests at the White House. After lunch, the trio met in the Oval Office with Obama. Obama also provided taped congratulations on the show's 20th anniversary episode on October 22, 2021. The set For much of its run Pardon the Interruption had a unique studio layout featuring a "wall" full of cut-out cardboard heads of athletes and celebrities that had been used in the "Role Play" segment, bobblehead dolls of the show's hosts and Reali, Etch-A-Sketch art of Kornheiser and Wilbon, multiple penguins and several other toys and trinkets they have received, such as Kornheiser's beloved "Leg Lamp" from A Christmas Story, Stewie Griffin, and Elmo. For different American holidays, the set would be decorated with other props to match the theme of the day. For example, on Halloween, carved jack-o'-lanterns of the host's heads are also present. The color of the rundown graphic is also changed to fit with the holiday theme (e.g. red, white, and blue to represent Independence Day, green for St. Patricks Day, red and green for Christmas). On September 27, 2010, Pardon the Interruption and Around the Horn began broadcasting in high definition and moved from the Atlantic Video Washington complex to facilities in the ABC News Washington bureau, where high definition sets were built for both shows. On January 20, 2020, the current set for Pardon the Interruption debuted. This was the first major upgrade to the PTI set in nearly a decade. Segments PTI is divided into three segments. The first involves the hosts discussing and debating sports news Headlines (generally, three topics are covered, each receiving 2–4 minutes; in earlier days, more topics were covered with less time assigned to each). The second segment will either consist of a themed game segment that allows for discussion for further topics, or 5 Good Minutes, an interview with a guest. The third segment consists of Happy Time, an acknowledgment of any "errors & omissions" from earlier segments, and finally the Big Finish, a high-speed, back-and-forth rundown of more sports topics of note. For much of its history, the show aired in four shorter segments, allowing for the inclusion of both a game and an interview, or occasionally, a second segment of "Headlines" replacing one of the two. A wider variety of games were played during the time Reali was present on the show, as he would frequently serve as in-studio host/moderator/judge. In the show's earliest days, it was not unusual for the last point or topic in each section to be about a non-sports-related pop-culture event, but those have been eliminated. On rare occasions, the show will stray from its basic format, such as on August 9, 2005, when baseball commissioner Bud Selig was the guest at the very top of the show for an extended interview. Introduction/Headlines Kornheiser and Wilbon welcome viewers to the show with opening banter. Wilbon usually opens the show with the line, "Pardon the Interruption... but I'm Mike Wilbon", and then put a question to Kornheiser concerning one of the day's sports or pop culture issues (which he answers sarcastically). The two will then continue a conversation while the opening title card is shown. The theme song (as well as the commercial outro music) thematically references the song "Cut Your Hair" by Pavement. On rare occasions when more serious news will lead the discussion, such as the death of Junior Seau, the hosts will omit their typical intro banter. Kornheiser then says "Welcome to 'PTI', boys and girls." Kornheiser then gives a brief introduction before moving on to the first topic. During the course of this segment, Wilbon and Kornheiser will alternate topic introductions up for debate. Each topic is listed in chronological order on the right side of the screen, and a countdown timer is shown indicating how much time is allotted to discuss a particular topic; the hosts can, and usually do, briefly go over the time limit in order to make a final point about any particular topic. Five Good Minutes Kornheiser and Wilbon interview a sports figure, writer, or analyst typically for a period of time from three to six minutes. The interview itself is actually recorded prior to the rest of the show and then trimmed down for broadcast. According to PTIs remote producer, with some exceptions, guests are booked the day of the show as they try to obtain the most relevant news of the day. Other times, there are two "Five Good Minutes" segments with two different guests; there are also shows where two related guests appear during one segment, such as Joe Buck and Tim McCarver of Major League Baseball on Fox broadcasts (Another example of this was Al Michaels and Doc Rivers, when they appeared together while covering the 2004 NBA Finals for ABC Sports). There have also been occasions where Kornheiser or Wilbon, while on vacation or in another city to cover an event and not hosting the show, have been the subject of "Five Good Minutes" themselves. Guests almost always appear from a separate location, usually the site of an upcoming game or their home city, appearing with the hosts via split screen. On a few occasions, the guest has appeared in studio with Kornheiser and Wilbon. This may be the case if the guest is an athlete or coach in Washington to play a game that night, such as when Denver Nuggets guard Chauncey Billups appeared on February 6, 2009, prior to a game against the Washington Wizards. When this happens, the guest will sit on Wilbon's side of the table, sitting diagonally from Kornheiser. On Thursdays during the football season, ESPN analyst Ron Jaworski, a former Philadelphia Eagles quarterback (a.k.a. "Jaws" and "the Polish Rifle" - the latter usually rendered in a Howard Cosell-like voice), frequently guested, until his departure from ESPN. Before that, Jaworski would come on the show on Mondays to offer analysis of the previous day's games and a prediction for the Monday Night Football game that night. On rare occasions, "Five Good Minutes" runs especially long, such as on June 8, 2005, when NFL agent Drew Rosenhaus's interview ran 11 minutes, forcing the cancellation of the following segment (Role Play), on March 23, 2007, when USC basketball coach Tim Floyd's interview ran 9 minutes as he talked about O. J. Mayo, and on October 22, 2009, as reporter Jackie MacMullan discussed the Magic Johnson/Isiah Thomas controversy, forcing the cancellation of the segment Report Card. On very rare occasions during the show's four-segment format, two separate games were played in lieu of an interview segment. "Game" segments PTI uses a variety of different game-themed segments to talk about other sports news and make predictions. Many games have been played over the years, but as of 2021, four remain in the regular rotation:Mail Time: the hosts read and respond to viewer e-mail that they take out of a talking mailbox. Early in PTI's run, an intern named Josh read the mail to the hosts. When the show changed over to the talking mailbox, Wilbon would express disgust at the mail voice, demanding it be omitted. The mail read on air is no longer written by viewers, but rather staff of the show itself.Toss Up: the two hosts choose between two sides of a topic announced by the producer, Erik Rydholm, over the loudspeaker, and Kornheiser always claims to be the winner.What's The Word? Introduced in 2009. Reali (later Rydholm) read a partial sentence and the hosts each offer an adjective to fill the blank(s) in the sentence. The game often involves made up or hyphenated words, and usually ends with Kornheiser using an adjective to aggrandize himself or berate Wilbon, such as saying he won with a "Korn-ucopia" of words, or that Wilbon "got Wil-bombed."Psychic Hotline sees the hosts answer questions read by staffers, presented as emanating from an on-set crystal ball. Kornheiser dons a stereotypical fortune-teller costume. In addition, on the last show before Thanksgiving, the game segment is usually reserved for the hosts to reveal their choices for Turkeys of the Year, usually people during the last year that have usually done notably stupid acts un-befitting of sport (funny or unfunny). As noted by Wilbon at the beginning of the segment, there are no criteria for the selection process, meaning anyone they see fit is eligible. Over the years, the list has vastly expanded from five to numerous candidates being named during the segment. Among games no longer regularly played:Odds Makers, which is featured weekly and involves the hosts giving their prediction in the form of a percentage about the likeliness of a future event occurring. Reali gives the topics and keeps track of responses on a chalkboard, to which he refers at the end of the segment in order to declare a winner. A selection at either extreme of 100% or 0% is well-respected, with the latter being coined by Reali as "squadoosh". Kornheiser often gets his odds to add up to a certain number or form a pattern. "Odds Makers" is also noted for its feud between Reali and guest host Dan LeBatard, who is often accused of ruining the game.Role Play, featured fairly often but less so than earlier in PTI's run, is referred to as "Heads on Sticks" because the hosts alternate speaking as a sports figure with the person's picture on a stick in front of their faces. After a picture is used, it is usually stuck somewhere in the background of the set until it is replaced. Recently, the sexual nature of the title of this segment has been noticed, as a suggestive musical cue leads the segment as well as Kornheiser telling Wilbon on the first Role Play "Wilbon will give, I will receive". "Over/Under" is a segment that alternated weeks with Odds Makers when they were first introduced, but is now featured only occasionally. The hosts argue over whether a certain sports figure or team will go over or under a certain number (e.g. 40 home runs, 60 wins). Reali also announces the topics for this segment, holding cards up with the statistic, as well. In order to help prevent a "push" (a Wilbon trademark), a decimal figure is sometimes used (e.g. 2.5 touchdowns). "Report Card" saw the hosts assign letter grades to various events suggested by "Professor" Reali. Usually, Kornheiser's name is spelled "Tiny" instead of "Tony" on the Report Card board. In Good Cop, Bad Cop, both hosts dress in police hats and sometimes sunglasses. This segment is featured rarely, and unlike Toss Up, the hosts must take an opposite stand on each topic, saying it is either good or bad. This segment is occasionally renamed "Good Elf, Bad Elf" for the holiday. "Food Chain", where the hosts rank a top five list of teams, returned in December 2008 after a long absence. Kornheiser and Wilbon usually have variations in their lists, with Wilbon posting his as each team is introduced. Wilbon refers to his as "A real man's board!", but when Kornheiser switches to his, he claims, "That's it! That's the list!" Another early segment was called "Love Em or Leave Em" where a female voice cooing "Ooo La-La!" was played before the hosts discussed an individual (whose head was on a stick) they were either "leaving" or "loving" and keeping on their side. A third rare segment is "Fair or Foul". It was introduced on February 28, 2007, after the hosts began repeating the words "fair or foul" for a few episodes because of a viewer email including them earlier in the week. The hosts discuss a variety of topics and decide if each is fair or foul (acceptable or not). If a host believes a topic is "foul", he could threw a yellow football penalty flag and/or blow a whistle. Additionally, during the early run of PTI, a "Doctors" segment was featured occasionally, in which the hosts had to choose which head to cut off and throw in the trash out of two that were stuck together. The hosts dressed up as doctors for this segment, using coats and assorted accessories. In "Too Soon?", Reali asks the hosts if it's too soon for a certain sports situation to possibly occur. In November 2010, a new game entitled "Something or Nothing?" was created. In this game, Reali asked Tony and Mike if a recent sports event was significant (Something) or insignificant (Nothing). After both hosts gave their answers, Reali, through uncertain logic, determined who was correct. "Too Soon" and "Something or Nothing" were played rarely. (In lieu of "Something or Nothing", the hosts will occasionally base a headline debate on whether a story is "a big deal, little deal, or no deal".) Finally, a "time-machine" game was played once in 2005 and never returned. Happy Time The hosts send out a "Happy Birthday", a "Happy (or in some cases, Not-So-Happy) Anniversary", and a "Happy Trails" (acknowledging a firing, injury, retirement, or such). If the "Happy Trails" segment covers a death, the background music goes silent and the hosts get serious to remember the person who died. Errors and omissions Any factual errors or omissions are swiftly rectified before the show plunges into its final 60–90 seconds. Big Finish From the start of the series until July 2005 and then again since August 2009, the show ends with the Big Finish, in which the hosts alternate quick takes on a list of roughly half a dozen final topics, usually ending with Wilbon answering which telecast of a pair posed by Kornheiser he will watch that evening, or predicting the outcome of a game to be played. The hosts then give their standard signoffs: Kornheiser: We're out of time; we'll try to do better next time. I'm Tony Kornheiser. Wilbon: And I'm Mike Wilbon. Same time tomorrow (or 'Have a great weekend'), knuckleheads. The half-hour broadcast concludes with Kornheiser waving a small Canadian flag while Wilbon mentions their podcast and pitches the show over to the SportsCenter studio. According to Kornheiser, he first waved the flag and said "Goodnight, Canada" after an associate director told him that the additional PTI segment on SportsCenter did not air in Canada. Kornheiser made the routine into a trademark sign-off and continued even after TSN added the extra segment to its early-evening edition of SportsCentre. If a scant few seconds remain Kornheiser will often offer up a “shout-out” during the show's final seconds, typically to friendly golf partners, a gift received from a viewer, or a plug for a restaurant or company he had recently received good service from. SportsCenter segment From July 25, 2005, through sometime in 2011, the format of the show was altered to merge the final part of the show with the beginning of the 6:00 p.m. ET SportsCenter. Segment 4 would consist of Happy Time, followed by Errors, then the hosts giving shout-outs, as well as their recommendations for television viewing for the night as the last discussion segment of the show before SportsCenter. Wilbon usually chooses a sporting event, while Kornheiser will often opt for pop-culture based programming. After the opening segment of SportsCenter (normally 10–14 minutes), PTI returned to debate an additional sports-related topic, then end with The Big Finish and the typical goodbyes. For the re-air on ESPN2, the show would move straight to the post-SportsCenter topic after the third commercial break, skipping segment 4. According to Nielsen ratings, PTI paired with Around the Horn combined to average more viewers than SportsCenter. During football season, Monday editions of PTI used to air in the former (30-minute) format, with no shoutouts or SportsCenter segment. Until midway through the 2008 season the show also took place at the Monday Night Football host stadium as Kornheiser was a part of the Monday broadcast team; after that Kornheiser hosted from an undisclosed location in the host city while Wilbon hosted from the PTI studios in Washington. After Kornheiser's departure from Monday Night Football after the 2008 season PTI reverted to its normal format for the 2009 football season after the first week of Monday Night Football, with Wilbon tossing to the NFL Countdown crew rather than to SportsCenter.. The show has since reverted to its original format where The Big Finish closes the show, though Kornheiser usually still offers shoutouts at the very end of the show. Wilbon and Kornheiser still have their additional debate as a part of SC, but it is no longer treated as a formal part of PTI. Running gags The longevity and popularity of the show has led to numerous running jokes between Wilbon and Kornheiser that longtime viewers will recognize. Some of these include such gags as The Bald Brotherhood, Blowed Out, (He's) Ya Boy, Beatdown!, Strugg-a-ling, The Yanks and the Sawks!, Choking Dawgs!, The Penguin Dance, Kornheiser's I-95 Bias, The Wilbon Power Rankings, Let Me Axe You Something, Uranus, Playoffs? Playoffs?, Ya Gotta Get Low, Bulls Corner, Drew Breeees, Washington "Natinals" (purposely mispronounced as such), Good Night Canada, Ball/Puck Night!, The Lig, Tony's "Population Theory", and The Trampoline Bear. In addition, for the first 3½ years of the show, Kornheiser only hosted a few shows away from the studio, with Wilbon during the week of Super Bowl XXXVI. Meanwhile, Wilbon has hosted many shows at the location of a sporting event he was attending. This has resulted in much teasing of Kornheiser by Wilbon, including Kornheiser's fear of flying. Finally, on March 27, 2006, Kornheiser for the first time hosted the show away from the studio while Wilbon remained back at the set, as Kornheiser was in Orlando, Florida, covering the NFL owners meetings. For the first time in November 2006, Kornheiser and Wilbon "chatted split-screen" from two different locations away from Washington, D.C. Usually during Report Card''', Tony Kornheiser's name is spelled as "Tiny" instead of "Tony". Another common gag is during games such as Report Card and Odds Makers, Dan Le Batard's name will often be Don, rather than Dan. PTI in other media The short-lived CBS show Listen Up was based on the life of Tony Kornheiser. In it, the main characters Tony Kleinman (Jason Alexander) and Bernie Widmer (Malcolm-Jamal Warner) co-hosted an off-beat sports show titled "Listen Up!" On the day Listen Up! debuted, Warner and Alexander appeared in character on PTIs intro. Kornheiser and Wilbon appeared as themselves on PTI in the 2004 film Mr. 3000, including doing a Role Play segment with Kornheiser posing as Stan Ross (Bernie Mac) at one point. On February 8, 2006, it was announced that Tony Kornheiser would join Mike Tirico and Joe Theismann in the broadcast booth during Monday Night Football beginning in the 2006 NFL season. Kornheiser continued to host PTI, and Wilbon joined him on the road as they broadcast PTI each Monday from the site of the MNF game, and there has also been an extra PTI segment inserted during halftime of ESPN's Monday night games (although in 2008, Wilbon stayed in the D.C. studios, on many Mondays).PTI was featured in EA Sports video games due to the contract between ESPN and EA. The first game to have the feature is NBA Live 07 for the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3. Wilbon is a frequent guest on Kornheiser's eponymous podcast. On October 8, 2010, South Park spoofed PTI in the Season 14 episode "Poor and Stupid". When Wilbon is on camera you can see the cut outs of their likeness in the background. On October 30, 2010, SportsNation did their entire 1 hour show in the style of PTI. At the end of the show Tony Reali ripped the show in a 1-minute rant. On February 18, 2012, Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil featured Wilbon and Kornheiser as the local policemen with a nod to their good cop/bad cop PTI segment. From 2011 to 2012, The Onion had a parody of PTI, "Get Out Of My Face" (aka "GOOMF").PTI was featured in the 2015 movie Creed. Guest hosts Over the history of the series, more than 30 guest hosts have stepped in whenever Kornheiser or Wilbon (or both) was absent. The current regular guest hosts are Frank Isola ("Fill-in Frank"), replacing Kornheiser, and Pablo S. Torre, replacing Wilbon; Mina Kimes and Dominique Foxworth have also made appearances in 2022. All four are regulars on Around The Horn. Dan Le Batard of The Miami Herald (who was always introduced by his co-host of the day, and marked his first appearance on camera with a trademark "BAM!!") co-hosted frequently before launching his own ESPN series from the same production team, Highly Questionable., and occasionally afterwards, until leaving ESPN in 2021. Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe and Around The Horn was the show's first regular guest host. ATH panelists J. A. Adande, Kevin Blackistone, Tim Cowlishaw, Israel Gutierrez, Jay Mariotti, Jackie MacMullan, Bill Plaschke and Michael Smith have also all had stints as guest hosts. Others appearing over the years include David Aldridge, Skip Bayless, Jay Bilas, Norman Chad, Mike Golic, Sally Jenkins, Max Kellerman, Tim Kurkjian, Patrick McEnroe, Rachel Nichols, Keith Olbermann, Rick Reilly, Bill Simmons, T.J. Simers, Dan Shaughnessy, Stephen A. Smith, Michele Tafoya, Mike Tirico, Bob Valvano, Ralph Wiley and Jason Whitlock. Kornheiser was absent more than usual during Summer 2006 for medical reasons. During a phone interview on the August 15, 2006 edition of The Dan Patrick Show, Kornheiser explained this absence in most of July by revealing that he was recovering from skin cancer surgery. Influence Multiple commentators have credited PTI with inspiring and laying the groundwork for a number of successful TV sports debate shows, including Around the Horn and First Take. Cast Tony Kornheiser (2001–Present) Michael Wilbon (2001–Present) Tony Reali (2001–2014) Other versions Starting in the 2006 NFL season, Kornheiser and Wilbon began hosting PTI from the stadium that was hosting the Monday Night Football game. The following season, they began staging a live 3-topic, 3-minute version of the show during halftime of the game. In 2004, Crackerjack Television started producing an Australian version of the show, which airs weekly on the Australian ESPN channel and features former Australian Rules footballer Sam Kekovich and radio and television broadcaster Russell Barwick. ESPN Australia also broadcasts the American version of PTI editions before SportsCenter. In August 2010, ESPN's British channel (now BT Sport ESPN) debuted a British version of PTI. The show was hosted by Mark Chapman and Steve Bunce. The ESPN Deportes show Cronómetro (Spanish for "stopwatch") is modeled after PTI and Sports Reporters, in that it features personalities talking about sports subjects for a set amount of time. Unlike PTI, there are four panelists instead of two, and segments such as Role Play are not used. Five Good Minutes is used as a discussion of one subject between the four analysts. ESPN Brasil also has a version of Cronómetro called É Rapidinho'' (rough translation from Portuguese: "It's Fast"). Bibliography References External links Official Site Podcasts from ESPN.com Australian Pardon the Interruption Pardon the Interruption on Twitter Podcast about Pardon the Interruption by James Andrew Miller ESPN original programming American sports television series 2001 American television series debuts 2000s American television series 2010s American television series 2020s American television series Sirius XM Radio programs Television shows filmed in Washington, D.C. 2000s American television talk shows 2010s American television talk shows 2020s American television talk shows

424673

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20House%20Fellows

White House Fellows

The White House Fellows program is a non-partisan federal fellowship established via executive order by President Lyndon B. Johnson in October 1964. The fellowship is one of America’s most prestigious programs for leadership and public service, offering exceptional Americans first-hand experience working at the highest levels of the federal government. The fellowship was founded based upon a suggestion from John W. Gardner, then the president of Carnegie Corporation and later the sixth secretary of health, education, and welfare. White House fellows spend a year working as a full-time, paid fellow to senior White House staff, cabinet secretaries, and other top-ranking government officials. Fellows also participate in an education program consisting of roundtable discussions with leaders from the private and public sectors. In some years, Fellows may also have the opportunity to study U.S. policy in action domestically, and potentially internationally. The selection process is very competitive and fellowships are awarded on a strictly non-partisan basis. Each year after the application period closes, the staff of the President's Commission on White House Fellowships (PCWHF) processes the applications and former fellows screen the applications to identify approximately one hundred of the most promising candidates. These selected individuals are then interviewed by several regional panels, which are composed of prominent local citizens. Based on the results of these interviews, the regional panelists and the director of the PCWHF select approximately thirty candidates to proceed as national finalists. Of the approximately 1,000 applications received, the President's Commission on White House Fellowships will interview those finalists and recommend between eleven and nineteen individuals to the president for a one-year appointment as fellows. Selected civilians serve as Schedule A presidential appointees, while military members will be assigned to duty at the President's Commission on White House Fellowships, 712 Jackson Place, Washington, D.C. Once fellows complete their year of service, they join hundreds of other fellows as alumni of the program. The White House Fellows Foundation and Association is the organization that represents the White House Fellows alumni efforts, leadership events and fundraising activities. Demographics White House fellows come from a variety of backgrounds. The ten universities most frequently attended by White House Fellows are, in order: Harvard, Stanford, West Point, Oxford, MIT, Columbia, the Air Force Academy, the Naval Academy, Berkeley, and Yale. The average age of a fellow is mid-30s. Out of 846 total fellows from 1965 through 2023, 209 women have been selected as White House Fellows, with the proportion of women varying from a low of 7% during the Johnson administration to a high of 43% during the Obama administration. A broad range of career backgrounds are represented. Fellows' professions include physicians, lawyers, teachers, military officers, scientists, non-profit leaders, engineers, CEOs, entrepreneurs, academics, and many more. Undergraduate education Earned bachelor's degree: 100% Attended an Ivy League university: 18% Attended a military academy: 19% Graduated Phi Beta Kappa: 12% Rhodes scholar: 2% Graduate education Earned a graduate degree of any kind: 96% Earned a graduate degree from an Ivy League university: 41% Notable alumni 1965–1966 Tom Johnson; Former Chairman/CEO, CNN, Former Publisher Los Angeles Times 1966–1967 Jane Cahill Pfeiffer; Former Chairman, NBC 1966–1967 Samuel H. Howard; Senior Vice President, Financial Executives Institute; chairman, Federation of American Hospitals; Member of Bipartisan Commission on Medicare under President Bill Clinton; Member of Commission on Social Security under President Ronald Reagan; former National Chairman, Easter Seals 1967–1968 Preston Townley; former CEO, The Conference Board, former Dean, Carlson School of Management University of Minnesota 1967–1968 Timothy E. Wirth; President, United Nations Foundation; Former Under Secretary of State for Global Affairs; former Senator, Colorado 1968–1969 Robert D. Haas; Chairman/CEO, Levi Strauss & Company 1969–1970 Michael H. Armacost; Shorenstein Distinguished Fellow, Asia–Pacific Research Center, Stanford University; former president, The Brookings Institution; former Ambassador to Japan and the Philippines; former Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs 1969–1970 Percy A. Pierre; former Assistant Secretary of the U. S. Army for Research, Development and Acquisition, Acting Secretary of the U.S. Army; President, Prairie View A&M University 1970–1971 Dana G. Mead; former Chairman/CEO, Tenneco, Inc. 1971–1972 Robert C. McFarlane; chairman and CEO, Energy and Communications Solutions; former National Security Advisor to President Ronald Reagan; former Counselor to the U.S. Department of State; former Special Assistant for National Security Affairs to President Gerald Ford; former Military Assistant to Henry Kissinger and Brent Scowcroft 1971–1972 Deanell R. Tacha; Judge, United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit 1972–1973 Luis G. Nogales; President, Nogales Partners; former CEO, United Press International; former president, Univision 1972–1973 Joseph P. Carroll; founding President – Secrétaire Perpetuel, Association du Mécénat de l'Institut; founding President – Secrétaire Perpetuel, The American Friends of the Guimet Foundation; Emeritus Member- Board of Visitors, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbia University; Philanthropist 1972–1973 Colin Powell; former Secretary, U.S. Department of State; former chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff; founding chairman, America's Promise; General, U.S. Army (Ret) 1973–1974 Doris M. Meissner; Senior Fellow, Migration Policy Institute; former Commissioner, Immigration and Naturalization Service 1973–1974 Peter M. Dawkins; Vice Chairman, CitiGroup Private Bank; former Chairman/CEO of Primerica Financial Services, Inc.; Heisman Trophy winner; Brigadier General, U.S. Army (Ret) 1973–1974 Frederick S. Benson III; President, United States – New Zealand Council; former vice president, Weyerhaeuser Company; 1973–1974 Dr Delano Meriwether; Leukemia researcher; Athlete 1974–1975 Roger B. Porter; Professor, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University; Former Assistant for Economic and Domestic Policy to President Ronald Reagan. 1974–1975 Garrey E. Carruthers; President/CEO, Cimarron Health Plan; former Governor of New Mexico 1975–1976 Marshall N. Carter; former Chairman/CEO, State Street Bank & Trust Company 1975–1976 Wesley K. Clark; Chairman/CEO, Wesley K. Clark & Associates; General, U.S. Army (Ret); former Supreme Allied Commander, Europe 1975–1976 Dennis C. Blair; Admiral, U.S. Navy (Ret); former Director of National Intelligence; former president, Institute for Defense Analyses; former Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Command 1976–1977 Lynn A. Schenk; former Chief Aide and Senior Counselor to former California Governor Gray Davis; former Congresswoman, California 1976–1977 Charles A. Ansbacher; Conductor, Boston Landmarks Orchestra 1977–1978 Nelson A. Diaz; Partner, Blank Rome LLP; former City Solicitor, City of Philadelphia; former General Counsel, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 1979–1980 Lincoln Caplan; author, journalist, Truman Capote Visiting Lecturer in Law and Senior Research Scholar in Law at Yale Law School 1979–1980 Victoria Chan-Palay; neuroscientist, University of Zurich Medical School 1979–1980 Anne Cohn Donnelly; former executive director, National Commission for Prevention of Child Abuse 1979–1980 Marsha J. Evans; President/CEO of American Red Cross; former National Executive Director of the Girl Scouts of the USA; Rear Admiral, U.S. Navy (Ret) 1980–1981 Joan Abrahamson; President, The Jefferson Institute; President, Jonas Salk Foundation 1980–1981 Thomas J. Campbell; former U.S. Congressman, California 1980–1981 M. Margaret McKeown; Judge, U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit 1981–1982 Paul V. Applegarth; CEO, Value Enhancement International; former Founding Managing Director, The Emerging Africa Infrastructure Fund; former Founding CEO, The Millennium Challenge Corporation (U.S. government corporation) 1981–1982 Joe L. Barton; U.S. Congressman, Texas 1981–1982 Myron E. Ullman; former CEO, Louis Vuitton Moet Hennessy; former Chairman/CEO, DFS Group, LTD; former Chairman/CEO, R.H. Macy & Company; Chairman & CEO, J.C. Penney 1982–1983 Maj Gen Scott Gration, USAF (Ret) US Special Envoy to Sudan 1982–1983 William L. Roper; Dean, School of Medicine, Vice Chairman for Medical Affairs, and CEO, UNC Health Care system, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 1982–1983 Frank Klotz; Lieutenant General, US Air Force; Assistant Vice Chief of Staff, director Air Force Staff (Ret) 1982–1983 Douglas Kmiec; former U.S. Ambassador to Malta; United States Assistant Attorney General for the Office of Legal Counsel 1983–1984 Elaine Chao; former Secretary, U.S. Department of Transportation; former Secretary, U.S. Department of Labor; former President/CEO, United Way of America; former Director, Peace Corps 1983–1984 Mufi Hannemann; Mayor, City and County of Honolulu 1984–1985 Tom Leppert; Mayor of Dallas; former CEO of Turner Construction Company 1984–1985 Rick Stamberger; President and CEO, SmartBrief 1986–1987 Paul A. Gigot; Editor, Editorial page, The Wall Street Journal 1986–1987 William J. Lennox, Jr.; Lt. General, U.S. Army; Superintendent, United States Military Academy (Ret) 1987–1988 The Honorable Mary Schiavo; Inspector General, U.S. Department of Transportation; Author, Flying Blind, Flying Safe; Attorney 1988–1989 Jeff Colyer, Governor of Kansas, Plastic Surgeon, former representative, Medical Volunteer in Afghanistan, Iraq, Rwanda, Balkans, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, and Nairobi embassy bombing 1988–1989 Charles Patrick Garcia; chairman, Board of Visitors, United States Air Force Academy; Hispanic American leader; former CEO, Sterling Financial Group of Companies; best-selling author of A Message From Garcia and Leadership Lessons of the White House Fellows 1988–1989 Patrick M. Walsh; retired United States Navy Admiral, Former Commander, U.S. Pacific Fleet, Vice Chief of Naval Operations and Blue Angels pilot (Ret) 1990–1991 Samuel D. Brownback; former U.S. Senator, Kansas; former Governor of Kansas 1991–1992 Margarita Colmenares; first Latina engineer at Chevron 1991–1992 Raymond E. Johns, Jr.; General, US Air Force; Commander, Air Mobility Command (Ret) 1992–1993 Honorable Kurt M. Campbell Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia 1992–1993 Robert L. Gordon III Deputy Under-Secretary of Defense, Military Community and Family Policy 1993–1994 Paul Antony; Chief Medical Officer, PhRMA; Commander, U.S. Navy, Flight Surgeon, Electronic Attack Squadron VAQ-209 "Star Warriors"; Adjunct Faculty, George Washington University Medical Center, Dept of Microbiology, Immunology, & Tropical Medicine 1993–1994 Honorable W. Scott Gould Deputy Secretary of Veterans Affairs 1993–1994 Jami Floyd; Degrees in Law from UC Berkeley School of Law and Stanford Law School 1994–1995 Wifredo Ferrer, U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida 1995–1996 Kinney Zalesne, co-author of bestselling book and Wall Street Journal column Microtrends 1996–1997 Brenda Berkman, first female FDNY firefighter 1997–1998 Dr. Sanjay Gupta; CNN Senior Medical Correspondent, neurosurgeon 1997–1998 John Burchett; Former Chief of Staff to Governor Jennifer Granholm 1997–1998 Brad Carson, General Counsel of the Army 1998–1999 Juan M. Garcia;Asst Secretary of the Navy for Manpower, former representative District 32, Texas House of Representatives 2000–2001 Dave Aronberg; Florida State Senator, District 27; Special Prosecutor for Prescription Drug Trafficking, Florida Attorney General 2001–2002 Steve Poizner; California State Insurance Commissioner 2002–2003 Dr. Rajeev Venkayya, Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director for Biodefense 2002–2003 Daniel S. Sullivan; Senator from Alaska 2002–2003 Richard Greco Jr., Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Financial Management and Comptroller) 2004–2006 2004–2005 Jerry L. Johnson, managing director of RLJ Equity Partners, former Special Assistant to the Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld 2004–2005 Louis O'Neill, Ambassador to Moldova (OSCE Mission) 2006–2008 2005–2006 Eric Greitens, Lieutenant Commander in the US Navy and Navy SEAL, Recipient of the Bronze Star, Chairman of the Center for Citizen Leadership, Public Speaker with the Leading Authorities Speakers Bureau; former Governor of Missouri 2005–2006 Robert Reffkin, co-founder and CEO of Compass, Inc. 2006–2007 Wes Moore, Assistant to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, Governor of Maryland 2008–2009 Nicole Malachowski, US Air Force Colonel (Ret), recipient of the Air Medal and first woman to be a pilot with the Thunderbirds 2011–2012 Clay Pell 2011–2012 L. Felice Gorordo; Gorordo served as the White House Fellow to the President's Domestic Policy Advisor Cecilia Muñoz, and worked in the White House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs 2011–2012 Anthony Woods, secretary of the Maryland Department of Veterans Affairs 2013–2014 Elliot Ackerman, served in Marine Corps, five tours of duty in Iraq and Afghanistan. 2015–2016 Lashanda Holmes, first African-American female helicopter pilot for the Coast Guard. 2015–2016 Shereef Elnahal, first Muslim American Cabinet member in New Jersey, serving as Commissioner of the New Jersey Department of Health in the Governor Phil Murphy administration. 2016–2017 Sharice Davids, Congresswoman from Kansas's 3rd congressional district The President's Commission on White House Fellowships The Presidents Commission on White House Fellowships (PCWHF) consists of the program office (the Director, staff, and White House Fellows) and the Commission (the commissioners and their Chairperson). The White House Fellows program is a subunit of the White House Office and is located on the 18 acres of the White House grounds. The Director of the PCWHF is appointed by the President, serves as the Designated Federal Officer for the Commission, and is supported by a team of staff members. The Director is responsible for administering all aspects of the program. The Commission meets twice a year and reports to the President of the United States through the Executive Office of the President. The Commission's responsibility is to recommend candidates to the President for selection as White House Fellows. The commissioners help recruit a diverse group of applicants, screen the applicants, and makes recommendations to the President. Current Commissioners overseeing the White House Fellows Program include: Demetra Lambros, chairwoman and former counsel to President Joe Biden Karen R. Adler, Senior Vice President of The Adler Group Kiran Ahuja, Director of the U.S. Office of Personnel Management Raumesh Akbari, Member of the Tennessee Senate Cordell Carter II, executive director of the Aspen Institute Marco A. Davis, President of the Congressional Hispanic Caucus Institute Shirlethia Franklin, Attorney George E. Gabriel, Vice President at Northern Virginia Community College Robert Hoopes, President at VOX Global Nomi Hussain, Attorney Joseph Patrick Kennedy III, former Congressman for Massachusetts's 4th congressional district Hildy Kuryk, former National Finance Director for Democratic National Committee Deborah Jospin, former Director of AmeriCorps Nicole Malachowski, Air Force Veteran and 2019 inductee into National Women's Hall of Fame Stacey Beth Mindich, Grammy and Tony-winning theatre producer Courtney O’Donnell, former senior staffer in the Obama Administration Katherine Rice, CEO of Rice Advisory Group Ramona Romero, Vice President of Princeton University Jennie Rosenthal, board member at Planned Parenthood Michael Schrum, Political Director at Emerson Collective Kenny Thompson Jr., VP of Corporate Affairs at PepsiCo Linda Whitlock, founder of The Whitlock Group Fidel Vargas, President of Hispanic Scholarship Fund Alfred Yung, Professor of Neuro-Oncology at University of Texas Former Commissioners overseeing the White House Fellows Program include: General Wesley Clark, former NATO commander Tom Brokaw, NBC news Julie Nixon Eisenhower, daughter of President Richard Nixon Tom Daschle, former Senate majority leader John H. Frey, CT State Representative and RNC National Committeeman President Vartan Gregorian, Carnegie Corporation of New York Lieutenant General Claudia J. Kennedy, United States Army Maya Lin, Artist George Muñoz, former President of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation Pierre Omidyar, Founder of eBay Paul Sarbanes, former United States Senator from Maryland President Ruth J. Simmons, Brown University Admiral James Stockdale, Author, Vietnam POW, Medal of Honor (deceased) Laurence Tribe, Harvard constitutional scholar Gaddi H. Vasquez, former Director of the Peace Corps Cindy S. Moelis Janet Eissenstat Directors of the President's Commission on White House Fellowships Rose Vela Elizabeth Pinkerton Jennifer Kaplan Cindy Moelis Janet Eissenstat Jocelyn White Jacqueline Blumenthal James C. Roberts References External links White House Fellows website White House Fellows Foundation and Association website President's Commission on White House Fellowships archives: Barack Obama | George W. Bush | Bill Clinton Presidency of the United States Fellows 1964 establishments in Washington, D.C. Fellowships

424675

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Democratic%20Party%20of%20Germany

National Democratic Party of Germany

The Homeland (), previously known as the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD; ), is a Neo-Nazi and ultranationalist political party in Germany. The party was founded in 1964 as successor to the German Reich Party (, DRP). Party statements also self-identify the party as Germany's "only significant patriotic force". On 1 January 2011, the nationalist German People's Union merged with the NPD and the party name of the National Democratic Party of Germany was extended by the addition of "The People's Union". As a neo-Nazi organization it has been referred to as "the most significant neo-Nazi party to emerge after 1945". The German Federal Agency for Civic Education, or BPB, has criticized the NPD for working with members of organizations which were later found unconstitutional by the federal courts and disbanded, while the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV), Germany's domestic security agency, classifies The Homeland as a "threat to the constitutional order" because of its platform and ideology, and it is under their observation. An effort to outlaw the party failed in 2003, because the government had many informers and agents in the party, some in high position, who had written part of the material used against them. Since its founding in 1964, The Homeland has never managed to win enough votes on the federal level to cross Germany's 5% minimum threshold for representation in the Bundestag; it has succeeded in crossing the 5% threshold and gaining representation in state parliaments 11 times, including one-convocation entry to seven West German state parliaments between November 1966 and April 1968 and two-convocation electoral success in two East German states of Saxony and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern between 2004 and 2011. Since 2016, The Homeland has not been represented in state parliaments. Udo Voigt led The Homeland from 1996 to 2011. He was succeeded by Holger Apfel, who in turn was replaced by Udo Pastörs in December 2013. In November 2014, Pastörs was ousted and Frank Franz became the party's leader. Voigt was elected the party's first Member of the European Parliament in 2014. The party lost the seat in the 2019 European Parliament election. In June 2023, the party renamed itself to after a party vote. History Early history In the 1950s, despite the overall failure of de-Nazification, early right-wing extremist parties in West Germany failed to attract voters away from the moderate government that had presided over Germany's recovery. In November 1964, however, right-wing splinter groups united to form the NPD. One of the four founding members was Adolf von Thadden, who entered politics as a member of the German Right Party and Deutsche Reichspartei before joining The Homeland and serving as its chairman from 1967 to 1971. Owing to von Thadden's effective leadership The Homeland achieved success in the late 1960s, winning local government seats across West Germany. In 1966 and 1967, fuelled by West German discontent with a lagging economy and with the leadership of Chancellor Ludwig Erhard, The Homeland won 15 seats in Bavaria, 10 in lower Saxony, 8 in Hesse, and several other seats. However, The Homeland did not then and has never since received the minimum 5% of votes in federal elections that allow a party to send delegates to the German Parliament. The Homeland came closest to that goal in the 1969 election, when it received 4.3 percent of the vote. Helping pave the way for these NPD gains were an economic downturn, frustrations with the emerging leftist youth counter-culture, and the emergence of a tripartite coalition government among the center-right Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the Christian Social Union (the CDU's present-day sister party), and the center-left Social Democratic Party (SPD). The coalition government had created a vacuum in the traditional political right wing, which The Homeland tried to fill. Additionally, the party benefited from hostility to the growing immigrant population and fears that the government would repudiate claims to the "lost territories" (pre-World War II German territory east of the Oder-Neisse River.) The historian Walter Laqueur has argued that The Homeland in the 1960s cannot be classified as a neo-Nazi party. Yet, when the coalition fell apart, around 75 percent of those who had voted for The Homeland drifted back to the center-right. During the 1970s, The Homeland went into decline, suffering from an internal split over failing to get into the German Parliament. The issue of immigration spurred a small rebound in popular interest from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s, but the party only saw limited success in various local elections. Recent history In September 2019, The Homeland politician Stefan Jagsch was elected as representative of Altenstadt-Waldsiedlung. The unanimous election of The Homeland politician by the local council led to irritation and horror in other parties, such as Angela Merkel's Christian Democratic Union (CDU), the center-left Social Democrats (SPD), and the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP), whose local council members had voted for Jagsch. Electoral history Since its founding in 1964, The Homeland has only won seats in regional assemblies. Its successes in state parliaments can be grouped into two periods: the late 1960s (1966 in Hesse; 1967 in Bremen, Lower Saxony, Rhineland-Palatinate, and Schleswig-Holstein; and 1968 in Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria), and former East Germany since reunification (2006 and 2011 in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, 2004 and 2009 in Saxony). In the 2004 state election in Saxony, The Homeland won 9.2% of the overall vote. After the 2009 state election in Saxony, The Homeland sent eight representatives to the Saxony state parliament, having lost four representatives since the 2004 election. The Homeland lost their representation in Saxony at the 2014 state election. They also lost all representation in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern at the 2016 state election. The Homeland maintained a non-competition agreement with the German People's Union (DVU) between 2004 and 2009. The third nationalist-oriented party, the Republicans (REP), has so far refused to join this agreement. However, Kerstin Lorenz, a local representative of the Republicans in Saxony, sabotaged her party's registration to help The Homeland in the Saxony election. In the 2005 federal elections, The Homeland received 1.6 per cent of the vote nationally. It garnered the highest per cent of votes in the states of Saxony (4.9 per cent), Thuringia (3.7 per cent), Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (3.5 per cent) and Brandenburg (3.2 per cent). In most other states, the party won around 1 percent of the total votes cast. In the 2006 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern state election, The Homeland received 7.3% of the vote and thus achieved state representation there, as well. The Homeland had 5,300 registered party members in 2004. Over the course of 2006, The Homeland processed roughly 2,000 party applications to push the membership total over 7,200. In 2008, the trend of a growing number of members has been reversed and the party's membership is estimated at 7,000. In the 2014 European elections, Udo Voigt was elected as the party's first Member of the European Parliament. 2001–2003 banning attempt In 2001, the federal government, the Bundestag, and the Bundesrat jointly attempted to have the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ban The Homeland. The court, the highest court in Germany, has the exclusive power to ban parties if they are found to be "anti-constitutional" through the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. However, the petition was rejected in 2003 after it was discovered that a number of the Homeland's inner circle, including as many as 30 of its top 200 leaders were undercover agents or informants of the German secret services, like the federal Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. They include a former deputy chairman of the party and author of an anti-Semitic tract that formed a central part of the government's case. Since the secret services were unwilling to fully disclose their agents' identities and activities, the court found it impossible to decide which moves by the party were based on genuine party decisions and which were controlled by the secret services in an attempt to further the ban. The court determined that so many of the party's actions were influenced by the government that the resulting "lack of clarity" made it impossible to defend a ban. "The presence of the state at the leadership level makes influence on its aims and activities unavoidable," it concluded. Horst Mahler (The Homeland), a former member of the far-left terrorist organisation Red Army Faction, defended The Homeland before the court. In May 2009, several state politicians published an extensive document which they claim proves the Homeland's opposition to the constitution without relying on information supplied by undercover agents. This move was intended to lead up to a second attempt to have The Homeland banned. Merger with DVU At the 2010 NPD party conference at Bamberg it was announced that the party would ask its members to approve a merger with the German People's Union (DVU). After the merger on 1 January 2011, the combined party briefly used the name NPD – Die Volksunion (NPD - The People's Union). Between 2004 and 2009 the two parties had agreed not to compete against each other in elections. However, on 27 January 2011, Munich's Landgericht (regional court) in a preliminary injunction declared the merger null and void. The Green Movement The Homeland has recently supported the green movement. This is one of many strategies the party has used to try to gain supporters. Historically the opposing party the German Greens have fully supported the green movement in Germany. The German Greens group was a successful European ecological group that began in 1980. Kate Connolly who is a correspondent for The Guardian wrote the article: German far-right extremists tap into green movement for support. In the article Connolly explains the opposition between these two political groups pertaining to the green movement. The Artaman league is essential in understanding the green movements history. This was a farming movement that was inspired by the "blood and soil" ruralist ideology adopted from the Nazis. This farming movement affected the Mecklenburg region of Germany during the 19th century. Settlers at this time took advantage of the cheap cost of land in these rural communities. These settlers were in support of the Artaman league and continued to reinforce the ideology. The NDP's plans are to take the ecological movement back from the German Greens group. Connolly spoke to different farmers, organizations, and employees of the government to represent the different perspectives of the ecological movement. Hans-Gunter Laimer a farmer who ran for election for The Homeland mentions his frustration that the German Greens groups has dominated the organic farming market for too long. He has also been linked to other German groups specifically Umwelt and Aktiv. Both political parties are concerned with the ways they are in opposition to one another. The Homeland supporters of the green movement are in favour of local produce. However, they are against GMOS, pesticides, and intensive livestock. Organisations involved in the farming industry have lost consumers because they are not able to state what the political views of the farmers products are to the consumer. For example, BioPark is an organic cultivation organisation with a vetting process to certify organic farmers. The vetting process is strictly based on cultivation methods and not on political affiliations. BioPark has lost costumers because left-leaning supporters worry buying local organic produce is supporting the far-right extremist. The department of rural enlightenment has supported the importance of distinguishing between these two political parties. The department created a brochure called "Nature Conservation Versus Right-wing Extremist". The brochure was created in order to help consumers distinguish from the far-right extremists. Other representatives from the government have spoken on this divide. For example, Connolly mentions a representative of the Centre for Democratic culture in Mecklenburg who chose to stay anonymous in order to protect themself. The representative stated the goal of the NDP is to build bridges between citizens. The NDP is strategic in the way they are going about this in a subtle quite manner. The result the NDP is trying to achieve is to reinforce the division between the two political parties for when NDP no longer becomes associated with politics. World War II and Holocaust commemoration controversies In 2005, the Landtag of Saxony held a minute of silence for the victims of Nazi Germany. Holger Apfel, leader of The Homeland in Saxony and deputy leader of the party nationwide, boycotted the remembrance along with 11 other NPD politicians and staged a walkout from the Landtag chamber. He also gave a speech in which he demanded a moment of silence be held for the victims of the bombing of Dresden in 1945 and called the Allies of World War II "mass murderers", stating that "Today we in this parliament are taking up the political battle for historical truth, and against the servitude of guilt of the German people... The causes of the holocaust bombing of Dresden have nothing to do with either September 1 1939 or with January 30 1933." Apfel's speech caused politicians from other parties in the Landtag to walk out in protest. Udo Voigt voiced his support for Apfel's and reiterated the statement, which some controversially claimed was a violation of the German law which forbids Holocaust denial. However, after a judicial review, it was decided that Voigt's description of the Allied bombing of Dresden as a "holocaust" was an exercise of free speech and "defamation of the dead" was not the purpose of his statement. In 2009, The Homeland joined the Junge Landsmannschaft Ostdeutschland in a demonstration on the anniversary of the bombing of Dresden in World War II. Roughly 6,000 people came to participate in the event. Activism and controversy The NPD's strategy has been to create "nationally liberated zones" and circumvent its marginal electoral status by concentrating on regions where support is strongest. In March 2006, musician Konstantin Wecker tried to set up an in-school anti-fascist concert in Halberstadt, Saxony-Anhalt two weeks before the state elections. The Homeland argued that because of politics, the date and the in-school venue, the concert "was an unacceptable form of political campaigning." In protest, The Homeland vowed to buy the tickets and turn up en masse at Wecker's show, which led local authorities to cancel the event. The Social Democrats and the Greens were outraged by the decision, which the Central Council of Jews in Germany criticized as "politically bankrupt". The Homeland was going to sponsor a march through Leipzig on 21 June 2006, as the 2006 World Cup was going on. The party wanted to show its support for the Iranian national football team, which was playing in Leipzig, and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. However, The Homeland decided against the demonstration; only a counter-demonstration took place that day, in support of Israel. During the World Cup, the party's web site stated that due to the prevalence of people of non-German descent on the Germany national football team, the team "was not really German". Later in 2006, the party designed leaflets, which said "White – not just the color of a jersey! For a true National team!" This leaflet was never mass-distributed, but copies were confiscated during a raid on the NPD's headquarters, when authorities had been hoping to find material linking the party to Nazism. Patrick Owomoyela was later informed about the poster after it was noted that the image depicted a footballer wearing a white jersey with Owomoyela's number on it. Owomoyela, of Nigerian descent, had played for the Germany national team in the years before the World Cup and proceeded to file a lawsuit against the party. The party was able to delay the procedures but in April 2009 three party officials (Udo Voigt, Frank Schwerdt and Klaus Beier) were sentenced for Volksverhetzung (Voigt and Beier to 7 months on probation, Schwerdt to 10 months on probation). In November 2008, shortly after the 2008 United States presidential election, The Homeland published a document entitled "Africa conquers the White House" which stated that the election of Barack Obama as the first African-American President of the United States was the result of "the American alliance of Jews and Negroes" and that Obama aimed to destroy the United States' "white identity". The Homeland claimed, "A non-white America is a declaration of war on all people who believe an organically grown social order based on language and culture, history and heritage to be the essence of humanity" and "Barack Obama hides this declaration of war behind his pushy sunshine smile." The Homeland also stated that the extensive support for Obama in Germany "resembles an African tropical disease." In September 2009, another incident involving The Homeland and a football player of the Germany national team was reported. In a television show of a regional channel, NPD spokesman Beier called midfielder Mesut Özil a "Plaste-Deutscher" ("Plastic German" or "ID Card German"), meaning someone who is not born German, but becomes German by naturalisation, particularly for certain benefits. The German Football Association announced that they would immediately file a lawsuit against The Homeland and their spokesman, if requested by Özil. During the Gaza War in 2009, The Homeland planned a "Holocaust" vigil for Gaza in support of the Palestinians. Charlotte Knobloch, the head of the Central Council of Jews in Germany, said "joint hatred of everything Jewish is unifying neo-Nazis and Islamists." Knobloch claimed German-Palestinian protestors "unashamedly admitted" that they would vote for The Homeland during the next election. In 2009, The Homeland hung anti-Polish posters with slogan "Polen-Invasion Stoppen" ("Stop the Polish invasion") in Dresden and Görlitz. Mayor of Görlitz and then Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, condemned the posters. In April 2009, the party was fined 2.5 million euros for filing incorrect financial statements, resulting, according to German broadcaster Deutsche Welle, in "serious financial trouble" for its administration. On 23 September 2009, four days before the federal elections, German police raided the Berlin headquarters of The Homeland to investigate claims that letters sent from The Homeland to politicians from immigrant backgrounds incited racial hatred. The Homeland leader in Berlin defended the letters saying that "As part of a democracy, we're entitled to say if something doesn't suit us in this country." 2011 banning attempt In 2011, authorities were reportedly trying to link the party, and specifically 30-year-old national organization director Patrick Wieschke, to the so-called "Zwickau terrorist cell". This raised the possibility of another effort to outlaw the party. The cell had been implicated in a string of murders and the November robbery of a savings bank in Eisenach. Authorities were also pursuing a gun case against Ralf Wohlleben, former deputy chairman of the party's branch in Thuringia, though the latter case was reportedly unlikely to translate into a national-level challenge to the party's legal standing. The likelihood of success of renewed banning attempts has been questioned, given the Office for the Protection of the Constitution has over 130 informants in the party, some in high positions, raising the question of whether the party is effectively controlled by the government. 2012 Thor Steinar clothing controversy In June 2012, several NPD members of Saxony's parliament attended the parliament's sittings wearing clothing from Thor Steinar, a clothing brand that is popular amongst neo-Nazis; the legislature responded by saying that such provocative clothing was not permitted to be worn in the parliament and demanded that The Homeland's members remove and replace their attire; The Homeland's members refused, resulting in the members being expelled from the parliament and banned from attending the next three parliamentary sittings. The Homeland members denied accusations that they wore the shirts as a deliberate provocation. 2012 banning attempt German officials tried to outlaw the party again in December 2012, with the interior ministers of all 16 states recommending a ban. The Federal Constitutional Court is yet to vote on the recommendation. In March 2013 the Merkel government said it would not try to ban the NPD. 2016 banning attempt German officials again tried to outlaw The Homeland by submitting a request to the Federal Constitutional Court in 2016. On 17 January 2017, the second senate of the Federal Constitutional Court rejected the attempt to outlaw the party. The reasoning behind the decision was that the NPD's political significance is virtually nonexistent at both the state and federal levels and that as such, the party had no chance of posing a significant threat to the constitutional order. It was also reasoned that outlawing the party would not change the mindset and political ideology of its members and supporters, who in the event of a ban could simply form a new movement under a different name. However, the Court also openly acknowledged that NPD is unconstitutional based on its manifesto and ideology, citing "links to neo-Nazism" and that "anti-semitism was a structural element of the party ideology" in its reasoning. The Court also indirectly suggested that state grants or other financial contributions should not be given to such parties to further their unconstitutional cause. This prompted calls by the public for the proposal of a constitutional amendment which would forbid unconstitutional parties' financing to the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. The proposal was criticised by the interior policy spokesman of Die Linke, who claimed that such a constitutional amendment could stand to serve as a politically dubious way to remove a political opponent. Law Professor Hans Herbert von Arnim defended the rights of small parties, including the NPD. 2023 renaming to Die Heimat The party renamed itself to Die Heimat ("The Homeland") at the party congress in Riesa in early June 2023. 77% voted in favor of the name change. Platform and ideology The Homeland is a neo-Nazi political party. It calls itself a party of "grandparents and grandchildren" because the 1960s generation in Germany, known for the leftist student movement, strongly opposes the NPD's policies. The NPD's economic program promotes social security for Germans and control against plutocracy. They discredit and reject the "liberal-capitalist system". The Homeland argues that NATO fails to represent the interests and needs of European people. The party considers the European Union to be little more than a reorganisation of a Soviet-style government of Europe along financial lines. Although highly critical of the EU, as long as Germany remains a part of it, The Homeland opposes Turkey's incorporation into the organisation. Voigt envisions future collaboration and continued friendly relations with other nationalists and European nationalist parties. The Homeland is strongly anti-Zionist, frequently criticizing the policies and activities of Israel. The Homeland's platform asserts that Germany is larger than the present-day Federal Republic, and calls for a return of German territory lost after World War II, a foreign policy position abandoned by the German government in 1990. In the early 21st century, long-standing efforts to ban the party were renewed. The 2005 report of the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution contains the following description: The party continues to pursue a "people's front" of the nationalists [consisting of] the NPD, DVU, and forces not attached to any party, which is supposed to develop into a base for an encompassing 'German people's movement'. The aggressive agitation of The Homeland unabashedly aims towards the abolition of parliamentary democracy and the democratic constitutional state, although the use of violence is currently still officially rejected for tactical reasons. Statements of The Homeland document an essential affinity with Nazism; its agitation is racist, antisemitic, homophobic, revisionist, and intends to disparage the democratic and lawful order of the constitution. International connections Voigt has held meetings with various proponents of white nationalism, including David Duke, a US white nationalist, author, politician, and activist. Between 1989 and 1992, the International Third Position began to ally itself with The Homeland in Germany and Forza Nuova in Italy. They have been in contact with Youth Defence, the Irish anti-abortion group, since 1996. Justin Barrett, former leader of Youth Defence and current President of the National Party of Ireland, has spoken at their events in Passau in 2000.The Homeland has also links with the Romanian neo-Legionary group Noua Dreaptă. Connections with Croatian far right The party also has connections with far-right parties and politicians in Croatia. In 2017, according to the claims of Dražen Keleminec, president of the marginal far-right Autochthonous Croatian Party of Rights (A-HSP), The Homeland party member Alexander Neidlein took part in the party's march to show their support and declare allegiance to then-recently elected American president Donald Trump. During the march, the party's members, dressed in black uniforms, were waving flags of The Homeland and the United States while shouting the Ustasha salute "Za dom spremni". The following day, the U.S. embassy in Zagreb reacted by publishing a statement in which they strongly condemned the march and rejected any attempts to connect the United States with Ustasha ideology. In 2018, Croatian far-right MP Željko Glasnović took part in the party congress in the town of Büdingen, expressing his support for them. Youth wing Junge Nationalisten (short: JN; until 13 January 2018 Junge Nationaldemokraten) is the official youth organization of the right-wing extremist party founded in 1967. According to The Homeland's statutes, the JN are an "integral part" of the party. The JN are committed to the basic program of the Heimat, but represent these points of view much more aggressively, which is evident both during demonstrations and in political style. They are observed by the Office for the Protection of the Constitution and classified as right-wing extremists. Their regular publication is called The Activist. In this central organ, under the heading "The Federal Leader Has the Word", they describe themselves as "representatives of the national revolutionary wing within the NPD". The youth organization criticizes those in The Homeland who have made the "fight for parliaments" the "most important goal". Instead, "resistance and criticism are appropriate, since these developments run the risk of gradual adjustment and bourgeoisie". The JN describe themselves as anti-imperialist. Among other things, they call for the withdrawal of German troops from Afghanistan, describe Israel as the "enemy of all peoples", and refer to it as becoming a parasitic state. The JN maintains active contacts with a network of neo-Nazi organizations across Europe, like the Nordic Resistance Movement whose Finnish independence day march it has attended, along with National Corps of Ukraine, Bulgarian National Union, Serbian Action and others. Groups within the party Heimat runs an own "security service" ("Ordungsdienst"). The group is led by the neo-nazi from Lueneburg Manfred Börm. Chairmen of The Homeland Friedrich Thielen 1964–1967 Adolf von Thadden 1967–1971 Martin Mussgnug 1971–1990 Günter Deckert 1991–1996 Udo Voigt 1996–2011 Holger Apfel 2011–2013 Udo Pastörs 2013–2014 Frank Franz 2014–present Election results and current representation Federal Parliament (Bundestag) European Parliament Literature Ackermann, Robert: Warum die NPD keinen Erfolg haben kann – Organisation, Programm und Kommunikation einer rechtsextremen Partei. Budrich, Opladen 2012, . Brandstetter, Marc: Die „neue“ NPD: Zwischen Systemfeindschaft und bürgerlicher Fassade. Parteienmonitor Aktuell der Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung. Bonn 2012 (online) Brandstetter, Marc: Die NPD unter Udo Voigt. Organisation. Ideologie. Strategie (= Extremismus und Demokratie. Bd. 25). Nomos Verlag, Baden-Baden 2013, . Prasse, Jan-Ole: Der kurze Höhenflug der NPD. Rechtsextreme Wahlerfolge in den 1960er Jahren. Tectum-Verlag, Marburg 2010, . Philippsberg, Robert: Die Strategie der NPD: Regionale Umsetzung in Ost- und Westdeutschland. Baden-Baden 2009. apabiz e. V.: Die NPD – Eine Handreichung zu Programm, Struktur, Personal und Hintergründen. Zweite, aktualisierte Auflage. 2008. (online) (PDF; 671 kB) See also Far-right politics in Germany German nationalism Irredentism Politics of Germany List of political parties in Germany Frank Rennicke Frank Franz List of National Democratic Party of Germany politicians References External links Party Platform of The Homeland (PDF) History of the National Democratic Party BBC news: Poll boost for German far right 1964 establishments in West Germany Antisemitism in Germany Anti-Zionism in Germany Eurosceptic parties in Germany Far-right political parties in Germany Fascist parties in Germany German nationalist political parties Nationalist parties in Germany Neo-Nazi political parties in Europe Political parties established in 1964 Anti-immigration politics in Germany Opposition to NATO

424684

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20aviation%20shootdowns%20and%20accidents%20during%20the%20Iraq%20War

List of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War

This list of aviation shootdowns and accidents during the Iraq War includes incidents with Coalition and civilian aircraft during the Iraq War. According to media reports, 129 helicopters and 24 fixed-wing aircraft were lost in Iraq between the 2003 invasion and February 2009. Of these incidents, 46 have been attributed to hostile fire, such as anti-aircraft artillery and surface-to-air missiles. In March 2007, Brig. Gen. Stephen Mundt said that 130 helicopters had been lost in both Iraq and Afghanistan, about a third to hostile fire, and he was concerned that they were not being replaced fast enough. A report published in Aircraft Survivability in Summer 2010 gave a total of 375 U.S. helicopters lost in Iraq and Afghanistan up to 2009. Of these, 70 were downed by hostile fire, while the other 305 losses have been classified as non-hostile or non-combat events. No unmanned aircraft of any type are included in the list below. At least 283 people have died in helicopter crashes since the invasion, and 19 in fixed-wing crashes. Since the beginning of the invasion helicopters were the target of attacks with "aerial improvised explosive devices" or home-made bombs. In early 2007, the U.S. Army announced that the Iraqi insurgent groups had developed a strategy for attacking American helicopters. This was confirmed by documents captured from Iraqi insurgents. U.S. deputy commanding general Jim Simmons said that the average month in 2006 and 2007 saw about 17 attacks against helicopters. Efforts to reduce losses included more training for helicopter pilots and improvements in tactics and aircraft defenses. In the fall of 2007, the U.S. military deployed the more advanced V-22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft. According to the U.S. military, this aircraft flies much higher and faster than helicopters and has six to seven times more survivability than the widely used CH-46. Rotary-wing aircraft 2010 28 July – An Iraqi military Mil Mi-17 helicopter crashes in a sandstorm. All five crew-members are killed. 17 April – A UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter, 95–26648, belonging to the 3-158th Assault Helicopter Battalion, 12th Combat Aviation Brigade crashes on infill about north of Tikrit while executing an 8 ship air assault at night. 1 U.S. service member killed and 3 crew members injured. 21 February – An OH-58 Kiowa helicopter crashes in northern Iraq killing the two pilots on board. 2009 9 November – An OH-58 Kiowa experiences a hard landing north of Baghdad in Saladin Governorate. Two U.S. Army pilots are killed. They were assigned to the 2nd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, 25th Combat Aviation Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, Schofield Barracks. 19 September – One U.S. service member is killed and 12 others injured when a UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter goes down inside of Joint Base Balad. 26 January – Two OH-58 Kiowas collide near Kirkuk while evading enemy fire, killing four soldiers. 2008 15 November – An OH-58 Kiowa Warrior strikes a tower near Mosul killing the 2 pilots. 4 October – Two American UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters collide while trying to land in Baghdad. An Iraqi soldier is killed, and two Iraqis and three Americans injured. The incident is ascribed to mechanical failure. 18 September – A Polish Air Force Mi-24 crashes and is damaged beyond repair in Iraq, the rotary wing airframe was destroyed by explosives. 18 September – A CH-47 Chinook en route to Balad from Kuwait crashes west of Basrah International Airport, killing seven U.S. soldiers. 1 June – A U.S. helicopter crashes south of Baghdad, injuring two soldiers. The type of helicopter is not revealed. 27 March – An Iraqi military Mil Mi-17 helicopter is shot down during heavy fighting in northern Basra. 4 March – An Iraqi military Mil Mi-17 helicopter crashes in a sandstorm south of Baiji (about south of Mosul in northern Iraq), killing an American airman and seven other people. 2007 2007 – Four AH-64 Apache helicopters are destroyed on the ground by Iraqi insurgent mortar fire; the insurgents had made use of embedded coordinates in web-published photographs (geotagging) taken by soldiers to track the exact location of the helicopters. 20 November – A Royal Air Force HC.1 Puma ZA938 crashes. Two SAS troopers die after the troop transporter goes down in an urban area during a covert mission over Baghdad. Two other men from 22 Special Air Service Regiment are seriously injured in the crash although their condition is not thought to be life-threatening. A further seven SAS and three RAF personnel survive the impact and are rescued by Coalition forces. 22 August – An UH-60L Black Hawk 06-27077 crashes in northern Iraq, killing all 14 U.S. soldiers on board. The military says initial findings indicate that the aircraft had experienced a mechanical problem. 14 August – A CH-47D Chinook 89-00171 from B Company, 1–52 Aviation Regiment crashes near the al-Taqaddum air base west of Baghdad, killing five crew on board. 10 August – An U.S. Navy MH-60 "Rescue Hawk" makes a forced landing in Yusufiyah. Two U.S. Army soldiers sustained non-life-threatening injuries. 31 July – An AH-64 Apache goes down after coming under fire in eastern Baghdad. The two crew members are safely extracted. 4 July – An OH-58 Kiowa 95-0002 crashes into power lines in Mosul, killing the pilot and injuring the copilot. 2 July – OH-58D Kiowa 91-0560 from 3–17 Cavalry Regiment is shot down by small arms fire along a canal south of Baghdad, in Babil Governorate. Both pilots are rescued by strapping themselves onto the stub wings of an AH-64 Apache. The helicopter is later destroyed. 29 May – Kiowa 93-0978 from B Troop, 2–6 Cavalry Regiment is shot down between Baqubah and Muqdadiyah with small arms, killing the chopper's two pilots. 15 April – Two British Aérospatiale Puma helicopters are involved in a mid-air collision near Taji, north of Baghdad. Both aircraft crash, with two personnel killed and one seriously injured. 5 April – An UH-60 Black Hawk carrying nine is shot down in Latifiya using anti-aircraft heavy machine guns, 4 were wounded. 1 March – An OH-58D Kiowa makes a hard landing south of Kirkuk, injuring both crewmembers, and becomes entangled in overhanging wires before hitting the ground. Reports had varied whether the crash was due to a mechanical or electronic failure and whether it is shot down. 22 February – An UH-60 Black Hawk crashes in an area north of Baquba City during a clash between gunmen and U.S. troops. 21 February – An UH-60 Black Hawk is hit by RPG and small arms fire north of Baghdad and makes a hard landing; all nine military personnel on board are rescued. 7 February – A CH-46E Sea Knight from HMM-364 is shot down by a shoulder-fired missile in al-Karma, outside Fallujah, killing all seven on board. 2 February – AH-64D Apache 02-5337 from A Company, 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment, 1st Air Cavalry Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division shot down by a combination of gunfire and a shoulder-fired missile, near Taji, killing the two pilots. 28 January – An AH-64D Apache from 4th Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment, 1st Air Cavalry Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, is shot down by hostile fire during the Battle of Najaf, killing the two pilots. 25 January – An UH-60 Black Hawk is shot down by gunfire near Hit. All aboard survive the incident. 20 January – An U.S. Army AH-64 Apache helicopter crashes near Najaf. One soldier is killed. 20 January – An UH-60 Black Hawk from C Company, 1–131 Aviation Regiment is shot down by a combination of several heavy machine guns and a shoulder-fired missile north-east of Baghdad. All 12 crew and passengers on board are killed in the incident. 2006 11 December – A CH-53E Super Stallion 164785 from HMH-465 carrying 21 personnel crashes in brownout conditions in Al Anbar Province, killing 1 and injuring 17. Helicopter was written off. 3 December – A CH-46E Sea Knight from HMM-165 carrying 16 personnel makes an emergency landing on Lake Qadisiyah in Al Anbar Province. Four of the passengers drown in the incident. 6 November – An AH-64D Apache from A Company, 1–82nd Attack Reconnaissance Battalion (ARB) attached to 25th Combat Aviation Brigade crashes north of Baghdad, killing the two pilots. 7 September – A CH-53D Sea Stallion (157146) from HMH-463 makes a nighttime hard landing in Al Anbar Province and is later written off. 8 August – A UH-60 Black Hawk 86-24535 from 82nd AAC (MEDEVAC) attached to 3rd MAW crashes in Anbar, killing two crew members and injuring four. 18 July – A Polish Air Force W-3WA Sokół crashes at an air base in Al Diwaniyah, injuring 4 crew and 3 passengers. 13 July – An AH-64D Apache from 4–4th Aviation Regiment is shot down south of Baghdad. The two pilots survive. 27 May – An AH-1W SuperCobra 164591 from HMLA-169 crashes into Lake Habbaniyah, killing the pilot and a maintenance ground crew member on board. 14 May – An AH-6M Little Bird (OH-6 Cayuse) from the 1–160th SOAR is shot down during combat operations in Yusufiyah, southwest of Baghdad, killing the two crewmen. 6 May – A Westland Lynx AH.7 (Royal Navy) from 847 Squadron is shot down with a SA-14 over Basra, killing five crewmen and crashing into a house. 1 April – An AH-64D Apache from 4–4th Aviation Regiment is shot down southwest of Baghdad, killing the two crewmen. 16 January – An AH-64D Apache 03-5385 from C Company, 1–4th Aviation Regiment is shot down north of Baghdad, killing the two pilots. 13 January – An OH-58D Kiowa 95-0021 from 1–10th Aviation Regiment is shot down outside Forward Operating Base Courage, near Mosul, killing the two pilots. 7 January – A UH-60L Black Hawk 91-26346 from B Company, 1–207th Aviation Regiment crashes near Tal Afar in bad weather, killing 12 people on board. Reports suggest it was not shot down. 2005 26 December – An AH-64D Apache 03-5375 from 1–4th Aviation Regiment collides with another Apache near Baghdad, both crewmembers are killed. Second AH-64 was not destroyed. 2 November – An AH-1W SuperCobra 165321 from HMLA-369 shot down near Ramadi, killing the two pilots. 29 August – An OH-58D #90-00377 from 4th SQDN 3ACR was engaged by enemy fire. TF Freedom pilot killed by SA fire near Tal Afar. The A/C took rounds and the PI was wounded and able to recover but had to make an emergency landing north of the city, he was unable to fly back. A/C was recovered by SP and MTP. 12 August – An AH-64A Apache 90-0442 from C Company, 8–229th Aviation Regiment crashes near Kirkuk, injuring both crewmembers. Helicopter is written off. 19 July – AH-64D Apache 02-5319 from 1–3rd Aviation Regiment crashes in Iraq, injuring the two pilots. Helicopter is written off. 2 July – A CH-47D Chinook 85-24335 from C Company/159th Aviation Brigade destroyed in a fire on the ground at Ramadi Camp. 27 June – An AH-64D Apache from 3–3rd Aviation Regiment is shot down by a shoulder-fired missile near Mishahda, killing the two pilots. 31 May – An Italian AB-412 helicopter crashes near Nasiriyah, killing the four soldiers on board. 26 May – An Kiowa 93-0989 from 1–17th Cavalry Regiment is shot down with small arms near Baquba, killing the two crewmen. 21 May – A CH-47D Chinook 87-00102 from B Company, 4–123rd Aviation Regiment crashes in Iraq due to failure of both engines. Five crewmen injured. Helicopter was blown in-place. 17 April – AH-64D Apache 03-5370 from 4th Squadron, 3d ACR makes hard landing near Baghdad. 3 March – A Westland Lynx mk.8 (Royal Navy) crashes during Gulf exercise. The three crew members survived. The Lynx was repaired and was later deployed to HMS Nottingham. 28 January – An OH-58 Kiowa 96-0019 from 1–7th Cavalry Regiment crashes in Baghdad after hitting electrical wires, killing the two crewmen. 26 January – A CH-53E Super Stallion 164536 from HMH-361 crashed in Al-Anbar province, killing 30 U.S. Marines and one Navy sailor. 2004 15 December – A Polish W-3WA Sokół 0902 from 25 BKP crashes near Karbala due to pilot error; three Polish soldiers are killed and four injured. 9 December – AH-64A Apache 91-0012 from A Company, 1–151st Aviation Regiment hit a UH-60L Black Hawk 82-23668 from N Company/4-278th ACR on the ground at a Mosul base, killing the two Apache pilots and wounding four soldiers on board the Black Hawk. Both helicopters destroyed. 14 November – UH-60A Black Hawk 87-24602-from the 11th Aviation Regiment-Medevac northwest of Baghdad sustained heavy machine gun fire and multiple system malfunctions that required emergency landing at Camp Taji. All nine on board were not injured. 12 November – UH-60A Black Hawk from 1–106th Aviation Regiment was engaged by small arms fire and shot down by an RPG hitting the cockpit while flying at low altitude northeast of Baghdad, wounding three of the four crew members. The severely wounded co-pilot Tammy Duckworth would become a Senator of the United States for Illinois in 2017. 11 November – AH-1W SuperCobra 161021 from HMLA-169 is shot down by RPG and small arms fire near Fallujah. It is destroyed by Iraqi rebel forces, crew recovered intact. 9 November – US OH-58D Kiowa shot down by rocket fire over Fallujah. 16 October – Two OH-58D Kiowas 94-0172 and 97-0130 from 1–25th Aviation Regiment collide near Baghdad, killing two pilots aboard the first craft, and wounding two aboard the other. 23 September – AH-64D Apache 02-5292 from B Company, 1–227th Aviation Regiment, 4th BCT, 1st Cavalry Division crashes near Tallil AB, Iraq when pilot loses control following tail rotor problem. 21 September – UH-60A Black Hawk 87-24579 from A Company, 1–244th Aviation Regiment crashes near Nasiriyah, wounding four crew members. 8 September – CH-46E Sea Knight 153372 Shot down by RPG Fire South of Camp Fallujah, crashes and is burned out near Al-Buaisa. All four crew members injured. 4 September – OH-58D Kiowa (3–17 CAV) shot down over Tal Afar, Iraq; both pilots safe. Incident highlighted in TV Documentary Kiowa Down. 11 August – CH-53E Super Stallion 164782 from HMM-166 (Reinforced) crashes in the Al-Anbar province, killing two Marines and wounding three others. 8 August – Kiowa 96-0015 made emergency landing north of Baghdad after being hit by RPG. Crew unhurt. 5 August – UH-1N Huey 160439 from HMM-166 shot down near Najaf; crew wounded. Helicopter was later written off. 28 July – a USMC AH-1W SuperCobra was hit by ground fire while supporting ground operations in Anbar province, killing the pilot, Lt. Col. David S. Greene. The copilot managed to land the helicopter. 19 July – near Basra, a British HC.1 Aérospatiale Puma XW221 of 33 RAF Squadron crashes, killing one crewman and injuring two others. 24 June – AH-1W SuperCobra 163939 shot down in Fallujah; pilots safe. 12 June – Kiowa 94-0171 from A Company, 1–25th Aviation Regiment crashes north of Baghdad; both pilots safe. 26 April – Kiowa 91-0567 from P Troop, 4th Squadron, 2d ACR made emergency landing at Kut after engine problem and burned out. Both crewmembers safe. 16 April – CH-47D Chinook 92-0301 from C Company/193rd Aviation Brigade (Hawaii Army National Guard) makes hard landing during sandstorm and was later destroyed. Crew memberssafe. 12 April – MH-53M Pave Low 69-5797 of 16th SOW/20th SOS shot down by RPG near Fallujah, three on board are wounded. Helicopter was later destroyed. 11 April – An AH-64D Apache 02-5301 from C Company, 1–227 Aviation Regiment, 4th BCT, 1st Cavalry Division shot down west of Baghdad, killing both pilots. 7 April – OH-58D Kiowa crashes near Baquba after being hit by ground fire; pilots rescued. 30 March – Two AH-1W SuperCobras 163947 and 164595 of HMLA-775 collide near Al Taqaddum, Iraq; pilots rescued. Both helicopters destroyed. 19 March – AH-6J, 25364, 1-160th, shot down in the vicinity of Amiriyah by a MANPADS while conducting precision close air support during day operation. Both pilots rescued by Special Operations forces and teamed up with the operators to hunt and kill the enemy missile shooters. 11 March – CH-46E Sea Knight 153389 from HMM-161 makes hard landing in brownout conditions in Al Anbar province; took additional damage during transportation and later was written off. 25 February – Kiowa 97-0124 crashes in Iraq with 4th Squadron, 3d ACR, after striking electrical wires west of Baghdad, killing the two pilots. 25 January – An OH-58D Kiowa (93-0957) from 3–17 Cavalry Regiment crashes into the Tigris River during a rescue mission, after hitting electrical wires, killing both pilots. 23 January – An OH-58D Kiowa (93-0950) from 3–17 Cavalry Regiment crashes just after take-off outside Mosul, killing both pilots. 13 January – AH-64 Apache from 4th Squadron, 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment shot down near Habbaniyah, pilots rescued. 8 January – A UH-60 Black Hawk (86-24488) from 571st Medical Company (Air Ambulance) shot down near Fallujah, killing 9 crew and passengers. 2 January – An OH-58D Kiowa 90-0370 from 1–17 Cavalry Regiment (assigned to 1–82 Aviation Brigade) shot down near Fallujah, killing a pilot. 1 January – UH-60L Black Hawk 93-26514 from 5–101st Aviation Regiment makes hard landing. 2003 11 December – AH-64D Apache from 1–101st Aviation Regiment crash-lands due to the APU clutch failing and starting a fire in flight and subsequently is burned to the ground south of Mosul. The pilots survived. 9 December – An OH-58 Kiowa helicopter is hit by a rocket-propelled grenade, forcing a crash landing. Both crewmembers survive. 25 November – OH-58D Kiowa 96-0040 crashes after its tail rotor struck ground. 21 November – OH-58D Kiowa 92-0605 from D Troop, 1–17 Cavalry Regiment written off, reason unknown. 15 November – Two UH-60L Black Hawks from 4–101st Aviation Regiment(93-26531) and 9–101st Aviation Regiment(94-26548) collide and crash after one aircraft coming under fire; 6 and 11 soldiers (crew and passengers) on board are killed, respectively, and 5 others on board the first AC are injured in Mosul. 7 November – UH-60L Black Hawk 92-26431 from 5–101 Aviation Regiment shot down by a MANPAD near Tikrit; all four crew, and both passengers from the Department of the Army are killed. 2 November – near Fallujah, CH-47D Chinook 91-0230 of Detachment 1/F Company/106th Aviation Brigade shot down with an SA-7 missile; 16 soldiers killed, 26 wounded. 30 October – AH-64D Apache　00-5211 (ex AH-64A 86–9009) of 6–6th Cavalry Regiment crashes near Balad AAF, Iraq, and burned out. Both crewmembers are safe. 25 October – UH-60L Black Hawk 96-26653 From B co. 3-158 Avn. Regt. of the 12th Avn. BDE crashes and burns out after being hit by an SA-7 missile near Tikrit, 1 soldier injured. 23 October – AH-64D Apache 00-5219 (ex AH-64A 86–8972) from 1–101st Aviation Regiment crashes in Iraq while approaching to land at Kirkuk. The APU clutch failed and started a fire in flight. Aircraft landed safely but fuselage was almost completely burnt through. 13 October – OH-58D Kiowa (93-0991) from C Troop, 1–17th Cavalry Regiment crashes inside Iraq, pilots survive. 7 October – OH-58D Kiowa (92-0578) crashes inside Iraq, pilots survive. 2 September – A soldier is killed as a UH-60L Black Hawk from 2–501st Aviation Regiment rolls over during a nighttime troop insertion southwest of Baghdad. 28 August – CH-47D Chinook 88-0098 from F Company/159th Aviation Brigade written off in Iraq. 14 August – AH64D - 01-05241 (ex AH-64A 87–0507) - IRAQ - C Co, 1stBattalion, 4th Aviation, 4th ID Crashed while performing a maintenance test flight. Cause was the Intermediate Gearbox. Both pilots survived, but had extensive back injuries. The aircraft was cannibalized for parts and used as a trainer for ground personnel to extract downed aviators. 19 June – AH-64A Apache 87-0498 of R Troop, 4th Squadron, 3d ACR makes hard landing following inflight fire. Helicopter is written off. 12 June – AH-64D Apache of 101st Aviation Brigade helicopter shot down near Baghdad, both crewmembers survive. 19 May – CH-46E Sea Knight 156424 of HMM-364 crashes in Al-Hilla, killing four Marines; another Marine drowns trying to rescue the crew. 9 May – UH-60A Black Hawk 86-24507 of 571st Medical Company (AA) crashes into Tigris River, the vicinity of Samarrah, Iraq killing two pilots and crew chief. One more soldier was injured. 6 May – OH-58D Kiowa 94-0163 of N Troop, 4th Squadron, 3d ACR crashes near Al Asad and burns out. One crewmember injured. 30 April – A Marine CH-53E Super Stallion 162486 of HMH-465 crashes near Najaf and burns out. Crew escaped. 14 April – A Marine AH-1W SuperCobra 163940 of HMLA-169 crashes near Samarra, injuring both pilots. Helicopter was later destroyed. 6 April – UH-60 Black Hawk 93-26522 from B Company, 4–101st Aviation Regiment crashes inside Iraq, crew survive. 5 April – AH-1W SuperCobra 161020 of HMLA-267 crashes, killing both pilots. 2 April – A UH-60L Black Hawk (94-26557) of B Company, 2–3rd Aviation Regiment is shot down near Karbala, killing 7 soldiers and injuring 4 more. 31 March – AH-64D Apache 84-24201 of C Company, 1–3rd Aviation Regiment crashes on landing in Iraq, injuring the two pilots. Helicopter was written off. 30 March – UH-1N Huey 160620 of HMLA-169 crashes; three die. 28 March – Two AH-64D Apaches, 97-5032 of A Company and 98-5068 of B Company, 2–101st Aviation Regiment crash in Iraq; one pilot injured. 28 March – OH-58D Kiowa 95-0006 from A Troop, 2–17th Cavalry Regiment crashes in Iraq, pilots survive. 27 March – OH-58D Kiowa 95-0024 from C Troop, 2–17th Cavalry Regiment crashes in Iraq, pilots survive. 26 March – UH-1N Huey 160444 of HMLA-269 makes hard landing in sandstorm and is written off. 23 March – AH-64D Apache 85-25407 from C Company, 1st Battalion, 227th Aviation Regiment, 4th BCT, 1st Cavalry Division shot down during attack on Republican Guard; two pilots taken prisoner. Helicopter was supposedly destroyed by Coalition forces, but Iraqi TV showed an AH-64 being taken to Baghdad on a low loader. 22 March – Two Royal Navy ASaC.7 Sea Kings XV650 'CU-182' and XV704 'R-186' of 849 Squadron/A Flight collide over the Persian Gulf, killing six British crew members and one American. 20 March – CH-46E Sea Knight 152579 of HMM-268 crashes in Kuwait from Iraqi border, killing eight British marines of 42 CDO and four U.S. Marines. 19 March – MH-53M Pave Low 67-14993 of 20th SOS carrying special forces crashes in southern Iraq. No one is killed. The craft was later destroyed to prevent capture. Fixed-wing aircraft 2008 26 November 2008 – A US Army C-23 Sherpa from 2–641 Aviation Brigade made a wheels up landing at al-Kut, while operating with Task Force 34. None of the four-man crew and seven passengers were injured. 12 November 2008 – A USAF F-16 caught fire on takeoff. The pilot survived. 27 June 2008 – A C-130 Hercules is damaged beyond repair in an emergency landing northeast of Baghdad International Airport. All 38 on board were transported to nearby Sather Air Base for medical evaluation. The aircraft was significantly damaged in the landing, and was deemed a write-off and destroyed. 7 January 2008 – Two F/A-18 fighter jets operating from USS Harry S. Truman crashed during an Iraq-related mission in the Gulf. All three pilots were rescued. 2007 16 July 2007 – A US F-16, serial 92–3901, from the 35th FW crashed. The pilot survived. The crash was attributed to under-inflation of the landing gear tires. 15 June 2007 – A US F-16, serial 89–2031, from the Ohio ANG crashed on takeoff at night. The pilot, Maj. Kevin Sonnenberg, was killed. The cause was not hostile fire and is believed to be pilot spatial disorientation. 12 February 2007 – A British C-130 Hercules is destroyed by coalition forces after being heavily damaged in a night landing in southern Iraq; two are injured. The aircraft was struck by four improvised explosive devices placed by insurgents, upon landing at a temporary runway in Maysaan Province. 2006 27 November 2006 – F-16CG, serial 90–0776, from the 524th Fighter Squadron crashes near Fallujah while on a low-altitude ground-strafing run. The pilot, Major Troy Gilbert, was killed. His body was taken by insurgents. Partial remains were recovered in 2006 and in September 2012. The final remains were recovered in 2016. 2005 2 May 2005 – Two F/A-18C Block 39/40 Hornet fighter jets of VMFA-323, BuNos 164721 and 164732, collide over south-central Iraq, during a sortie from USS Carl Vinson, killing the two pilots. 30 January 2005 – A British C-130K Hercules C.1P XV179 is shot down north of Baghdad, killing 9 Royal Air Force crew and one British soldier. 2004 29 December 2004 – An American Special Forces MC-130H Hercules (c/n 382–5054, 16th SOW, 15th SOS) is written off while landing on Q-West airfield near Mosul, Iraq, though no one was hurt. The pilot was unaware a large pit had been dug in the runway. 2003 12 June 2003 – F-16CG A United States Air Force F-16C Block 40B Fighting Falcon 88-0424 of 388th FW/421st FS crashes near Baghdad due to fuel starvation. The pilot ejected safely. 8 April 2003 – A-10A 78-0691 of 124th Wing/190th FS shot down by Iraqi Roland SAM; pilot survived. 7 April 2003 – F-15E 88-1694/SJ of 4th FW/335th FS crashed on a combat bombing mission near Tikrit, Iraq. Both the pilot and weapon systems officer (WSO) were killed. 2 April 2003 – F/A-18C Block 46 Hornet 164974 of VFA-195 is shot down by a US Patriot missile, killing the pilot. 1 April 2003 – F-14A Tomcat 158620 'NF-104' of VF-154 crashes; the pilots survive. 1 April 2003 – AV-8B+(R) Harrier 165391 of HMM-263 crashes off USS Nassau; the pilot was rescued. 1 April 2003 – S-3A Viking 160584 of VS-38 crashes off USS Constellation; two pilots survive. 23 March 2003 – Tornado GR.4A ZG710 'D' of 13 Squadron is shot down by a US Patriot missile, killing the pilot and navigator, both from 9 Squadron. Other aircraft Several civilian and other aircraft have been shot down or crashed in Iraq as well: 2009 17 July 2009 – An MD-530F contracted to Xe (formerly Blackwater) crashes at Butler Range outside Baghdad. Two pilots died. The cause was not known. 2008 13 November 2008 – An Antonov An-12 crashes after takeoff from Al Asad Air Base, killing all 7 crew members. 2007 7 March 2007 – A privately contracted Mil Mi-8 helicopter from Georgia crashes due to technical failures, injuring its three Ukrainian crewmembers, and several Iraqi passengers. 31 January 2007 – A Blackwater USA Bell 412 helicopter is shot down under fire near Karma during a flight between Al Hillah and Baghdad. A US military helicopter rescues the passengers and crew. 23 January 2007 – A Blackwater USA MD 530F helicopter is shot down by hostile fire in Baghdad. All of the 5-man crew are killed in the incident, likely executed after surviving the crash. One survivor was also killed under unclear circumstances, when another Blackwater helicopter descended to the crash site. 9 January 2007 – A Moldovan Antonov An-26 crashes near Balad in the 2007 Balad aircraft crash, killing 34 of the 35 on board. 2005 30 May – A Comp Air 7SL aircraft with the Iraqi Air Force crashes in eastern Iraq, killing four Americans and an Iraqi on board. 21 April – A Bulgarian Mil Mi-8 is shot down north of Baghdad, killing the 11 civilians on board. Casualties consisted of six American contractors, three Bulgarian pilots – one of whom was executed shortly after the crash – and two Fijian gunners. Summary per type Summing up the above list we have the following tables Summary per year Summing up the above list we have the following tables: See also List of aviation accidents and incidents in the war in Afghanistan List of combat losses of United States military aircraft since the Vietnam War References External links Documented air losses in initial invasion Lt. Col. Yossi, Losses in the fighting in Iraq. A detailed report on the 26 Coalition aircraft losses in Iraq from 20 March 2003 to 15 April 2003 OIF lost helicopters from 01/2006 to 12/2006 A database stating more than one reference for each case CHRONOLOGY: U.S. helicopter crashes in Iraq A short chronology written by Reuters on 8 February 2007 What's up with the army and its helicopters? List of 74 USMC Helicopter Crewmembers and Passengers KIA in Operation IRAQI FREEDOM Aviation Shootdowns And Accidents During The Iraq War Aviation accidents and incidents in Iraq Iraq War

424726

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Park%20Police

United States Park Police

The United States Park Police (USPP) is the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agency in the United States. It functions as a full-service law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those National Park Service areas primarily located in the Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and New York City areas and certain other government lands. United States Park Police officers have jurisdictional authority in the surrounding metropolitan areas of the three cities it primarily operates in, meaning they possess both state and federal authority. In addition to performing the normal crime prevention, investigation, and apprehension functions of an urban police force, the Park Police are responsible for policing many of the famous monuments in the United States. The USPP shares law enforcement jurisdiction in all lands administered by the National Park Service with a force of National Park Service Law Enforcement Rangers tasked with the same law enforcement powers and responsibilities. The agency also provides protection for the President, Secretary of the Interior, and visiting dignitaries. The Park Police is an operation of the National Park Service, which is an agency of the Department of the Interior. As of April 8, 2022, the force consisted of 494 officers. History The Park Watchmen were first recruited in 1791 by George Washington to protect federal property in the District of Columbia. The police functioned as an independent agency of the federal government until 1849, when it was placed under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. In 1867, Congress transferred the police to the Office of Public Buildings and Grounds, under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers of the Army Corps of Engineers. The Watchmen were given the same powers and duties as the Metropolitan Police of Washington in 1882. Their name was officially changed to the present United States Park Police in 1919. In 1925, Congress placed the Park Police in the newly created Office of Public Buildings and Public Parks of the National Capital. Headed by an Army officer, Lt. Col. Ulysses S. Grant III, the office reported directly to the President of the United States. In 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt transferred the police to the National Park Service. Their authority first began to expand outside D.C. in 1929, and today they are primarily responsible for the Gateway National Recreation Area units in New York City-New Jersey and the Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco, as well as the many designated areas in Washington, D.C., and the neighboring counties in Maryland and Virginia. These sites include the National Mall, the C&O Canal towpath in the region, and the parallel roadways of the George Washington Memorial Parkway in Virginia and Clara Barton Parkway in Maryland, as well as the federally maintained segment of the Baltimore Washington Parkway in Maryland. The current sidearm is the SIG Sauer P320 which replaced the Heckler & Koch P2000 in service. Authority The force functions as a unit of the National Park Service with jurisdiction in all federal parks. U.S. Park Police officers are located in the Washington, DC, New York City, and San Francisco metropolitan areas, and investigate and detain persons suspected of committing offenses against the United States. Officers also carry out services for many notable events conducted in the national parks. The U.S. Park Police are able to effect an arrest without a warrant in any unit of the National Park System, the District of Columbia, and the environs of the District of Columbia. Park Police have authority to follow a vehicle outside their jurisdiction if the offense was committed within the park. According to Park Police policy, lethal force can only be used when there is "imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm". In Virginia, USPP Officers are provided with Conservator of the Peace powers as set forth in 19.2-12 of the Code of Virginia with powers and duties provided under 19.2-18 of the Code of Virginia. In Washington, D.C., itself, USPP Officers have the same powers and duties as the D.C. Metropolitan Police. USPP Officers possess a limited arrest authority in the State of Maryland. The U.S. Park Police hold state arrest authority in New York [New York State CPL 2.15 part 9], and state arrest authority in New Jersey [New Jersey Code 2A:154-6]. In California, arrest powers are provided under California Penal Code Section 830.8. These state arrest powers are in addition to powers held as federal officers. The U.S. Park Police primarily enforce laws including but not limited to Title 36 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) and other federal statutes such as 16 USC and 18 USC, as well as state and local laws. Leadership In September 2019, Gregory T. Monahan became acting chief of U.S. Park Police. Upon Monahan's appointment, former Chief Robert Maclean was promoted to Interior Department's Office of Law Enforcement and Security. Districts The United States Park Police operates patrol district stations in the New York City, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C., metropolitan areas. U.S. Park Police officers are charged with protecting national icons such as the Statue of Liberty, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, and other well known monuments and memorials. This is accomplished through the Homeland Security Division, which consists of the Intelligence/Counter-Terrorism Unit, the New York field office, and the Icon Protection Branch, which consists of the Central District Station and Special Forces. Specialized units The U.S. Park Police manages a Marine Unit, an Aviation Unit, Special Weapons and Tactics Team (SWAT), a Canine Unit, a Motorcycle Unit, a Special Events Unit, a Traffic Safety Unit, a Horse Mounted Unit and a Criminal Investigations Branch. Aviation The missions of the United States Park Police Aviation Unit include aviation support for law enforcement, medevac, search and rescue, high-risk prisoner transport and presidential and dignitary security. The Aviation Unit has provided accident-free, professional aviation services for over 40 years. They were the first helicopter provider of Air medical services within Washington, D.C, and continue to provide these services 24/7 to the district and neighboring jurisdictions. They also provide an invaluable resource for patrolling and performing rescues at the numerous federal parks and recreation areas within the National Capital Region, such as Great Falls Park and Shenandoah National Park. Like many park environments, injured parties in these remote and difficult to access locations require specialized rescue equipment to access and retrieve persons in distress. The US Park Police Aviation Unit is the primary resource for these remote rescues requiring helicopter access. The Aviation Unit of the United States Park Police began in April 1973 and was placed under the command of Lt. Richard T. Chittick. It started with one Bell 206B JetRanger and a staff of three pilots and three rescue technicians based at the Anacostia Naval Air Station in a shared space with the MPD Aviation Branch. A second helicopter, a Bell 206B-3 JetRanger, was added in 1975 and the unit relocated to Andrews AFB. The Aviation Unit moved to its present facility in Anacostia Park, the "Eagle's Nest," in 1976. In 1983, the 206B-3 was upgraded to a Bell206L-3 LongRanger. Their first twin-engine helicopter, a Bell 412SP, and the third helicopter to carry the designation "Eagle One," was placed in service in January 1991. The unit grew to its current staff, and began providing 24-hour coverage in January 1994. In August 1999, the unit took delivery of its second twin-engine helicopter, a Bell 412EP. It became the fourth helicopter in the unit's history to carry the designation "Eagle One" and the same registration number as that of an earlier aircraft whose crew affected the rescue of victims after the crash of Air Florida Flight 90. In May 2016, the unit received a replacement for "Eagle Two" with a used & reconditioned Bell 412EP to replace the aging aircraft delivered in 1991. The crew of US Park Police Aviation resources are frequently called to assist at significant and historical disasters and emergency incidents throughout the National Capital Region. These incidents include the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon, the D.C. sniper attacks throughout the region, the crashing of Air Florida Flight 90, and the Washington Navy Yard shooting in 2013. During the Congressional baseball shooting, the crews of U.S. Park Police Aviation responded with two helicopters and transported Congressman Steve Scalise and a U.S. Capitol Police Officer to the trauma center at MedStar Washington Hospital Center. Organization and Rank structure Notable events In January 1982 USPP helicopter pilot Don Usher and his partner Gene Windsor saved the lives of five passengers from the Air Florida Flight 90 crash. In December 1982, Norman Mayer threatened to blow up the Washington Monument with a truck he said contained explosives. A standoff with U.S. Park police began at 9:20 in the morning. It ended ten hours later after the suspect backed up the truck, then surged forward. Police fired dozens of shots at the tires and engine block, overturning the van. One of the bullets ricocheted and fatally struck Mayer in the head. No explosives were found in the van. In 1989 Officers David Duffey and William Lovegrove rescued two people in the Glen Echo Flood after a parking lot collapsed. In 1990, Officer Katherine Heller was at Lafayette Park when she was approached by a man who had been assaulted. After Heller radioed a description of the attacker, another Park Police officer, Scott Dahl, spotted a man matching the description and approached him. The alleged assailant began fighting with the officer and wrested the officers service pistol away from him. Heller approached and shot the man in the chest. Heller was named police officer of the year by Parade Magazine and the International Association of Chiefs of Police. She was the first U.S. Park Police officer, and the first female officer, to receive the IACP award. In 1993, officers of the Park Police rescued passengers of the Golden Venture ship, which had run aground on the beach at Fort Tilden in Rockaway, Queens. Park police officers were the first to arrive on the scene. After calling for backup they ran into the water, pulling survivors from the cold water. In 1994 Park Police shot and killed a homeless man on the sidewalk in front of the White House. The man was brandishing a large hunting knife taped to his hand and refused to surrender in a confrontation with the officers. The two helicopters of the U.S. Park Police played an important role after the September 11 attacks on the Pentagon. The crews responded immediately, transporting injured personnel to hospitals. The helicopters served as a command and control platform, using their Forward Looking Infrared equipment to provide firefighters with intelligence about the scope and spread of the fire through the five rings of the structure, and taking over air traffic control for the Washington, D.C., airspace after the controllers at Washington National Airport had to evacuate due to thick smoke. In 2011, U.S. Park Police conducted an investigation after the arrest of five dancers at the Jefferson Memorial. In a video posted to YouTube, Park Police appeared to body slam and choke an individual who was silently dancing. The dance was in protest of the ban on dancing at memorials. U.S. Park Police played a role in the Washington Navy Yard shooting on September 16, 2013. Two U.S. Park Police officers, Andrew Wong and Carl Hiott, were involved in the response. The shooter was killed by D.C. Police Emergency Response Team officer Dorian DeSantis, who took fire, and a U.S Park Police Officer. U.S. Park Police Eagle 1 also conducted a rescue mission and removed an injured shooting victim from the roof of building 197 along with three other survivors ultimately saving their lives. In 2014, Park Police launched a crackdown on food truck operators. Park Police handcuffed food vendors who were selling to tourists on the National Mall. Vendors suggested that the enforcement was to protect the revenue from the government's food stands. By September 2014, Park Police had arrested 196 people over the year for vending without a license on the mall, some of whom were jailed. In 2015, U.S. Park Police detained an on-duty Secret Service special agent who was part of a detail for US Homeland Security Secretary Jeh Johnson. The Park Police were sued following the incident for violating the Fourth Amendment protections against unreasonable seizures. In 2016, Park Police aggressively enforced traffic regulations outside Arlington National Cemetery. Officers hid behind bushes to catch cabdrivers picking up passengers, claiming that idling cars were parked. Charges brought by the Park Police were dropped on appeal. In 2017, Park Police handcuffed teens who were selling water on the National Mall. DC Councilmember Charles Allen asked whether arresting the teens was the appropriate response. In November 2017, Park Police shot and killed Bijan Ghaisar, an unarmed Virginia man after a hit and run and three separate vehicle pursuits. More than eight months after the incident, Park Police provided no explanation for the killing. According to a lawsuit filed by the family, it was twelve hours following the incident before the family learned that Park Police were involved. Two days after the shooting, Park Police Chief Robert MacLean met with the family. MacLean offered condolences but provided no information about what had happened. The Ghaisar family was not allowed to touch their son for three days following the incident, when he was guarded by the department's officers. According to the family, when a doctor arrived to examine Ghaisar for organ donation, the Park Police denied access, declaring the brain-dead man "under arrest" and his body "evidence." More than nine months after the incident, Chief MacLean refused to speak to media about the incident, while Fairfax County Police, who filmed the shooting, said that the episode showed that greater transparency was needed. After more than a year and in response to a lawsuit, US Park Police named the shooters as officers Lucas Vinyard and Alejandro Amaya. The incident was not captured on a body cam, since Park Police are forbidden from wearing body cameras while on the job. In a 2015 memo written by Chief MacLean, he told the entire force not to use any audio or video recorders "while on duty". MacLean claimed that the lack of a department-wide policy justified the ban on cameras. Following the shooting, in 2018 DC Congressional Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton introduced a bill to require uniformed federal police officers to wear body cameras and have dashboard cameras in marked vehicles. The legislation was directly in response to Ghaisar's death. Chief MacLean backed out of a scheduled meeting with Holmes Norton and Representative Don Beyer to discuss the matter, prompting Holmes Norton to make a statement to "express our astonishment" at his absence. More than two years after the killing, Park Police had not launched an internal investigation into the matter or released recordings of the 911 calls the Park Police received. In 2019, the sexual assault of a female Park Police officer by her male colleague two years earlier was disclosed. The attack occurred inside a Park Police station. Despite a protection order requiring 100 yards of distance between the two officers, Park Police continued to assign the officers to roles where they might be in contact. The assaulting officer was not suspended or terminated. On June 1, 2020, USPP officers cleared the streets bordering Lafayette Park, DC of protesters on the order of Attorney General William Barr. Reporting news crews, Rev. Gini Gerbasi of St. John's Episcopal, and many protesters noted the use of tear gas, flashbangs, and rubber bullets to disperse the peaceful crowds. Park Police officers on foot, and mounted on horseback, used riot gear such as batons and shields to drive assembled crowds further away from the park. The USPP released a statement that stated "no tear gas was used" by any law enforcement agency during the incident. Media subsequently reported that USPP assaulted the protesters with OC canisters, which were found at the scene. Australian journalists who were reporting live from the scene were assaulted by Park Police during the operation. The incident prompted a diplomatic complaint by the Australian government. Two park police officers were assigned to administrative duties. This specific incident was referred to the Department of the Interior’s Office of the Inspector General but that investigation was still ongoing as of August 2021 and no relevant report currently appears on the OIG website. In June 2021, the Department of the Interior, Inspector General, issued its Review of U.S. Park Police Actions at Lafayette Park, and stated the Secret Service acted contrary to the operational plan and before the Park Police gave any dispersal warnings to the crowd. The Secret Service began advancing seven minutes before any dispersal order was given.The early deployment increased tensions between law enforcement officers and protestors.They faced resistance and used pepper spray in response to eggs and bottles being thrown at them. Park Police officers also began to clear the crowd before completing the final dispersal orders and 25 minutes before a planned curfew that was earlier announced by the mayor. Park Police commanders could not say who issued the order to deploy or why police radio transmissions were not recorded as required. In July 2021, a unanimous jury awarded $730,000 in a police misconduct case against two Park Police officers for unlawfully detaining and taunting a man with their weapons while cursing at him despite having no suspicion of criminal activity on the man’s part. Locations Below is a partial list of areas policed by the United States Park Police. Washington, D.C. Washington Monument Lincoln Memorial Jefferson Memorial Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C. The Ellipse National Mall – from the Capitol Reflecting Pool to the Potomac River Rock Creek Park Baltimore-Washington Parkway San Francisco Bay Area, California Golden Gate National Recreation Area Marin Headlands Baker Beach Presidio of San Francisco New York (state) Statue of Liberty Gateway National Recreation Area Gallery See also List of United States federal law enforcement agencies List of law enforcement agencies in the District of Columbia Park Police References External links Retired U.S. Park Police Official Site USPP Officers who have received Citations for Valor provided by the Retired U.S. Park Police Association The Fraternal Order of Police's Labor Committee representing the Officers of the USPP National Park Service Park police departments of the United States Law enforcement agencies of the District of Columbia Government agencies established in 1919 Environmental organizations based in Washington, D.C. 1919 establishments in Washington, D.C. Agency-specific police departments of the United States Police aviation units of the United States

424727

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic%20Party%20%28Serbia%29

Democratic Party (Serbia)

The Democratic Party (; , abbr. DS) is a social democratic political party in Serbia. Zoran Lutovac has led the party as its president since 2018. DS was founded in 1990 by a group of intellectuals who sought to revive the Democratic Party, which was active in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Dragoljub Mićunović was the first president of DS until 1994 and under his leadership DS gained representation in the National Assembly of Serbia and took part in anti-government protests. After Zoran Đinđić's election as president of DS in 1994, DS was reorganised and he led the party into the Together coalition, and took part in the 1996–1997 protests, which occurred after the Electoral Commission invalidated local election results in cities in which the Together coalition had won. DS later led the , which became part of the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS) in January 2000. DOS won the 2000 Yugoslav general election, but Slobodan Milošević, the president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and president of the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), declined to accept the results, culminating in his overthrow. DS assumed power in Serbia after winning parliamentary elections in December 2000 and Đinđić became prime minister. Đinđić was assassinated in March 2003 and succeeded by Boris Tadić as president of DS. Tadić would become president of Serbia while DS would be in opposition from 2004 to 2007, when it became part of a coalition government led by DSS. Tadić led DS to victory in 2008 when a coalition government with SPS was formalised. DS was defeated by the Serbian Progressive Party in 2012 and went into opposition. Dragan Đilas became the president of DS in December 2012; he was ousted as mayor of Belgrade in 2013 but survived an internal motion of no confidence in January 2014. He was, however, succeeded by Bojan Pajtić in May 2014. Dragan Šutanovac became the president of DS after Pajtić's resignation in 2016. Šutanovac was then succeeded by Lutovac in 2018. Lutovac led DS into several opposition coalitions and boycotted the 2020 parliamentary election, causing a schism in the party. He successfully led DS back into the National Assembly in the 2022 election. DS was a catch-all party in its early years, occupying the centrist and centre-right position. It supported the establishment of a market economy, denationalisation, and union rights. DS shifted to a centrist and socially liberal profile under Tadić and became the leading party of the pro-European bloc of Serbian politics. It shifted towards social democracy in 2013, and is now positioned on the centre-left on the political spectrum. Its supporters tend to be female, high school or university educated, tolerant towards diversity, socially progressive, and opposed to authoritarianism and nationalism. DS is an associate member of the Party of European Socialists and a member of the Progressive Alliance and Socialist International. History Formation On 11 December 1989, a group of intellectualsincluding anti-communist dissidents, liberal academics, poets, writers, and film and theatre directorsheld a press conference announcing the revival of the Democratic Party (DS), at which they also released a written proclamation. DS had existed in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia until 1945, when the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, later known as League of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKJ), came to power; as such, DS claims that it was "re-founded" (obnovljena), instead of categorising itself as a new political party. The original thirteen signatories of the proclamation of the Founding Committee included Kosta Čavoški, Milovan Danojlić, Zoran Đinđić, Gojko Đogo, Vladimir Gligorov, Slobodan Inić, Marko Janković, Vojislav Koštunica, Dragoljub Mićunović, Borislav Pekić, Miodrag Perišić, Radoslav Stojanović, and Dušan Vukajlović. Their programmatic proclamation, named Letter of Intents (Pismo o namerama), attracted even more intellectuals who eventually joined DS. In 1989, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was still a one-party state; DS thus became the first opposition, non-communist party in Yugoslavia. After the dissolution of the SKJ in January 1990, its constituent republics, later including Serbia in July 1990, adopted multi-party systems. DS organised its founding assembly on 3 February 1990 at the Belgrade Youth Center. The first presidency of the DS was contested between Čavoški and Mićunović, with the latter ultimately winning the position. Ideological differences between the two existed; Čavoški wanted the party to adopt a more nationalist and anti-communist rhetoric, while Mićunović was viewed as a liberal. Although Čavoški lost in the leadership election, he was elected president of the party's executive board; Pekić became the deputy president of the DS. According to Mićunović, Čavoški initially registered the party in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in March 1990 because Serbia had not yet adopted a law authorising a multi-party system. DS was later registered in Serbia on 27 July 1990. 1990–1993: the Mićunović years After its establishment, the DS began publishing its newspaper, Demokratija (), and it also established the Democratic Youth, its youth wing. Gligorov and Inić, who worked on the economic programme of the party, left DS also shortly after its formation due to ideological disagreements. At its second assembly in September 1990, Mićunović was re-elected president of DS while Koštunica and were elected vice-presidents. A month later, DS announced that it would take part in the 1990 Serbian parliamentary election. This decision was opposed by Čavoški and Nikola Milošević, who advocated an election boycott instead. Čavoški previously proposed that opposition parties should receive television air time, representation on electoral bodies, and for the campaign to last 90 days in total. Čavoški and Milošević left DS shortly before the December 1990 election, claiming that fair electoral conditions had not been created. They then formed the Serbian Liberal Party (SLS) in January 1991. Đinđić succeeded Čavoški as the president of the party's executive board. Despite winning 7 percent of the popular vote in the 1990 election, DS only won 7 seats in the National Assembly due to Serbia's new first-past-the-post electoral system, which favoured the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), the then-ruling and largest party of Serbia. Together with the Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO), DS organised mass protests in Belgrade in March 1991, demanding reforms of the Radio Television of Serbia (RTS). The protests resulted into the release of SPO leader Vuk Drašković and the resignation of the RTS director. After the break-up of Yugoslavia in early 1992, Serbia became a part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. DS boycotted the May 1992 federal parliamentary elections and declined to accept the results, claiming that free and fair conditions had not been created for the election. Instead of campaigning, DS preferred to organise anti-government protests to force the government to call new elections. In June 1992, DS decided not to join the Democratic Movement of Serbia (DEPOS) coalition, which was created a month earlier. Koštunica led the "DS for DEPOS" faction, which was in favour of joining DEPOS. He left the party after DS decided not to join the coalition, claiming that Mićunović and Đinđić are in a "secret alliance" with SPS. After leaving DS, he formed the Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS), along with Mirko Petrović, Draško Petrović, and Vladan Batić. After the mass protests, another federal parliamentary election was organised for December 1992. DS decided to take part in this election and it won 6 percent of the popular vote and 5 seats in the Federal Assembly. DS then joined the government led by Milan Panić, the then-incumbent prime minister of FR Yugoslavia. Simultaneously, in December 1992, general elections were organised in Serbia as a result of an October 1992 early elections referendum. Although DS opposed the referendum, it participated in the election, winning 6 seats. In the presidential election, however, DS supported Panić, who placed second behind Slobodan Milošević, the leader of SPS. In 1993, Đinđić asserted himself in the party and led its operations going into the 1993 parliamentary election. Milošević ended his coalition with the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) in mid-1993 and turned towards DS for negotiations instead. Mićunović claimed that there was a meeting between Milošević and DS, although Zoran Živković has denied that claim. Đinđić invited several entrepreneurs to join DS during this period, which earned DS the nickname "yellow company" from its opponents. Yellow being one of the official DS colours and the colour of Centromarket, a company owned by Slobodan Radulović, one of the entrepreneurs. Shortly before the 1993 election, DS agreed that Đinđić should be their ballot representative. He led DS under the "Honestly" (Pošteno) banner and visited over 100 locations in Serbia during the campaign period. Đinđić also said that he would retire from politics if DS won less than 20 seats. The campaign was successful: DS won 29 seats in the National Assembly. DS remained in opposition after the election, as Đinđić was unable to bring DS into the SPS-led government. 1994–2000: the Đinđić years At a party congress on 25 January 1994, Đinđić was elected president and Perišić and Miroljub Labus were elected vice-presidents of the party. Mićunović and Vida Ognjenović also resigned from their positions in DS during the congress. Đinđić commented that "Mićunović's time has passed... Mićunović is no Tina Turner who sounds better now than when she was 30" (Mićunovićevo vreme je prošlo... Mićunović nije Tina Tarner pa da bolje zvuči sada nego sa trideset godina). By contrast, Mićunović characterised the manner of Đinđić's takeover of DS as a "combination of Machiavellianism and a revolutionary technique" (spoj makijavelizma i revolucionarne tehnike). During this period, Đinđić also benefited from discreet support in the Milošević-controlled state-run media. After Đinđić became the president of DS, the party was reorganised and it moved away from Mićunović's "intellectualistic" approach. In 1995, DS rejected Slobodan Gavrilović's proposal to reunite with DSS, while later that year, Mićunović left DS and then formed the Democratic Centre (DC) in 1996. In September 1996, DS formed the Together coalition with SPO and the Civic Alliance of Serbia (GSS) to take part in the federal parliamentary election and local elections, which were organised for November 1996. DSS also took part in the coalition, although only at the federal level. Together won 23 percent of the popular vote in the federal parliamentary elections; it also won local elections in key cities such as Belgrade, Niš, and Novi Sad. However, the Electoral Commission invalidated those local election results, which ultimately led to mass protests which were attended by hundreds of thousands of people in total. The aftermath of the protests resulted in Đinđić and Živković becoming mayors of Belgrade and Niš respectively, after the Electoral Commission recognised the results. In September 1997, Đinđić was removed from office after losing a motion of no confidence that was staged by SPO. The Together coalition was dissolved shortly before the 1997 general elections. DS, DSS, and GSS opted to boycott the election, while SPO did not because the government partially accepted their demands. Čedomir Jovanović and Čedomir Antić, who led the Student Political Club during the 1996–1997 protests, joined DS in 1998. In the same year, DS became part of the , a moderate opposition coalition. This coalition later became part of a wider alliance, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), which was formed in January 2000. Đinđić faced Slobodan Vuksanović at a party congress in February 2000, with Đinđić ultimately retaining the position of party president. Živković and Gavrilović remained vice-presidents of DS and they were joined by Predrag Filipov and Boris Tadić. Vuksanović left DS in October 2000 and formed the People's Democratic Party (NDS) in 2001. Milošević, then-President of FR Yugoslavia, amended the federal constitution to provide for direct, rather than indirect, elections in the 2000 general elections. DOS nominated Koštunica as their presidential candidate. Koštunica faced Milošević in the presidential election, which he won in the first round. However, Milošević declined to accept the results, and the Electoral Commission reported that Koštunica had not won more than 50 percent of the votes in the first round and that a second round would be scheduled instead. This culminated in mass protests, which led to the overthrow of Milošević on 5 October 2000. The Electoral Commission published the actual results two days later, which confirmed that Koštunica had won in the first round. Together with SPS and SPO, DOS agreed to organise a snap parliamentary election in December 2000, in which DOS won 176 out of 250 seats in the National Assembly. 2001–2004: Post-Milošević period In January 2001, Đinđić was elected prime minister of Serbia; his cabinet was composed of 16 ministers. Following the extradition of Milošević to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in June 2001, members of DSS left his cabinet. DS also adopted its new programme, which marked the beginning of the party's shift towards the left. DS nominated Labus, then the leader of a citizens' group, in the presidential election that was organised for September 2002. The election proceeded to a second round, in which Labus placed second. However, the election was invalidated because less than 50 percent of registered voters turned out to vote, and another election was organised for December 2002. Labus subsequently became the president of G17 Plus (G17+), a think tank that he registered as a political party. In the December 2002 election, DS initially stated that it could support Koštunica; DSS declined their support. The December 2002 presidential election was also invalidated as a result of low turnout, and a third presidential election was organised for November 2003. Đinđić, who was opposed to organised crime, escaped an assassination attempt in February 2003. Đinđić sought to tackle and reduce organised crime and corruption while he also previously introduced security measures due to the growing threats from paramilitary groups and organised crime. One month later, on 12 March 2003, Zvezdan Jovanović, a member of the Serbian Mafia's Zemun Clan, assassinated Đinđić as he was exiting a vehicle in front of a government building. Živković succeeded Đinđić as prime minister of Serbia and as the acting president of DS. In the 2003 presidential election, DS, as part of the DOS coalition, supported Mićunović. He placed second, but the election was invalidated as a result of low (38 percent) voter turnout. During his premiership, Živković lost confidence from the Social Democratic Party, after which he announced that he would not reshuffle his cabinet but call a snap parliamentary election instead; Nataša Mićić, the president of the National Assembly, confirmed that the election would be held in December 2003. DOS then disbanded, following which DS nominated Tadić to represent its list in the election instead. DS took part on a joint ballot list with DSS, DC, Social Democratic Union (SDU), and List for Sandžak (LZS). The DS list won 37 seats in the National Assembly, out of which 22 went to DS alone, resulting in DS being in opposition. At the party congress in February 2004, Tadić and Živković nominated themselves as candidates for the presidency, with the former ultimately becoming the president on 22 February 2004. Mićunović merged his party and returned to DS after Tadić's election as president of DS. Otpor, an organisation which played a key role in the overthrow of Milošević, also merged into DS in 2004. The National Assembly amended the Law on the Election of the President of the Republic in February 2004, abolishing the 50 percent voter turnout requirement in presidential elections. DS then nominated Tadić as its presidential candidate in the election, which was organised for June 2004. Tadić placed second in the first round, but won in the second round with 53 percent of the popular vote, defeating Tomislav Nikolić of SRS. In December 2004, Tadić expelled Jovanović from the party for breaching party protocol; Jovanović formed the Liberal Democratic Party a year later. 2005–2012: the Tadić years During Tadić's first term as president of Serbia, he apologised to Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia for Serbia's role in the Yugoslav Wars and pursued a pro-Western foreign policy. He was reelected, unopposed, as DS president at the party's congress in 2006. In late 2006, G17+ withdrew from Koštunica's government, which led Tadić to schedule a snap parliamentary election for January 2007. DS chose Ružica Đinđić, the spouse of Zoran Đinđić, as their ballot representative, campaigning on continuing Đinđić's legacy and fighting against corruption. DS also promised not to form a coalition government with SPS or SRS. DS won over 900,000 votes, and negotiated with DSS and G17+ to form a coalition government; Koštunica remained as prime minister and Božidar Đelić of DS was appointed deputy prime minister in his cabinet. In December 2007, Oliver Dulić, the president of the National Assembly, announced that he had scheduled presidential elections for January 2008. DS then nominated Tadić for reelection. He again faced Nikolić in the second round of the election and was successfully re-elected. Shortly after the 2008 presidential election, Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia. Kosovo's declaration of independence, as well as the issue of European integration, resulted in a political crisis between DS and G17+, on one side, and DSS on the other. Koštunica embraced anti-Western positions and was a hardliner on the Kosovo issue; he blamed his coalition partners for "creating an unworkable rift in the government" during his resignation speech. Koštunica also said that "he could no longer rule in a coalition with DS", which led Tadić to call snap parliamentary elections for May 2008. Prior to the election, DS formed the For a European Serbia (ZES) coalition, composed of DS, G17+, SDP, SPO, the Democratic Alliance of Croats in Vojvodina (DSHV), and the League of Social Democrats of Vojvodina (LSV). This coalition nominated Mićunović as their ballot representative and campaigned on continuing negotiations for the accession of Serbia to the European Union. ZES placed first, winning 102 seats in the National Assembly; DS won 64 seats out of those 102. After the election, DS was excluded from government formation talks, and in June 2008, it entered talks with SPS to form a coalition government. DS and SPS agreed to continue Serbia's accession to the European Union, work on fighting crime and corruption, and enact social justice reforms to help the vulnerable sections of the population. DS and SPS formalised their cooperation after the election by signing a reconciliation agreement. The new government was formed in July 2008, with Mirko Cvetković, an independent politician affiliated with DS, serving as prime minister and Ivica Dačić, the leader of SPS, serving as deputy prime minister. The DS-led government was faced with the arrest of Radovan Karadžić, Kosovo's declaration of independence, and the global financial crisis, which caused low rates of economic growth. The Serbian Progressive Party (SNS), now led by Nikolić, organised mass protests in 2011, demanding that Tadić call snap elections; Tadić complied, and called an election in March 2012 to be held in May of that year. In April, however, Tadić announced that he would resign as president and that presidential elections would be held on the same day as the parliamentary election. DS led the Choice for a Better Life (IZBŽ) coalition, which also included DSHV, LSV, the Social Democratic Party of Serbia, the Greens of Serbia, and the Christian Democratic Party of Serbia. Dragan Đilas, the deputy president of DS and mayor of Belgrade, was chosen as the coalition's ballot representative. DS campaigned on economic recovery, emphasising attracting foreign investments and developing small business. IZBŽ placed second, winning 67 seats, with 49 of those won by DS alone. In the presidential election, Tadić placed first in the first round of voting, but lost to Nikolić in the second. Following the 2012 parliamentary election, SPS successfully formed a government with SNS, and DS went into opposition. Đilas, who was re-elected as mayor of Belgrade, was positioned as a prominent candidate to succeed Tadić as president of DS. An extraordinary party congress was called for 25 November 2012, with Đilas and Branimir Kuzmanović put forward as the only candidates to succeed Tadić as president of DS. Đilas was elected president in a landslide and Tadić was awarded the title of a honorary president. Additionally, Pajtić was re-elected as vice-president and he was joined by Nataša Vučković, Vesna Martinović, Dejan Nikolić, Miodrag Rakić, Goran Ćirić, and Jovan Marković. Živković criticised the measure to award Tadić the title of a honorary president, which he described as a "rotten compromise between Đilas and Tadić", leading to him leaving DS. After leaving DS, Živković announced the formation of the New Party (Nova). As president of DS, Đilas ordered former government ministers to resign from the National Assembly. This order received support from Tadić, but was criticised by Mićunović and Dušan Petrović, the former minister of agriculture, who refused to resign. 2013–2017: Internal crisis Petrović was expelled from DS in January 2013. He subsequently formed a parliamentary group named Together for Serbia (ZZS), which was later registered as a political party. Alongside Petrović, Vuk Jeremić, the former minister of foreign affairs, was expelled in February 2013. Jeremić claimed that the party's decision was unconstitutional and filed suit in the Constitutional Court. His appeal was rejected, after which Jeremić complied with the decision and left DS, although he kept his seat in the National Assembly. DS also dropped to 13 percent support amongst the public, while SNS received over 40 percent support. In September 2013, SNS filed a motion of no confidence against Đilas, resulting in his dismissal. SNS cited DS' poor results and asserted that "DS lost legitimacy" as their reasons for the motion, while Đilas stated that "this is the beginning of a dictatorship and a one-party system" (smatra da je to uvod u dikatutru i jednopartijski sistem). Thereafter, local boards of DS called for Đilas to resign as president of DS. Tadić was accused of being the inspirer of the dismissal of Đilas and he planned to return to the post of the president of DS, which resulted the conflict between Đilas and Tadić to become more evident. This resulted in an internal party motion of no confidence against Đilas, which he survived. Đilas and Pajtić also suggested that an extraordinary congress should be held after the Belgrade City Assembly election, which was ultimately scheduled for March 2014. Tadić left DS on 30 January 2014, citing his disagreement with party leadership. Shortly after, Tadić announced that he would begin collecting signatures to register his new party, the New Democratic Party, which later renamed the Social Democratic Party, to participate in the snap parliamentary election, which was scheduled to be held on the same day as the Belgrade City Assembly election. DS announced that it would take part in the 2014 parliamentary election with Nova, DSHV, Rich Serbia, and the United Trade Unions of Serbia "Sloga" as part of the With the Democratic Party for a Democratic Serbia coalition. The coalition only won 19 seats in the National Assembly; DS won 17 seats and Nova won 2. In the Belgrade City Assembly election, the DS coalition won 22 seats. After the elections, an extraordinary congress was organised on 31 May 2014. Pajtić faced Đilas and Pajtić was successfully elected to the presidency of DS. Đilas subsequently resigned from his position as a member of the National Assembly and he left DS in June 2016. Borko Stefanović, a vice-president of DS, left DS in December 2015, citing ideological differences, and then formed the Serbian Left (LS). In March 2016, Nikolić called for snap parliamentary elections to be held in April 2016. DS then formed the "For a Just Serbia" coalition with Nova, ZZS, DSHV, and Together for Šumadija. The coalition won 16 seats in the National Assembly, 12 of which were occupied by DS. After the election, a party congress was organised for 24 September 2016. Pajtić faced Dragan Šutanovac, Zoran Lutovac, and Srboljub Antić in the leadership election. He ultimately lost to Šutanovac in the first round. Marković, Branislav Lečić, Nada Kolundžija, Goran Salak, and Tamara Tripić were elected vice-presidents. In January 2017, Šutanovac announced that DS would support Saša Janković in the 2017 presidential election instead of filing its own candidate. DS also called for other parties to rally around Janković as a joint opposition candidate. During the campaign, Janković used the infrastructure of DS to position himself as the leader of the opposition. He placed second behind Aleksandar Vučić of SNS, winning 16% of the popular vote. After the election, Janković stopped cooperating with DS and formed the Movement of Free Citizens (PSG) in May 2017. In preparation for the 2018 Belgrade City Assembly election, DS advocated for the opposition parties to participate on a joint list. By the end of 2017, DS had announced that it would take part in a coalition with Nova, with Šutanovac as their mayoral candidate. 2018–present: the Lutovac years DS and Nova were joined by Tadić's SDS in January 2018, while the Green Ecological Party – The Greens also appeared on the ballot list. However, the coalition did not win any seats as it only received 2 percent of the popular vote. This led to the resignations of Šutanovac and Balša Božović, the president of the DS branch in Belgrade. In April 2018, DS announced that a party congress would be organised for 2 June 2018. The leadership election was contested by Lutovac, Branislav Lečić, and Gordana Čomić. Lutovac ultimately won the election. Nikolić, Aleksandra Jerkov, Dragana Rakić, Dragoslav Šumarac, and Saša Paunović were elected vice-presidents. Lutovac announced that DS "must organise itself" and that DS would cooperate with the Alliance for Serbia (SZS), then a group in the City Assembly of Belgrade led by Đilas. However, SZS was reorganised into a nationwide coalition in September 2018, which in addition to DS included ZZS, Sloga, LS, Jeremić's People's Party (Narodna), Dveri, the Movement for Reversal (PZP), and Healthy Serbia. In internal DS deliberations, founding members Mićunović and Ognjenović, as well as Čomić and Šutanovac, were opposed to joining SZS. After the physical attack on the leader of LS in November 2018, SZS organised mass anti-government protests. And, in January 2019, DS announced that it would boycott the sessions of the National Assembly, the City Assembly of Belgrade, and the Assembly of Vojvodina, claiming that the bodies did not have legitimacy due to the government's obstruction of the parliamentary opposition by allegedly "violating the rules of Parliament, as well as laws and the Constitution". DS also signed the "Agreement with the People", which stated that if fair and free conditions for elections were not met, it would boycott the 2020 parliamentary election. In February 2019, Lutovac and Tadić began discussing merging their parties to become "the main option for civic-democratic voters that will be able to integrate voters that are against Aleksandra Vučić" (glavna opcija za građansko-demokratske birače i koja će biti u stanju da integriše snage koje su protiv Aleksandra Vučića). This decision was approved by both DS and SDS. ZZS, led by Nebojša Zelenović, also joined the talks. The merger was formalised as a union in May 2019 under the name United Democratic Party. The merger was to be completed upon the relaxation of COVID-19 pandemic measures. During the COVID-19 pandemic, SDS left the process, with Tadić later claiming that Lutovac allegedly put an end to the merger. As part of SZS, in September 2019 DS announced that it would boycott the 2020 parliamentary election. The decision to boycott the election received criticism from some DS members, such as Mićunović and Šutanovac, who stated that DS officials would in response create citizens' groups to encourage voting in the elections. During a session of the party's main board in November 2019, Lečić, Jerkov, Božović, Radoslav Milojičić, and Slobodan Milosavljević left a meeting to attempt to break quorum after demanding a new leadership election. Lutovac described the move as a coup d'état and claimed that Vučić was attempting to break up DS. He also later claimed that a group inside DS was attempting to cooperate with Vučić. After attending a session in the National Assembly in February 2020, Čomić was expelled from DS. She was later featured on United Democratic Serbia's ballot list and became a government minister. DS' scheduled March 2020 party congress was postponed because of the COVID-19 pandemic and rescheduled for 21 June 2020, when the parliamentary election was also scheduled to be held. During the party congress, a group of DS members left the congress to hold an alternate leadership election. The congress continued on 28 June 2020; the dissatisfied group held its own congress in Belgrade, with Tadić in attendance, while Lutovac held the official party congress in Šabac. Lutovac then expelled Lečić, Božović, Milojičić, and Milosavljević from DS. The dissatisfied group then chose Lečić as the president. The Ministry of Public Administration and Local Self-Government rejected Lečić's request to be recognised as the legal president of DS, concluding that Lutovac was its legitimate president. Lečić then formed the Democrats of Serbia, which later merged into Tadić's SDS. During the conflict between the two DS factions, SZS was dissolved and succeeded by the United Opposition of Serbia (UOPS). However, UOPS dissolved in January 2021 as a result of a dispute regarding inter-party dialogues on electoral conditions between Narodna and Party of Freedom and Justice (SSP)the party led by Đilas. DS organised a congress on 4 July 2021; Lutovac was reelected president and Rakić was reelected deputy president. Tatjana Manojlović, Nenad Mitrović, Miodrag Gavrilović, and Branimir Jovančićević were elected vice-presidents. After the congress, DS, Narodna, SSP, and PSG announced that they would cooperate in the 2022 Serbian general election. Their coalition was formalised in February 2022 under the name United for the Victory of Serbia (UZPS); they nominated Zdravko Ponoš of Narodna as their presidential candidate. UZPS won 14% of the popular vote in the parliamentary election; DS won 10 seats. Ponoš placed second in the presidential election, behind Vučić. After the election, UZPS was dissolved, with Lutovac stating that it was only a pre-election coalition. Shortly before the first constitutive session of the National Assembly on 1 August 2022, Narodna, DS, Do not let Belgrade drown, and Together nominated Lutovac for vice-president of the National Assembly. He was successfully elected on 2 August 2022. The Movement of Free Serbia, which was a part of the UZPS coalition, merged into DS in September 2022. After the May 2023 Belgrade school shooting and mass murder in Mladenovac and Smederevo, DS has taken part in the mass protests as one of its organisers. In August 2023, DS, Together, and Serbia Centre signed a cooperation agreement. DS became part of the Serbia Against Violence coalition in October 2023, a coalition of political parties organising the 2023 protests. Ideology and platform Mićunović and Đinđić era DS was a catch-all party during its early period and was composed of ideologically heterogeneous groups. It included the founders of the Praxis School, Mićunović and Đinđić, who were labelled liberals, as well as Čavoški, Koštunica, and Milošević, who argued for the adoption of a stronger anti-communist position inside the party. DS was also divided on nationalism, with members such as Gligorov and Inić arguing that nationalism should be solved within a common Yugoslav state, while members like Đogo favoured a Greater Serbian policy. DS supported a mixed economy with a strong role of the market, but it also sought to implement reforms towards establishing a modern market economy and integrating Serbia into the European Community. DS adopted a "civic and centrist identity", and in its Letter of Intent of December 1989, it stated its support for the establishment of a democratic and multi-party system. Regarding Yugoslavia, DS supported federalisation and a pluralistic democratic order to guarantee human security and personal freedom and decrease ethnic conflicts. Political scientist Dijana Vukomanović has argued that DS has promoted liberalism in an economic and democratic sense since its formation, and noted that, in its 1990 programme, DS emphasised establishing a representative parliamentary democracy, and advancing human and political freedoms and civic rights. By contrast, political scientist Vukašin Pavlović has noted that DS may be described as centre-right at the time of its formation in 1990, due to its founders' ideological positions. Likewise, Metropolitan University Prague lecturer Marko Stojić has described DS in its founding era as centre-right because its programme advocated a liberal market economy and minimal role for the state. Political scientist Vladimir Goati has positioned the 1990s DS on the moderate right, noting its support for private property rights and the omission of the regulatory and redistributive functions of the state from its 1992 programme . Goati has also categorised the party as liberal-democratic, explaining that after 1993, DS began to use less anti-communist rhetoric compared with other opposition parties. In 1991, then-Washington Post journalist Blaine Harden described DS as a "moderate, opposition" party, and in a 1999 report, BBC News described DS as centrist. Scholar Slaviša Orlović has noted that the party "provide[d] a balance of goals of the right and left political traditions". Political scientist Slobodan Antonić has stated that although DS was formed as a civic partyin its 1992 programme, DS identified itself as a "civic, national, liberal, and socially responsible"it had a "nationalistic phase" in mid-1990s, supporting the "modernisation of the country" as well as the self-determination of Serbs, but that, soon after, it returned to civic positions. Additionally, political scientist Jovan Komšić has noted that DS moderated its stance on nationalism after the 1995 Dayton Agreement, thereafter focuseing on the "democratisation of Serbia". Goati has described DS as an anti-system party because it opposed the 1990 constitution. Under Đinđić, DS shifted to more pragmatic and flexible approaches and principles, becoming the leading anti-Milošević party after 1998. Đinđić has been described as a pro-Western reformist and a technocrat. DS advocated for denationalisation and free mass distribution of shares, and established the Centre for Privatisation. However, DS also supported the right to work, trade union rights, social security, and the fight against unemployment. DS described these economic positions as "people's capitalism", but DS dropped these positions after coming to power in 2001, when it began promoting neoliberalism. DS was also associated with the "shock therapy", group of economic policies. DS supported policies that would bring Serbia closer to the West and reintegrate Serbia into the international community. DS also supported the extradition of Serbian citizens that were indicted by the ICTY. Tadić era Despite trying to position itself as a social democratic party after Đinđić's assassination, Vukomanović has argued that the leadership of DS did not "dare to take a decisive step towards the left". Political scientist Zoran Stojiljković has noted that, instead, it shifted towards social liberalism. On the other hand, political scientist Zoran Slavujević argued in 2003 that, at the time, DS "was still positioned between the centre and centre-right". Others have described DS under Tadić as centrist, and as associated with liberalism and social liberalism. Tadić has been described as a liberal, a label he accepts. During his leadership, he was considered to be popular amongst businessmen due to his support for the accession of Serbia to the European Union. Despite being supported by liberals, DS would occasionally position itself as a "state-building party of the centre-left". During Tadić's tenure, DS was the leading party of the liberal and pro-European bloc, but it also promoted privatisation to accelerate Serbia's economic development. Stojić has noted that DS' programmatic shift towards social democracy began in 2007, but while in government, DS did not pursue a social democratic agenda. DS under Tadić has been described as internationalist and pro-Western. Although it also declared itself in favour of military neutrality, DS expressed sympathy for, and its government ministers cooperated with, NATO. DS also believed that the political status of Kosovo should be solved via diplomacy, although it did not adopt a clear stance on the issue following Kosovo's declaration of independence in 2008. Under Tadić, DS took a balanced approach towards foreign relations; for example, a year after Kosovo's declaration, Tadić hosted U.S. Vice President Joe Biden and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev for talks. Shortly before the 2012 elections, Serbia received candidate status for European Union membership. To attract ethnic minority voters, DS exploited the cultural-ideological cleft in Vojvodina, seeking to attract voters from minority interests parties, and promoted regionalism. DS also advocated improving the standard of living and balanced regional development, and proposed the creation of an independent body that would implement anti-corruption measures in the judiciary. Post-Tadić era After 2012, DS shifted further to the left and began identifying itself as social democratic, a description which has since been accepted by scholars and political observers. Stojić has categorised DS as social democratic and as a party with a "liberal legacy". , DS has been described as being on the centre-left of the political spectrum. By contrast, Dušan Spasojević, a professor at the Faculty of Political Sciences of the University of Belgrade, has described DS' social views as being orientated towards the left. The current leader of DS, Zoran Lutovac, describes himself as a leftist. DS has served in opposition to SNS since 2012. It has been critical of the government's stance on Kosovo, although it has supported the 2013 Brussels Agreement. In an interview, Šutanovac has described the Kosovo issue as a "not an everyday political problem". During the North Kosovo crisis in 2023, DS has voiced its opposition to the Ohrid Agreement, with Lutovac claiming that "the agreement does not respect the interests of Serbia and the rights of Serbs in Kosovo" but also because DS "does not want to give Vučić legitimacy for what he did". When Đilas led DS in opposition to SNS during the 2014 election, he pledged to provide free textbooks for students and full salaries for pregnant women, increase wages for healthcare workers, and help pensioners. DS is opposed to jadarite mining and it was one of the signatories of an agreement on the prohibition of exploration, exploitation, and processing of lithium in Serbia in October 2021. DS has declared itself to be "the bearer of the most progressive ideas"; it is in favour of protecting workers, minorities, and the environment, and it supports guaranteed rights to healthcare, education, and pensions. In 2014, the Gay Straight Alliance, an association that promotes LGBT rights in Serbia, described DS as the "most positive party towards the LGBT community". DS has condemned violence against the LGBT community and in August 2022 it supported hosting 2022 EuroPride in Belgrade. It has criticised the attacks on the Pride Info Centre in Belgrade. Demographic characteristics Before the federal parliamentary election in December 1992, a majority of DS supporters preferred a citizen state (građanska država) over a nation state (nacionalna država). According to political scientist Dragomir Pantić, supporters of DS in the 1990s shared similar characteristics with supporters of DSS, GSS, and other minority parties. DS supporters were young and urban, and they came from the middle and upper classes. Public intellectuals, technicians, and those who worked in the private sector were also supporters of DS. After 2000, DS voters professed liberal-democratic values; they were also less religious, opposed to authoritarianism and centralism, and supportive of political reforms. Political scientist Ilija Vujačić, however, has argued that DS supporters in the 21st century skewed more towards the political centre. In 2007, political scientist Srećko Mihailović noted that a majority of DS supporters identified with the left—18% with the far-left, 22% with the left-wing, and 25% with the centre-left—while 18% described themselves as centrist. According to a 2005 opinion poll, 66% of DS supporters stated that Serbia should rely on the European Union for Serbia's foreign policy. In opinion polls conducted before the 2008 elections, a majority of DS supporters declared themselves to be pro-European. In 2012, a majority of DS voters were female, below 50 years old, and possessed a high school or university diploma. DS supporters were mostly workers, technicians, officials, and dependents. In 2014, 80% of DS supporters were female, 60% of supporters were under 50 years old, and a majority of supporters held either a high school or university diploma. In 2014, most DS supporters were tolerant of diversity and they rejected authoritarianism and nationalism. By 2016, most DS supporters were younger than 40. November 2020 research conducted by the Heinrich Böll Foundation found that supporters of DS viewed themselves as socially progressive. Organisation , DS is led by Zoran Lutovac, who was elected president in 2018. At the party congress in 2021, Lutovac was re-elected president and Rakić was elected deputy president; Jovančićević, Gavrilović, Mitrović, and Manojlović currently serve as vice-presidents. Lutovac is also the party's parliamentary leader in the National Assembly. DS has its headquarters at Nušićeva 6/II in Belgrade. DS previously published a newspaper, Demokratija, from 1990 to 1998. , the party has published the newspaper Bedem. Its youth wing, the Democratic Youth, has been led by Stefan Ninić . DS also operates a women's wing, called Women's Forum. DS membership is open to every adult citizen of Serbia who is not a member of another party organisation. In December 2010, DS reported that it had 185,192 members; by 2013, it reported having 196,673 members. However, only 18,459 DS members had the right to vote in the 2016 leadership election. DS has city, local, and municipal branches, as well as a special branch in Vojvodina. DS has an assembly, a main board, a presidency, an executive board, a statutory commission—which includes the centre of departmental committees and the centre for education—a supervisory board, a political council, and an ethics committee. DS also operates the Foundation for Improving Democracy "Ljuba Davidović". The main board is the highest body of DS; the president of DS represents and manages the party. , ten political parties, this being the DC, DSS, now known as the New Democratic Party of Serbia, G17+, LDP, Nova, NDS, LS, SLS, SDS, and ZZS, were formed as splits from DS. International cooperation DS has been a member of the Socialist International , and in December 2006, it became an associate member of the Party of European Socialists. According to Doris Pack, a German politician and close friend of Đinđić, Đinđić made the decision to apply to become an associate member of the Party of European Socialists; Zoran Alimpić, a senior DS official, stated that the decision came as a surprise to senior DS officials. DS is also affiliated with the Progressive Alliance. Its youth wing is a member of the Young European Socialists and a full member of the International Union of Socialist Youth. In the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, DS was associated with the Socialist Group. In 2014, Pajtić—with Sergey Stanishev, then-president of the Party of European Socialists, Victor Ponta, then-leader of the Social Democratic Party of Romania, and Zlatko Lagumdžija, then-leader of the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina—met with Li Yuanchao, an official of the Chinese Communist Party, to discuss economic relations between China and Europe. In 2017, Šutanovac met with Zoran Zaev, the leader of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia, to discuss regional cooperation, Serbia and North Macedonia's integration into the European Union, and cooperation inside the Party of European Socialists. List of presidents Electoral performance Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Federal parliamentary elections Federal presidential elections References Primary sources In the text these references are preceded by a double dagger (‡): External links Official website 1990 establishments in Serbia Anti-communist parties Centre-left parties in Europe Centre-right parties in Europe Centrist parties in Serbia Full member parties of the Socialist International Liberal parties in Serbia Parties related to the Party of European Socialists Political parties established in 1990 Pro-European political parties in Serbia Progressive Alliance Social democratic parties in Serbia Social democratic parties in Yugoslavia Social liberal parties

424730

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20zebra%20finch

Australian zebra finch

The Australian zebra finch or chestnut-eared finch (Taeniopygia castanotis) is the most common estrildid finch of Central Australia. It ranges over most of the continent, avoiding only the cool humid south and some areas of the tropical far north. The bird has been introduced to Puerto Rico and Portugal. Due to the ease of keeping and breeding the zebra finch in captivity, it has become Australia’s most widely studied bird; by 2010, it was the most studied captive model passerine species worldwide, by a considerable margin. Taxonomy and phylogeny The Australian zebra finch was described in 1837 by John Gould as Amadina castanotis, about two decades after the Sunda zebra finch (T. guttata) was described. For over a century and a half, the Australian and Sunda zebra finches were classified as a single species, Taeniopygia guttata. They were split by the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International in 2016. The International Ornithological Congress followed suit in 2022 based on studies noting differences in plumage, mtDNA divergence, and assortative mating between both species in captivity. It is likely that the Australian zebra finch evolved first, with the Sunda zebra finch descending from Australian zebra finches blown out to sea during the Pleistocene. Habitat and distribution The Australian zebra finch has the most extensive mainland distribution of the Australian estrilids, being found in about 75% of mainland Australia. The species is generally not found on the coasts, except for the arid western edge. The Australian zebra finch is generally found in more arid areas. The areas it chooses to occupy are close to water, and places where rain is concentrated after it falls. However, this is likely more related to the abundance of vegetation than the abundance of water as a resource in itself. Within these areas, it is found in grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs, and in open or grassy woodlands. It is also found in cultivated areas, such as rice fields. It usually stays confined to the low coastal areas of the islands it inhabits, but it can move to elevations up to to exploit expanding cultivation and grasslands. Although Australian zebra finch breeding, for example, is initiated by rainfall, Klaus Immelmann proposed that sustained heavy precipitation is detrimental to the zebra finch. This is supported by the observation that the nest does not shield the chicks or eggs from rain, and rainfall can sometimes result in clutches being abandoned. Furthermore, it is supported by Immelmann's finding that zebra finches left Wyndham after the first heavy rains in November 1959, but returned to breed in April. It is hypothesised that birds in parts of northern Australia migrate inland during the wet season from October to May, and return to the coastal regions during the dryer months. Life cycle The life expectancy of an Australian zebra finch is highly variable because of genetic and environmental factors. The zebra finch may reach up to five years in its natural environment. If they are kept caged, they normally live for 5 to 9 years but may live as long as 12 years, with an exceptional case of 14.5 years reported for a caged specimen. The greatest threats to captive zebra finch survival are predation by cats and loss of natural food. Song and other vocalisations Australian zebra finches are loud and boisterous singers. Their calls can be a loud beep, meep, oi! or a-ha!. Their song is a few small beeps, leading up to a rhythmic song of varying complexity in males. Each male's song is different, although birds of the same bloodline will exhibit similarities, and all finches will overlay their own uniqueness onto a common rhythmic framework. Due to their extremely fine temporal-auditory discrimination, the zebra finch is able to recognise and respond to micro-auditory details nested within their calls which human ears cannot detect. Sons generally learn the song of their fathers with little variation. There is a critical sensitive period during which juvenile males learn their songs by imitating a mature, male tutor. Subsong (early, poorly structured vocalisations) evolve into 'plastic song'. This plastic song is variable between renditions but begins to incorporate some recognisable elements of tutor songs. A study conducted by Nottebohm et al., has shown that birds were able to successfully imitate their tutor's song after relatively short exposure (40 playbacks of the motifs lasting 30 seconds total) over the duration of their sensitive learning period. These birds eventually form a "template" of what their correct song should sound like. They rely on auditory feedback for both song learning and practice as juveniles and song maintenance as adults. Adult birds maintain their songs by correcting any deviations from their target song template. During adulthood, by around 90 days, the bird's song goes through a crystallisation phase where their song template is stable and it no longer changes. The learning process can be delayed by exposure to traffic noise. Male Australian zebra finches begin to sing at puberty, while females lack a singing ability. This is due to a developmental difference, where in the embryo, the male zebra finch produces testosterone, which is transformed into estradiol in the brain, which in turn leads to the development of the nervous system for a song system. There are multiple areas of the brain involved in the production of song. When a bird is singing a learned song, the HVC projects to the robust nucleus of the archistriatum (RA), which itself projects to the hypoglossal motoneurons. These motoneurons control the muscles of the trachea and syrinx. When learning a new song, the HVC sends efferents to Area X in the lobus parolfactorius, which connects to the medial nucleus of the dorsolateral thalamus (DLM). This structure connects to the lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum (LMAN), which projects to the RA, and continues like a normal learned song would. The function of the various areas involved in learning is still being investigated. Area X is likely involved in the acquisition of a new song, whereas the LMAN likely serves a key role in the plasticity necessary for learning. Activation of song behaviour later depends on androgens. Because Australian zebra finch males learn their songs from their surroundings, they are often used as avian model organisms to investigate the neural bases of learning, memory, and sensorimotor integration. For example, studies have investigated the role of FoxP2 in song learning and have found that in young finches both knockdown and overexpression of FoxP2 in the striatal song control nucleus, Area X, prevents accurate song learning and tutor imitation. These studies also have implications for human speech. Individuals heterozygous for a point mutation in FOXP2 manifest a speech disorder. Because of similar expression patterns between humans and songbirds, the Australian zebra finch is used as a model to study FoxP2 expression and function. The zebra finch genome was the second bird genome to be sequenced, in 2008, after that of the chicken. The Australian zebra finch uses an acoustic signal to communicate to embryos. It gives an incubation call to its eggs when the weather is hot—above —and when the end of their incubation period is near. This call alters the growth and behaviour of the chicks, with chicks that were given an incubation call having less mass at the end of the nestling phase when they experienced higher nest temperatures. This contrasts with chicks that were not given an incubation call, which have a higher mass at the end of nestling after being exposed to high nest temperatures. Additionally, the chicks called to as an embryo are more likely to call after experiencing high nest temperatures. Calling behaviour is used by Australian zebra finches to negotiate parental care duties. In an experiment that delayed the return of the males to the nest, it was found that the resulting duets were shorter and calls were made more often. This is the first species that vocal negotiation over parental care has ever been reported. Behaviour Breeding The Australian zebra finch generally breeds in loose colonies of up to 50 nests (although the number of individuals in a colony can be up to about 230 when breeding, and around 350 when not), but it may nest solitarily. It usually places its nest in a thorny shrub poor tree, although it will nest in other structures, natural and artificial. Often, there are multiple nests in one shrub. In non-arid parts of Australia, colonies are often occupied year-round. During cold days in the non-breeding season, members of these colonies usually feed in flocks for about two hours, breaking up into small groups to rest, preen, sing, and court before foraging again in a large flock until about one hour before sunset, when they return to the colony. On warmer days, some of the small groups return to the colony to build nests and perform their normal activities. During the breeding season, finches finding or building a nest often return after about an hour of feeding, and on cold days they are joined by those incubating or brooding young. Pairs that have not yet laid their eggs sometimes elect to court and mate in special "courting trees" before joining the flock. In the afternoon, most pairs engage in social activities, which often take place at "social trees". The zebra finch frequently does not breed where it was born; of the ringed birds that bred in the Danaher breeding colony () from 1985 to 1989, 24% of them were hatched from the colony or in the immediate vicinity. This natal dispersal is not sex-biased, unlike in most passerines. However, males between 36 and 50 days of age are more likely to disperse than females, although after this age, more females disperse than males. Predation is likely a major factor in coloniality; nests in the main colony suffer less predation than nests further away. Pairs with preyed-upon nests are significantly more likely to nest in a bush more than away from their previous nesting plant. Another large factor is where others nest: individuals are more likely to nest closer to conspecifics. In addition, reproductive success of conspecifics may play a role in where individuals nest; a study published in 2012 found that this finch was more likely to breed near nests with chicks older than six days (used as a proxy for reproductive success because they fledge about 87% of the time). The Australian zebra finch builds both a roosting and breeding nest. The former is dome-shaped, has a large entrance on the side, and lacks an entrance tunnel. This nest helps the zebra finch conserve body heat (likely through its roof and walls and by allowing birds to huddle together): an individual in a roosting nest saves about 18% of the energy of one outside. The breeding nest (which generally ranges from about in length) has a small entrance followed by a tunnel about in diameter and up to in length, which conceals the contents of the nest, leading to the egg chamber, which has (from the outside) a diameter of ; the latter two are separated by a raised lip, preventing eggs from rolling out. This chamber often sits on an old nest; otherwise, a foundation consisting of many short, stiff stems over horizontal branches is constructed. The walls of the nest range in thickness from , with an outer layer of longer stiff and rough grass stems and an inner layer of shorter soft and fine stems. The egg chamber is also lined with soft material, such as wool and feathers. Both sites are defended during the day; but while a desperate bird is sometimes let in to the roosting nest during the night, the breeding nest is always guarded. The Australian zebra finch is an opportunistic breeder, initiating reproductive behaviour about one to three months after water becomes available. This is so that the young hatch when semi-ripe and ripe seeds (their primary food) become available. This finding is in line with the food quality hypothesis of zebra finch breeding, which states that dry grass seed is inadequate as a food source for nestlings, and that higher quality food (like ripening seeds) is needed to sustain them. Thus, in captivity, it can breed year round when provided with sufficient water, and it may attempt to breed several times per breeding season. Zebra finches are socially monogamous, with pair bonds lasting until the death of one of the partners, after which the widowed bird re-pairs. Extra-pair copulation, mating with individuals other than one's mate, occurs occasionally, with females usually soliciting it. Extra-pair parentage is relatively rare in the wild, accounting for about 2% of young. Attempts at forced extra-pair copulations by males occur frequently (about 43.8% of the time in one study); but, females can always successfully resist forced copulations if they so choose. There are multiple hypotheses as to why extra-pair copulation might have evolved. One theory is the good genes theory, which states that a female chooses extra-pair copulation if the extra-pair male grants its offspring direct benefits as a result of the male's alleles. There are results that seem to support this; a 1992 study found a correlation between the song rate of a male and the attractiveness of it (measured on the basis of how much time the female spent with the male). However, a 2007 study found that the responsiveness of a female (measured by behaviours indicating an intent to copulate or rejection) was not significantly related to the male's beak colour or its song rate. Song rate was instead hypothesised to draw female's attention to males. According to the author, this meant that the validity of the conclusions of the 1992 experiment needed to be reexamined. Combined with the lack of influence that certain morphological traits have, the large control of females over copulation could indicate chase-away sexual selection, where an exaggerated trait is evolved to counter increased resistance by the female to that feature. An additional theory as to why extra-pair copulation might evolve is the between-sex genetic correlation theory. This theory is based on the lack of definite female benefits in extra-pair copulations, and the benefits that males have by being promiscuous. It states that extra-pair mating behaviour could arise from the same set of loci, and thus that strong selection for extra-pair mating behaviour would indirectly select for promiscuous behaviour in females. There are several traits correlated with increased extra-pair copulations. Spending time with a mate is important; even more important than the attractiveness of a male (as judged by other females; attractiveness as judged by one female was positively correlated with the judgements of other females). Symmetry of both plumage, like chest bands, and artificial features, like leg bands, are preferred by the female, as measured by how often the male is displayed to. Because of the prevalence of extra-pair paternity, males have evolved various mechanisms to try and assure their paternity of a clutch. The male guards its mate by following it and stopping extra-pair copulation attempts. Sperm competition, where two or more males attempt to inseminate a single egg, also occurs. This is indicated by the male in a pair copulating with its mate more often the day before egg-starts. This is because the last male to copulate with a female before the next egg has a 70% to 80% chance of fertilising the egg in question. Another adaptation to sperm competition is the male ejaculating up to seven times more sperm in extra-pair copulations. The increased amount of sperm occurs because of the combination of ejaculate size being controlled by the time between previous copulations, and the fact that extra-pair copulations occur in the male after its period of within-pair copulation period is complete. The number of eggs ranges from two to eight eggs per clutch, with five being the most common number. These eggs are white or pale greyish blue in colour, and have a size of about . They are incubated for 14 to 16 days. From about 5% to 11% of offspring are the result of intraspecific brood parasitism, and in cases of parasitism, there is usually only one parasitic egg per nest. Additionally, parasitised nests often have one more egg than non-parasitised nests. The female may follow a mixed strategy with relation to brood parasitism (being parasitic in addition to incubating its own clutch). From about 32% to 58% of females do this, and almost all (about 96%) lay parasitic eggs before incubating their clutch. Unpaired females sometimes lay parasitic eggs, but paired females do not rely solely on parasitism. A female that parasitised a nest in the past is more likely to do so in the future. Most of these eggs are unsuccessful; that is, the host abandons its otherwise empty nest after a parasitic egg is laid. Additionally, successful parasites are more likely to have future success from parasitism. At least during late incubation, the female zebra finch can distinguish its own eggs on the basis of odour. This method of distinction arises from the visual similarity between parasitic and non-parasitic eggs, and the cost associated with raising an egg other than one's own. When a bird is parasitised during a nesting attempt, it is less likely to be parasitised again during that season and, at the very least, during the next season (although this could be statistical noise). Young zebra finches fledge about 17 to 18 days after hatching. They feed themselves by around 35 days after hatching, although they are still socially dependent on their parents during this time; the young become socially dependent between 36 and 50 days after hatching. They also develop sexually dimorphic plumage during this period. These finches are quick to attain sexual maturity, with most first attempting to form pair bonds and breed when they get close to 80 days in age. During the second half of the breeding season at the Danaher breeding colony, 44% of pairs attempting to breed were formed by individuals that were born earlier in the season. Males and females are very similar in size, but are easily distinguished from one another after reaching maturity, as the males usually have bright orange cheek feathers, red beaks (as opposed to the orange beaks of females), and generally more striking black and white patterns. Inbreeding Inbreeding causes early death (inbreeding depression) in the zebra finch, although it does not seem to affect fertility. Embryos have a much lower survival rate, with a study finding fertile eggs from sibling pairs had only about a 25% survival rate, compared to about 41% for unrelated pairs. This early difference in survival eventually becomes null after fledging, with about equal survival rates for offspring from both sibling and unrelated pairs. Inbreeding depression mostly arises due to the expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Diet The zebra finch primarily eats grass seeds, feeding mostly on semi-ripe and ripe seeds (although it also takes dry seeds). The seeds are all dehusked, and are found on stems and the ground, with most being taken, at least in the nominate subspecies, from the latter. The grasses they are taken from are commonly between about in length, and larger and easily dehusked seeds are preferred. It supplements its diet with insects (mainly ants and termites) caught in short flights from lookout perches, in addition to flowers of the genus Chenopodium. The nestlings diet consists almost entirely of half-ripe and ripe seeds, in addition to green plant material. There are two main reasons why grass seeds are the dietary staple of the zebra finch: they are an abundant and relatively stable food source in this finch's preferred climate, and they are convenient to, for example, dehusk. In some areas, such as the eastern arid zone in Australia, the seeds taken are consistent, whereas in others, like northern Victoria, there are annual changes in the diet, as different species become abundant. The diet of this finch is generally low in species diversity; at Sandringham, Queensland 74% of the seeds eaten over a 15-month period were from Panicum decompositum, for example. The zebra finch generally forages for seeds on the ground, taking them individually. But, it also eats seeds on the heads of standing grass. To do this, it either flies and pecks out seeds one at a time, or it perches on a nearby branch. It may also take the head to the ground by jumping up and seizing it with its bill or feet. In times of scarcity, the zebra finch can use its bill to dig into the ground to find buried seed. These seeds are generally taken from patches which have fewer husks (when compared to the number of whole seeds) and are larger and more dense. A seed patch may be checked for many months after its supply of seed is depleted. Additionally, colonial roosting and nesting and foraging in flocks can help birds discover new patches of seed. This bird commonly forages in flocks, although it sometimes forages in pairs or by itself. In the breeding season, small or medium-sized flocks are common, but in the non-breeding season, flocks of up to about 500 birds may be formed. It occasionally forms mixed-species flocks with other estrildids. A feeding flock can be formed by individuals joining those already feeding, or by individuals landing on the ground together. Birds that arrive in this flock later are more likely to rely on scrounging, or taking food from competitors, whereas early arrivals are more likely to find food for themselves. Individuals that tend to explore more may be more dominant (measured by factors such as in what order individuals accessed a food source), at least in a study that had relatively low food availability and a single source where food could be taken from. These individuals may also be less successful in a scramble competition, where there are multiple points where food can be found. The reason for the latter is hypothesised to be a result of a trade-off between faster speed in sampling an area and lower accuracy in detecting seeds. Foraging activity in the zebra finch peaks in the first hour after sunrise and the second to last hour before sunset. In the first instance, the increase foraging is generally achieved through many short bouts of foraging, whereas the latter comes from a few long bouts. When food becomes less available, like from August to September in northern Victoria, there is more feeding in the afternoon, less time spent on patches of food before leaving, and the distance between places where food is available is longer. There are generally two groups of individuals based on foraging behaviour. In the first group, the probability of starting or stopping a feeding bout is constant through time, and short meals are more usual. Most birds in this group have longer bouts when the gap between the previous bout is longer. In the second group (which may consist of more birds), the longer a gap is, the more likely the individual is to start feeding again. Additionally, for most birds in this group, the same is true of the stopping of a bout; the longer it is, the more likely it is to be stopped. Feeding is also usually cyclical for the second group. Drinking and bathing The Australian zebra finch generally consumes about 24% to 28% of its body weight (or about ) in water per day at a temperature of . When at a higher temperature of , it may drink from of water per day. The zebra finch also extracts water from seeds, and can get water from metabolising its food. This metabolic water consumption can equal the amount of water that is lost when temperatures are below , although only for birds that are gradually dehydrated. Suddenly dehydrated birds must be in temperatures below before the water lost is equal to that produced by the metabolism. This finch can survive periods of low water consumption; one study that gradually reduced the amount of water given over a period of a few months to just per week at temperatures from found that the zebra finch could survive these conditions. Additionally, more than half of birds survived in a total water deprivation experiment that ran 513 days long. When water is close, the Australian zebra finch drinks regularly during the day; if it is over about away, visits generally peak at midday. It prefers to drink from small puddles or other collections of water, especially those with gently sloped banks. Additionally, exposed drinking areas are preferred to more enclosed ones. It can also drink from dew on the tip of leaves. Due to the danger of predation, the zebra finch gathers in flocks in a bush or tree near a waterhole, only going to drink after the group is large enough. It then only drinks for a few seconds. After drinking, the zebra finch generally bathes for around a minute. Then, it dries off and re-oils its plumage in a warm sheltered spot. The Australian zebra finch needs an average of only 3.6 seconds to drink of water. This short amount of time per bout is achieved by this finch's drinking method. It swallows the water it gets while its bill tip is still submerged, unlike most birds that bring their bill tip up to swallow. This unique action is accomplished by having the tongue scoop water into the pharynx. Then, the front of the larynx forces the water into the oesophagus, which, through peristalsis, takes the fluid to the crop. This method could have evolved because the adaptations necessary were already there because of the need to quickly dehusk and swallow seeds. It allows for water to be drunk faster and taken from more diverse sources, such as drops of dew and cattle troughs; the latter requires the bird to drink upside down. Temperature regulation The body temperature (as measured from the ) of the zebra finch may vary from , rising with increasing air temperatures. Body temperatures over can cause death within an hour. This finch first cools itself by covering its plumage with water, not moving, and holding its wings out to allow more thinly feathered regions to be exposed. It also has a large capacity for evaporative cooling through the lungs and skin, with measurements of heat lost through evaporative cooling over heat produced being as high as 1.37 at . This can occur as a result of panting, which starts to occur when body temperatures reach (although this may start when the air temperature is as low as ). This can cause dehydration and may put birds into a lethargic state. Additionally, the zebra finch's simple rete mirabile ophthalmicum (found in the head) makes it unable to cool the brain as effectively as other birds, like the common kestrel. This lacking ability to cool the brain, in combination with dehydration, may cause the mass die-offs found during prolonged periods of high temperatures. For example, in January 1932, temperatures were between for 16 days in northern Southern Australia, causing upwards of tens of thousands of this bird to die, with many being found in dams. However, so long as drinking water is available, the bird is able to tolerate heat waves on top of the usual high summer temperatures. Tolerance is also achieved through behaviour. In extreme conditions the finch will reduce its activity in the hotter parts of the day, and it is capable of predicting hotter events and will pre-emptively eat and drink in preparation for the hours of enforced inactivity. Predators Nest predators of the Australian zebra finch include the tiger snake, brown snake, dragon lizard, pygmy mulga monitor, singing honeyeater, grey-crowned babbler, yellow-throated miner, little crow, Torresian crow, black rat, and house mouse. Carnivorous marsupials are also nest predators, and barn owls take roosting adult zebra finches. Gallery References Bibliography External links BirdLife International species factsheet Videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection Description on Vinkie View the Zebra finch genome in Ensembl Maintaining zebra finches Housing and husbandry for zebra finches Australian zebra Finch Australian zebra Finch Birds of Australia Domesticated birds Animal models Australian zebra Finch Australian zebra finch

424739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuse

Abuse

Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other types of aggression. To these descriptions, one can also add the Kantian notion of the wrongness of using another human being as means to an end rather than as ends in themselves. Some sources describe abuse as "socially constructed", which means there may be more or less recognition of the suffering of a victim at different times and societies. Types and contexts of abuse Abuse of authority Abuse of authority includes harassment, interference, pressure, and inappropriate requests or favors. Abuse of corpse See: Necrophilia Necrophilia involves possessing a physical attraction to dead bodies that may led to acting upon sexual urges. As corpses are dead and cannot give consent, any manipulation, removal of parts, mutilation, or sexual acts performed on a dead body is considered abuse. Abuse of discretion An abuse of discretion is a failure to take into proper consideration, the facts and laws relating to a particular matter; an arbitrary or unreasonable departure from precedent and settled judicial custom. Abuse of dominance Market dominance by companies is regulated by public and private enforcement of competition law, also known as antitrust or anti-monopoly law. Abuse of indulgences In the Catholic Church, an indulgence is a way to reduce punishment for sin, often by prayer, pilgrimage or good works. In the Middle Ages, some Church officials demanded money in exchange both for forgiveness of sins and for other rewards such as future salvation. Abuse of information Abuse of information typically involves a breach of confidence or plagiarism, or extending the confidence of information beyond those authorised. In the financial world, Insider trading can also be considered a misuse of internal information that gives an unfair advantage in investment. Abuse of power Abuse of power, in the form of "malfeasance in office" or "official misconduct", is the commission of an unlawful act, done in an official capacity, which affects the performance of official duties. Malfeasance in office is often grounds for a for cause removal of an elected official by statute or recall election. Abuse of process A cause of action in tort arising from one party making a malicious and deliberate misuse or perversion of regularly issued court process (civil or criminal) not justified by the underlying legal action. Abuse of rank Rankism (also called abuse of rank) is treating people of a lower rank in an abusive, discriminatory, or exploitative way. Robert W. Fuller claims that rankism includes the abuse of the power inherent in superior rank, with the view that rank-based abuse underlies many other phenomena such as bullying, racism, sexism, and homophobia. Abuse of statistics See: Abuse of statistics Abuse of trust See: Position of trust Abusive supervision Abusive supervision is most commonly studied in the context of the workplace, although can arise in other areas such as in the household and at school. "Abusive supervision has been investigated as an antecedent to negative subordinate workplace outcome". "Workplace violence has combination of situational and personal factors". The study that was conducted looked at the link between abusive supervision and different workplace events. Academic abuse Academic abuse is a form of workplace bullying which takes place in institutions of higher education, such as colleges and universities. Academia is highly competitive and has a well defined hierarchy, with junior staff being particularly vulnerable. Adolescent abuse See: Anti-social behaviour, Juvenile delinquency, Parental abuse by adolescents, Parental abuse of adolescents Adult abuse Adult abuse refers to the abuse of vulnerable adults. Alcohol use disorder Alcohol use disorder, as described in the DSM-IV, is a psychiatric diagnosis describing the recurring use of alcoholic beverages despite its negative consequences. Alcohol use disorder is sometimes referred to by the less specific term alcoholism. There are two types of people with alcohol use disorder: those who have anti-social and pleasure-seeking tendencies, and those who are anxiety-ridden- people who are able to go without drinking for long periods of time but are unable to control themselves once they start. Binge drinking is another form of alcohol use disorder. Frequent binge drinking or getting severely drunk more than twice is classed as alcohol misuse. According to research done through international surveys, the heaviest drinkers happen to be the United Kingdom's adolescent generation. Animal abuse Animal abuse is the infliction of suffering or harm upon animals, other than humans, for purposes other than self-defense. More narrowly, it can be harm for specific gain, such as killing animals for fur. Diverging viewpoints are held by jurisdictions throughout the world. Anti-social behavior Anti-social behavior is often seen as public behavior that lacks judgement and consideration for others and may damage them or their property. It may be intentional, as with vandalism or graffiti, or the result of negligence. Persistent anti-social behavior may be a manifestation of an antisocial personality disorder. The counterpart of anti-social behavior is pro-social behavior, namely any behavior intended to help or benefit another person, group or society. Bullying Bullying is repeated acts over time that involves a real or perceived imbalance of power with the more powerful individual or group attacking those who are less powerful. Bullying may consist of three basic types of abuse – verbal, physical and emotional. It typically involves subtle methods of coercion such as intimidation. Bullying can be defined in many different ways. Although the UK currently has no legal definition of bullying, some US states have laws against it. Bullying is usually done to coerce others by fear or threat. Character assassination Character assassination is an attempt to tarnish a person's reputation. It may involve exaggeration or manipulation of facts to present an untrue picture of the targeted person. It is a form of defamation and can be a form of an ad hominem (to the person) argument. Child abuse Child abuse is the physical or psychological/emotional mistreatment of children. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) define child maltreatment as any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child. Most child abuse occurs in a child's home, with a smaller amount occurring in the organisations, schools or communities the child interacts with. There are four major categories of child abuse: neglect, physical abuse, psychological/emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Child sexual abuse Child sexual abuse is a form of child abuse in which an adult or older adolescent abuses a child for sexual stimulation. Different forms of this include: asking or pressuring a child to engage in sexual activities (regardless of the outcome), some types of indecent exposure of genitalia to a child, displaying pornography to a child, actual sexual contact against a child, viewing or engaging in physical contact with the child's genitals for sexual purposes, or using a child to produce child pornography. Child-on-child sexual abuse Child-on-child sexual abuse refers to a form of child sexual abuse in which a prepubescent child is sexually abused by one or more other children or adolescent youths, and in which no adult is directly involved. This includes sexual activity between children that occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of coercion; particularly when physical force, threats, trickery, or emotional manipulation are used to elicit co-operation. Civil rights abuse Clandestine abuse Clandestine abuse is sexual, psychological, or physical abuse "that is kept secret for a purpose, concealed, or underhanded." Clerical abuse See: Catholic sex abuse cases Cyber abuse or cyber bullying Cyberbullying "involves the use of information and communication technologies to support deliberate, repeated, and hostile behavior by an individual or group, that is intended to harm others." -Bill Belsey Dating abuse or dating violence Dating abuse is a pattern of abusive behaviour exhibited by one or both partners in a dating relationship. The behaviour may include, but is not limited to; physical abuse; psychological abuse; and sexual abuse. Defamation Defamation is the communication of a statement that makes a claim, expressly stated or implied to be factual, that may give an individual, business, product, group, government or nation a negative image. It is usually—but not always, a requirement that this claim be false and that the publication be communicated to someone other than the person defamed (termed the claimant). Disability abuse It has been noted that disabled people are disproportionately affected by disability abuse and bullying, and such activity has been cited as a hate crime. The bullying is not limited to those who are visibly disabled – such as wheelchair-users or individuals with physical differences (e.g., cleft lip) – but also those with learning disabilities , autism or developmental coordination disorder. In the latter case, this is linked to a poor ability in physical education, and this behaviour can be encouraged by an ignorant physical education teacher. Abuse of disabled people is not limited to schools; there are many known cases in which disabled people have been abused by staff of a "care institution", such as the case revealed in a BBC Panorama programme on a Castlebeck care home (Winterbourne View) near Bristol, leading to its closure and suspension or firing of staff members. Discriminatory abuse Discriminatory abuse involves picking on or treating someone unfairly because something about them is different such as: Discriminatory laws such as redlining have existed in many countries. In some countries, controversial attempts such as racial quotas have been used to redress negative effects of discrimination. Other acts of discrimination include political libel, defamation of groups and stereotypes based on exaggerations. Domestic abuse or domestic violence Domestic abuse can be broadly defined as any form of abusive behaviours by one or both partners in an intimate relationship, such as marriage, cohabitation, family, dating, or even friends. Domestic violence has many forms, including: physical aggression (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, throwing objects), or threats thereof sexual abuse emotional abuse financial abuse (withholding money or controlling all money, including that of other family members) social abuse (restricting access to friends and/or family, insulting or threatening friends and/or family), controlling or domineering intimidation stalking passive/covert abuse (e.g., neglect) economic deprivation Depending on local statues, the domestic violence may or may not constitute a crime, also depending on the severity and duration of specific acts, and other variables. Alcohol consumption and mental illness have frequently been associated with abuse. Economic abuse Economic abuse is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources, which diminishes the victim's capacity to support him/herself and forces him/her to depend on the perpetrator financially. Elder abuse Elder abuse is a type of harm to older adults involving abuse by trusted individuals in a manner that "causes harm or distress to an older person". This definition has been adopted by the World Health Organization from a definition put forward by Action on Elder Abuse in the UK. The abuse includes violence, neglect, and other crimes committed against an elderly person and their forms include physical, mental, and financial abuses as well as passive and active neglect. Emotional abuse See: Psychological abuse While there is an absence of consensus as to the precise definition of emotional abuse, it is classified by the U.S. federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act as a form of mental injury. The typical legal definition, particularly in the area of child welfare, accepted by the majority of U.S. states describes it as injury to the psychological capacity or emotional stability as evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response or cognition. Employee abuse See: Workplace abuse or workplace bullying False accusations False accusations (or false allegations) can be in any of the following contexts: informally in everyday life; quasi-judicially; judicially. Flag abuse Flag abuse (or flag desecration) is a term applied to various acts that intentionally destroy, damage or mutilate a flag in public, most often a national flag. Often, such action is intended to make a political point against a country or its policies. Some countries have laws forbidding methods of destruction (such as burning in public) or forbidding particular uses (such as for commercial purposes); such laws may distinguish between desecration of the country's own national flag and flags of other countries. Countries may have laws protecting the right to burn a flag as free speech. Gaming the system Gaming the system (also called bending the rules, gaming the rules, playing the system, abusing the system, milking the system, or working the system) can be defined as using the rules and procedures meant to protect a system to instead manipulate the system for a desired outcome. Gaslighting Gaslighting is manipulation through persistent denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying in an attempt to destabilize and delegitimize a target. Its intent is to sow seeds of doubt in the targets, hoping to make them question their own memory, perception, and sanity. Instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred up to the staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorienting the victim. The term owes its origin to Gaslight, a 1938 play and 1944 film, and has been used in clinical and research literature. Gay abuse or gay bashing Gay bashing and gay bullying are verbal or physical abuse against a person perceived by the aggressor to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual, including people who are actually heterosexual, or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation. Harassment Harassment covers a wide range of offensive behaviour. It is commonly understood as behaviour intended to disturb or upset. In the legal sense, it is behaviour which is found threatening or disturbing. Power harassment is harassment or unwelcome attention of a political nature, often occurring in the environment of a workplace. Sexual harassment refers to persistent and unwanted sexual advances, typically in the workplace, where the consequences of refusing sexual requests are potentially very disadvantageous to the victim. Hate crimes Hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group; usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, or political affiliation. "Hate crime" generally refers to criminal acts which are seen to have been motivated by hatred of one or more of the listed conditions. Incidents may involve physical assault, damage to property, bullying, harassment, verbal abuse or insults, or offensive graffiti or inflammatory letters (hate mail). Hazing Hazing is considered any activity involving harassment, abuse, or humiliation as a way of initiating a person into a group. Hazing is seen in many different types of groups; including within gangs, clubs, sports teams, military units, and workplaces. In the United States and Canada, hazing is often associated with Greek-letter organisations (fraternities and sororities). Hazing is often prohibited by law and may be either physical (possibly violent) or mental (possibly degrading) practices. It may also include nudity or sexually oriented activities. Human rights abuse Human rights are "basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which have come to be commonly thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the law; and economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to participate in culture, the right to be treated with respect and dignity, the right to food, the right to work, and—in certain countries—the right to education. Humiliation Humiliation is the abasement of pride, which creates mortification or leads to a state of being humbled or reduced to lowliness or submission. It can be brought about through bullying, intimidation, physical or mental mistreatment or trickery, or by embarrassment if a person is revealed to have committed a socially or legally unacceptable act. Incivility Incivility is a general term for social behaviour lacking in civility or good manners, ranging from rudeness or lack of respect towards elders; vandalism and hooliganism; or public drunkenness and threatening behaviour. Institutional abuse Institutional abuse can typically occur in a care home, nursing home, acute hospital or in-patient setting and can be any of the following: Further reading Barter, Christine (1998). Investigating Institutional Abuse of Children (Policy, Practice, Research). National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Beker, Jerome (1982). Institutional Abuse of Children and Youth (Child & Youth Services). Routledge. Manthorpe J, Penhale B, Stanley N (1999). Institutional Abuse: Perspectives Across the Life Course. Routledge. Westcott, Helen L (1991). Institutional Abuse of Children – From Research to Policy: A Review (Policy, Practice, Research S.) National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC). Insult An insult is an expression, statement or behaviour considered to be degrading and offensive. Intimidation Intimidation involves intentional behavior that would cause a person of reasonable apprehension to fear harm or injury. Within the context of a criminal prosecution it is not necessary to prove that the behavior caused the victim to experience terror or panic. "The calculated use of violence or the threat of violence to attain goals political, religious, or ideological in nature... through intimidation, coercion, or instilling fear" can be defined as terrorism. Legal abuse Legal abuse refers to abuses associated with both civil and criminal legal action. Market abuse Market abuse may arise in circumstances where financial investors have been unreasonably disadvantaged, directly or indirectly, by others who: have used information which is not publicly available (insider dealing) have distorted the price-setting mechanism of financial instruments have disseminated false or misleading information. Medical abuse Military abuse War crimes are "violations of the laws or customs of war", including "murder, the ill-treatment or deportation of civilian residents of an occupied territory to slave labor camps", "the murder or ill-treatment of prisoners of war", the killing of hostages, "the wanton destruction of cities, towns and villages, and any devastation not justified by military, or civilian necessity". War rape is rape committed by soldiers, other combatants or civilians during armed conflict or war. During war and armed conflict rape is frequently used as means of psychological warfare to humiliate the enemy and undermine their morale. Military sexual trauma is sexual assault and rape experienced by military personnel. It is often accompanied by posttraumatic stress disorder. Mind abuse or mind control Mind abuse or mind control refers to a process in which a group or individual "systematically uses unethically manipulative methods to persuade others to conform to the wishes of the manipulator(s), often to the detriment of the person being manipulated". The term has been applied to any tactic, psychological or otherwise, which can be seen as subverting an individual's sense of control over their own thinking, behaviour, emotions or decision making. Misconduct Misconduct means a wrongful, improper, or unlawful conduct motivated by premeditated or intentional purpose or by obstinate indifference to the consequences of one's acts. Three categories of misconduct are official misconduct, professional misconduct and sexual misconduct. Mobbing Mobbing means bullying of an individual by a group in any context. Identified as emotional abuse in the workplace (such as "ganging up" on someone by co-workers, subordinates or superiors) to force someone out of the workplace through rumour, innuendo, intimidation, humiliation, discrediting, and isolation, it is also referred to as malicious, nonsexual, nonracial, general harassment. Mobbing can take place in any group environment such as a workplace, neighbourhood or family. Narcissistic abuse Narcissistic abuse is a term that emerged in the late 20th century, and became more prominent in the 2000s decade. It originally referred specifically to abuse by narcissistic parents of their children, but more recently has come to mean any abuse by a narcissist (egotistical person or someone with arrogant pride). Neglect Neglect is a passive form of abuse in which a caregiver responsible for providing care for a victim (a child, a physically or mentally disabled adult, an animal, a plant, or an inanimate object) fails to provide adequate care for the victim's needs, to the detriment of the victim. It is typically seen as a form of laziness or apathy on the form of the caregiver, rather than ignorance due to inability; accordingly, neglect of a child by and adult with mental disorders or who is overworked is not considered abuse, although this may constitute child neglect nonetheless. Examples of neglect include failing to provide sufficient supervision, nourishment, medical care or other needs for which the victim is helpless to provide for themselves. Negligence Negligence is conduct that is culpable (to blame) because it falls short of what a reasonable person would do to protect another individual from foreseeable risks of harm. Parental abuse by children Abuse of parents by their children is a common but under-reported and under-researched subject. Parents are quite often subject to levels of childhood aggression, typically in the form of verbal or physical abuse, in excess of normal childhood aggressive outbursts. Parents feel a sense of shame and humiliation to have that problem, so they rarely seek help; nor is much help available today. Passive–aggressive behaviour Passive–aggressive behaviour is a form of covert abuse. It is passive, sometimes obstructionist resistance to following through with expectations in interpersonal or occupational situations. It can manifest itself as learned helplessness, procrastination, stubbornness, resentment, sullenness, or deliberate and repeated failures in accomplishing tasks for which one is (often explicitly) expected to do. Patient abuse Patient abuse or neglect is any action or failure to act which causes unreasonable suffering, misery or harm to the patient. It includes physically striking or sexually assaulting a patient. It also includes withholding of necessary food, physical care, and medical attention. It applies to various contexts such as hospitals, nursing homes, clinics and home visits. Peer abuse "Peer abuse" is an expression popularised by author Elizabeth Bennett in 2006 to reinforce the idea that it is as valid to identify bullying as a form of abuse just as one would identify any other form of abuse. The term conveys similar connotations to the term peer victimisation. Persecution Persecution is the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group by another group. The most common forms are religious persecution, ethnic persecution, and political persecution; though there is naturally some overlap between these terms. Physical abuse Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause feelings of intimidation, pain, injury, or other physical suffering or bodily harm. Torture Torture is any act by which severe pain, whether physical or psychological, is intentionally inflicted. Police abuse Police brutality is the intentional use of excessive force by a police officer. Though usually physical it has the potential to arise in the form of verbal attacks or psychological intimidation. It is in some instances triggered by "contempt of cop", i.e., perceived disrespect towards police officers. Police corruption is a specific form of police misconduct designed to obtain financial benefits and/or career advancement for a police officer or officers in exchange for not pursuing, or selectively pursuing, an investigation or arrest. Police misconduct refers to inappropriate actions taken by police officers in connection with their official duties. Police misconduct can lead to a miscarriage of justice and sometimes involves discrimination. Political abuse Prejudice A prejudice is a preconceived belief, opinion, or judgment toward a group of people or a single person because of race, social class, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, disability, political beliefs, religion, line of work or other personal characteristics. It also means a priori beliefs (without knowledge of the facts) and includes "any unreasonable attitude that is unusually resistant to rational influence." Although positive and negative prejudice both exist, when used negatively, "prejudice" implies fear and antipathy toward such a group or person. Prison abuse or prisoner abuse Prisoner abuse is the mistreatment of persons while they are under arrest or incarcerated. Abuse falling into this category includes: Physical abuse: hitting, beating, or other unauthorised corporal punishment. Psychological abuse: taunting, sleep deprivation, or other forms of psychological abuse, occasionally white noise Sexual abuse: forced intercourse, genital mutilation, or other forms of sexual abuse. Other abuse: refusal of essential medication, humiliation, etc. Enhanced interrogation: methods implemented in the War on Terror purportedly needed to extract information since other techniques would not yield results. Torture: any act by which severe pain, whether physical or psychological, is intentionally inflicted Professional abuse Professional abusers: take advantage of their client or patient's trust exploit their vulnerability do not act in their best interests fail to keep professional boundaries Abuse may be: discriminatory financial physical/neglectful psychological/emotional sexual Professional abuse always involves: betrayal of trust exploitation of vulnerability violation of professional boundaries Further reading Dorpat, Theodore L (1996). Gaslighting, the Double Whammy, Interrogation and Other Methods of Covert Control in Psychotherapy and Analysis. Jason Aronson, Incorporated. Penfold, P. Susan (1998). Sexual Abuse by Health Professionals: A Personal Search for Meaning and Healing. University of Toronto Press. Psychological abuse Psychological abuse, also referred to as emotional abuse or mental abuse, is a form of abuse characterized by a person subjecting or exposing another to behavior that is psychologically harmful. Such abuse is often associated with situations of power imbalance, such as abusive relationships, bullying, child abuse and in the workplace. Racial abuse Racism is abusive attitudes or treatment of others based on the belief that race is a primary determinant of human traits and capacities. It is a form of pride that one's own race is superior and, as a result, has a right to "rule or dominate others", according to a Macquarie Dictionary definition. Racism is correlated with and can foster race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, discrimination, and oppression. Ragging Ragging is a form of abuse on newcomers to educational institutions in India, Sri Lanka, and Australia. It is similar to the American phenomenon known as hazing. Currently, Sri Lanka is said to be its worst affected country in the world. Rape Rape, a form of sexual assault, is an assault by a person involving sexual intercourse (with or without sexual penetration) of another without the other's consent (this includes those who are considered unable to consent, e.g., if they were inebriated or asleep) The rate of reporting, prosecution and convictions for rape varies considerably in different jurisdictions. The US Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999) estimated that 91% of US rape victims are female and 9% are male, with 99% of the offenders being male. In one survey of women, only two per cent of respondents who stated they were sexually assaulted said that the assault was perpetrated by a stranger. For men, male-male rape in prisons has been a significant problem. Relational aggression Relational aggression, also known as covert aggression or covert bullying is a type of aggression in which harm is caused through damage to relationships or social status within a group rather than physical violence. Relational aggression is more common and has been studied more among girls than boys. Religious abuse Religious abuse refers to: use of religious teachings in an abusive manner that causes psychological harm harassment or humiliation on the basis of the victim's religion, (see religious discrimination) misuse of a religion for selfish, secular or ideological ends, see religion and politics abuse of a clerical position to perpetrate non-religiously motivated abuse, such as in the Catholic sex abuse cases any form of religious violence, including: human sacrifice violent initiation rites Rudeness Rudeness (also called impudence or effrontery) is the disrespect and failure to behave within the context of a society or a group of people's social laws or etiquette. Satanic ritual abuse Satanic ritual abuse (SRA, sometimes known as ritual abuse, ritualistic abuse, organised abuse, sadistic ritual abuse and other variants) was a moral panic that originated in the United States in the 1980s, spreading throughout the country and eventually to many parts of the world, before subsiding in the late 1990s. School bullying School bullying is a type of bullying that occurs in connection with education, either inside or outside of school. Bullying can be physical, verbal, or emotional and is usually repeated over a period of time. Sectarian abuse Self-abuse Self-destructive behaviour is a broad set of extreme actions and emotions including self-harm and drug abuse. It can take a variety of forms, and may be undertaken for a variety of reasons. It tends to be most visible in young adults and adolescents, but may affect people of any age. Sexual abuse Sexual abuse is the forcing of undesired sexual behaviour by one person upon another, when that force falls short of being considered a sexual assault. The offender is referred to as a sexual abuser or – more pejoratively – molester. The term also covers any behaviour by any adult towards a child to stimulate either the adult or child sexually. When the victim is younger than the age of consent, it is referred to as child sexual abuse. Sexual bullying Sexual bullying is "any bullying behaviour, whether physical or non-physical, that is based on a person's sexuality or gender. It is when sexuality or gender is used as a weapon by boys or girls towards other boys or girls – although it is more commonly directed at girls. It can be carried out to a person's face, behind their back or through the use of technology." Sibling abuse Sibling abuse is the physical, emotional, and/or sexual abuse of one sibling by another. It is estimated that as many as 3% of children are dangerously abusive towards a sibling, making sibling abuse more common than either child abuse by parents or spousal abuse. Smear campaign A "smear campaign", "smear tactic" or simply "smear" is a metaphor for activity that can harm an individual or group's reputation by conflation with a stigmatised group. Sometimes smear is used more generally to include any reputation-damaging activity, including such colloquialisms as mud slinging. Spiritual abuse Spiritual abuse occurs when a person in religious authority or a person with a unique spiritual practice misleads and maltreats another person in the name of God(s), religion, or in the mystery of any spiritual concept. Spiritual abuse often refers to an abuser using spiritual or religious rank in taking advantage of the victim's spirituality (mentality and passion on spiritual matters) by putting the victim in a state of unquestioning obedience to an abusive authority. Stalking Stalking is unwanted attention towards others by individuals (and sometimes groups of people). Stalking behaviours are related to harassment and intimidation. The word "stalking" is a term that has different meanings in different contexts in psychology and psychiatry; and some legal jurisdictions use it to refer to a certain type of criminal offence. It may also to refer to criminal offences or civil wrongs that include conduct which some people consider to be stalking, such as those described in law as "harassment" or similar terms. Structural abuse Structural abuse is sexual, emotional or physical abuse that is imposed on an individual or group by a social or cultural system or authority. Structural abuse is indirect, and exploits the victim on an emotional, mental or psychological level. Substance use disorder A substance use disorder is a patterned use of a drug in which the person consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder. Widely differing definitions of substance use disorder are used in public health, medical and criminal justice contexts. In some cases criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when the person is under the influence of a drug, and long term personality changes in individuals may occur as well. In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction. Surveillance abuse Surveillance abuse is the use of surveillance methods or technology to monitor the activity of an individual or group of individuals in a way which violates the social norms or laws of a society. Mass surveillance by the state may constitute surveillance abuse if not appropriately regulated. Surveillance abuse often falls outside the scope of lawful interception. It is illegal because it violates peoples' right to privacy. Taunting A taunt is a battle cry, a method in hand-to-hand combat, sarcastic remark, or insult intended to demoralise the recipient, or to anger them and encourage reactionary behaviours without thinking. Taunting can exist as a form of social competition to gain control of the target's cultural capital (i.e. status). In sociological theory, the control of the three social capitals is used to produce an advantage in the social hierarchy as to enforce one's own position in relation to others. Taunting is committed by either directly bullying, or indirectly encouraging others to bully the target. It is also possible to give a response of the same kind, to ensure one's own status. It can be compared to fighting words and trash-talk. Teacher abuse See: Teacher abuse Teasing Teasing is a word with many meanings. In human interactions, teasing comes in two major forms, playful and hurtful. In mild cases, and especially when it is reciprocal, teasing can be viewed as playful and friendly. However, teasing is often unwelcome and then it takes the form of harassment. In extreme cases, teasing may escalate to actual violence, and may even result in abuse. Children are commonly teased on such matters as their appearance, weight, behaviour, abilities, and clothing. This kind of teasing is often hurtful, even when the teaser believes he or she is being playful. One may also tease an animal. Some animals, such as dogs and cats, may recognise this as play; but in humans, teasing can become hurtful and take the form of bullying and abuse. Telephone abuse See: Nuisance call Terrorism Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion. At present, there is no internationally agreed definition of terrorism. Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent acts which are intended to create fear (terror), are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non-combatants (e.g., neutral military personnel or civilians). It is sometimes sponsored by state policies when a country is not able to prove itself militarily to another enemy country. Transgender abuse or trans bashing Trans bashing is the act of victimising a person physically, sexually, or verbally because they are transgender or transsexual. Unlike gay bashing, it is committed because of the target's actual or perceived gender identity, not sexual orientation. Umpire abuse Umpire abuse refers to the act of abuse towards an umpire, referee, or other official in sport. The abuse can be verbal abuse (such as namecalling), or physical abuse (such as punching). Verbal abuse or verbal attacks Verbal abuse is a form of abusive behaviour involving the use of language. It is a form of profanity that can occur with or without the use of expletives. While oral communication is the most common form of verbal abuse, it also includes abusive words in written form. Verbal abuse is a pattern of behaviour that can seriously interfere with one's positive emotional development and can lead to significant detriment to one's self-esteem, emotional well-being, and physical state. It has been further described as an ongoing emotional environment organised by the abuser for the purposes of control. Whispering campaign A whispering campaign is a method of persuasion in which damaging rumours or innuendo are spread about the target, while the source of the rumours seeks to avoid being detected while spreading them (for example, a political campaign might distribute anonymous flyers attacking the other candidate). Workplace abuse or workplace bullying Workplace bullying, like childhood bullying, is the tendency of individuals or groups to use persistent aggressive or unreasonable behaviour against a co-worker. Workplace bullying can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, physical abuse and humiliation. This type of aggression is particularly difficult because unlike the typical forms of school bullying, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organisation and their society. Bullying in the workplace is in the majority of cases reported as having been perpetrated by a manager and takes a wide variety of forms. Characteristics and styles of abuse Some important characteristics and styles of abuse are: overt abuse covert (or controlling) abuse unpredictability disproportional (exaggerated) reactions dehumanisation and objectification abuse of information impossible situations (setting up to fail) control by proxy ambient abuse (gaslighting) Abusive power and control Abusive power and control (or controlling behaviour or coercive control) is the way that abusers gain and maintain power and control over a victim for an abusive purpose such as psychological, physical, sexual, or financial abuse. The abuse can be for various reasons such as personal gain, personal gratification, psychological projection, devaluation, envy, or just for the sake of it as the abuser may simply enjoy exercising power and control. Controlling abusers may use multiple tactics to exert power and control over their victims. The tactics themselves are psychologically and sometimes physically abusive. Control may be helped through economic abuse thus limiting the victim's actions as they may then lack the necessary resources to resist the abuse. The goal of the abuser is to control and intimidate the victim or to influence them to feel that they do not have an equal voice in the relationship. Manipulators and abusers control their victims with a range of tactics, including positive reinforcement (such as praise, superficial charm, flattery, ingratiation, love bombing, smiling, gifts, attention), negative reinforcement, intermittent or partial reinforcement, psychological punishment (such as nagging, silent treatment, swearing, threats, intimidation, emotional blackmail, guilt trips, inattention) and traumatic tactics (such as verbal abuse or explosive anger). The vulnerabilities of the victim are exploited with those who are particularly vulnerable being most often selected as targets. Traumatic bonding can occur between the abuser and victim as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change and a climate of fear. An attempt may be made to normalise, legitimise, rationalise, deny, or minimise the abusive behaviour, or blame the victim for it. Isolation, gaslighting, mind games, lying, disinformation, propaganda, destabilisation, brainwashing and divide and rule are other strategies that are often used. The victim may be plied with alcohol or drugs or deprived of sleep to help disorientate them. Certain personality types feel particularly compelled to control other people. Psychological characteristics of abusers In their review of data from the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (a longitudinal birth cohort study; n = 941) Moffitt et al. report that while men exhibit more aggression overall, gender is not a reliable predictor of interpersonal aggression, including psychological aggression. The study found that whether male or female, aggressive people share a cluster of traits, including high rates of suspicion and jealousy; sudden and drastic mood swings; poor self-control; and higher than average rates of approval of violence and aggression (in American society, females are, on average, excused when violent against males). Moffitt et al. also argue that antisocial men exhibit two distinct types of interpersonal aggression (one against strangers, the other against intimate female partners), while antisocial women are rarely aggressive against anyone other than intimate male partners. Male and female perpetrators of emotional and physical abuse exhibit high rates of personality disorders. Rates of personality disorder in the general population are roughly 15%–20%, while roughly 80% of abusive men in court-ordered treatment programmes have personality disorders. Female perpetrators have been found to possess personality disorders revolving around narcissistic and compulsive behaviors. in the data gathering procedure. The only statistics available are the reports on child maltreatment, which show that mothers use physical discipline on children more often than fathers, while severe injury and sexual abuse are more often perpetrated by men. Abusers may aim to avoid household chores or exercise total control of family finances. Abusers can be very manipulative, often recruiting friends, law officers and court officials, even the victim's family to their side, while shifting blame to the victim. Effects of abuse on victims English et al. report that children whose families are characterised by interpersonal violence, including psychological aggression and verbal aggression, may exhibit a range of serious disorders, including chronic depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociation and anger. Additionally, English et al. report that the impact of emotional abuse "did not differ significantly" from that of physical abuse. Johnson et al. report that, in a survey of female patients (n = 825), 24% suffered emotional abuse, and this group experienced higher rates of gynaecological problems. In their study of men emotionally abused by a wife/partner (n = 116), Hines and Malley-Morrison report that victims exhibit high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder and alcoholism. Namie's study of workplace bullying found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace bullying exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (hypervigilance, intrusive imagery, and avoidance behaviours). A 1998 study of male college students (n = 70) by Simonelli & Ingram found that men who were emotionally abused by their female partners exhibited higher rates of chronic depression than the general population. A study of college students (n = 80) by Goldsmith and Freyd report that many who have experienced emotional abuse do not characterise the mistreatment as abusive. Additionally, Goldsmith and Freyd show that these people also tend to exhibit higher than average rates of alexithymia (difficulty identifying and processing their own emotions). Jacobson et al. found that women report markedly higher rates of fear during marital conflicts. However, a rejoinder argued that Jacobson's results were invalid due to men and women's drastically differing interpretations of questionnaires. Coker et al. found that the effects of mental abuse were similar whether the victim was male or female. Pimlott-Kubiak and Cortina found that severity and duration of abuse were the only accurate predictors of aftereffects of abuse; sex of perpetrator or victim were not reliable predictors. Analysis of a large survey (n = 25,876) by LaRoche found that women abused by men were slightly more likely to seek psychological help than were men abused by women (63% vs. 62%). In a 2007 study, Laurent, et al., report that psychological aggression in young couples (n = 47) is associated with decreased satisfaction for both partners: "psychological aggression may serve as an impediment to couples development because it reflects less mature coercive tactics and an inability to balance self/other needs effectively." A 2008 study by Walsh and Shulman reports that psychological aggression by females is more likely to be associated with relationship dissatisfaction for both partners, while withdrawal by men is more likely to be associated with relationship dissatisfaction for both partners. See also Notes References Further reading Macpherson, Michael Colin The psychology of abuse (1985) Search for this book: Behera, Navnita Chadha Perpetuating the divide: Political abuse of history in South Asia journal Contemporary South Asia, Volume 5, Issue 2 July 1996, Pages 191–205 Birley, J. Political abuse of psychiatry Psychiatry, Volume 3, Issue 3, Pages 22–25 Bonnie, Richard J. Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 30:136–44, 2002 Zwi, AB. The political abuse of medicine and the challenge of opposing it. Soc Sci Med. 1987;25(6):649-57. External links

424756

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Tyrolean%20People%27s%20Party

South Tyrolean People's Party

The South Tyrolean People's Party (, SVP) is a regionalist political party in South Tyrol, an autonomous province with a German-speaking majority in northern Italy. Founded on 8 May 1945, the SVP has roots in the Deutscher Verband, a confederation of German-speaking parties formed in 1919 after the annexation of South Tyrol by Italy, which shared many of the same leading figures as the early SVP. An ethnic catch-all party, the SVP is aimed at representing South Tyrol's German-speaking population as well as Ladin speakers. It is mainly Christian-democratic, but nevertheless quite diverse, including conservatives, liberals and social democrats. The party also gives special attention to the interests of farmers, which make up a good deal of its electorate, especially in Alpine valleys. From 1948 to 2013, the party retained an absolute majority in the Landtag of South Tyrol (Provincial Council). Its best result was 67.8% in the 1948 provincial election, its worst 34.5% in the 2023 provincial election. The SVP had a long-lasting alliance with Christian Democracy (plus the Italian Democratic Socialist Party or the Italian Socialist Party) and, since 1994, with some of its successor parties, including the Italian People's Party and the Democratic Union of Alto Adige, as well as the Democratic Party of the Left and, later, the Democrats of the Left and the Democratic Party. That coalition 25 years, until the party chose to team up with the local section of Lega Nord / Lega in 2019. The SVP has a sister party in Trentino, the Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party (PATT). At the European level, the SVP is a member of the European People's Party (EPP). Recent history In 1989 Silvius Magnago, long-time SVP leader and Governor of South Tyrol since 1960, handed his office to Luis Durnwalder, who would keep the post until 2013. Under Durnwalder's long reign, the SVP continued to be the largest party in the Province, garnering more than 50% of the vote in most elections, despite growing competition, chiefly from right-wing parties. Durnwalder managed to keep the party, often riven in internal disputes between opposing factions, united. The SVP joined the European People's Party as an observer member in 1993. In the 1996 general election the SVP was affiliated to The Olive Tree (on the Populars for Prodi list, which included primarily the Italian People's Party), and also the 2001 general election (on its own list). 2003–2006 elections In the 2003 provincial election the SVP won 55.6% of the vote and 21 provincial councillors out of 35. Durnwalder, Governor since 1989, was returned for the fourth time in office, at the head of a coalition composed by the Democrats of the Left (DS) and the Democratic Union of Alto Adige. In the 2004 European Parliament election the SVP formed an electoral alliance with The Olive Tree joint list, including the DS. The party's share of votes fell below 50% for the first time, to 46.7% (–9.3pp from 1999, mainly because of the big win of the Greens (13.2%, +6.5%). However Michl Ebner was elected MEP with more than 90,000 preferences and a Green, Sepp Kusstatscher (a former member of the internal left of the SVP), was elected too. Also in 2004 the centrist Siegfried Brugger, party chairman since 1992, stepped down and was replaced by Elmar Pichler Rolle, another centrist. In the 2006 general election the party was part of the victorious The Union centre-left coalition, and garnered four deputies, including one for its sister-party in Trentino, the Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party (PATT) – long-serving Siegfried Brugger, Karl Zeller, Johann Georg Widmann and PATT's Giacomo Bezzi –, and three senators – Helga Thaler Ausserhofer (representing the party's conservative wing), Oskar Peterlini (from the party's social-democratic faction) and Manfred Pinzger. 2008–2009 elections In the 2008 general election the party obtained 44.3% (–9.1pp from 2006 and –16.2pp from 2001), returning only two deputies, Siegfried Brugger and Karl Zeller. In the Senate election, thanks to the plurality voting system, the SVP got its three senators – Helga Thaler Ausserhofer, Oskar Peterlini and Manfred Pinzger – re-elected. The low number of elects in the Chamber was due both to the strong showing of Die Freiheitlichen (9.4%) on the right and the decision not to enter in alliance for the Chamber of Deputies either with the centre-left led by the Democratic Party (PD, 18.0%) – successor of the DS – or the centre-right led by The People of Freedom (PdL,16.0%). In the 2008 provincial election the SVP won 48.1% of the vote in the Province (–7.5%), while its right-wing rivals (The Freedomites, South Tyrolean Freedom and Union for South Tyrol) gained a combined 21.5% of the vote. During the electoral campaign the party did not endorse its traditional counterparts in Trentino (the Daisy Civic List/Union for Trentino, UpT, and the PATT), in order not to hurt the relations with Lega Nord (LN), whose Trentino section, Lega Nord Trentino, provided the opposition candidate, Sergio Divina. Despite rumors on an alliance with Lega Nord Alto Adige – Südtirol, after the election the SVP continued its alliance with the PD. In April 2009 Richard Theiner, a member of the Arbeitnehmer ("employees") left-leaning wing, was elected party chairman, due to an agreement between the opposing factions. Since then he was assisted by three deputy chairpersons: Thomas Widmann (Wirtschaft or "business" faction), Martha Stocker and Paola Bioc Gasser (representative of the Ladin section). The latter was replaced by Daniel Alfreider in 2012. In the 2009 European Parliament election, due to the absence of its rival parties on the right, the SVP won 52.1% of the vote, electing Herbert Dorfmann. 2013–2014 elections The SVP contested the 2013 general election as part of the centre-left coalition, Italy. Common Good. Some long-serving MPs, notably Siegfried Brugger and Helga Thaler Ausserhofer, chose not to run for re-election and the party selected its candidates through a primary election. In the general election the SVP won 44.2% of the provincial vote (–0.1pp from 2008) and, being part of the coalition winning the national majority premium, obtained five deputies: Albrecht Plangger, Renate Gebhard, Daniel Alfreider, PATT's Mauro Ottobre and Manfred Schullian. For the Senate, the SVP ran alone in the constituencies of Merano and Brixen, winning both: in Merano outgoing deputy Karl Zeller took 53.5%, while in Brixen Hans Berger 55.4%. The SVP, in alliance with the PD, the UpT and the PATT, contributed also to the election of centre-left or autonomist candidates in the constituency of Bolzano and in those of Trentino. On 21 April, in a party primary, the SVP selected Arno Kompatscher as its head of the list for the 2013 provincial election, in place of Durnwalder. Kompatscher, 42-year-old mayor of Völs am Schlern, won 82.4% of the vote, while former SVP leader Elmar Pichler Rolle a mere 17.6%. In the October election the SVP won 45.7% of the vote in the Province (–2.4pp) and lost its 65-year-long absolute majority. Both the German right-wing parties (whose combined share of the vote was 27.2%, +5.7%) and the Greens (8.7%, +2.9%) gained votes. Kompatscher obtained more than 80,000 preference votes and was set to be appointed Governor by the Provincial Council. Its coalition government included, as usual, the PD. In May 2014 Theiner was replaced by Philipp Achammer as party's chairman. Daniel Alfreider, Zeno Christanell and Angelika Wiedmer were appointed vice chairpersons. Kompatscher and 28-year-old Achammer formed an entirely new leadership team and represented the party's renewal. In the 2014 European Parliament election the SVP won 48.0% of the vote in the Province and Dorfmann was re-elected to the European Parliament. 2018–2019 elections The SVP, which again chose its candidates through a primary election, contested the 2018 general election in a joint list with the PATT, within the centre-left coalition. The German right-wing parties did not contest the election, leading the SVP to obtain 48.8% of the vote in the Province (+4.6pp). However, due to the new electoral system, it secured four deputies, including one for the PATT, and three senators. For the Chamber, Albrecht Plangger was elected in Meran (61.2%), Renate Gebhard in Brixen (65.0%), Manfred Schullian and PATT's Emanuela Rossini from the PR list. For the Senate, Julia Unterberger was elected in Merano (61.1%), Meinhard Durnwalder in Brixen (66.5%) and Dieter Steger from the PR list. The SVP's support granted the election of PD's candidates for the Chamber and the Senate in Bolzano, but for the first time the centre-left lost badly in Trentino, where the LN – re-styled as "Lega" – became the largest party. In the 2018 provincial election incumbent Governor Kompatscher was the party's leading candidate. In the election on 21 October 2018, the party gained 41.9% (–3.8pp). The PD, SVP's traditional ally, did so poorly that the SVP needed to find a new coalition partner: after long negotiations, the party chose to team up with the local section of Lega Nord in 2019. Additionally, for the 2019 European Parliament election, the party formed an electoral pact with the other two main members of the European People's Party (EPP) from Italy, Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia (FI) and the Union of the Centre (UdC). In the 2019 European Parliament election the SVP won 46.5% of the vote in the Province and Dorfmann was re-elected to the European Parliament. 2022–2023 elections In the 2022 general election the SVP decided to run independently with PATT and the Trentino Project. In response, the centre-left coalition made deals with the Team K and Greens after this decision. The SVP obtained 44.1% (–4.7pp) of the vote at the provincial level. Fewer seats were at stake after the successful 2020 constitutional referendum. For the Chamber, Schullian was re-elected in Bolzano with 32.9%, Gebhard was re-elected in Brixen with 57.4% and incumbent senator Steger was elected from the PR list. For the Senate, the party's candidate narrowly lost in Bolzano, Unterberger was re-elected in Meran with 47.8% and Durnwalder was re-elected in Brixen with 46.1%. In the 2023 provincial election the party was reduced to 34.5% of the vote (–7.4pp), with Kompatscher as the most voted candidate. That was the result of the competition from a number of right-wing and populist German-speaking parties (combined 25.0% of the vote), as well the split of For South Tyrol with Widmann (3.4%). Ideology and factions The SVP is an example of a catch-all party. Its ideology ranges from Christian democracy to social democracy, due to the virtual absence of a true social-democratic rival party in the region. In German-speaking valleys the SVP had for decades almost no opposition, apart from Die Freiheitlichen, South Tyrolean Freedom and Citizens' Union for South Tyrol on the right and the Greens on the left. In the years the SVP suffered many splits reflecting the diverse composition of the party (Tyrolean Homeland Party, Social Progressive Party of South Tyrol and Social Democratic Party of South Tyrol) and many SVP leading members left the party in order to join other parties, notably including Alfons Benedikter, a right-winger who launched the Union for South Tyrol in 1989, Christian Waldner, a conservative liberal who launched The Freedomites in 1992, Sepp Kusstatscher, a leftist who joined the Greens in 1999, and finally Roland Atz, a right-winger who switched to Lega Nord Alto Adige – Südtirol in 2008. The Party of Independents/Freedom Party of South Tyrol, the South Tyrolean Homeland Federation, the Union for South Tyrol and The Freedomites can thus be all considered splits of the SVP. Within the party it is possible to identify three main internal factions: Landwirtschaft (Agriculture), representing the interests of farmers; the faction, which had in Luis Durnwalder, Governor from 1989 to 2013, its main representative in government, notably includes Herbert Dorfmann and Hans Berger. Wirtschaft (Economy), representing small business; the faction is led by Gerhard Brandstätter and notably includes Helga Thaler Ausserhofer, a conservative, Manfred Pinzger, Karl Zeller, Thomas Widmann and Dieter Steger; Arno Kompatscher wields strong support among the faction. Arbeitnehmer (Labour), the social-democratic faction and political arm of the Union of South Tyrolean Independent Trade Unions (ASGB); the faction, recently led by Reinhold Perkmann, Rosmarie Pamer, and Cristoph Gufler, notably includes Oskar Peterlini, the most left-wing SVP member in the Italian Parliament so far, Richard Theiner and Renate Gebhard. Siegfried Brugger and Elmar Pichler Rolle, who led the party in 1992–2004 and 2004–2009 respectively, are centrist figures who worked for preserving party unity. In order to prevent the break-up of the party along right-left lines, in 2008 Perkmann, leader of the Arbeitnehmer, proposed a "federal reform" of the party in order to preserve its catch-all nature and simultaneously give more autonomy to its internal factions, which have now an official status in party organization. The result was a mild reform of the party and the election to the party leadership in 2009 of a ticket composed by a leading member of the Arbeitnehmer, Richard Theiner, and a leading member of the Wirtschaft faction, Thomas Widmann, plus Martha Stocker, a close ally of Durnwalder. The factional divisions between party members were reflected also on the vote of confidence on the Berlusconi IV Cabinet: Pinzger and Thaler Ausserhofer abstained, while Brugger, Zeller and Peterlini voted against. This kind of divisions continued during the legislature, with senators, excluding Peterlini, supporting some of the government's policies and deputies often opposing the same measures. The Young Generation (Junge Generation, JG) is the youth movement of the party, including all members at the age of 14 to 30. The SVP is a member of the European People's Party (EPP), and its MEP sits in the EPP Group in the European Parliament. Popular support The electoral results of the SVP in South Tyrol since 1948 are shown in the chart below The electoral results of the SVP in South Tyrol since 1953 are shown in the table below. Chamber of Deputies European Parliament Electoral results Landtag of South Tyrol Italian Parliament European Parliament Leadership Chairman: Erich Amonn (1945–1948), Josef Menz-Popp (1948–1951), Toni Ebner (1951–1952), Otto von Guggenberg (1952–1954), Karl Tinzl (1954–1956), Toni Ebner (1956–1957), Silvius Magnago (1957–1991), Roland Riz (1991–1992), Siegfried Brugger (1992–2004), Elmar Pichler Rolle (2004–2009), Richard Theiner (2009–2014), Philipp Achammer (2014–present) Honorary chairman: Silvius Magnago (1991–2010) Secretary: Josef Raffeiner (1945–1947), Otto von Guttenberg (1947–1952), Albuin Forer (1952–1953), Vinzenz Stötter (1953–1954), Ivo Perathoner (1954–1957), Hans Stanek (1957–1965), Josef Atz (1965–1978), Bruno Hosp (1978–1989), Hartmann Gallmetzer (1989–1997), Thomas Widmann, (1997–2003), Michael Mühlberger (2004), Alexander Mittermair (2004–2009), Philipp Achammer (2009–2013), Martin Alber (2013–2014), Manuel Massl (2014–2016), Gerhard Duregger (2017–2019), Stefan Premstaller (2019–present) Further reading Anton Holzer, Die Südtiroler Volkspartei, Kulturverlag, Thaur (Tyrol) 1991, Joachim Goller, Die Brixner Richtungen. Die Südtiroler Volkspartei, das katholische Lager und der Klerus, Studienverlag, Innsbruck/Wien/Bozen 2007, References Sources History of 60 years of the SVP, 1945–2005 Provincial Council of Bolzano – Historical Archive Trentino Alto-Adige Region – Elections Provincial Government of Bolzano – Elections Cattaneo Institute – Archive of Election Data South Tyrol—Parties and Elections in Europe Ministry of the Interior – Historical Archive of Elections Günther Pallaver, Political parties in Alto Adige from 1945 to 2005 External links Official website Wirtschaft faction Arbeitnehmer faction Landwirtschaft faction 1945 establishments in Italy Agrarian parties Christian democratic parties in Italy Member parties of the European People's Party Parties represented in the European Parliament Political parties established in 1945 Political parties in South Tyrol Political parties of minorities Pro-European political parties in Italy Regionalist parties in Italy

424775

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician%20Nationalist%20Bloc

Galician Nationalist Bloc

The Galician Nationalist Bloc ( ) is a political alliance of left-wing Galician nationalist parties. It is self-defined as a "patriotic front". Formed in 1982, under the guidance of historical leader Xosé Manuel Beiras, the BNG calls for further devolution of powers to the Parliament of Galicia and the official and unambiguous recognition of Galicia as a nation. The BNG also promotes affirmative action for the Galician language. The current leader—the president of the National Council and national spokesperson—is Ana Pontón. The BNG has strong ties with the Galician Trade Union Confederation (Confederación Intersindical Galega, CIG), with the student union Erguer-Estudantes da Galiza (Stand Up–Students of Galiza), the agrarian unions Galician Peasant Union (Sindicato Labrego Galego, SLG) and Galician Rural Federation (FRUGA), and with environmentalist, feminist and Galician language organizations. From 2005 to 2009, BNG was part of a coalition government along with the Socialists' Party of Galicia, in which its leader, Anxo Quintana, served as the vice-president of the Galician regional government. Ideology The BNG is composed of a majority of grassroots independent members and a number of political parties. Traditionally, the largest party and main ideological influence has been the Galician People's Union (Unión do Povo Galego, UPG). In origin, the UPG, and consequently the BNG, were strongly left-wing and supported the idea of Galician independence. However, since 1990 BNG had gradually abandoned talk about independence and self-determination, especially since the moderate nationalist party Galician Unity (Unidade Galega) joined the coalition. According to its former leader, Anxo Quintana, BNG at that time was not a pro-independence party, although some individuals and organizations within it continued to express a support for the idea. Nonetheless, the hegemonic UPG has supported independence again since 2011 while preserving its left-wing core. Following the National Assembly of Amio (2012), the whole front readopted the idea of independence and the creation of a Galician republic. That same year, the BNG adopted a critical position towards the European Union. History Origins and formation The Galician People's Union (UPG) and the Galician Socialist Party (PSG), left-wing Galician nationalist parties, were founded in the early 1960s by anti-Francoist activists. In 1975 the Galician National-Popular Assembly (AN-PG) was founded, as a "mass front" of the UPG to organize protests and preparate a future electoral candidacy. In 1977 the UPG and the AN-PG created the Galician National-Popular Bloc (BN-PG), that run for the first democratic elections since 1936. In October 1981 the first elections for the Parliament of Galicia were held. These elections were won by the conservative and Spanish People's Alliance, while the Galician nationalist parties had a relatively low electoral result. The three MPs of the joint BN-PG and PSG list were expelled from Parliament after they refused to take the oath to the Spanish constitution. The UPG and the AN-PG agreed in early 1982 to reformulate their project, in the form a left-wing nationalist front that would cover a greater political spectrum, with different currents and parties inside it. The first meeting was held on 15 May, with the participation of AN-PG, UPG, PSG, Galiza Ceibe-OLN, Assembly of Galician Nationalists, Libertarian Collective "Arco da Vella" and independents of Santiago de Compostela and A Coruña. All this organizations and independents had signed an appeal for the unity of Galician nationalism; under the basic principles of recognition of the multinational character of the Spanish State, right of self-determination, anti-imperialism, self-government, self-organization, internal pluralism and democracy. This meeting would lead to the establishment of a Permanent National Managing Commission, with 22 members. In addition to the previous groups, Galician Revolutionary Students (ERGA), Nationalist Advance and independents of Vigo and O Condado would also join the new project. In spite of the unity, there were great ideological and tactical differences between the different parties. PSG gave great importance to the unity of nationalist trade-unionism and to participating in the institutions. on the other hand, Galiza Ceibe-OLN defended an active boycott of all the elections and a full rupture with the constitutional system. Nationalist Advance defended that the new organization should reject all laws and seek full national independence. At a meeting held on 27 June the political program of the organization was approved, without explicitly mentioning independence, although the creation of a Galician state was considered the main final goal. The new organization also wanted to balance institutional presence and social mobilization, to better defend the "popular and national interests". In subsequent meetings, local and regional assemblies were established. Those assemblies discussed the document adopted before the celebration of the founding Assembly. On 11 July, the Assembly of Galician Nationalists (ANG) decided to leave the Permanent Managing Commission, on the grounds that the new front was at the service of the individual parties and lacked a serious minimum political program. Despite this, ANG members continued to work individually on the creation of the new front. 1st National Assembly (1982–1984) On 25 and 26 September 1982 the founding assembly took place on the Fronton Municipal of Riazor, A Coruña. This new force was defined as "interclassist", seeking to defend all the Galician "popular classes". The Estreleira was chosen as the official flag, and (after a very close voting) "Galician Nationalist Bloc" was chosen as the new name. This assembly also approved the five basic principles of BNG: 1. Galiza [Galicia], as a nation, has the rights of self-determination and of exercising its national sovereignty. 2. Defense of democracy and popular interests. 3. The need for political and social self-organization, and non-dependency in the relations of Galiza. 4. Solidarity, anti-imperialism, peace and international disarmament. 5. A social model that promotes the socioeconomic development without dependence and on behalf of the welfare of the whole people. Finally, AN-PG (which will cease to exist de facto after this Assembly), UPG, PSG and various independents joined the front. Galiza Ceibe-OLN decide to leave after the Assembly decided that to participate in all elections, while the Libertarian Collective "Arco da Vella" also left due to their disagreement with the name and part of the political line. In the general elections of 1982 the BNG (still a coalition between the BN-PG and the PSG, since the new front had not yet been registered) gained 38,522 votes and no seats. These election results generated an internal debate within the PSG, which lead to an extraordinary Congress in January 1983, in which the party decided to leave the BNG. Despite this, a large group of members of the PSG split and continued to work inside the BNG with the name Socialist Collective (CS). In 1984 the PSG merged with Galician Left (EG), to create a new party: Galician Socialist Party-Galician Left (PSG-EG). The National Day of Galicia of 1983 the BNG called for a demonstration in Santiago de Compostela, attended by between 7,000 (according to the Spanish Police) and 15,000 (according to the BNG) people, with the main slogans of "Nationalism: the solution for Galicia" and "Unity in the Anti-imperialist Struggle" . The demonstration was dissolved by the police, leaving various protesters injured. Local elections were held in April of the same year (1983), being the first ones to be run by the BNG. The front obtained 50,491 votes, 117 local councilors and 6 mayors (Corcubión, Fene, Moaña, Malpica de Bergantiños and Carnota). 2nd National Assembly (1984–1986) The II National Assembly took place in December 1984 in Santiago de Compostela. This assembly defined the political position of the BNG in fundamental aspects of its political project, such as environmentalism, feminism, education, Galician language or Galician culture. Throughout that year, BNG developed an enormous political activity against the deindustrialization caused by the policy of "restructuring", actively participating in the three general strikes that took place in Galicia that year. The front also developed actions of protest against what was considered the appropriation and manipulation of the remains of historic Galician nationalist Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao, receiving in response a tough police crackdown. Defending the memory of the nationalist politician and intellectual was the main reason for the National Day of Galicia of that year, gaining (for the first time in many years) a permit to enter the historic center of Santiago de Compostela. In the Galician elections of 1985 the front only gained one seat (occupied by Xosé Manuel Beiras). This time, the MP was allowed to take the seat in exchange for "promising" to comply with the constitution (but not taking the Oath). Extraordinary National Assembly (1985–1987) The bad electoral results culminated in an internal debate which ended with the convening of an extraordinary National Assembly, held at Santiago on 15 December. BNG ratified its political tactic of accepting the Parliamentary requirement of accepting the constitution. This led to some new internal tensions, particularly inside the UPG. In 1986 this tensions culminates in a split in the UPG, with the more radical sector forming a new political group: Collective 22 March. This collective would create a new organization in July, the Communist Party of National Liberation (PCLN), an independentist and communist party. The PCLN would remain within the BNG, despite not agreeing with its new political line. The same year (1986) the Spanish NATO membership referendum took place, and the Galician Nationalist Bloc campaigned in favor of leaving. Remaining would have won in Spain and in Galicia. In the Spanish elections of 1986 BNG gained 27,049 votes (2.11 of the Galician vote) and no seats. The same year, the party boycotted the official acts of remembrance of the 1936 statute of autonomy, demanding self-determination and an end to "historical manipulation". The BNG also campaigned against the entry of Galicia in the European Economic Community. 3rd National Assembly (1987–1989) On 7 and 8 February 1987 the III National Assembly took place at O Carballiño. Party members approved the mechanisms that allowed the "updating" of the tactics and forms of political work of the front, by starting the process of opening the BNG to Galician society. The party also chose a new corporate image. The party tried to form a unitary Galician nationalist candidacy to the European elections of that year, but the talks failed. BNG then rejected a coalition offer made by Herri Batasuna, and decided to run alone, gaining 53,116 votes. The PCLN was expelled from the BNG for supporting Herri Batasuna in the election campaign, instead of its own list. After their expulsion, PCLN would create (along with Galiza Ceibe-OLN and local groups) the Galician People's Front (FPG). Later, on the same year, local elections were held, with the front obtaining 61,256 votes, 139 local councilors and 7 mayors (Corcubión, Carnota, Noia, Ares, Fene, Ribadeo and Malpica de Bergantiños). In July 1988 Galiza Nova, a new youth organization, is founded, fully becoming part of the BNG, and replacing Galician Revolutionary Students (ERGA) as its youth-wing. The front celebrated the National Day of Galicia of that year with a demonstration (attended by 10,000 people) with the slogan "Common project", that wanted to summarize the renewed political line of the 3rd National Assembly. Due to the wave of forest fires that inundated Galicia that year, the BNG boosted, along with several environmentalist associations and groups, the first popular legislative initiative in Galicia, in order to defend the Galician forests. 4th National Assembly (1987–1989) The 4th National Assembly of the organization took place in February 1989 in Lugo. The discussions focused on setting a political strategy to answer the economic crisis that was affecting Galicia at the time. Xosé Manuel Beiras was elected as the candidate for the presidency of Galicia. In the Galician elections of 1989 BNG gained 105,703 votes and 5 MPs. The Galician Nationalist Party-Galicianist Party (PNG-PG) and FPG failed in their attempt to get representation. Galician Socialist Party-Galician Left (PSG-EG) obtained two seats. In June of the same year the second European elections in the history of Spain were held, with the BNG running alone again, as the only Galician candidacy, and gaining 46,052 votes. In October general elections were held, with the BNG gaining 47,763 and failing to win any seat again. In 1989 there was a popular movement of protest in the town of Allariz, against the mayor Leopoldo Pérez Camba (People's Party), which evolved into a full revolt and ended with the resignation of the local government. After the resignation Anxo Quintana, a BNG local councilor, was elected as the mayor of the town. Since then Allariz has been the main stronghold of the BNG (which has won all local elections since 1993 with more than the 60% of the vote). In June 1990 the Permanent Commission made public an economic document, with an analysis on the crisis of Galicia and the solutions to it proposed by the front. In July the BNG held a common march in Santiago de Compostela with the PNG-PG. 5th National Assembly (1991–1993) In January 1991 the V National Assembly was held in Vigo. Galiza Nova was fully integrated into the structures of the front. BNG developed an intense campaign that year with the slogan "Galiza self-determination", which culminated on 6 December with a rally in Santiago de Compostela attended by more than 10,000 people. Later on that same year, Inzar and PNG-PG joined BNG. Local elections of 1991 In May 1991 local elections were held. BNG ran in 162 municipalities (out of 311), getting 107,932 votes, 8 mayors (Allariz, Malpica de Bergantiños, Noia, Corcubión, Vilar de Santos, Ribadeo, Fene, and Carnota) and 241 town councilors. In 1992 the front supported and actively participated in the national general strike on 2 April. During that year the front also campaigned against the Maastricht Treaty and a group of independents within BNG created the collective Nationalist Left (IN), in an attempt to gain internal power and to lower the influence of the Galician People's Union. 6th National Assembly (1993–1995) The 6th National Assembly was held in March 1993 at A Coruña, with no relevant changes. BNG run for the Spanish elections of 1993 with the slogan "Galiza with its own strength", obtaining 126,965 votes and getting very close to gaining seats at A Coruña and Pontevedra. Later in the same year, BNG participated in an international conference in Denmark of parties and individuals that opposed the Maastricht Treaty. In the Galician elections of October, the front gained 269,233 votes and 13 seats. Galician Unity, the old PSG-EG, would also join BNG after his electoral failures of that year. In the European elections of 1994 the front won a record 139,221 votes, but failed again to gain any seats. This positive electoral trend would continue in the local elections of 1995, in which the Bloc obtained 208,098 votes, 428 local councillors and 12 mayors (Allariz, Vilar de Santos, Fene, Corcubión, As Pontes de García Rodríguez, Cangas do Morrazo, Noia, Vilariño de Conso, Moaña, Bueu, Poio and Rairiz de Veiga) The increasing unity of Galician nationalism in the political arena also had consequences in other sectors. One of those sectors were unionism, were the old unions National Inter-Union of the Galician Workers (INTG) (aligned with the Galician People's Union-BNG) and General Confederation of Galician Workers (CXTG) (aligned with PSG-EG) merged to create Confederación Intersindical Galega (CIG). 2012 split In 2012 several parties and individuals abandoned the front, dissatisfied with its political line and the control exercised by the UPG. Encontro Irmandiño abandoned the bloc and joined with Galician Workers' Front (Fronte Obreira Galega), the Galician People's Front (FPG), Movemento pola Base and other collectives to form Anova-Nationalist Brotherhood. Anova obtained four seats in the 2012 Galician election as part of the Galician Left Alternative coalition. Anova is a pro-independence, anticapitalist, anti-globalization, republican and anti-imperialist organization. Other groups that split were the more moderate social-democratic and autonomist Máis Galiza, Nationalist Left and the Galician Nationalist Party-Galicianist Party (PNG-PG). They formed Commitment to Galicia (CxG), a social-democratic and autonomist organization. No CxG deputies were elected at the 2012 Galician election. Electoral performance BNG began its electoral history in a modest way. However, it quickly progressed from a single seat in the Galician Parliament to its best results in 1997 when, under the leadership of Xosé Manuel Beiras, it won almost 25 per cent of the total vote and 18 seats (out of 75) at the Parliament. After the 2001 Galician elections, the BNG still was the second-largest political group in the Galician Parliament with 17 seats, slightly ahead of the Socialists' Party of Galicia (PSdG) in total votes. Yet it was not until 2005 that BNG could force a coalition government, despite losing four seats and slipping to the third place. The BNG vice-president Anxo Quintana became then the vice-president of Galicia, and BNG could directly appoint a number of conselleiros (ministers) for some government departments. Prior to that, the other major Galician party, the conservative People's Party (PPdeG), had remained in control of the overall majority and therefore of the Galician government. In the 2009 elections, a sharp reduction in votes for the PSdG, together with poor results for the BNG (12 seats), forced the left-wing coalition out of government to the benefit of the PPdeG. Meanwhile, the BNG won 208,688 votes (11.37 per cent of the Galician vote, 0.8 of the Spanish total) in the 2004 Spanish general election, gaining two of the 350 seats in the Spanish Congress of Deputies. Results in the 2008 Spanish general election were slightly improved (+0.7% in Galicia), although resulting in the same number of seats. Results in local elections have traditionally been good, with a constant increase in the number of seats won, allowing BNG to govern or to, at least, take part in the government coalitions of most Galician large urban centres. BNG lost its single Member of the European Parliament, Camilo Nogueira, in the 2004 European Parliament election. However, BNG's interests have continued to be represented thanks to alliances established with other parties such as the Basque Nationalist Party and the Catalan Convergence and Union. BNG maintains regular contact with its European group, the European Greens–European Free Alliance, through a permanent representative in the chamber. Parliament of Galicia Cortes Generales Nationwide Regional breakdown European Parliament Local councils Internal organization BNG regulates itself through local, regional and national assemblies in which members can vote for and be elected as regional delegates and thereafter members of the National Council. However, the internal functioning of the party has come into criticism in recent years. As a result, several new organizations calling for "transparency and internal democracy" have formed within the BNG, namely the Encontro Irmandinho (led by former BNG president Xosé Manuel Beiras), Movemento Pola Base (formed by grassroots members and backed by the youth section Galiza Nova), and A Alternativa (supported by former Member of the European Parliament Camilo Nogueira). Furthermore, Anxo Quintana's leadership has been called into question after the poor results of the Galician 2009 elections. Joint affiliation with other political groups outside the BNG is not allowed. The political groups currently recognised by the BNG (via a lengthy ratification process) are: Historical parties and currents: See also Galician nationalism Xosé Manuel Beiras Anxo Quintana Camilo Nogueira Parliament of Galicia Xunta de Galicia References Notes Bibliography Barreiro, H. et al. (2002): "A Galicia política e o nacionalismo do BNG", in Tempos Novos, no. 59, p. 24–33 Beramendi, J.G. (2003): "Fin de ciclo no BNG? : Beiras desafía a hexemonía da UPG", in Tempos novos, p. 48–50 BNG (2004): Documento de bases para a elaboración dun novo Estatuto para Galiza Fernández Baz, M.A. (2003): A formación do nacionalismo galego contemporáneo (1963–1984), Laiovento Rodríguez, F. (1999): "Fundación da UPG na frente nacionalista BNG", in Terra e tempo, no. 12, p. 43–45 External links UPG website Galiza Nova , youth section of the BNG Movemento Galego ao Socialismo Isca! website (youth of the MGS) "Quin TV", multimedia portal of BNG's ex-president Anxo Quintana "TeleBNG", BNG's channel in YouTube

424778

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris%20Jericho

Chris Jericho

Christopher Keith Irvine (born November 9, 1970), better known by the ring name Chris Jericho is an American-Canadian professional wrestler and rock musician. He is currently signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW), where he was the leader of the Jericho Appreciation Society and the Inner Circle stable. Noted for his over-the-top rock star persona, in-ring technical wrestling prowess, and his ability to reinvent his character throughout the course of his career, Jericho has been named by journalists and industry colleagues as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time. During the 1990s, Jericho performed for American organizations Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW), as well as for promotions in countries such as Canada, Japan, and Mexico. At the end of 1999, he made his debut in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). In 2001, he became the first Undisputed WWF Champion, and thus the final holder of the WCW World Heavyweight Championship (then referred to as the World Championship), having won and unified the WWF and World titles by defeating Stone Cold Steve Austin and The Rock on the same night. Jericho headlined multiple pay-per-view (PPV) events during his time with the WWF/WWE, including WrestleMania X8 and the inaugural TLC and the Elimination Chamber matches and the shows itself. He was inducted into the Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame in 2010. Within the WWF/WWE, Jericho is a six-time world champion, having won the Undisputed WWF Championship once, the WCW/World Championship twice and the World Heavyweight Championship three times. He has also held the WWE Intercontinental Championship a record nine times and was the ninth Triple Crown Champion, as well as the fourth Grand Slam Champion in history. In addition, he was the 2008 Superstar of the Year Slammy Award winner and (along with Big Show as Jeri-Show) won the 2009 Tag Team of the Year Slammy Award—making him the only winner of both Superstar and Tag Team of the Year. After his departure from WWE in 2018, Jericho signed with New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), where he became a one-time IWGP Intercontinental Champion, and becoming the first man to have held both the WWE and IWGP Intercontinental Championships. Jericho joined and has been with AEW since its startup in January 2019 and became the inaugural holder of the AEW World Championship in August of that year. While in AEW, Jericho would also capture the ROH World Championship (the main title of AEW's sister promotion, Ring of Honor) at the 2022 Dynamite: Grand Slam event. All totalled, between ECW, WCW, WWE, NJPW, AEW, and ROH, Jericho has held 35 championships (including eight World Championships, and 10 Intercontinental Championships). In 1999, Jericho became lead vocalist of heavy metal band Fozzy, who released their eponymous debut album the following year. The group's early work is composed largely of cover versions, although they have focused primarily on original material from their third album, All That Remains (2005), onward. Jericho has also appeared on numerous television shows over the years, including the 2011 season of Dancing With the Stars. He hosted the ABC game show Downfall, the 2011 edition of the Revolver Golden Gods Awards, and the UK's Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards in 2012 and 2017. Early life Christopher Keith Irvine was born in Manhasset, New York on November 9, 1970, the son of a Canadian couple. He is of Scottish descent from his father's side and Ukrainian descent from his mother's side. His father, ice hockey player Ted Irvine, had been playing for the New York Rangers at the time of Jericho's birth. When his father retired, the family moved back to Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Irvine grew up. He holds dual American and Canadian citizenships. Irvine's interest in professional wrestling began when he started watching the local American Wrestling Association (AWA) events that took place at the Winnipeg Arena with his family, and his desire to become a professional wrestler himself began when he saw footage of Owen Hart, then appearing with Stampede Wrestling, performing various high-flying moves. In addition, Irvine also cited Owen's older brother Bret, Ricky Steamboat and Shawn Michaels as inspirations for his becoming a professional wrestler. His first experience with a professional wrestling promotion was when he acted as part of the ring crew for the first tour of the newly opened Keystone Wrestling Alliance promotion, where he learned important pointers from independent wrestlers Catfish Charlie and Caveman Broda. He attended Red River College in Winnipeg, graduating in 1990 with a diploma in Creative Communications. Professional wrestling career Early career (1990–1991) At the age of 19, he entered the Hart Brothers School of Wrestling, where he met Lance Storm on his first day. He was trained by Ed Langley and local Calgary wrestler Brad Young. Two months after completing training, he was ready to start wrestling on independent shows, making his debut at the Moose Hall in Ponoka, Alberta, as "Cowboy" Chris Jericho, on October 2, 1990, in a ten-minute time limit draw against Storm. The pair then worked as a tag team, initially called Sudden Impact. According to a February 2019 interview with Rich Eisen on The Rich Eisen Show, Jericho stated that his initial name was going to be "Jack Action" however, someone remarked to him that the name was stupid, they then asked him what his name really was, he then got nervous and said "Chris Jericho". He took the name Jericho from an album, Walls of Jericho, by German power metal band, Helloween. Jericho and Storm worked for Tony Condello in the tours of Northern Manitoba with Adam Copeland (Edge), Jason Reso (Christian) and Terry Gerin (Rhino). The pair also wrestled in Calgary's Canadian National Wrestling Alliance (CNWA) and Canadian Rocky Mountain Wrestling (CRMW). Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling (1991-1992) In 1991, Jericho and Storm started touring in Japan for Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling as Sudden Impact, where he befriended Ricky Fuji, who also trained under Stu Hart. Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre and other Mexican promotions (1992–1995) In the winter of 1992, he traveled to Mexico and competed under the name Leon D'Oro ("Golden Lion", a name that fans voted on for him between "He-Man", "Chris Power", and his preferred choice "Leon D'Oro"), and later Corazón de León ("Lion Heart"), where he wrestled for several small wrestling companies. From 1993 to 1995, he competed in Mexico's oldest promotion, Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL). In CMLL, Jericho took on Silver King, Negro Casas, and Último Dragón en route to an eleven-month reign as the NWA Middleweight Champion that began in December 1993. Smoky Mountain Wrestling (1994) 1994 saw Jericho reunited with Storm, as The Thrillseekers in Jim Cornette's Appalachian Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW) promotion, where they feuded with the likes of Well Dunn, The Rock 'n' Roll Express, and The Heavenly Bodies. Wrestling and Romance/WAR (1994–1996) In late 1994, Jericho began competing regularly in Japan for Genichiro Tenryu's Wrestling and Romance (later known as Wrestle Association "R") (WAR) promotion as The Lion Heart. In November 1994, Último Dragón defeated him for the NWA World Middleweight Championship, which he had won while wrestling in Mexico. In March 1995, Jericho lost to Gedo in the final of a tournament to crown the inaugural WAR International Junior Heavyweight Champion. He defeated Gedo for the championship in June 1995, losing it to Último Dragón the next month. In December 1995, Jericho competed in the second Super J-Cup tournament, defeating Hanzo Nakajima in the first round, but losing to Wild Pegasus in the second round. In 1995, Jericho joined the heel stable Fuyuki-Gun ("Fuyuki Army") with Hiromichi Fuyuki, Gedo, and Jado, adopting the name Lion Do. In February 1996, Jericho and Gedo won a tournament for the newly created International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship, defeating Lance Storm and Yuji Yasuraoka in the final. They lost the championship to Storm and Yasuraoka the following month. Jericho made his final appearances with WAR in July 1996, having wrestled a total of twenty-four tours for the company. Extreme Championship Wrestling (1996) In 1995, thanks in part to recommendations by Benoit, Dave Meltzer and Perry Saturn, to promoter Paul Heyman, and after Mick Foley saw Jericho's match against Último Dragón for the WAR International Junior Heavyweight Championship in July 1995 and gave a tape of the match to Heyman, Jericho began wrestling for the Philadelphia-based Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) promotion, winning the ECW World Television Championship from Pitbull #2 in June 1996 at Hardcore Heaven. While in ECW, Jericho wrestled Taz, Sabu, Rob Van Dam, Foley (as Cactus Jack), Shane Douglas, and 2 Cold Scorpio. He made his final appearance at The Doctor Is In in August 1996. It was during this time that he drew the attention of World Championship Wrestling (WCW). World Championship Wrestling (1996–1999) Early appearances (1996–1997) Jericho debuted for WCW on August 20, 1996, by defeating Mr. JL, which aired on the August 31 episode of Saturday Night. Jericho's televised debut in WCW occurred on the August 26 episode of Monday Nitro against Alex Wright in a match which ended in a no contest. He made his pay-per-view debut on September 15 against Chris Benoit in a losing effort at Fall Brawl. The following month, at Halloween Havoc, Jericho lost to nWo member Syxx due to biased officiating by nWo referee Nick Patrick. This led to a match between Jericho and Patrick at World War 3, which stipulated that Jericho's one arm would be tied behind his back. Despite the odds stacked against him, Jericho won the match. Later that night, Jericho participated in the namesake battle royal for a future WCW World Heavyweight Championship match but failed to win the match. Jericho represented WCW against nWo Japan member Masahiro Chono in a losing effort at the nWo Souled Out event. At SuperBrawl VII, Jericho unsuccessfully challenged Eddie Guerrero for the United States Heavyweight Championship. Cruiserweight Champion (1997–1998) On June 28, 1997, Jericho defeated Syxx at the Saturday Nitro live event in Los Angeles, California, to win the WCW Cruiserweight Championship for the first time, thus winning the first championship of his WCW career. Jericho successfully defended the title against Ultimo Dragon at Bash at the Beach, before losing the title to Alex Wright on the July 28 episode of Monday Nitro. Jericho unsuccessfully challenged Wright for the title at Road Wild, before defeating Wright in a rematch to win his second Cruiserweight Championship on the August 16 episode of Saturday Night. Jericho began feuding with Eddie Guerrero over the title as he successfully defended the title against Guerrero at Clash of the Champions XXXV before losing the title to Guerrero at Fall Brawl. Jericho defeated Gedo at Halloween Havoc. At World War 3, Jericho participated in the namesake battle royal but failed to win. On the January 15, 1998, episode of Thunder, Jericho defeated Eddie Guerrero to earn a title shot against Rey Mysterio Jr. for the Cruiserweight Championship at Souled Out. Jericho won the match by forcing Mysterio to submit to the Liontamer. After the match, Jericho turned heel by assaulting Mysterio's knee with a toolbox. In the storyline, Mysterio needed six months of recovery before he could return to the ring. Jericho then had a short feud with Juventud Guerrera in which Guerrera repeatedly requested a shot at Jericho's Cruiserweight Championship, but Jericho constantly rebuffed him. The feud culminated in a title versus mask match at SuperBrawl VIII. Guerrera lost the match and was forced to remove his mask. Following this match, Jericho began his ongoing gimmick of collecting and wearing to the ring trophy items from his defeated opponents, such as Guerrera's mask, Prince Iaukea's Hawaiian dress, and a headband from Disco Inferno. Jericho then began a long feud with Dean Malenko, in which Jericho repeatedly claimed he was a better wrestler than Malenko, but refused to wrestle him. Because of his mastery of technical wrestling, Malenko was known as "The Man of 1,000 Holds", so Jericho claimed to be "The Man of 1,004 Holds"; Jericho mentions in his autobiography that this line originated from an IWA interview he saw as a child, where manager Floyd Creatchman claimed that Leo Burke, the first professional wrestler to be known as "The Man of 1,000 Holds", was now known as "The Man of 1,002 Holds", to which Floyd Creatchman stated that "he learned two more". During the March 30, 1998, episode of Nitro, after defeating Marty Jannetty, Jericho pulled out a long pile of paper that listed each of the 1,004 holds he knew and recited them to the audience. Many of the holds were fictional, and nearly every other hold was an armbar. On the March 12, 1998, episode of Thunder, Malenko defeated a wrestler wearing Juventud Guerrera's mask who appeared to be Jericho. However, the masked wrestler was actually Lenny Lane, whom Jericho bribed to appear in the match. This started a minor feud between Lane and Jericho after Jericho refused to pay Lane. At Uncensored, Jericho finally wrestled Malenko and defeated him, after which Malenko took a leave of absence from wrestling. Jericho then proceeded to bring with him to the ring a portrait of Malenko that he insulted and demeaned. Just prior to Slamboree, J. J. Dillon (referred to by Jericho as "Jo Jo") scheduled a cruiserweight Battle Royal, the winner of which would immediately have a shot at Jericho's Cruiserweight Championship. Jericho accepted on the grounds that whoever he faced would be too tired to win a second match. At Slamboree, Jericho came out to introduce the competitors in an insulting fashion before the match started and then went backstage for coffee. An individual who appeared to be Ciclope won the battle royal after Juventud Guerrera shook his hand and then eliminated himself. The winner was a returning Malenko in disguise. Following one of the loudest crowd reactions in WCW history, Malenko proceeded to defeat Jericho for the championship. Jericho claimed he was the victim of a carefully planned conspiracy to get the belt off of him. He at first blamed the WCW locker room, then added Dillon, Ted Turner, and finally in a vignette, he walked around Washington, D.C., with the sign "conspiracy victim" and accused President Bill Clinton of being one of the conspirators after being rejected from a meeting. Eventually, Malenko vacated the title. Jericho ended up defeating Malenko at The Great American Bash to win the vacant title after Malenko was disqualified after hitting Jericho with a chair. The next night, Malenko was suspended for his actions. At Bash at the Beach, the recently returned Rey Mysterio Jr. (who had recovered from his knee injury) defeated Jericho in a No Disqualification match after the still-suspended Malenko interfered. Jericho regained the Cruiserweight Championship from Mysterio the next night after he interrupted J. J. Dillon while Dillon was giving the championship to Mysterio. Jericho was again awarded the championship. Eventually, Jericho decisively lost the title to Juventud Guerrera in a match at Road Wild with Malenko as special referee. World Television Champion (1998–1999) On August 10, Jericho defeated Stevie Ray to win the World Television Championship (Stevie Ray substituting for the champion Booker T). Soon afterward, Jericho repeatedly called out WCW World Heavyweight Champion Goldberg in an attempt to begin a feud with him, but never actually wrestled him. Jericho cites Eric Bischoff, Goldberg and Hulk Hogan's refusal to book Jericho in a pay-per-view squash match loss against Goldberg, which Jericho felt would be a big draw, as a major reason for leaving the company. On November 30, Jericho lost the World Television Championship to Konnan. In early 1999, Jericho began a feud with Perry Saturn. The feud saw Jericho and Saturn instigating bizarre stipulation matches, such as at Souled Out, where Jericho defeated Saturn in a "loser must wear a dress" match. At SuperBrawl IX, Jericho and Saturn wrestled in a "dress" match which Jericho won. Saturn finally defeated Jericho at Uncensored in a Dog Collar match. Jericho alternated between WCW and a number of Japanese tours before he signed a contract with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on June 30. Jericho's final WCW match came during a Peoria, Illinois, house show July 21, where he and Eddie Guerrero lost to Billy Kidman and Rey Mysterio Jr. in a tag team match. Fifteen years after Jericho's departure from WCW, his best known entrance music within the company, "One Crazed Anarchist", lent its name to the second single from his band Fozzy's 2014 album, Do You Wanna Start a War. New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1997–1998) In January 1997, Jericho made his debut for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), who had a working agreement with WCW, as Super Liger, the masked nemesis of Jyushin Thunder Liger. According to Jericho, Super Liger's first match against Koji Kanemoto at Wrestling World 1997 was so poorly received that the gimmick was dropped instantly. Jericho botched several moves in the match and complained he had difficulty seeing through the mask. The following six months, Jericho worked for New Japan unmasked, before being called back by WCW. On September 23, 1998, Jericho made a one-night-only return to NJPW at that years Big Wednesday show, teaming with Black Tiger against IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions Shinjiro Otani and Tatsuhito Takaiwa in a title match, which Jericho and Tiger lost. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (1999–2005) Intercontinental Champion (1999–2001) In the weeks before Jericho's debut, a clock labeled "countdown to the new millennium" appeared on WWF programming. On the home video, Break Down the Walls, Jericho states he was inspired to do this as his entrance when he saw a similar clock in a post office and Vince McMahon approved its use as his introduction to the WWF. The clock finally ran out on the August 9 episode of Raw Is War in Chicago, Illinois while The Rock was in the ring cutting a promo on the Big Show. Jericho entered the arena and proclaimed "Raw Is Jericho" and that he had "come to save the World Wrestling Federation", referring to himself as "Y2J" (a play on the Y2K bug). The Rock proceeded to verbally mock him for his interruption. Later that month, he would interact with several superstars including in particular interrupting a promo that The Undertaker was involved in, Jericho made his in-ring debut as a heel on August 26, losing a match against Road Dogg by disqualification on the inaugural episode of SmackDown! after he performed a powerbomb on Road Dogg through a table. Jericho's first long-term feud was with Chyna, for the WWF Intercontinental Championship. After losing to Chyna at Survivor Series, Jericho defeated her to win his first WWF Intercontinental Championship at Armageddon. This feud included a controversial decision during a rematch in which two separate referees declared each one of them the winner of a match for the title. As a result, they became co-champions, during which Jericho turned face. He attained sole champion status at the Royal Rumble. Jericho lost the WWF Intercontinental title to then-European Champion Kurt Angle at No Way Out. Jericho competed in a Triple Threat match against Chris Benoit and Angle at WrestleMania 2000 in a two-falls contest with both of Angle's titles at stake. Jericho won the European Championship by pinning Benoit, after Benoit pinned Jericho to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship. This was the first of six pay-per-view matches between the pair within twelve months. Jericho was originally supposed to be in the main event of WrestleMania, but was taken out after Mick Foley, who was originally asked by writers to be in the match, took his place. Jericho was even advertised on the event's posters promoting the match. Jericho lost the title the next day to Eddie Guerrero on Raw after Chyna sided with Guerrero. On the April 17 episode of Raw, Jericho upset Triple H in a WWF Championship match. Referee Earl Hebner made a fast count when Jericho pinned Triple H, causing Jericho to win the title. Hebner later reversed the decision due to pressure from Triple H, and WWE does not recognize Jericho's reign as champion. On April 19, Jericho defeated Eddie Guerrero at the Gary Albright Memorial Show organized by World Xtreme Wrestling (WXW). On the May 4 episode of SmackDown!, Jericho defeated Benoit to win his third WWF Intercontinental Championship but lost the title to Benoit four days later on Raw. Jericho's feud with Triple H ended at Fully Loaded, when they competed in a Last Man Standing match. Jericho lost the match to Triple H only by one second, despite the repeated assistance Triple H's wife, Stephanie, provided him in the match. At the 2001 Royal Rumble, Jericho defeated Chris Benoit in a ladder match to win the WWF Intercontinental Championship for the fourth time. At WrestleMania X-Seven, he successfully defended his title in a match against William Regal, only to lose it four days later to Triple H. At Judgment Day, Jericho and Benoit won a tag team turmoil match and earned a shot at Stone Cold Steve Austin and Triple H for their WWF Tag Team Championship on Raw the next night. Benoit and Jericho won the match, in which Triple H legitimately tore his quadriceps, spending the rest of the year injured. Benoit and Jericho each became a WWF Tag Team Champion for the first time. The team defended their title in the first fatal four-way Tables, Ladders and Chairs match, where Benoit sustained a year-long injury after missing a diving headbutt through a table. Despite Benoit being carried out on a stretcher, he returned to the match to climb the ladder and retain the championship. The two lost the title one month later to The Dudley Boyz on the June 21 episode of SmackDown!. At King of the Ring, both Benoit and Jericho competed in a triple threat match for Austin's WWF Championship, in which Booker T interfered as the catalyst for The Invasion angle. Despite Booker T's interference, Austin retained the title. Undisputed WWF Champion (2001–2002) In the following months, Jericho became a major force in The Invasion storyline in which WCW and ECW joined forces to overtake the WWF. Jericho remained on the side of the WWF despite previously competing in WCW and ECW. However, Jericho began showing jealousy toward fellow WWF member The Rock. They faced each other in a match at No Mercy for the WCW Championship after Jericho defeated Rob Van Dam in a number one contenders match on the October 11 episode of SmackDown!. Jericho won the WCW Championship at No Mercy when he pinned The Rock after debuting a new finisher, the Breakdown, onto a steel chair, winning his first world title in the process. One night later, the two put their differences aside and won the WWF Tag Team Championship from the Dudley Boyz. After they lost the titles to Test and Booker T on the November 1 episode of SmackDown!, they continued their feud. On the November 5 episode of Raw, The Rock defeated Jericho to regain the WCW Championship. Following the match, Jericho attacked The Rock with a steel chair. At Survivor Series, Jericho turned heel by almost costing Team WWF the victory after he was eliminated in their Winner Take All matchup by once again attacking The Rock. Despite this, Team WWF won the match. At Vengeance, Jericho defeated both The Rock for the World Championship (formerly the WCW Championship) and Stone Cold Steve Austin for his first WWF Championship on the same night to become the first wrestler to hold both championships at the same time, which made him the first-ever Undisputed WWF Champion, as well as the fourth Grand Slam winner under the original format. He retained the title at the Royal Rumble against The Rock and at No Way Out against Austin. Jericho later lost the title to Royal Rumble winner Triple H in the main event of WrestleMania X8. Jericho was later drafted to the SmackDown! brand in the inaugural WWF draft lottery. He would then appear at Backlash, interfering in Triple H's Undisputed WWF Championship match against Hollywood Hulk Hogan. He was quickly dumped out the ring, but Triple H would go on to lose the match. This would lead to a Hell in a Cell match at Judgment Day in May, where Triple H would emerge victorious. Jericho would then compete in the 2002 King of the Ring tournament, defeating Edge and The Big Valbowski to advance to the semi-finals, where he was defeated by Rob Van Dam at King of the Ring. In July, he began a feud with the debuting John Cena, losing to him at Vengeance. Teaming and feuding with Christian (2002–2004) After his feud with Cena ended, Jericho moved to the Raw brand on the July 29 episode of Raw, unwilling to work for SmackDown! General Manager Stephanie McMahon. Upon his arrival to the brand, he initiated a feud with Ric Flair, leading to a match at SummerSlam, which Jericho lost. On the September 16 episode of Raw, he won the WWE Intercontinental Championship for the fifth time from Rob Van Dam, before losing the title to Kane two weeks later on Raw. He then later formed a tag team with Christian, with whom he won the World Tag Team Championship by defeating Kane and The Hurricane on the October 14 episode of Raw. Christian and Jericho lost the titles to Booker T and Goldust in a fatal four-way elimination match, involving the teams of The Dudley Boyz, and William Regal and Lance Storm at Armageddon. On the January 13 episode of Raw, Jericho won an over-the-top-rope challenge against Kane, Rob Van Dam, and Batista to select his entry number for the Royal Rumble match. He chose number two in order to start the match with Shawn Michaels, who had challenged him to prove Jericho's claims that he was better than Michaels. After Michaels's entrance, Jericho entered as the second participant. Christian, in Jericho's attire, appeared while the real Jericho attacked Shawn from behind. He eliminated Michaels shortly afterward, but Michaels got his revenge later in the match by causing Test to eliminate Jericho. Jericho spent the most time of any other wrestler in that same Royal Rumble. Jericho simultaneously feuded with Test, Michaels, and Jeff Hardy, defeating Hardy at No Way Out. Jericho and Michaels fought again at WrestleMania XIX, which Michaels won. Jericho, however, attacked Michaels with a low blow after the match following an embrace. After this match, Jericho entered a rivalry with Goldberg, which was fueled by Goldberg's refusal to fight Jericho in WCW. During Jericho's first episode of the Highlight Reel, an interview segment, where Goldberg was the guest, he complained that no-one wanted Goldberg in WWE and continued to insult him in the following weeks. On the May 12 episode of Raw, a mystery assailant attempted to run over Goldberg with a limousine. A week later, Co-Raw General Manager, Stone Cold Steve Austin, interrogated several Raw superstars to find out who was driving the car. One of the interrogates was Lance Storm, who admitted that he was the assailant. Austin forced Storm into a match with Goldberg, who defeated Storm. After the match, Goldberg forced Storm to admit that Jericho was the superstar who conspired Storm into running him over. On the May 26 episode of Raw, Goldberg was once again a guest on the Highlight Reel. Jericho expressed jealousy towards Goldberg's success in WCW and felt that since joining WWE, he had achieved everything he had ever wanted in his career and all that was left was to defeat Goldberg and challenged him to a match. At Bad Blood, Goldberg settled the score with Jericho and defeated him. On the October 27 episode of Raw, Jericho won his sixth WWE Intercontinental Championship when he defeated Rob Van Dam. He lost the title back to Van Dam immediately after in a steel cage match. Later in 2003, Jericho started a romance with Trish Stratus while his tag team partner Christian began one with Lita. This, however, turned out to be a bet over who could sleep with their respective paramour first, with a Canadian dollar at stake. Stratus overheard this and ended her relationship with Jericho, who seemingly felt bad for using Stratus. After he saved her from an attack by Kane, Stratus agreed that the two of them could just be "friends", thus turning Jericho face. After Christian put Stratus in the Walls of Jericho while competing against her in a match, Jericho sought revenge on Christian, which led to a match at WrestleMania XX. Christian defeated Jericho after Stratus ran down and "inadvertently" struck Jericho (thinking it was Christian) and Christian got the roll-up. After the match, Stratus turned on Jericho and revealed that she and Christian were a couple. This revelation led to a handicap match at Backlash that Jericho won. Jericho won his record-breaking seventh WWE Intercontinental Championship at Unforgiven in a ladder match against Christian, breaking the previous record held by Jeff Jarrett from 1999. Jericho's seventh reign was short lived, as he lost it at Taboo Tuesday to Shelton Benjamin. World championship pursuits and departure (2004–2005) Jericho teamed up with Randy Orton, Chris Benoit, and Maven to take on Triple H, Batista, Edge, and Gene Snitsky at Survivor Series. The match stipulated that each member of the winning team would be the general manager of Raw over the next four weeks. Jericho's team won, and took turns as general manager. During Jericho's turn as general manager, the World Heavyweight Championship was vacated because a Triple Threat match for the title a week earlier ended in a draw. At New Year's Revolution, Jericho competed in the Elimination Chamber against Triple H, Chris Benoit, Batista, Randy Orton, and Edge for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship. Jericho began the match with Benoit and eliminated Edge, but was eliminated by Batista. Triple H went on to win. At WrestleMania 21, Jericho participated in the first ever Money in the Bank ladder match. Jericho suggested the match concept, and he competed in the match against Shelton Benjamin, Chris Benoit, Kane, Christian, and Edge. Jericho lost the match when Edge claimed the briefcase. At Backlash, Jericho challenged Shelton Benjamin for the WWE Intercontinental Championship, but lost the match. Jericho lost to Lance Storm at ECW One Night Stand. Jericho used his old "Lionheart" gimmick, instead of his more well known "Y2J" gimmick. Jericho lost the match after Jason and Justin Credible hit Jericho with a Singapore cane, which allowed Storm to win the match. The next night on Raw, Jericho turned heel by betraying WWE Champion John Cena after defeating Christian and Tyson Tomko in a tag team match. Jericho lost a Triple Threat match for the WWE Championship at Vengeance which also involved Christian and Cena. The feud continued throughout the summer and Jericho lost to Cena in a WWE Championship match at SummerSlam. The next night on the August 22 episode of Raw, Jericho faced Cena for the WWE Championship again in a rematch, this time in a "You're fired" match. Cena won again, and Jericho was fired by Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff. Jericho was carried out of the arena by security as Kurt Angle attacked Cena. Jericho's WWE contract expired on August 25. Return to WWE (2007–2010) Feud with Shawn Michaels (2007–2008) After a two-year hiatus, WWE promoted Jericho's return starting on the September 24, 2007, episode of Raw with a viral marketing campaign using a series of 15-second cryptic binary code videos, similar to the matrix digital rain used in The Matrix series. The videos contained hidden messages and biblical links related to Jericho. Jericho made his return to WWE television as a face on the November 19, 2007, episode of Raw when he interrupted Randy Orton during Orton's orchestrated "passing of the torch" ceremony. Jericho revealed his intentions to reclaim the WWE Championship in order to "save" WWE fans from Orton. On the November 26 episode of Raw, Jericho defeated Santino Marella and debuted a new finishing move called the Codebreaker. At Armageddon, he competed in a WWE title match against Orton, defeating him by disqualification when SmackDown!s color commentator John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) interfered in the match, but Orton retained the title. He began a feud with JBL and met him at the Royal Rumble. Jericho was disqualified after hitting JBL with a steel chair. On the March 10 episode of Raw, Jericho captured the WWE Intercontinental Championship for a record eighth time when he defeated Jeff Hardy. In April 2008, Jericho became involved in the ongoing feud between Shawn Michaels and Batista when he suggested that Michaels enjoyed retiring Ric Flair, causing Shawn Michaels to attack him. Jericho thus asked to be inserted into the match between Batista and Michaels at Backlash, but instead, he was appointed as the special guest referee. During the match at Backlash, Michaels feigned a knee injury so that Jericho would give him time to recover and lured Batista in for Sweet Chin Music for the win. After Backlash, Jericho accused Michaels of cheating, but Michaels continued to play up an injury. When Jericho was finally convinced and he apologized to Michaels for not believing him, Michaels then admitted to Jericho that he had faked his injury and he attacked Jericho with Sweet Chin Music. After losing to Michaels at Judgment Day, Jericho initiated a handshake after the match. On the June 9 episode of Raw, Jericho hosted his talk show segment, The Highlight Reel, interviewing Michaels. Jericho pointed out that Michaels was still cheered by the fans despite Michaels's deceit and attack on Jericho during the previous months, whereas Jericho was booed when he tried to do the right thing. Jericho then assaulted Michaels with a low blow and sent Michaels through the "Jeritron 6000" television, damaging the eye of Michaels, and turning heel in the process. This began what was named by both Pro Wrestling Illustrated and the Wrestling Observer Newsletter the "Feud of the Year". At Night of Champions, Jericho lost the WWE Intercontinental title to Kofi Kingston after a distraction by Michaels. In June, Jericho took on Lance Cade as a protégé. World Heavyweight Champion (2008–2009) Afterward, Jericho developed a suit-wearing persona inspired by Javier Bardem's character Anton Chigurh from the 2007 film No Country for Old Men and wrestler Nick Bockwinkel. Jericho and Michaels met at The Great American Bash, which Jericho won after attacking the cut on Michaels's eye. At SummerSlam, Michaels said that his eye damage would force him to retire and insulted Jericho by saying he would never achieve Michaels's success. Jericho tried to attack Michaels, but Michaels ducked, so Jericho punched Michaels's wife, Rebecca, instead. As a result, they fought in an unsanctioned match at Unforgiven, which Jericho lost by referee stoppage. Later that night, Jericho entered the Championship Scramble match as a late replacement for the defending champion CM Punk and subsequently won the World Heavyweight Championship, defeating Batista, John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL), Kane, and Rey Mysterio. It was announced that Michaels would challenge Jericho for the championship in a ladder match at No Mercy, which Jericho won. At Cyber Sunday on October 26, Jericho lost the title to Batista, but later won it back eight days later on the 800th episode of Raw in a steel cage match. Jericho defeated Michaels in a Last Man Standing match on the November 10 episode of Raw after interference from JBL. Jericho lost the World Heavyweight Championship at Survivor Series to the returning John Cena. On the December 8 episode of Raw, Jericho was awarded the Slammy Award for 2008 Superstar of the Year award. Six days later, he lost his rematch with John Cena for the World Heavyweight Championship at Armageddon. At the Royal Rumble on January 25, 2009, Jericho participated in the Royal Rumble match, but he was eliminated by the Undertaker. On February 15 at No Way Out, he competed in an Elimination Chamber match for the World Heavyweight Championship, but he failed to win as he was eliminated by Rey Mysterio. Following this, Jericho began a rivalry with veteran wrestlers Ric Flair, Ricky Steamboat, Jimmy Snuka and Roddy Piper, as well as actor Mickey Rourke. Jericho was originally arranged to face Rourke at WrestleMania 25, but Rourke later pulled out of the event. Instead, Jericho defeated Piper, Snuka and Steamboat in a 3-on-1 elimination handicap match at WrestleMania, but was knocked out by Rourke after the match. On the April 13 episode of Raw, Jericho was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 WWE draft. Jericho then faced Steamboat in a singles match at Backlash, where Jericho was victorious. In May, Jericho started a feud with Intercontinental Champion Rey Mysterio, leading to a match at Judgment Day, which Jericho lost. However, Jericho defeated Mysterio in a No Holds Barred Match at Extreme Rules to win his ninth Intercontinental Championship, breaking his own record again. At The Bash, Jericho lost the Intercontinental Championship back to Mysterio in a mask vs. title match. Jeri-Show and feud with Edge (2009–2010) Later in the event, Jericho and his partner Edge won the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship as surprise entrants in a triple threat tag team match. As a result of this win, Jericho became the first wrestler to win every (original) Grand Slam eligible championship. Shortly thereafter Edge suffered an injury and Jericho revealed a clause in his contract to allow Edge to be replaced and Jericho's reign to continue uninterrupted. At Night of Champions, Jericho revealed Big Show as his new tag team partner, creating a team that would come to called Jeri-Show. The duo defeated Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase to retain the championship. Jeri-Show successfully defended the title against Cryme Tyme at SummerSlam, MVP and Mark Henry at Breaking Point and Rey Mysterio and Batista at Hell in a Cell. At Survivor Series, both Jericho and Big Show took part in a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship, but the Undertaker successfully retained the title. At TLC: Tables, Ladders & Chairs, Jeri-Show lost the tag titles to D-Generation X (DX) (Shawn Michaels and Triple H) in a Tables, Ladders and Chairs match. As a member of the SmackDown brand, Jericho could only appear on Raw as a champion and DX intentionally disqualified themselves in a rematch to force Jericho off the show. On the January 4, 2010, episode of Raw, DX defeated Jeri-Show to retain the championship once again, marking the end of Jeri-Show. Jericho entered the 2010 Royal Rumble match on January 31, but was eliminated by the returning Edge, his former tag team partner, who went on to win the match. At Elimination Chamber, Jericho won the World Heavyweight Championship in an Elimination Chamber match, defeating The Undertaker, John Morrison, Rey Mysterio, CM Punk and R-Truth following interference from Shawn Michaels. The next night on Raw, Edge used his Royal Rumble win to challenge Jericho for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXVI. Jericho defeated Edge at WrestleMania to retain the title, but lost the championship to Jack Swagger on the following episode of SmackDown, who cashed in his Money in the Bank contract. Jericho then failed to regain the title from Swagger in a triple-threat match also involving Edge on the April 16 episode of SmackDown. Jericho and Edge continued their feud leading into Extreme Rules, where Jericho was defeated in a steel cage match. Jericho was drafted to the Raw brand in the 2010 WWE draft. He formed a brief tag team with The Miz and unsuccessfully challenged The Hart Dynasty for the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship at Over the Limit. A month later, Jericho lost to Evan Bourne at Fatal 4-Way, but won a rematch during the following night on Raw, where he put his career on the line. On the July 19 episode of Raw, after being assaulted by The Nexus, Jericho teamed with rivals Edge, John Morrison, R-Truth, Daniel Bryan and Bret Hart in a team led by John Cena to face The Nexus at SummerSlam. Jericho and Cena bickered over leadership of the team, which led to him and Edge attacking Cena during the SummerSlam match that they won. Jericho was punished for not showing solidarity against Nexus, when he was removed from a Six-Pack Challenge for Sheamus's WWE Championship at Night of Champions. Although he re-earned his place in the match after defeating The Hart Dynasty in a handicap steel cage match, he was the first man eliminated from the match at Night of Champions. On the September 27 episode of Raw, Jericho faced Randy Orton who punted him in the head. This was used to explain Jericho's departure from the company. Second return to WWE (2011–2018, 2022) Feud with CM Punk (2011–2012) Beginning in November 2011, WWE aired cryptic vignettes that promoted a wrestler's return on January 2, 2012, episode of Raw. On his return, after hyping the crowd and relishing their cheers for a prolonged period, Jericho left without verbally addressing his return. After exhibiting similar odd behavior in the proceeding two weeks, Jericho spoke on the January 23 episode of Raw to say, "This Sunday at the Royal Rumble, it is going to be the end of the world as you know it", but in the Royal Rumble match, he was eliminated last, by Sheamus. On the January 30 episode of Raw, Jericho began a feud with WWE Champion CM Punk after attacking him during his match with Daniel Bryan. He explained his actions by claiming other wrestlers in WWE were imitating him and named Punk as the worst offender. At Elimination Chamber, Jericho participated in the Elimination Chamber match for the WWE Championship, entering last and eliminating Dolph Ziggler and Kofi Kingston before being knocked out of the structure by Punk, which injured him and removed him from the match without being eliminated. The following night on Raw, Jericho won a ten-man battle royal to become the number one contender for Punk's WWE Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. In a bid to psychologically unsettle Punk, Jericho revealed that Punk's father was an alcoholic and Punk's sister was a drug addict, which contradicted Punk's straight edge philosophy; Jericho vowed to make Punk turn to alcohol by winning Punk's title from him. At WrestleMania, a stipulation was added that Punk would lose his WWE Championship if he was disqualified. During the match, Jericho unsuccessfully tried to taunt Punk into disqualifying himself, and Punk won the match. Jericho continued his feud with Punk in the weeks that followed by attacking and dousing him with alcohol after his matches. At Extreme Rules, Jericho failed again to capture the WWE Championship from Punk in a Chicago Street Fight. Championship pursuits (2012–2013) Jericho faced Randy Orton, Alberto Del Rio and Sheamus in a fatal four-way match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Over the Limit, where Sheamus retained his title. On May 24 at a WWE live event in Brazil, Jericho wrestled a match against CM Punk, during which Jericho kicked a Brazilian flag, causing local police to intervene and threaten Jericho with arrest. Jericho issued an apology to the audience, enabling the event to resume. The following day, WWE suspended Jericho for 30 days while apologizing to the people and government of Brazil. Jericho returned on the June 25 episode of Raw, and his absence was explained by a European tour with his band Fozzy which happened to coincide with his suspension. At Money in the Bank, Jericho participated in the WWE Championship Money in the Bank ladder match, but failed to win as John Cena won. The following night on Raw, Jericho confronted newly crowned Mr. Money in the Bank, Dolph Ziggler, who claimed that Jericho had lost his touch. Jericho attacked Ziggler with a Codebreaker, thus turning face in the process. At SummerSlam, Jericho defeated Ziggler. The following night on Raw, Ziggler defeated Jericho in a rematch and, as a result, Ziggler retained his Money in the Bank contract and Jericho's WWE contract was terminated as per a pre match stipulation put in place by Raw General Manager, AJ Lee. This was used to write him off so he could tour with Fozzy for the remainder of the year. On January 27, 2013, Jericho returned after a five-month hiatus entering the Royal Rumble match as the second entrant. Jericho lasted over 47 minutes before being eliminated by Dolph Ziggler. The following night on Raw, Jericho later revealed to Ziggler that due to a managerial change on Raw, he had been rehired by Vickie Guerrero, resuming his feud with Ziggler. Guerrero then paired the two in a match against WWE Tag Team Champions Team Hell No (Daniel Bryan and Kane). The match ended with Ziggler being pinned by Kane after Jericho framed him for pushing Kane. After beating Daniel Bryan on the February 11 episode of Raw, Jericho qualified for the Elimination Chamber match at Elimination Chamber (in which the winner would go on to be the number one contender for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 29), where he was the fourth man eliminated. On the March 11 episode of Raw, Jericho faced The Miz in a No. 1 contenders match for Wade Barrett's WWE Intercontinental Championship, but the match was ruled a no contest after Barrett interfered and attacked both men. Both men then faced Barrett the following week on Raw, where he retained his title. Earlier in the episode, Jericho had a run-in with Fandango which led to Fandango costing him his match with Jack Swagger and attacking him four days later on SmackDown. At WrestleMania 29, Jericho was defeated by Fandango. They continued their feud in the following weeks, until Jericho defeated Fandango at Extreme Rules. He then faced the returning CM Punk at Payback, where he was defeated. Jericho then began feuding with Ryback, which led to a singles match on July 14 at Money in the Bank, where Ryback emerged victorious. On the July 19 episode of SmackDown, Jericho unsuccessfully challenged Curtis Axel for the WWE Intercontinental Championship and was afterwards attacked by Ryback. This was done to write Jericho off television as he was taking a temporary hiatus to tour with Fozzy for the remainder of the year and possibly January and February. In a November interview for WWE.com, Jericho revealed that he would not be a full-time wrestler due to his musical and acting ventures. Various sporadic feuds (2014–2016) After an eleven-month hiatus, Jericho returned on the June 30, 2014, episode of Raw, attacking The Miz, who had also returned minutes earlier. The Wyatt Family then interrupted and ultimately attacked Jericho. Jericho faced Bray Wyatt at Battleground in a winning effort. At SummerSlam, with Wyatt Family members Luke Harper and Erick Rowan banned from ringside, Wyatt picked up the victory. On the September 8 episode of Raw, Jericho lost to Wyatt in a steel cage match, ending the feud. Jericho then feuded with Randy Orton, who had attacked him the week before after his match against Wyatt in the trainers room. Orton defeated him at Night of Champions. Throughout the rest of October and November, Jericho wrestled exclusively at live events, defeating Bray Wyatt. Jericho returned to WWE television in December as the guest general manager of the December 15 episode of Raw. Jericho booked himself in a street fight against Paul Heyman in the main event, which led to the return of Brock Lesnar. Before the match could begin, Lesnar attacked Jericho with an F-5. In January 2015, Jericho revealed that he signed an exclusive WWE contract, under which he would compete at 16 house shows only. He later signed a similar contract once the former expired and competed at house shows throughout the rest of 2015. During this time he wrestled against the likes of Luke Harper, Kevin Owens and King Barrett in winning efforts. In May 2015, Jericho was one of the hosts of Tough Enoughs sixth season. Jericho also hosted two Live! With Chris Jericho specials on the WWE Network during 2015; his guests were John Cena and Stephanie McMahon. Jericho made his televised return at The Beast in the East, defeating Neville. At Night of Champions, Jericho was revealed as the mystery partner of Roman Reigns and Dean Ambrose, facing The Wyatt Family in a losing effort. On October 3, Jericho unsuccessfully challenged Kevin Owens for the WWE Intercontinental Championship at Live from Madison Square Garden. The match marked 20 years since Jericho's debut with ECW while also celebrating his 25th year as a professional wrestler in total. On the January 4, 2016, episode of Raw, Jericho returned to in-ring competition full-time and confronted The New Day. At the 2016 Royal Rumble, Jericho entered as the sixth entrant, lasting over 50 minutes, before being eliminated by Dean Ambrose. On the January 25 episode of Raw, Jericho faced the recently debuted AJ Styles in a losing effort. Following the match, after initial hesitation by Jericho, the pair shook hands. On the February 11 episode of SmackDown, Jericho defeated Styles. At Fastlane, Styles was victorious in a third match between the pair. On the February 22 episode of Raw, Jericho and Styles formed a tag team, dubbed Y2AJ. Following their loss against The New Day on the March 7 episode of Raw, Jericho attacked Styles, ending their alliance, claiming that he was sick of the fans chanting for Styles instead of him, turning heel in the process. Their feud culminated at WrestleMania 32, where Jericho defeated Styles. However, on the April 4 episode of Raw, Jericho competed in a fatal-four-way match against Styles, Kevin Owens and Cesaro to determine the No. 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship in a losing effort after being pinned by Styles, ending their feud. The following week on Raw, Dean Ambrose interrupted The Highlight Reel, handing Jericho a note from Shane McMahon replacing the show with The Ambrose Asylum, igniting a feud between the two. During this time, Jericho tweaked his gimmick. He became arrogant and childish while wearing expensive scarfs and calling everyone who appeased him "stupid idiots". At Payback, Jericho faced Ambrose in a losing effort. After attacking one another and Ambrose destroying Jericho's light-up ring jacket, Jericho was challenged by Ambrose to an Asylum match at Extreme Rules, where Ambrose again defeated Jericho after Jericho was thrown in a pile of thumbtacks. On the May 23 episode of Raw, Jericho defeated Apollo Crews to qualify for the Money in the Bank ladder match at the Money in the Bank pay-per-view, where Jericho was unsuccessful as the match was won by Ambrose. On July 19 at the 2016 WWE draft, Jericho was drafted to the Raw brand. At Battleground on July 24, Jericho hosted a Highlight Reel segment with the returning Randy Orton, where he took an RKO from Orton after he insulted him. The next night on Raw, Jericho competed in a fatal four-way match to determine the number one contender for the newly created WWE Universal Championship at SummerSlam, but he was unsuccessful, as Roman Reigns won the match. The List of Jericho (2016–2017) At SummerSlam, Jericho and Kevin Owens defeated Enzo and Cass. Both wrestlers began an alliance, allowing Owens to win the WWE Universal Championship. Jericho also started a new character, where he began a list called "The List of Jericho", where he wrote down the name of the person that bothered him and why. If someone annoyed Jericho, he would ask "you know what happens?" before shouting "you just made the list!" and writing the person's name down. The List of Jericho soon became incredibly popular with the fans, with many critics describing Jericho and his list as "easily one of the best moments of Raw's broadcast". During Owens' reign, Jericho assisted him to retain the title. Jericho also defeated Roman Reigns in a handicap match also involving Owens on the January 9 episode of Raw to win the WWE United States title, becoming Grand Slam winner under the current format. Due to interfering multiple times in Owens's matches, Jericho was suspended above the ring in a shark proof cage during Reigns's rematch at the Royal Rumble pay-per-view event. Owens nonetheless retained the championship after Braun Strowman, taking advantage of the added no disqualification stipulation, interfered. Also at the event, Jericho entered as the second entrant in the Royal Rumble match, lasting over an hour (thus breaking the record with a cumulative time of over five hours) and being the third to last before being eliminated by Reigns. In February, a feud started between Jericho and Owens after Jericho accepted a Universal Championship challenge from Goldberg on Owens's behalf. On the February 13 episode of Raw, Jericho held a "Festival of Friendship" for Owens, who attacked Jericho, ending their alliance. Jericho returned at Fastlane on March 5, distracting Owens during his match with Goldberg and causing Owens to lose the Universal Championship, turning face again in the process. This led to a match between Jericho and Owens at WrestleMania 33, where Jericho lost the title. At Payback on April 30, Jericho defeated Owens to regain the title and moved to the SmackDown brand, but lost it back to him two nights later on SmackDown. Following the match, Owens attacked Jericho, who was carried out on a stretcher. Thus, Jericho was written off television so he could fulfill his commitments to tour with and promote his new album with Fozzy. Jericho made a surprise return at a house show in Singapore on June 28, where he lost to Hideo Itami. Final matches and departure (2017–2018) On the July 25 episode of SmackDown, Jericho participated in a triple threat match against Owens and Styles for the title in which Jericho was pinned by Styles. On January 22, 2018, during the 25th Anniversary of Raw, Jericho appeared backstage in a segment with Elias, putting him on The List of Jericho. At the Greatest Royal Rumble, Jericho was the last entrant in the 50-man Royal Rumble match, eliminating Shelton Benjamin before being eliminated by the eventual winner Braun Strowman. This event marked Jericho's final appearance till date with WWE. In September 2019, during an interview for the Mature Audiences Mayhem Podcast, Jericho explained that an incident occurred that made him finalize a decision to leave WWE. Even though Jericho was with the WWE for 15 years, at WrestleMania 33 in 2017, the match between Jericho and Kevin Owens (an established feud) was marked as second place on the WrestleMania match card for the United States Championship. The decision, made by Vince McMahon, prompted Jericho to seek work elsewhere. Cameo (2022) On the June 27, 2022 episode of Raw, Jericho made an appearance via video message to congratulate John Cena on his career. Return to NJPW (2017–2020) On November 5, 2017, Jericho returned to NJPW in a pre-taped vignette, challenging Kenny Omega to a match at Wrestle Kingdom 12 in Tokyo Dome for Omega's IWGP United States Heavyweight Championship. The match, dubbed "Alpha vs. Omega", was Jericho's first match outside of WWE since he left WCW in July 1999. Journalist Dave Meltzer wrote that Jericho's WWE contract had expired and that he was a "free agent". NJPW also referred to Jericho as a free agent. In contrast, the Tokyo Sports newspaper described an anonymous NJPW official saying that Jericho is still under contract with WWE, and that WWE chairman Vince McMahon had given him permission to wrestle this match in NJPW. At the event, Jericho was defeated by Omega. It was later revealed that the match was awarded a five-star rating from Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter. This was the first of his career. Jericho's next feud was against Tetsuya Naito, defeating him at Dominion 6.9 in Osaka-jo Hall to win the IWGP Intercontinental Championship. After retaining the title against Evil Power Struggle, he lost it against Naito at Wrestle Kingdom 13. Jericho's last matches with NJPW were at Dominion 6.9 in Osaka-jo Hall, being defeated by Kazuchika Okada for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship, and at Wrestle Kingdom 14, where he defeated Hiroshi Tanahashi. Return to the independent circuit (2018–2019, 2023) On September 1, 2018, Jericho (disguised as Penta El Zero) appeared at the All In show promoted by Cody and The Young Bucks, where he attacked Kenny Omega following Omega's victory over Penta to promote his upcoming Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea cruise. In October 2018, Jericho organized Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea, a series of professional wrestling matches originating from Jericho's cruise ship, which embarked from Miami, Florida and featured wrestlers from Ring of Honor. On May 3, 2019, Jericho appeared at a Southern Honor Wrestling event, where he was attacked by Kenny Omega. On January 8, 2023, Jericho made his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG), as part of PWG Battle of Los Angeles 2023 night 2, where he teamed with the Jericho Appreciation Society (Daniel Garcia, Angelo Parker, Matt Menard and Sammy Guevara) to defeat the team of Jonathan Gresham, Kevin Blackwood, Michael Oku, Player Uno, and SB Kento in a ten-man tag team match. All Elite Wrestling and Ring of Honor (2019–present) The Inner Circle (2019–2021) On January 8, 2019, Jericho made a surprise appearance at a media event organized by the upstart All Elite Wrestling (AEW) promotion. Shortly afterwards, Jericho was filmed signing a full-time performers three-year contract with AEW Jericho defeated Kenny Omega at the promotion's inaugural event Double or Nothing on May 25, and went on to defeat Adam Page at All Out to become the inaugural AEW World Champion. On the premiere episode of Dynamite on October 2, Jericho allied himself with Sammy Guevara, Jake Hager, Santana and Ortiz, creating a stable that would be known as The Inner Circle. Jericho would make successful title defences against Darby Allin, Cody at Full Gear, or Scorpio Sky). In December, Jericho started a feud with Jon Moxley where he tried to convide Moxley to join the group. At Revolution, Jericho lost the title to Moxley. After losing the championship, Jericho and The Inner Circle began a feud with The Elite (Adam Page, Cody, Kenny Omega and The Young Bucks), At Double or Nothing on May 23, The Inner Circle were defeated by Page, Omega, The Young Bucks and Matt Hardy in a Stadium Stampede match. Jericho next began a rivalry with Orange Cassidy, with Jericho defeating him at Fyter Fest on July 8, but losing a rematch on the August 12 episode of Dynamite. The two faced once again at All Out on September 5, in a Mimosa Mayhem match, which Jericho lost. Beginning in October, Jericho began a feud with MJF, who requested to join the Inner Circle, despite disapproval from Sammy Guevara, Santana and Ortiz. Jericho and MJF wrestled in a match at the Full Gear event on November 7, which MJF won, thus allowing him to join the Inner Circle. At Beach Break on February 3, 2021, Jericho and MJF won a tag team battle royal to become the number one contenders for the AEW World Tag Team Championship at the Revolution event against The Young Bucks, which they were unsuccessful in winning. On the March 10 episode of Dynamite, MJF betrayed and left The Inner Circle after revealing he had been secretly plotting against them and building his own stable, The Pinnacle—consisting of Wardlow, Shawn Spears and FTR (Cash Wheeler and Dax Harwood) turning the Inner Circle face. At Blood and Guts on May 5, The Inner Circle lost to The Pinnacle in the inaugural Blood and Guts match. However, in the main event of Double or Nothing later that month, The Inner Circle defeated The Pinnacle in a Stadium Stampede match, after Sammy Guevara pinned Shawn Spears. Jericho then began pursuing another match with MJF, who stated that he would first have to defeat a gauntlet of opponents selected by MJF, in a series dubbed the "Labors of Jericho". Jericho would defeat each of MJF's handpicked opponents (Shawn Spears, Nick Gage, Juventud Guerrera and Wardlow) and faced MJF in the final labor on the August 18 episode of Dynamite, but he was defeated. Jericho demanded one more match, stipulating that if he lost, he would retire from in-ring competition, which MJF accepted. At All Out on September 5, Jericho defeated MJF to maintain his career and end their feud. Following All Out, The Inner Circle started a rivalry with Men of the Year (Ethan Page and Scorpio Sky), and their ally, mixed martial arts (MMA) coach Dan Lambert. Lambert also brought in members of his MMA team American Top Team (ATT) to oppose The Inner Circle, including former UFC Heavyweight Champions Andrei Arlovski and Junior dos Santos. At the Full Gear event on November 13, The Inner Circle defeated Men of the Year and ATT in a Minneapolis Street Fight. Jericho Appreciation Society (2021–2023) At Revolution, Jericho was defeated by Eddie Kingston. After the match, Jericho refused to shake Kingston's hand. On March 9, 2022, Jericho turned heel by attacking Kingston and the team of Santana and Ortiz with a help of 2.0 and Daniel Garcia, ending the Inner Circle. At Double or Nothing, The Jericho Appreciation Society defeated the Blackpool Combat Club (Jon Moxley and Bryan Danielson), Eddie Kingston, Santana and Ortiz in an Anarchy in the Arena match. The Jericho Appreciation Society and Blackpool Combat Club feud continued through 2022 and saw the return of Jericho's Lionheart persona in matches with Moxley and Danielson. At Dynamite: Grand Slam on September 21, Jericho defeated Claudio Castagnoli to win the ROH World Championship for the first time in his career. On October 18, it was revealed that Jericho had signed a contract extension with AEW through December 2025. With this extension, Jericho received new roles as a coach and creative consultant, in addition to performing for AEW as an in-ring wrestler. During his reign as ROH World Champion, Jericho referred to himself as "The Ocho" (as it marked his eighth overall world championship) and successfully defended the title against many former ROH champions, such as Dalton Castle, Colt Cabana, Tomohiro Ishii and Bandido. At Final Battle, Jericho lost the ROH World Championship back to Castagnoli, ending his reign at 80 days. Legacy Known for his over-the-top, rock star persona, Jericho has been described by multiple industry commentators as one of the greatest professional wrestlers of all time. Journalist Chris Van Vliet noted that his name is "always thrown around as the GOAT [greatest of all time], or at least one of the GOATs", with Van Vliet himself asserting that Jericho is "if not the best, certainly one of the best". Todd Martin of the Pro Wrestling Torch remarked, to agreement from editor Wade Keller, that Jericho is "one of the great wrestlers of all time" and in "a lofty category", while likening his oeuvre to those of WWE Hall of Famers Randy Savage, Ricky Steamboat, Ted DiBiase and Dory Funk Jr. Praised for his ability to continually evolve his gimmick, Jericho was dubbed by KC Joyner of ESPN as "wrestling's David Bowie". Various outlets have included Jericho in lists of the greatest wrestlers ever. Baltimore Sun reporter Kevin Eck, who has also served as editor of WCW Magazine and a WWE producer, featured Jericho in his "Top 10 favorite wrestlers of all time" and "Top 10 all-around performers"—the former piece noting that Jericho is "regarded as one of the very best talkers in the business". Keisha Hatchett in TV Guide wrote that Jericho "owns the mic with cerebral insults" and is set apart from peers by "his charismatic presence, which is highlighted by a laundry list of unforgettable catchphrases". He was voted by Wrestling Observer Newsletter (WON) readers as "Best on Interviews" for the 2000s decade, coinciding with his 2010 induction into the WON Hall of Fame. Fans also named Jericho the greatest WWE Intercontinental Champion of all time in a 2013 WWE poll, affording him a landslide 63% victory over the other four contenders (Mr. Perfect, The Honky Tonk Man, Rick Rude and Pat Patterson). Chris Jericho's feud with Shawn Michaels and their series of matches, particularly their ladder match at No Mercy in 2008 received critical acclaim. Wrestling Observer Newsletter neamed their feud the "feud of the year" and the ladder match the "match of the year". A number of Jericho's industry colleagues have hailed him as one of the greatest wrestlers in history. Kurt Angle labelled him the single greatest performer of all time. Stone Cold Steve Austin lauded his consistently "dynamic" promos and in-ring work, while arguing that he should be considered among the 10 best ever. Kenny Omega asserted that Jericho "has a legit argument for being the best of all time", based on his ability to achieve success and notoriety across numerous territories. Jon Moxley said, "Jericho is really making a case for being the greatest of all time... he's doing it again, he's doing something completely new, and breaking new barriers still here in 2020." Matt Striker pointed to Jericho's "magnanimous" nature as a contributing factor to his status as an all-time great; his willingness to impart knowledge was commended by James Ellsworth, who described Jericho as an "outstanding human being" and a childhood favorite. Kevin Owens stated that "Jericho was always someone I looked up to", while The Miz affirmed that he was part of a generation of young wrestlers who sought to "emulate" Jericho. WWE declared Jericho a "marquee draw" with a "reputation as one of the best ever". As of 2019, he is one of the ten most prolific pay-per-view performers in company history. After Jericho signed with All Elite Wrestling, it was said his role was similar to Terry Funk in ECW, as an experienced veteran bringing credibility to a younger promotion. Jericho was credited as one of the key attractions of AEW's weekly television broadcasts, leading to him adopting the nickname "The Demo God" due to many of the segments he appeared in being some of the highest viewed in the key demographics. He was voted as the Best Box Office Draw by readers of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter in 2019. On March 15, 2023, prior to an AEW Dynamite broadcast from Winnipeg, Jericho was bestowed with a Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Medal by Premier of Manitoba Heather Stefanson, and it was announced that a portion of Winnipeg's Wordsworth Way where he lived would be renamed "Chris Jericho Way". Music career Jericho is the lead singer for the heavy metal band Fozzy. Since their debut album in 2000, Fozzy have released seven studio albums; Fozzy, Happenstance, All That Remains, Chasing the Grail, Sin and Bones, Do You Wanna Start a War, Judas, and one live album, Remains Alive. In 2005, Jericho performed vocals on a cover of "The Evil That Men Do" on the Iron Maiden tribute album, Numbers from the Beast. He made a guest appearance on Dream Theater's album, Systematic Chaos on the song "Repentance", as one of several musical guests recorded apologizing to important people in their lives for wrongdoings in the past. In the mid-1990s, Jericho wrote a monthly column for Metal Edge magazine focused on the heavy metal scene. The column ran for about a year. He started his own weekly XM Satellite Radio show in March 2005 called The Rock of Jericho, which aired Sunday nights on XM 41 The Boneyard. Discography Albums with Fozzy Fozzy (2000) Happenstance (2002) All That Remains (2005) Chasing the Grail (2010) Sin and Bones (2012) Do You Wanna Start a War (2014) Judas (2017) Boombox (2022) Live albums Remains Alive (2009) As guest Don't You Wish You Were Me? - WWE Originals (2004) King of the Night Time World - Spin the Bottle: An All-Star Tribute to Kiss (2004) * With Rich Ward, Mike Inez, Fred Coury Bullet for My Valentine – Temper Temper – Dead to the World (2013) Devin Townsend – Dark Matters (2014) Michael Sweet – I'm Not Your Suicide – Anybody Else (2014) Other endeavors Film, theater, comedy, and writing In 2000, a WWE produced VHS tape documenting Jericho's career titled Break Down the Walls was released. He later received two three disc sets profiling matches and interviews. On June 24, 2006, Jericho premiered in his first Sci-Fi Channel movie Android Apocalypse alongside Scott Bairstow and Joey Lawrence. Jericho debuted as a stage actor in a comedy play Opening Night, which premiered at the Toronto Centre for the Arts during July 20–22, 2006, in Toronto. During his stay in Toronto, Jericho hosted the sketch comedy show Sunday Night Live with sketch troupe The Sketchersons at The Brunswick House. Jericho was also the first wrestler attached and interviewed for the wrestling documentary, Bloodstained Memoirs. The interview was recorded in the UK during a Fozzy tour in 2006. Jericho wrote his autobiography, A Lion's Tale: Around the World in Spandex, which was released on October 25, 2007, and became a New York Times bestseller. It covers Jericho's life and wrestling career up to his debut in the WWE. Jericho's second autobiography, Undisputed: How to Become the World Champion in 1,372 Easy Steps, was released on February 16, 2011, and covers his wrestling career since his WWE debut. On October 14, 2014, Jericho's third book, The Best In The World...At What I Have No Idea, was released. It covers some untold stories of the "Save Us" era, his Fozzy career, and his multiple returns from 2011 to 2013. Jericho's fourth book, No Is a Four-Letter Word: How I Failed Spelling but Succeeded in Life, was released on August 29, 2017, and details twenty valuable lessons Jericho learned throughout his career as a wrestler and musician. Jericho appeared in the 2009 film Albino Farm. In the film MacGruber, released May 21, 2010, he briefly appeared as Frank Korver, a former military teammate of the eponymous Green Beret, Navy Seal, and Army Ranger. Jericho released a comedy web series on October 29, 2013, that is loosely based on his life entitled But I'm Chris Jericho! Jericho plays a former wrestler, struggling to make it big as an actor. A second season was produced in 2017 by CBC and distributed over CBC's television app and CBC.ca. In 2016, Jericho starred in the documentary film Nine Legends alongside Mike Tyson and other wrestlers. In August 2018, Jericho was confirmed to star in the film KillRoy Was Here. On March 14, 2019, filmmaker Kevin Smith cast Jericho as a KKK Grand Wizard in Jay and Silent Bob Reboot. Television Jericho was a contributor to the VH1 pop culture shows Best Week Ever, I Love the '80s, and VH1's top 100 artists. Jericho also hosted the five-part, five-hour VH1 special 100 Most Shocking Music Moments, an update of the original special 100 Most Shocking Moments in Rock N' Roll first hosted by Mark McGrath of Sugar Ray. On July 12, 2006, he made an appearance on G4's Attack of the Show!; he made a second appearance on August 21, 2009. In May 2006, Jericho appeared on VH1's 40 Greatest Metal Songs and Heavy: The Story of Metal as a commentator. He was one of eight celebrities in the 2006 Fox Television singing reality show Celebrity Duets, produced by Simon Cowell, and was the first contestant eliminated. Jericho worked at a McDonald's to show off his skills while prepping for the show. Jericho hosted his own reality show in 2008 titled Redemption Song, in which 11 women tried their hand at getting into the music scene. It was shown on Fuse TV. He guest starred as Billy "The Body Bag" Cobb in "Xero Control", an episode of the Disney XD 2009 original series Aaron Stone. He hosted VH1's 100 Most Shocking Music Moments, which began airing in December 2009. In June 2010, Jericho was named the host of the ABC prime-time game show Downfall. On March 1, 2011, Chris Jericho was named one of the contestants on the 2011 lineup of Dancing with the Stars. His partner was two-time champion Cheryl Burke. This led to a wave of publicity, including an interview with Jay Leno. On April 26, Jericho was the fifth contestant eliminated on the show. On May 5, Jericho made his third appearance as a guest on Attack of the Show! where he depicted Thor. He promoted Undisputed and hosted the Revolver Golden Gods Awards on May 28 on VH1 Classic. On January 17, 2012, Jericho made his fourth appearance on Attack of the Show! in a segment called "Twitter Twister" where he portrayed a character called "The Twistercutioner" and read tweets as instructions for a game of Twister between Kevin and Candace. Jericho hosted the UK's Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards in 2012 and 2017. On February 26, 2013, Jericho began hosting a robot combat competition program on SyFy titled Robot Combat League the series ended on April 23, 2015. In 2022, Jericho competed in season eight of The Masked Singer as "Bride" which resembles a dragon-like Kaiju in a wedding dress. After besting George Foreman as "Venus Fly Trap" and George Clinton as "Gopher" on "Hall of Fame Night", he was eliminated on "Comedy Roast Night" alongside Adam Carolla as "Avocado". Talk Is Jericho podcast In December 2013, Jericho began hosting his own podcast, Talk Is Jericho. Episodes usually include a loosely scripted monologue before an interview, typically with a wrestler, rock musician or paranormal expert. The show originally appeared on PodcastOne, before moving to the WestwoodOne network in 2018. Notable guests on the show include Bruce Dickinson from Iron Maiden, Lemmy from Motörhead, Paul Stanley from KISS, Zak Bagans from Ghost Adventures, pornographic actress Asa Akira, writer/director Kevin Smith and many former and current wrestlers. In April 2015, Jericho hosted his own video podcast on the WWE Network, Live! with Chris Jericho, with John Cena as his first guest, followed by Stephanie McMahon as his guest later that same month. Once he signed with AEW, he was no longer allowed to have WWE performers as guests on the podcast. Web On August 10, 2019, Jericho launched his own dirtsheet website called WebIsJericho.com. The website is dedicated to the memory of Axl Rotten. In May 2020, Jericho officially joined as a competitor of the Movie Trivia Schmoedown under manager Roxy Striar in the Roxstars faction. Jericho first expressed interest in the Schmoedown following an appearance on Collider Live with Striar and Schmoedown commissioner Kristian Harloff. He became friends with Striar following the interview and kept in contact. During the 2020 season, Jericho contacted Striar, asking to be a part of the league. Striar formally drafted Jericho into her faction during the first free-agent period following the season-opening draft. His first match is scheduled for August 27 against Kevin Smith. Cruises In 2017, Jericho launched Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea, a cruise "combining the worlds of rock and wrestling with a once in a lifetime amazing vacation experience". The cruise featured live band performances, artist-hosted activities and a Sea of Honor Tournament with over a dozen Ring of Honor wrestlers competing. Guests had the opportunity to get up close and personal with Chris and his closest wrestling, comedian, and musician friends including Jim Ross, Diamond Dallas Page and Jim Breuer, among others. The cruise sailed October 27–31, 2018, from Miami to Nassau, Bahamas. Jericho hosted a second cruise, Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea Part Deux: Second Wave, which run from January 20–24, 2020. A third cruise, Chris Jericho's Rock 'N' Wrestling Rager at Sea Triple Whammy, is scheduled for October 21–25, 2021. Personal life Irvine married Jessica Lockhart on July 30, 2000. They reside in Odessa, Florida, with their three children: son Ash Edward Irvine (born 2003) and identical twin daughters Sierra Loretta "SiSi" Irvine and Cheyenne Lee "Chey" Irvine (born 2006). All three have been guests on his podcast, Talk Is Jericho, with his son discussing fish and his daughters discussing literature. Irvine owns three cats. In October 2020, Irvine reportedly donated $3,000 to Donald Trump's presidential re-election campaign. Irvine is a Christian. He has a tattoo of his wife's name on his ring finger. He has the letter F, representing Fozzy, on the back of his hand. Since 2012, he has gradually gotten a sleeve over his left arm. His tattoos include: the artwork of Fozzy's album Sin and Bones, a Jack-o'-lantern (Avenged Sevenfold vocalist M. Shadows, who collaborated with Fozzy on the track "Sandpaper" from Sin and Bones, also got a matching tattoo), a lake monster, and himself from his WWF debut in 1999. On January 27, 2010, Irvine and fellow wrestler Gregory Helms were arrested in Fort Mitchell, Kentucky after leaving a bar. A police report stated that Helms punched Irvine and the other passengers in the cab. Fellow wrestlers Christian and CM Punk later bailed them out. Since January 2012, Irvine (along with former NFL Quarterback Tim Tebow, former NFL player Derrick Brooks, and former Atlanta Braves player Chipper Jones) has been the co-owner of a sports training facility in Tampa, a franchise site of D1 Sports Training and Therapy. Irvine is a fan of Japanese convenience store chain Lawson, which Irvine would frequently shop at when he wrestled in Japan in the 1990s. Irvine still visits Lawson whenever he returns to Japan, whether to wrestle or if he is touring with Fozzy. Charity work Jericho keeps his philanthropic and charitable efforts private. Alongside WWE superstars Kevin Owens and Tyler Breeze, he donated $2,500 to help victims of the Alberta forest fires. He also donated $1,500 to help Brian Knobbs with his knee surgery. In 2023, after Buffalo Bills player Damar Hamlin's on-field collapse during a game against the Cincinnati Bengals, Jericho donated $10,000 to Hamlin's charity; originally a $5,000 donation, he later donated another $5,000 after misspelling his own name in the original donation. Filmography Video games Championships and accomplishments Professional wrestling All Elite Wrestling AEW World Championship (1 time, inaugural) AEW Dynamite Awards (2 times) Bleacher Report PPV Moment of the Year (2021) – Biggest Beatdown (2021) – The Baltimore Sun Feud of the Year (2008) Canadian Rocky Mountain Wrestling CRMW North American Heavyweight Championship (1 time) CRMW North American Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Lance Storm CRMW Mid-Heavyweight Championship (2 times) Canadian Wrestling Connection CWC Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Lance Storm Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre NWA World Middleweight Championship (1 time) Extreme Championship Wrestling ECW World Television Championship (1 time) International Wrestling Alliance IWA Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) New Japan Pro-Wrestling IWGP Intercontinental Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Faction of the Year (2021) – with The Inner Circle Feud of the Decade (2000s) Feud of the Year (2008) Feud of the Year (2021) Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (2002, 2008) Ranked No. 2 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2009 Ring of Honor ROH World Championship (1 time) Rolling Stone Ranked No. 3 of the 10 best WWE wrestlers of 2016 Sports Illustrated Ranked No. 5 of the top 10 male wrestlers in 2019 World Championship Wrestling WCW Cruiserweight Championship (4 times) WCW World Television Championship (1 time) World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment/WWE Undisputed WWF Championship (1 time) World Heavyweight Championship (3 times) WCW/World Championship (2 times) WWF/WWE Intercontinental Championship (9 times) WWE United States Championship (2 times) WWF European Championship (1 time) WWF Hardcore Championship (1 time) WWE Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Edge (1) and Big Show (1) WWF/World Tag Team Championship (5 times) – with Chris Benoit (1), The Rock (1), Christian (1), Edge (1), and Big Show (1) Bragging Rights Trophy (2009) – with Team SmackDown Queen's Cup WWF Undisputed Championship Tournament (2001) Fourth Grand Slam Champion Ninth Triple Crown Champion Slammy Award (3 times) Extreme Moment of the Year (2014) Superstar of the Year (2008) Tag Team of the Year (2009) – with Big Show Wrestle Association "R" WAR International Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) WAR International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Gedo World Wrestling Association WWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with El Dandy Wrestling Observer Newsletter Wrestler of the Year (2008, 2009, 2019) Best on Interviews (2003, 2008, 2009, 2019) Best on Interviews of the Decade (2000s) Feud of the Year (2008) Pro Wrestling Match of the Year (2008) Most Underrated Wrestler (1999, 2000) Readers' Favorite Wrestler (1999) United States/Canada MVP (2019) Most Charismatic (2019) Best Box Office Draw (2019) Best Pro Wrestling Book (2011) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2010) Other The Order of the Buffalo Hunt of the province of Manitoba, awarded for his "championship achievements in sports and commitments to underprivileged children". (2004) Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee Medal of the province of Manitoba, for his work with various local charities. (2023) On March 12, 2023, the city of Winnipeg renamed the street he grew up on into "Chris Jericho Way". Luchas de Apuestas record Notes References Further reading External links 1970 births Living people 21st-century American male actors 21st-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century Canadian male actors 21st-century Canadian male singers AEW World Champions All Elite Wrestling personnel American Christians American color commentators American game show hosts American hard rock musicians American heavy metal singers American male film actors American male professional wrestlers American male singer-songwriters American male television actors American memoirists American people of Scottish descent American people of Ukrainian descent American philanthropists American podcasters American radio personalities American rock singers American rock songwriters American YouTubers Canadian Christians Canadian colour commentators Canadian expatriate professional wrestlers in the United States Canadian game show hosts Canadian hard rock musicians Canadian heavy metal singers Canadian male film actors Canadian male professional wrestlers Canadian male singers Canadian male singer-songwriters Canadian singer-songwriters Canadian male television actors 21st-century Canadian memoirists Canadian people of Scottish descent Canadian people of Ukrainian descent Canadian philanthropists Canadian podcasters Canadian radio personalities Canadian rock singers Canadian YouTubers Christians from New York (state) ECW World Television Champions Expatriate professional wrestlers in Japan Expatriate professional wrestlers in Mexico Fozzy members IWGP Intercontinental champions Jericho Appreciation Society members Male actors from New York (state) Male actors from Winnipeg Musicians from Winnipeg NWA/WCW World Television Champions NWA/WCW/WWE United States Heavyweight Champions Participants in American reality television series People from Manhasset, New York Professional wrestlers from Manitoba Professional wrestlers from New York (state) Professional wrestling podcasters Red River College alumni ROH World Champions Singer-songwriters from New York (state) Sportspeople from Winnipeg WCW World Heavyweight Champions World Heavyweight Champions (WWE) WWE Champions WWE Grand Slam champions WWF European Champions WWF/WWE Hardcore Champions WWF/WWE Intercontinental Champions 20th-century professional wrestlers 21st-century professional wrestlers WCW/WWE Cruiserweight Champions NWA World Middleweight Champions International Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions Tenryu Project International Junior Heavyweight Champions World Tag Team Champions (WWE) 21st-century Canadian singer-songwriters WWE Raw Tag Team Champions

424790

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braga

Braga

Braga ( , ; ) is a city and a municipality, capital of the northwestern Portuguese district of Braga and of the historical and cultural Minho Province. Braga Municipality had a resident population of 193,333 inhabitants (in 2021), representing the seventh largest municipality in Portugal by population. Its area is 183.40 km2. Its agglomerated urban area extends to the Cávado River and is the third most populated urban area in Portugal, behind Lisbon and Porto Metropolitan Areas. It is host to the oldest Portuguese archdiocese, the Archdiocese of Braga of the Catholic Church and it is the seat of the Primacy of the Spains. During the Roman Empire, then known as Bracara Augusta, the settlement was the capital of the province of Gallaecia and later of the Kingdom of the Suebi that was one of the first to separate from the Roman Empire. Inside of the city there is also a castle tower that can be visited. Nowadays, Braga is a major hub for inland Northern Portugal and it is an important stop on the Portuguese Way path of the Road of St James. The city was also the European Youth Capital in 2012. History Pre-Roman Human occupation of the region of Braga dates back thousands of years, documented by vestiges of monumental structures starting in the Megalithic era. During the Iron Age, the Castro culture extended into the northwest, characterized by Bracari peoples who occupied the high ground in strategically located fortified settlements (castrum). The region became the domain of the Callaici Bracarii, a Celtic tribe who occupied what is now northern Portugal, Galicia and Asturias in the northwest of Iberia. Roman rule The Romans began their conquest of the region around 136 BC, and finished it, by conquering the northern regions, during the reign of Emperor Augustus. The civitas of Bracara Augusta was founded in 16 BC; in the context of the administrative reorganization of these Roman acquisitions, Bracara was rededicated to the Emperor taking on the name Bracara Augusta. The city of Bracara Augusta developed greatly during the 1st century and reached its maximum extension around the 2nd century. Towards the end of the 3rd century, the Emperor Diocletian promoted the city to the status of capital of the administrative area Conventus bracarensis, the southwestern area of the newly founded Roman province of Gallaecia. Braga in Late Antiquity and Middle Ages The city was described as prosperous by the poet Ausonius, in the 4th century. Between 402 and 470 the Germanic Invasions of the Iberian Peninsula occurred, and the area was conquered by the Suebi, a Germanic people from Central Europe. According to records the city was protected by a wall, still in use since the 3rd century, and the old Roman amphitheatre was repurposed into a fortress. In 410, the Suebi established a Kingdom in northwest Iberia covering what is present-day's Northern half of Portugal, Galicia and Asturias, which they maintained as Gallaecia, and had Bracara as their capital. This kingdom was founded by Hermeric and lasted for over 150 years. However, the departure of the Vandals and the arrival of the Visigoths brought a new instability to the region. Between 419 and 422, Braga was threatened by the Vandals so it prepared itself for a siege, closed its gates and refused to open them; this led to the destruction of the surrounding countryside. Nevertheless, between 429 and 455, the Suebi made a military comeback in Iberia reinforcing their hold in Galeicia and Lusitania. In 455, while the Visigothic king Theodoric II sacked Braga, utterly destroying many historical and archaeological records, the Suebi king Rechiar escaped the city, wounded, to Porto. However, records of a list of dioceses and parishes of Braga, made in 570 still exist. By about 584, the Visigoths took permanent control of Gallaecia from the Suebi, and Braga was made a provincial capital. Because historians are still unsure of the dating of the Chapel of São Pedro de Balsemão, in Lamego, currently Braga hosts the oldest chapel in Portugal, the Chapel of São Frutuoso. The chapel was built by the Visigoths on top of a Roman temple to Asclepius and it was made to be a Royal Chapel. In 656 AD, it was consecrated by Saint Fructuosus to be used as his tomb. Historical records show, so far, that the first known bishop of Braga was named Paternus, who famously renounced priscillianism at the First Council of Toledo, in September of 400 AD. We also have records of a bishop named Balconius (415-447), who was also recorded to be present when the Iberian clergy received, in 435, a German priest from Arabia accompanied by several Greeks with news from the Council of Ephesus (431). Balconius was also a contemporary and correspondent of Pope Leo I. Tradition, however, states that Saint Peter of Rates was the first bishop of Braga, a Jew personally elevated to the role by Saint James. Another bishop, Saint Ovidius (d. 135 AD) is also sometimes considered one of the first bishops of this city. Braga had an important role in the Christianization of the Iberian Peninsula. In the early 5th century, Paulus Orosius (a friend of Augustine of Hippo) wrote several theological works that expounded the Christian faith. While thanks to the work of Saint Martin of Braga the Suebi in Iberia renounced the Arian and Priscillianist heresies during two synods held here in the 6th century. It is also worth noting that Rechiar, the suebi king, was also the first Germanic king in Europe to convert to Chalcedonian Christianism, predating Clovis of the Franks. At the time, Martin also founded an important monastery in Dumio (Dume), and it was in Braga that the Archbishopric of Braga held their councils. There were also some attempts at further elevating the religious status of the city, such as Paulus Orosius and Avitus of Braga's attempt at bringing relics of Saint Stephen, from the Holy Land to Braga. Originally, Avitus entrusted the delivery of the relics to Paulus Orosius, however, after arriving at Majorca, the theologian heard news of the invasion of the peninsula by the Vandals and halted his pilgrimage to return to North Africa. The relics never reached their destination and their fates are unknown. As a consequence, the Archbishops of Braga later claimed the title of Primatus Totus Hispania, claiming supremacy over the entire Hispanic church. Yet, their authority was never accepted throughout Hispania, and today they only retain the title of Primate of Portugal. The bishop Balconius, who was later elevated to become the first Archbishop of Braga, and according to later sources, was also the first to be given said title. The transition from Visigothic reigns to the Muslim conquest of Iberia was very obscure, representing a period of decline for the city. The Moors briefly captured Braga in 714-716, but were repelled by Christian forces under Alfonso I of Asturias in 741, (alongside Chaves, Porto and Lamego), with intermittent attacks until 868 when they were definitively ousted by Alfonso III of Asturias. The bishopric was restored in 1070 and elevated to new heights. The first new Archbishop, Peter of Braga (?-1096), immediately started rebuilding the Cathedral (which was modified many times during the following centuries). According to historical records and oral tradition, the Archbishop Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela, fearing the rise of the Cathedral of Braga, stole the relics of Braga's saints in an attempt to diminish the religious importance of the city. The relics only returned to Braga in the 1990s. When, after his death, Alfonso III the Great of the Kingdom of Asturias divided his kingdom among his sons in 908, he assigned the Kingdom of Galicia to Ordoño of Galicia, who established his capital in Braga. Between 1093 and 1147, Braga became the residential seat of the Portuguese court. In the early 12th century, Count Henry of Portugal and bishop Geraldo de Moissac reclaimed the archbishopric seat for Braga, with power over a large area in Iberia. The medieval city developed around the cathedral, with the maximum authority in the city retained by the archbishop. Braga in the Kingdom of Portugal Braga as the main center of Christianity in Iberia, during the Reconquista (until the emergence of Santiago de Compostela and, later, the conquest of Toledo from the Muslims, in 1085), held a prominent stage in medieval politics, being a major contributor to the Independence of Portugal with the intervention of the Archbishop D. Paio Mendes in the Vatican, with Pope Alexander III, which lead to the promulgation of the Bula Manifestis Probatum, in 1179, recognizing Portugal as an independent Kingdom under D. Afonso I Henriques. It is traditionally told that the future king was baptized by Saint Gerald of Braga, although the exact location is still being debated. Because of this support for D. Afonso Henriques, the new king gave large privileges to the city of Braga handing it over to direct control of the Church, basically making it a personal fiefdom of the Archbishop. This legal particularism continued all throughout history until the instauration of the Republic giving the city and its surrounding area the nickname of "Paiz Bracarense" (roughly translated as "Country of Braga"). In the 16th century, due to its distance from the coast and provincial status, Braga did not profit from the adventures associated with the Age of Portuguese Discoveries (which favoured cities like Lisbon, Évora and Coimbra, new seats for the Portuguese court). Yet, Archbishop Diogo de Sousa, who sponsored several urban improvements in the city, including the enlargement of streets, the creation of public squares and the foundation of hospitals and new churches, managed to modernize the community. He expanded and remodelled the cathedral by adding a new chapel in the Manueline style, and generally turning the mediaeval town into a Renaissance city. A similar period of rejuvenation occurred during the 18th century, when the archbishops of the House of Braganza contracted architects like André Soares and Carlos Amarante, to modernize and rejuvenate the city; they began a series of architectural transformations to churches and civic institutions in the Baroque style, including the municipal hall, public library, the Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte and many urban palaces. D. Luís de Sousa was another main archbishop who, with other merits, ordered the Church of the Parish of Saint Victor to be rebuilt, ordered the Campo de S. Ana to be enlarged, to rebuild the Church of S. Vicente, to requalify the Chapel of S. Sebastian and the construction of the Igreja dos Congregados which would later be monumentalized into the current version of the Basilica of the Congregados. Likewise, under the auspices of this diplomatic archbishop, the canon of the Braga Chapter, João Meira Carrilho, ordered the construction of the Chapel of the Congregation of the Oratory that existed within the Campo de S. Ana (modern day Avenida Central). The old fortress built on top of the Roman amphitheatre still stood in the 18th century (a description of it was made during the reign of Queen D. Maria I), in the southern part of Maximinos, but in search of the Roman foundations it was eventually torn down and it is now an archaeological site. In 1758, Braga, like many other places, was included in the census requested by the monarchy, under the 1st Marquis of Pombal. These records are known as the Parochial Memories (Memórias Paroquiais) which can be consulted through various sources. In March 1809 it was the scene of the Battle of Braga, when French troops under Marshal Soult took the town from its Portuguese garrison. With the invasion of French troops, during the Peninsular Wars the city was relegated, once again, to a provincial status. But, by the second half of that century, with influence from Portuguese immigrants living in Brazil, new money and tastes resulted in improvements to architecture and infrastructures. Braga in the Republic The Castle of Braga, previously located in the city center, was destroyed in 1905 (to great popular fanfair), despite attempts to save it by several people such as archaeologist Albano Belino, who tried to change the location of his municipal museum to the building in an attempt to protect it. Belino, disgusted, suffered from a stroke, passing away the following year and ending up donating his estate to the Archaeological Museum of the Martins Sarmento de Guimarães Society. Albano Belino's dream of creating a museum in Braga was only realized in 1918, with the founding of a museum directly precursor to the Dom Diogo de Sousa Regional Museum of Archaeology. On May 28, 1926, General Gomes da Costa began his march to Lisbon starting the Revolution of May 28, where he abolished the First Republic and implementing the dictatorial government of the Estado Novo. In the tenth year anniversary of the Revolution, dictator António de Oliveira Salazar, visited the city prompting a large fair, a parade and a speech, which he gave on the balcony of the Town Hall. Afterwards, the dictator would return several times to the city in its anniversary, such as the 40º anniversary. In the 20th century Braga faced similar periods of growth and decline; demographic and urban pressures, from urban-to-rural migration meant that the city's infrastructures had to be improved in order to satisfy greater demands. Geography Physical geography Situated in the heart of Minho, Braga is located in a transitional region between the east and west: between mountains, forests, grand valleys, plains and fields, constructing natural spaces, moulded by human intervention. Geographically, with an area of it is bordered in the north by the municipalities of Vila Verde and Amares, northeast and east by Póvoa de Lanhoso, south and southeast with Guimarães and Vila Nova de Famalicão and west by the municipality of Barcelos. The topography in the municipality is characterized by irregular valleys, interspersed by mountainous spaces, fed by rivers running in parallel with the principal rivers. In the north it is limited by the Cávado River, in the south by terrain of the Serra dos Picos to a height of and towards the east by the Serra dos Carvalhos to a height of , opening to the municipalities of Vila Nova de Famalicão and Barcelos. The territory extends from the northeast to southwest, accompanying the valleys of the two rivers, fed by many of its tributaries, forming small platforms between and . The municipality lies between and , with the urbanized centre located at approximately . In the north, where the municipality is marked by the Cavado, the terrain is semi-planar, the east is mountainous owing to the Serra do Carvalho , Serra dos Picos , Monte do Sameiro and Monte de Santa Marta . Between the Serra do Carvalho and Serra dos Picos is the River Este, forming the valley of Vale d’Este. Similarly, between the Serra dos Picos and Monte do Sameiro exists the plateau of Sobreposta-Pedralva. To the south and west, the terrain is a mix of mountains, plateaus and medium-size valleys, permitting the passage of the River Este, and giving birth to other confluences including the River Veiga, River Labriosca and various ravines. Climate Braga has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate similar to other cities in the northwest Iberian Peninsula except for having significantly hotter summer temperatures due to being some distance from the ocean: the absolute maximum is as much as higher than neighbouring A Coruña or Santiago de Compostela. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures are and respectively. The climate is affected by the Atlantic Ocean which influences westerly winds that are channeled through the region's valleys, transporting large humid air masses. Consequently, the climate tends to be pleasant with clearly defined seasons. The air masses have the effect of maintaining morning relative humidity around 80%: annual mean temperatures hover between and . Owing to nocturnal cooling, frost usually forms frequently between three and four months of the year (about 30 days of frost annually), and annually the region receives of precipitation, with the major intensity occurring between fall/winter and spring. Human geography The municipality is densely populated, with approximately 962 inhabitants per square kilometre, equivalent to 181,474 residents (2011); it is one of the more populous territories in Portugal, as well as one of the "younger" markets. The majority of the population concentrates in the urban area of Braga, itself, where densities are more than 10000 per square kilometre. The Bracarense population consists of approximately 78954 male and 85238 female individuals, with 35% of the population less than 25 years of age, while seniors conform to 11% of the population; the working population of the municipality occupies 54% of this structure. Although largely native Portuguese, other segments of the population include Brazilians, Africans (principally from the former Portuguese colonies), Chinese and eastern European peoples, namely Ukrainians. The urban structure includes approximately 70,268 residences (2001), even as the typical classic representation of family only includes 51,173 members in the municipality. The "extra" homes are primarily temporary residences, normally for students, migrant workers and professionals working in the city. There is, also, a great number of homes owned by Portuguese residents living overseas (who use the homes periodically while in Portugal) even as constant and development has attracted new growth in the population. Further, the difference in resident to transitory population means that, on average, the population of Braga hovers between 174,000 and 230,000 individuals annually. Growth in the population, roughly 16.2% between 1991 and 2001, occurred mainly in the older suburban civil parishes, such as Nogueira (now abolished) (124.6%), Frossos (now abolished) (68.4%), Real (now abolished) (59.8%) and Lamaçães (now abolished) (50.9%). Civil parishes Administratively, the municipality is divided into 37 civil parishes (freguesias): Adaúfe Arentim e Cunha Braga (Maximinos, Sé e Cividade) Braga (São José de São Lázaro e São João do Souto) Cabreiros e Passos (São Julião) Celeirós, Aveleda e Vimieiro Crespos e Pousada Escudeiros e Penso (Santo Estêvão e São Vicente) Espinho Esporões Este (São Pedro e São Mamede) Ferreiros e Gondizalves Figueiredo Gualtar Guisande e Oliveira (São Pedro) Lamas Lomar e Arcos Merelim (São Paio), Panoias e Parada de Tibães Merelim (São Pedro) e Frossos Mire de Tibães Morreira e Trandeiras Nogueira, Fraião e Lamaçães Nogueiró e Tenões Padim da Graça Palmeira Pedralva Priscos Real, Dume e Semelhe Ruilhe Santa Lucrécia de Algeriz e Navarra São Vicente São Victor Sequeira Sobreposta Tadim Tebosa Vilaça e Fradelos There is no formal city government, only municipal government authority, with local administration handled by the individual juntas de freguesia or civil parish councils. Economy The major industries in the municipality are construction, metallurgy and mechanics, electrical and electronic equipment, software development and web design. The computer industry is significant. Braga hosts PRIMAVERA – Business Software Solutions SA (PRIMAVERA BSS) company headquarters, a Portuguese multinational software company best known for its leading enterprise project management software. The International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory (INL), a joint research center in nanotechnology established and funded by both the Portuguese and the Spanish governments, is also headquartered in Braga. The automotive industry has a long history in Braga. Aptiv operates a technical center for the development and production of automotive infotainment systems. This plant was previously owned by Grundig. Next to Aptiv, Robert Bosch GmbH operates a similar technical center, mainly for branches of infotainment and sensors. This plant was previously founded by Blaupunkt. Bosch has been working closely with the University of Minho in Portugal since 2012, producing one of the country's largest university-corporate partnerships. In the process, many projects for the mobility of the future are being tackled. In 2018, German Chancellor Angela Merkel and Portuguese Prime Minister António Costa were on site for the launch of a new technology campus. The university, headquartered in Braga, is also by itself a major driving force of the city's economy. Transport The municipality has a small-sized airfield (Aerodromo de Braga) in Palmeira. The major international airport used by the people of Braga is the Sá Carneiro International Airport (also known as Porto Airport) located away, in Porto Metropolitan Area. Access to the international airport located near Porto is made by public transit fom Braga city centre (roughly 40 minutes) or aerobus (50 minutes). Braga is serviced by both regional and high-speed rail connection to major urban centres in the country and abroad. It has an efficient bus network (TUB - Transportes Urbanos de Braga) with 76 lines in the urban area and over a 300 km network. Architecture The region of Braga is scattered with Neolithic, Roman, Medieval and Modernist monuments, buildings and structures attracting tourists. Although there are many examples of these structures, only the following have been classified by the Instituto de Gestão do Património Arquitectónico e Arqueológico as National Monuments: Archaeological Castro of São Mamede () Roman milestones, several Roman-era granite markers currently on display at the Museum D. Diogo de Sousa, dating from AD 41 to 238, that is, the reigns of Emperor Claudius to Maximinus II. Roman Thermae of Maximinus (), discovered in the 20th century, the thermae occupy , in the civil parish of Braga (Maximinos, Sé e Cividade), and were constructed in the 1st to late 3rd century; Civic Arch of Porta Nova/Rua de Souto (), a Baroque and Neoclassical arch, designed by André Soares in the late 18th century, and decorates the western gate of a medieval wall. It was opened in 1512 and since has been traditionally used to present to promote to visiting dignitaries and celebrities. Palace of the Falcões (), a Baroque-era palace originally commissioned by Francisco de Meira Carrilho on 23 July 1703, and later, upon successive renovations, used by the Civil Governor's residence; Fountain of the Idol (), the 1st century Roman fountain dedicated to an indigenous god, located in the central civil parish of Braga (São José de São Lázaro e São João do Souto); Fountain of the Iron Waters (), following the discovery in July 1173 of iron-rich springs in the parish of Fraião, Archbishop Gaspar de Bragança ordered the municipal council to begin the canalization of these waters for public use, giving rise to a series of fountains, such as the Baroque decorated main fountain; Hospital of São Marcos (), with a façade comparable to any religious monument in the city, the Hospital of São Marcos, is an example of the complex Baroque style of Carlos Amarante, featuring ornate double belfry and accents; Pillory of Braga (), the 15th century pillory, that marks municipal authority for the town, was constructed, demolished and moved various times, before being relocated on the grounds of the Sé Cathedral; Palace of Raio (), an 18th-century Baroque-Rococo urban residence, with richly decorated blue azulejo façade of Andre Soares; Residence of the Crivos (), a Renaissance-era shop-residence constructed outside the old walls characteristic of late Renaissance architecture and one of the few examples of a building covered in wood-lattice façade from this period. Seven Sources Aqueduct (), a complex network of aqueducts that provided potable water to citizenry of Braga; Theatro Circo (), 20th century revivalist theatre, known for its architecture, as much for the films, theatre plays and performances; Bridge of Prado () Bridge of Prozelo () Military Tower of Santiago (), part of the ancient walls of Braga, the Tower of Santiago was designed by Portuguese Baroque master André Soares, based on a mixture of Gothic, Baroque and Rococo elements; Tower of Castle of Braga (), actually the remnants of the castle's keep, constructed during the reign of King Denis of Portugal, which was part of the defensive system of the city of Braga, and included a semi-circular walled enclosure centred on the Sé Cathedral. Religious [[File:Igreja de Santa Cruz em Braga.jpg|thumb|170px|The Church of Santa Cruz courtesy the Irmandade de Santa Cruz]] Archiepiscopal Palace of Braga (), between the 14th–18th centuries, a religious residence, but after the 20th century, the home of the municipal offices, public library and archive; Chapel of the Espírito Santo (), an example of mixed styles, the chapel includes elements of Baroque, Neoclassical and Manerist eras; Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Consolaçã (), a simple single-nave chapel constructed in the Baroque-style Chapel of São Bento (), constructed in the middle of the 18th century, the chapel was blessed by Archbishop José of Bragança in 1755; Chapel of Senhor do Bom Sucesso (), a Baroque and Neoclassical chapel, is highlighted by a main façade, typical of André Soares, but constructed by Carlos Amarante, at the beginning of his career, who timidly applied Neoclassical decorative elements; Chapel of the Coimbras (), a Manueline chapel, probably designed by Castillian architect Filipe Odarte, with sculptures attributed to Hodart, an altar by João de Ruão and posterior tomb sculptures by the same artist. Church of Santa Cruz (), and the Hospital of the Brotherhood of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem (), constructed in 1581, and later supported by the nuns of the Order Hospitaler; Church of Santa Eulália (), is a 13th–14th century Romanesque church, located near Bom Jesus do Monte; Church of Santa Maria (), constructed in 1560, under the orders of Archbishop Bartolomeu dos Mártires, as a church of the Society of Jesus; Church of Santo André (), an example of the reformulations of the Modernist aesthetic of the mid-20th century: the 18th-century church was adapted and expanded after the parish's de-annexation in 1975; Chapel of São Frutuoso, also known as the Chapel of São Frutuoso of Montélios or the Chapel of São Salvador of Montélios, is a pre-Romanesque chapel, forming part of group of religious buildings that include the Royal Church originally built by the Visigoths in the 7th century, in the form of a Greek cross. Chapel of São Sebastião das Caravelheiras () Church of São Martinho (), the Baroque and Classical parochial church of Espinho, known for its ornate façade and belfrey, as well as its Rococo interior; Church of São Miguel de Frossos (), a 16th-century parochial church in the civil parish of Frossos; Church of São Miguel de Gualtar (), part of the intense building period of the 16th–17th century, the parochial church of Gultar was constructed in the 17th century, but later remodelled during the 18th century; Church of São Paio (), located in Arcos, the church is an early 18th-century church (built in 1706); Church of São Paulo (), the historical seminary and church of Saint Paul with its contrast between stoic façade and decorated Baroque interior, built in the era of archbishop Bartholomew; Church of São Pedro de Lomar (), remnant of ancient Benedictine monastery of São Pedro in Lomar, the Church of Saint Peter exemplifies a mix of Baroque, Mannerist and Neoclassical architecture; Church of São Pedro de Maximinos (), known for the missing organ of organist Manuel de Sá Couto; Church of São Tiago () Church of São Vicente () Convent of Nossa Senhora do Carmo (), principally recognizable for its central spire/belfrey, which was designed by João de Moura Coutinho de Almeida e Eça, and constructed in the 17th–18th century; Church of the Misericórdia () Church of the Third Order of St. Francis (), the Terceiros began the process of constructing their church in 1685, which they dedicated to Our Lady of Conception (); Church, Convent and College of the Congregation of São Filipe de Néri (), attributed to the architect André Soares, for the complex/risky façade of the church and corner convent windows, Monk's chapel (or Chapel of Our Lady of the Appearance), and retable of Our Lady of Pain () Convent of Nossa Senhora da Conceição (), which includes the Chapel of São Domingos, an 18th-century convent, home to the Instituto Monsenhor Ariosa; Convent of Pópulo (), the Mannerist, Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassical austere elements of the convent belying the extravagant interior, that was originally the home to Augustine monks, highlighted by the Baroque façade of the Church of Pópulo (); Convent of Salvador (), began with the need to transfer the nuns from the Monastery of Vitorino das Donas in 1528 Convent of São Francisco de Montélios (), the Baroque, Rococo and Neoclassical convent, highlighted by the imposing three-storey façade of the Church of São Jerónimo; Cross of Nossa Senhora dos Aflitos (), a Baroque cross on an ionic column, with an image of Christ in wood, surmounted by a rectangular Tuscan colonnade and roof; Cross of the Espírito Santo () Monastery of Dumio (), the ancient religious seat founded by Martin of Braga in the provincial centre of Dume; Monastery of Tibães (), the 17th–18th century Benedictine monastery renowned for the ornate/artistic gilt work in its chancel and altars; Sanctuary of Bom Jesus do Monte (inscribed on the World Heritage List in July, 2019), constructed on Monte Santo, overlooking the urban sprawl of Braga, the 18th to early-19th century, Neoclassic sanctuary and church (itself preceded by Baroque stairway), is reachable by trail or Bom Jesus funicular (one of the oldest in Iberian Peninsula); Sanctuary of Nossa Senhora do Sameiro (), isolated on the hilltop of Monte do Sameiro, the church and retreat began in 1861, from the mind of Father Martinho António Pereira da Silva, who wished to construct a monument dedicated to Our Lady of the Conception; Sanctuary of Santa Maria Madalena (), located on Monte Falperra, the Baroque-era sanctuary church, was designed by local architect André Soares, incorporating decorative elements into a two-bell tower homage to the Mary Magdalene; Sé Cathedral of Braga () Wayside shrine of São Brás (), although conjecturally a contemporary monument, the wayside shrine in Ferreiros has the characteristics of many Baroque monuments in Braga; Cross of Campo das Hortas () Cross of Santana () Cross of Tibães () Museums In addition, many of the district's treasures and historical artifacts are housed in several museums that are scattered throughout the city, such as: Museum of the Biscainhos (), housed in the historical Palace of the Biscainhos, the museum exhibits a permanent collection of decorative art, that includes furniture, ceramics, European and Oriental porcelain, European Glass, European and Portuguese watches and clocks; Treasure Museum of the Sé Cathedral (), the collection varies, but collects together artefacts from the 16th to 18th century during the period of religious/cultural exploration, associated with the cathedral, including images and azulejo tiles; Museum of Image (), dedicated to photography, located near the Arco da Porta Nova and Braga Castle''; Museum Medina (), located in the same building as the Museum of Pius XII, the collection is the home to the 83 oil paintings and 21 drawings of the painter Henrique Medina; Museum of Nogueira da Silva (), bequeathed to the University of Minho, the collection includes artefacts, paintings, furniture and sculptures collected over a lifetime, such as Renaissance artwork, 17th furniture, ceramics and objects in ivory, silver and religious art; Museum of Pius XII (), housing a collection of Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age implements, Pre-historic and Luso-Roman pottery; Dom Diogo de Sousa Museum (), its collection includes many items discovered during archaeological excavations within the municipality, extending as far back as the Palaeolithic to the Middle Ages. Museum of String Instruments (), the collection features Portuguese instruments as far back as the Middle Ages including Cavaquinhos, Portuguese guitars, Mandolins and banjos among others. Education The city is the headquarters and main campus for the Universidade do Minho (Minho University), a public university founded in 1973. A campus of Portugal's oldest private university of Portugal, the Universidade Católica Portuguesa, was also established in 1967, as well as the Escola Secundária Sá de Miranda (the oldest Secondary school in Braga). In the late 2000s, the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory also opened their international research centre in the city. The Braga Pedagogical Farm is a farm dealing with animals and agriculture, welcoming extra-curricular activities from schools and visitors. Sports Braga's football team, Sporting Clube de Braga (SC Braga), was founded in 1921 and play in the top division of Portuguese football, the Primeira Liga, from Braga Municipal Stadium, carved out of the Monte Castro hill that overlooks the city. SC Braga's considerable success in the first quarter of the 21th century, including participations in the UEFA Champions Legue, winning the Taça de Portugal (Portuguese Cup) for the second time in 2016 and the third in 2021 and reaching the UEFA Europa League final in 2011, which they lost to fellow Portuguese side FC Porto, improved it on the UEFA club rankings and Portugal's professional football landscape to such an extent that SC Braga started to be dubbed the fourth greatest football club in Portugal, only surpassed by the well-established classic Big Three. The Rampa da Falperra, a round of the European Hillclimb Championship, is held every year in the outskirts of the city. The Circuito Vasco Sameiro and adjacent the Kartódromo Internacional de Braga are located around the local airfield. The racing track held European Touring Car Cup events in 2009 and 2010, and the KIB has held rounds of the Karting World Championship. Notable citizens Public service Avitus of Braga (?- ca. 440 AD), produced a first person account of the miraculous finding of St. Stephen's tomb. Saint Ovidius (martyred 135 AD) third Bishop of Braga, buried in the cathedral. Saint Engratia venerated as a virgin martyr and saint, tradition is that she was martyred with 18 companions in 303AD Paulus Orosius (ca.383ca.420), historian and theologue from the Braga diocese Hermeric (died 441), landlord and then king of the Suebi with capital in Braga, from at least 419 and possibly as early as 406 until his abdication in 438. Martin of Braga (c. 520–580), Bishop of Braga in 562–579, converted the Suebi to Catholicism. Henry, Count of Portugal (1066–1112) Count of Portugal 1093–1112, turned Braga into his capital Teresa of León, Countess of Portugal (1080–1130) was married to Count Henry in 1094 Antipope Gregory VIII (died 1137) born Mauritius Burdinus, the second Archbishop of Braga D. Paio Mendes (died 1137): he was the Archbishop of Braga from 1118 to 1137 Pope John XXI (ca.1215–1277) born Pedro Julião, Archbishop of Braga 1272–1275, elected Pope in 1276. Francisco Sanches (ca.1550ca.1623) a skeptic, philosopher and physician of Sephardi Jewish origin Miguel de Carvalho (1579–1624), a Roman Catholic missionary, was burned at the stake in Japan, beatified in 1867. Manuel António Martins (1772–1845) governor of Cape Verde and Portuguese Guinea, 1833 to 1835 João Crisóstomo de Amorim Pessoa (1810–1888) Bishop of Santiago de Cabo Verde and archbishop of Goa and Braga Manuel Gomes da Costa (1863–1929) an army officer and politician, the tenth President of the Portuguese Republic and led the famous 28 May 1926 coup d'état in Braga Domingos Leite Pereira (1882–1956), Portuguese politician of the Portuguese First Republic Salgado Zenha (1923–1993), a Portuguese left-wing politician and lawyer. Ricardo Rio (born 1972) an economist, politician and current Mayor of Braga. Arts & Science Gabriel Pereira de Castro (1571-1632) a priest, lawyer and poet. João Antunes (1642–1712), an important architect credited for introducing baroque architecture André Soares (1720–1769) architect of several important Rococo buildings in Braga area. Carlos Amarante (1748–1815) an architect who favoured neoclassical architecture Adriano de Paiva (1847–1907) a scientist and pioneer of the telectroscope. Albano Ribeiro Belino (1863-1906) a journalist and archaeologist who studied the roman and pre-historic ruins in Braga. Elísio de Moura (1877–1977) a physician, professor and leading psychiatrist Lúcio Alberto Pinheiro dos Santos (1889-1950) philosopher, coined the term rhythmanalysis Luís de Almeida Braga (1890–1970) a Portuguese writer and politician, in the Integralismo Lusitano movement. António Variações (1944–1984), innovative pop composer and singer Torcato Sepulveda (1951–2008), an influential Portuguese newspaper journalist. Sara Braga Simões (born 1975) an operatic soprano Sport Carlos Carvalhal (1965) a former footballer with 259 club caps and manager of S.C. Braga. Litos (born 1974) a former footballer with 433 club caps Henrique (born 1980) a former footballer with 451 club caps Pedro Pereira (born 1984) a former footballer with over 460 club caps Emanuel Silva (born 1985) a sprint canoeist and silver medallist at the 2012 Summer Olympics Carole Costa (born 1990) a footballer with 133 caps for the Portuguese female national football team Júlio Ferreira (born 1994) a taekwondo practitioner Diogo Dalot (born 1999) a footballer with Manchester United F.C. and 6 caps for Portugal International relations Braga is twinned with: Bissorã, Guinea Bissau Clermont-Ferrand, France Cluj-Napoca, Romania Cuenca, Ecuador Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine Poggibonsi, Italy Puteaux, France Ribeira Brava, Cape Verde Santa Fe, Argentina Tarrafal de São Nicolau, Cape Verde See also Organ Festival of Braga References Bibliography External links Braga Portal Virtual Braga Minho Roman towns and cities in Portugal

424795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seijun%20Suzuki

Seijun Suzuki

, born (24 May 1923 – 13 February 2017), was a Japanese filmmaker, actor, and screenwriter. His films are known for their jarring visual style, irreverent humour, and entertainment-over-logic sensibility. He made 40 predominately B-movies for the Nikkatsu Company between 1956 and 1967, working most prolifically in the yakuza genre. His increasingly surreal style began to draw the ire of the studio in 1963 and culminated in his ultimate dismissal for what is now regarded as his magnum opus, Branded to Kill (1967), starring notable collaborator Joe Shishido. Suzuki successfully sued the studio for wrongful dismissal, but he was blacklisted for 10 years after that. As an independent filmmaker, he won critical acclaim and a Japanese Academy Award for his Taishō trilogy, Zigeunerweisen (1980), Kagero-za (1981) and Yumeji (1991). His films remained widely unknown outside Japan until a series of theatrical retrospectives beginning in the mid-1980s, home video releases of key films such as Branded to Kill and Tokyo Drifter in the late 1990s and tributes by such acclaimed filmmakers as Jim Jarmusch, Takeshi Kitano, Wong Kar-wai and Quentin Tarantino signaled his international discovery. Suzuki continued making films, albeit sporadically. In Japan, he is more commonly recognized as an actor for his numerous roles in Japanese films and television. Early life and career Suzuki was born during the Taishō period, and three months before the Great Kantō earthquake, in the Nihonbashi Ward (now the Chūō Special Ward) in Tokyo. His younger brother, Kenji Suzuki (now a retired NHK television announcer), was born six years his junior. His family was in the textile trade. After earning a degree at a Tokyo Trade School in 1941, Suzuki applied to the college of the Ministry of Agriculture, but failed the entrance exam due to poor marks in chemistry and physics. A year later he successfully enrolled in a Hirosaki college. In 1943, he was recruited by the Imperial Japanese Army during the national student mobilization to serve in World War II. Sent to East Abiko, Chiba, he was assigned the rank of Private Second Class. He was shipwrecked twice throughout his military service; first the cargo ship that was to take him to the front was destroyed by an American submarine and he fled to the Philippines. Later, the freighter that took him to Taiwan sank after an attack by the American air force, and he spent 7 or 8 hours in the ocean before being rescued. In 1946, having attained the rank of Second Lieutenant in the Meteorological Corps, he returned to Hirosaki and completed his studies. About his time in the military Suzuki wrote: He has also said that he often found the horrors of war comical, such as men being hoisted on board his ship with ropes and being battered black and blue against the hull, or the bugler blasting his trumpet every time a coffin was thrown into the sea. Ian Buruma writes, "The humour of these situations might escape one who was not there. But Suzuki assures us that it was funny." Next he applied to the prestigious University of Tokyo, but again failed the entrance exam. At the invitation of a friend, who had also failed the exam, Suzuki enrolled into the film department of the Kamakura Academy. In October 1948, he passed the Shochiku Company's entrance exam and was hired as an assistant director in the company's Ōfuna Studio. There he worked under directors Minora Shibuya, Yasushi Sasaki, Noboru Nakamura and Hideo Oniwa before joining the regular crew of Tsuruo Iwama. Rise and fall at Nikkatsu In 1954, the Nikkatsu Company reopened its doors after having ceased all film production at the onset of the war. It lured many assistant directors from the other major film studios with the promise of circumventing the usual long queue for promotion. Among these wayfarers was Suzuki, who took an assistant directing position there at approximately 3 times his previous salary. He worked under directors Hidesuke Takizawa, Kiyoshi Saeki, So Yamamura and Hiroshi Noguchi. His first screenplay to be filmed was Duel at Sunset (落日の決闘 Rakujitsu no ketto, 1955). It was directed by Hiroshi Noguchi. In 1956, he became a full-fledged director. His directorial debut, credited to his real name, Seitarō Suzuki, was Victory Is Mine, a kayo eiga, or pop song film, part of a subgenre that functioned as a vehicle for hit pop records and singers. Impressed by the film's quality Nikkatsu signed him to a longterm contract.<ref name="Filmography With Commentary"> {{cite web | last = Weisser | first = Thomas | title = The Films of Seijun Suzuki: A Complete Filmography with Commentary | publisher = 45. Caliber Samurai | url = http://sweetbottom.tripod.com/films.htm | access-date = 20 December 2006 }}</ref> Nearly all of the films that he made for Nikkatsu were program pictures, or B-movies, production-line genre films made on a tight schedule and shoestring budget that were meant to fill out the second half of a double feature. B-directors were expected to work fast, taking any and every script that was assigned to them, and they refused scripts only at the risk being dismissed. Suzuki maintained an impressive pace, averaging 3½ films per year, and claims to have turned down only 2 or 3 scripts during his years at the studio. He later said of his work schedule (and wrongful dismissal): His third film and first yakuza action movie, Satan's Town, linked him inexorably to the genre. Underworld Beauty (1958) marked his first CinemaScope film and was also the first to be credited to his pseudonym Seijun Suzuki. Having enjoyed moderate success, his work began to draw more attention, especially among student audiences, with 1963's Youth of the Beast which is considered his "breakthrough" by film scholars. Suzuki himself calls it his "first truly original film." His style increasingly shirked genre conventions, favouring visual excess and visceral excitement over a coherent plot and injecting madcap humour into a normally solemn genre, developing into a distinctive "voice". Tony Rayns explained, "In his own eyes, the visual and structural qualities of his '60s genre films sprang from a mixture of boredom ('All company scripts were so similar; if I found a single line that was original, I could see room to do something with it') and self-preservation ('Since all of us contract directors were working from identical scripts, it was important to find a way of standing out from the crowd')." This development was furthered with the assistance of like-minded collaborators. Suzuki considered the production designer to be among the most important: His fan base grew rapidly, but did not extend to studio president Kyusaku Hori. Beginning with Tattooed Life, the studio issued Suzuki his first warning for "going too far". He responded with Carmen from Kawachi after which he was ordered to "play it straight" and had his budget slashed for his next film. The result was Tokyo Drifter, an "ostensibly routine potboiler" made into a "jaw-dropping, eye-popping fantasia". Further reduced to filming in black-and-white Suzuki made his 40th film in his 12 years with the company, Branded to Kill (1967), considered an avant-garde masterpiece by critics, for which Hori promptly fired him. Suzuki v. Nikkatsu On 25 April 1968, Suzuki received a telephone call from a Nikkatsu secretary informing him that he would not be receiving his salary for that month. Two friends of Suzuki met with Hori the next day and were informed that "Suzuki's films were incomprehensible, that they did not make any money and that Suzuki might as well give up his career as a director as he would not be making films for any other companies." At that time the student-run film society Cine Club, headed by Kazuko Kawakita, was sponsoring a major retrospective of Suzuki's films; meant to be the first in Japan to honour a Japanese director. It was scheduled to begin on 10 May, but Hori withdrew all of his films from distribution and refused to release them to the Cine Club. The students were told that "Nikkatsu could not afford to cultivate a reputation for making films understood only by an exclusive audience and that showing incomprehensible and thus bad films would disgrace the company," adding that, "Suzuki's films would not be shown for some time in theaters or by the Cine Club." Suzuki reported the illegal termination of his contract and the removal of his films from distribution to the Japanese Film Directors Association. Association chairman Heinosuke Gosho met with Hori on 2 May, but was unable to resolve the matter. Gosho then issued a public declaration condemning Nikkatsu for breach of contract and violation of Suzuki's right to freedom of speech. On the day of the intended retrospective, the Cine Club met to discuss the situation. Two hundred people attended, much exceeding their expectations. A three-hour debate ensued as to whether they should negotiate the release of the films, or confront Nikkatsu directly. The former was agreed upon and it was decided that efforts had to be made to keep the public informed. On 7 June, after repeated attempts to reason with Nikkatsu, Suzuki took the studio to court, suing for breach of contract and personal damages amounting to ¥7 380 000. He also demanded that Hori send letters of apology to the three major newspapers on account that Hori's statements gave the impression that all of his films were bad. He then called a press conference with representatives of the Directors Guild of Japan, the Actors Guild, the Scriptwriters Guild, ATG and the Cine Club. Among the participates were directors Nagisa Oshima, Masahiro Shinoda and Kei Kumai. The only group not represented was the Nikkatsu Directors Association. The Cine Club held a public demonstration on 12 June, which resulted in the formation of a joint committee supporting Suzuki against Nikkatsu. The committee was composed mostly of directors, actors, large student film groups and independent filmmakers. This also marked the first time the public became involved in a type of dispute normally confined to the industry. The Cine Club, and other similar groups, mobilized the public, holding panel discussions and leading mass demonstrations against the studio. The public support, garnered at the height of student movement, was based on a wide appreciation of Suzuki's films and the idea that audiences should be able to see the types of films they wanted to see. This shook the film industry by the fact that the public was making demands rather than passively accepting their product. Throughout the lawsuit, 19 witnesses were heard over a two and a half-year process including directors, newspaper reporters, film critics and two members of the film-going public. Kohshi Ueno writes of Suzuki's own testimony on the making of Branded to Kill, "A film scheduled for production was suddenly deemed inappropriate and Suzuki was called in at very short notice to fill the gap. The release date had already been set when Suzuki was asked to write the script. He suggested dropping the script when the head of the studio told him he had to read it twice before he understood it, but the company directed him to make the film. According to Suzuki, Nikkatsu was in no position to criticize him for a film that he made to help them out in an emergency." Suzuki had never before disclosed this information or discussed any internal company affairs and his testimony exposed the fact that the major studios assigned films to directors at random, improperly publicized them and expected directors to carry any blame. It also came to light that, with the industry in decline since the early 1960s, by 1968 Nikkatsu was in the midst of a financial crisis. The studio had accumulated a ¥1 845 000 000 debt due to irresponsible management and was to undergo a massive restructuring. Film crew sizes were to be reduced, time cards introduced and advanced approval was required for all overtime. Hori, known as a totalitarian figure, unaccustomed to retracting statements or granting requests, had made an example of Suzuki apparently on the basis of his dislike of the film. In a New Year's speech to the company he repeatedly emphasized that he wanted to make films that were "easily understandable". On 12 February 1971 testimony was completed and a verdict expected. However, in March the court advised a settlement, explaining appeals were extremely time-consuming. Negotiations began on 22 March and concluded on 24 December, three and a half years after the case had begun. Nikkatsu paid Suzuki　a fraction of his original claim, and Hori was forced to apologize for comments he made while serving as president. In a separate agreement Nikkatsu donated Fighting Elegy and Branded to Kill to the Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art's Film Centre. At the time of settlement Suzuki expressed fears that if he had continued to fight he might not even be able to get an apology from the failing company. During the course of the litigation Nikkatsu was being slowly dismantled. Hori's plans to restructure the company were unsuccessful and Nikkatsu was forced to liquidate studios and headquarter buildings. It released two final films in August 1971 and by November began producing roman porno, softcore romantic pornography. Despite Suzuki's victory with wide support from the public and film world he was blacklisted by all major production companies and unable to make another film for 10 years. Late recognition To sustain himself during the trial and the blacklist years that followed, Suzuki published books of essays, and directed several television movies, series and commercials. The trial and protests had made him into a countercultural icon and his Nikkatsu films became quite popular at midnight screenings, playing to "packed audiences who wildly applauded." He also began acting for other directors in small parts and cameos. His first credited screen role was a special appearance in Kazuki Omori's Don't Wait Until Dark! (1975). Shochiku, the company that started him as an assistant director, produced his return to film direction in 1977, A Tale of Sorrow and Sadness, a golf expose cum psychological thriller penned by sports-oriented manga illustrator Ikki Kajiwara. Joe Shishido appears in a brief cameo. The film was met poorly critically and popularly. Suzuki collaborated with producer Genjiro Arato in 1980 and made the first part of what would become his Taishō trilogy, Zigeunerweisen, a psychological, period, ghost story, named after a gramophone record of gypsy violin music by Pablo de Sarasate featured prominently in the film. When exhibitors declined to show the film, Arato screened it himself in an inflatable mobile dome to great success. It won Honourable Mention at the 31st Berlin International Film Festival, was nominated for 9 Japanese Academy Awards and won four, including best director and best film, and was voted the no. 1 Japanese film of the 1980s by Japanese critics. He followed the film with Kagero-za, made the following year, and completed the trilogy ten years later with Yumeji. Suzuki commented on working outside of the studio system: From 1978 to 1980, Suzuki served as a "chief director" (supervisor) on the popular anime series Lupin the Third Part II, itself influenced by his earlier films. He would return to the Lupin III franchise twice more, scripting the thirteenth episode of Lupin the 3rd Part III: The Pink Jacket Adventures and co-directing (with Shigetsugu Yoshida) its associated film, Legend of the Gold of Babylon, in 1985. According to Lupin III researcher Takeshi Ikemoto, Suzuki's directorial credit on Legend of the Gold of Babylon was likely honorary, as there was a contemporary trend of crediting notable live-action directors on anime films to garner publicity, but it is also probable that his style did influence the production. Italy hosted the first partial retrospective of his films outside Japan at the 1984 Pesaro International Film Festival. The 1994 touring retrospective Branded to Thrill: The Delirious Cinema of Suzuki Seijun showcased 14 of his films. In 2001, Nikkatsu hosted the Style to Kill retrospective featuring more than 20 of his films. In celebration of 50th anniversary of his directorial debut Nikkatsu again hosted the 2006 Suzuki Seijun 48 Film Challenge showcasing all of his films to date at the Tokyo International Film Festival. He made a loose sequel to Branded to Kill with Pistol Opera (2001). Makiko Esumi replaced Joe Shishido as the number 3 killer. This was followed by Princess Raccoon (2005), starring Zhang Ziyi, a musical love story. In a 2006 interview, he said that he had no plans to direct any further films, citing health concerns. He had been diagnosed with pulmonary emphysema and was permanently hooked up to a portable respirator. However, he attended the 2008 Tokyo Project Gathering, a venue serving film financing and international co-productions, and pitched a film titled A Goldfish of the Flame''. Death Seijun Suzuki died on 13 February 2017 at a Tokyo hospital. His death was announced by Nikkatsu. He died of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Filmmaking technique As a contract B director at Nikkatsu, Suzuki's films were made following a rigid structure. He was assigned a film and script, and could only refuse it at the risk of losing his job. He claims to have turned down only 2 or 3 scripts in his time with Nikkatsu but always modified the scripts both in preproduction and during shooting. Nikkatsu also assigned an actor for the lead, or leads, either a (usually 2nd-tier) star or one being groomed for stardom. The rest of the cast was not assigned but typically drawn from the studio's pool of contract actors. Most studio A films had a set budget of ¥45 million where Suzuki's black-and-white Bs ran 20 million and his colour films were provided an additional 3 million. His films were scheduled 10 days for pre-production, such as location scouting, set design and costumes, 25 days for shooting and 3 days for post-production, such as editing and dubbing. Within this framework he had a greater degree of control than the A directors as the cheaper B productions drew a less watchful eye from the head office. Filmography References Further reading External links Midnight Eye interview: Seijun Suzuki Seijun Suzuki: Authority in Minority at Senses of Cinema Cinefiles – An archive containing essays, notes, reviews and book excerpts on Suzuki's films 1923 births 2017 deaths Deaths from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease People from Chūō, Tokyo Film people from Tokyo Imperial Japanese Army personnel of World War II Japan Academy Prize for Director of the Year winners Japanese film directors Yakuza film directors Imperial Japanese Army officers Shipwreck survivors Respiratory disease deaths in Japan

424797

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Ukraine

Communist Party of Ukraine

The Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU or KPU) is a banned political party in Ukraine. It was founded in 1993. It was claiming to be the successor to the Soviet-era Communist Party of Ukraine, which had been banned in 1991. In 2002 it held a "unification" congress when both "old and new" parties merged. The party is a member of the Moscow-based Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union, an umbrella organisation for all communist parties of the former Soviet Union. The party has been led by Petro Symonenko since it was founded. Communist parties have a long history in Ukraine. With the fall of the Soviet Union, members of the Soviet-era Communist Party of Ukraine formed the Socialist Party of Ukraine and other smaller parties after the Communist Party was banned. After being revived in 1993, the Communist Party was represented in the Ukrainian parliament from 1994 until the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election, which ended a period of parliamentary representation for communists stretching back to 1918. The Communist Party and its immediate predecessor were the largest political force in Ukrainian parliamentary elections for the first eight years of free and fair election, from 1990 until 1998. According to Ukrainian sociologist Volodymyr Ishchenko, by the 2010s the party had "degenerated into a conservative and pro-Russian rather than pro-working class grouping, gradually losing its voters and membership". During the 2013–2014 Euromaidan protests, the party voted for anti-protest laws. However, it also voted to remove President Viktor Yanukovych from office in the Revolution of Dignity. During the Russian-Ukrainian conflict which followed, the Security Service of Ukraine said the party was actively helping pro-Russian separatists and Russian proxy forces, which it denied. Regional party cells formed the pro-separatist Communist Party of the Donetsk People's Republic. In May 2015, Ukraine banned Soviet communist symbols. Because of these laws, and the Communist Party's support for Donbas separatists, the party was barred from standing in elections. In December 2015, the Communist Party was banned, for actions "aimed at violating Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity, collaboration with Russian proxy forces, and inciting ethnic hatred". The party appealed the ban to the European Court of Human Rights and various Ukrainian courts, and participated in some elections by joining umbrella groups and running candidates as independents. The Central Election Commission of Ukraine prohibited Symonenko's candidacy for the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the party took a pro-Russian stance. As a result, its ban was upheld and its assets were seized by the state in July 2022. History Early years and electoral successes The KPU considers itself to be the direct successor to the original Communist Party of Ukraine, a branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) which was founded on 5 July 1918 in Moscow. The original communist party existed until 30 August 1991, when the CPSU and its branch in Ukraine were banned. Between 1991 and 1993, several small communist organizations were created throughout Ukraine. "Without clear legality", communists from all over Ukraine convened on 6 March 1993 for the All-Ukrainian Conference for Communists in an attempt to reestablish the KPU. In reaction, the Verkhovna Rada (thr Ukrainian parliament) legalized the establishment of communist parties two months later. On 19 June 1993, the 1st Congress of the newly founded KPU was convened. Officially, it was designated as the 29th Congress to denote it as a direct successor to the Soviet KPU and it elected Petro Symonenko as First Secretary. In the 1994 presidential election, the KPU supported the candidacy of Oleksandr Moroz from the Socialist Party of Ukraine (SPU). The relationship between the KPU and SPU was strong throughout the 1990s, with Moroz even speaking to the 22nd KPU Congress (held in 1999). In the 1998 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party gained 24.65% of the vote and 123 seats, becoming the largest party in Parliament. The first ten members on the party list were Petro Symonenko (MP), Omelian Parubok (MP), Anatoliy Nalyvaiko (tunneler of the Karl Marks Mine (Yenakieve)), Borys Oliynyk (MP), Valeria Zaklunna-Myronenko (actress of the Lesya Ukrainka Theater (Kyiv)), Adam Martynyuk (the 2nd secretary of the Central Committee of CPU), Anatoliy Draholyuntsev (mechanic-electrician at Luhanskteplovoz), Vasyl Sirenko (Koretsky Institute of State and Law (NANU), unaffiliated), Borys Molchanov (tool craftsman at Dniproshyna) and Anatoliy Strohov (pensioner). The KPU won 121 seats, constituting 19.5% of the seats in the Verkhovna Rada. The good result in the 1998 election led the KPU to field their own candidate in the 1999 presidential election as they nominated party leader Symonenko. Symonenko received 23.1 percent of the votes in the first round, trailing behind Leonid Kuchma who received 38,0 percent of the votes. In the second round Symonenko received 38,8 percent, losing to Kuchma who received 57,7 percent of the vote. In 2000, two parties split from the party, namely the Communist Party of Ukraine (renewed) and the Communist Party of Workers and Peasants. The KPU argued that the creation of parties was encouraged by President Leonid Kuchma in order to syphon votes away from their party. The Constitutional Court of Ukraine recognized in 2001 that the ban on the Communist Party of Ukraine violated the Constitution of Ukraine. At the parliamentary election on 30 March 2002, the party won 19.98% of the popular vote and 66 out of 450 seats in the Verkhovna Rada. The first ten members on the party list were Petro Symonenko (MP), Omelian Parubok (MP), Ivan Herasymov (Head of the Veterans of Ukraine Organization, unaffiliated), Borys Oliynyk (MP), Valeria Zaklunna-Myronenko (MP), Adam Martynyuk (MP), Stanislav Hurenko (MP), Oleksandr Tkachenko (MP), Anatoliy Nalyvaiko (MP) and Oleh Blokhin (MP, unaffiliated). Electoral decline Symonenko's support sharply declined at the time of the 2004 presidential election. Symonenko received 5% of the votes and came in fourth place, unable to get into the controversial runoff which caused the Orange Revolution. Since then, the party lost much support, particularly after the Orange Revolution. In the 2006 parliamentary election, the party won 3.66% and 21 seats. The first ten members on the party list were Petro Symonenko (MP), Adam Martynyuk (MP), Ivan Herasymov (MP), Kateryna Samoilyk (MP), Omelian Parubok (MP), Valeria Zaklunna-Myronenko (MP), Oleksandr Holub (MP), Valentyn Matvyeyev (MP), Oleksandr Tkachenko (MP) and Petro Tsybenko (MP). No later than 2006, the Communist Party office in Donetsk on regular basis provided material and logistical assistance to the separatist organization Donetsk Republic (banned in 2007) which with the assistance of the Communist Party was spreading printed information materials of separatist orientation in authorship of the ideologist of Donetsk internationalism Dmitriy Kornilov as well as by collecting signatures for "independence of Donbass" agitated for violation of territorial integrity of Ukraine through seceding several oblasts of Ukraine from Ukraine and uniting them into one quasi state formation based on Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Luhansk, Zaporizhzhia and Kherson "republics". Even after the Donetsk Republic Party was banned for separatism on 6 November 2007 by the Donetsk district administrative court on the suit of the Chief Justice Administration of Donetsk Oblast based on materials of the Security Service of Ukraine, the Donetsk branch of Communists did not cease to assists separatists with its tents and printing capabilities periodically conducting joint campaigns with them. In the parliamentary election on 30 September 2007, the party won 5.39% of the popular vote and 27 out of 450 seats. The first ten members on the party list were Petro Symonenko (MP), Yevhen Volynets (tunneler of the Vasily Chapayev Mine (Shakhtarsk)), Maryna Perestenko (Head of the Mars farm (Simferopol Raion)), Ivan Herasymov (MP), Yuriy Haidayev (Minister of Healthcare, unaffiliated), Adam Martynyuk (1st deputy Chairman of parliament), Valeriy Bevz (Deputy Minister of Emergencies), Oleksandr Tkachenko (MP), Oleksandr Holub (MP) and Ihor Aleksyeyev (MP). The party participated in the 2010 presidential election as part of the Election bloc of left and central left political forces. The party participated in the 2010 presidential election as part of the Election bloc of left and central left political forces. The Communist Party was part of the parliamentary coalition called "Stability and Reforms" that supported the First Azarov government. On 28 November 2006, the Ukrainian Parliament adopted the Law of Ukraine "About 1932–1933 Holodomor in Ukraine". The first article of the document states: "The Holodomor is a genocide against the Ukrainian people". The second article states that the public denial of the Holodomor as a genocide is recognized as desecration of the memory of millions of victims, disparaging of Ukrainian people and is unlawful. On 13 January 2010, the Kyiv Appellate Court reviewed the criminal case on the fact of committing genocide (crime against humanity) and agreed with the conclusions of the investigation that the leadership of the Soviet Union, including Joseph Stalin and others, had purposely created such living conditions designed to physically eliminate a part of the Ukrainian national group. The court found Stalin and others guilty of indirectly committing the crime. Less than four months after the ruling, on 5 May 2010, the Communist Party branch office in Zaporizhzhia Oblast publicly unveiled a monument of Stalin in Zaporizhzhia. Members of the Communist Party were criticized for hindering journalist activity and cursing at protesters during the event. Three people also reportedly fainted from the heat during the unveiling ceremony, and one woman later died from a heatstroke. The Communist Party was criticized for a statement it later issued in memory of the woman who died, which said, "She died a worthy death in front of Stalin." In the 2010 local elections, the party scored between 5% and 12% of the votes in all Ukrainian Oblasts, except in Western Ukraine and Kyiv Oblast, where they almost had no voters. In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election, the party won 13.18% of the national votes and no constituencies (it had competed in 220 of the 225 constituencies) and thus 32 seats. The party did win about one and a half million more votes compared with the results of the previous election. Independent candidate Oksana Kaletnyk joined the Communist parliamentary faction on 12 December 2012. Importance of Kaletnyk joining the Communists was due to parliamentary regulations on obtaining its own parliamentary factions which required to have at least one deputy who came to parliament by winning a constituency. Oleh Tyahnybok tried to challenge the creation of Communist faction, but on 30 January 2013 the Higher Administrative Court of Ukraine declined his petition. Kaletnyk left the faction (at her own request) on 29 May 2014. The first ten members on the party list were Petro Symonenko (MP), Petro Tsybenko (MP), Iryna Spirina (Head of Psychiatric Department (Dnipropetrovsk Medical Academy)), Spiridon Kilinkarov (MP), Oleksandr Prysyazhnyuk (unemployed), Ihor Aleksyeyev (MP), Ihor Kalyetnik (Head of the State Customs Service of Ukraine), Adam Martynyuk (1st deputy Chairman of parliament), Valentyn Matvyeyev (MP) and Yevhen Marmazov (MP). In 2007 and 2012, the electorate of the party was estimated to be very loyal to the party. The party supported the vote of Mykola Azarov's candidacy for the post of Prime Minister that created the Second Azarov government. Symonenko stated on 28 December 2012 that the Communist Party of Ukraine and Azarov's (and President Viktor Yanukovych's) Party of Regions had not concluded any agreements concerning the Communist support, but that his party had supported Azarov's nomination because Azarov had told them his government was ready to implement the program on Ukraine's accession to the Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia. Symonenko added that should Azarov fail to fulfill the promise of Ukraine's joining this customs union, the Communists would initiate his resignation. The government continued to negotiate with the European Union for Ukraine's integration in the European Union while (according to President Yanukovych) it was also in negotiations with Russia to "find the right model" for cooperation with the Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia. Ukrainian Revolution From November 2013 until February 2014, there were large protests throughout Ukraine. They were sparked by President Yanukovych's sudden decision not to sign the political association and free trade agreement with the EU, instead choosing closer ties to Russia. The Communist Party of Ukraine opposed the protests, but did not support Yanukovych. In January 2014 the party supported the draconian Anti-protest laws that severely restricted freedom of speech and the right to protest. In January and February 2014, clashes in Kyiv between protesters and Berkut special riot police resulted in the deaths of 108 protesters and 13 police officers. On 22 February 2014, Ukraine's parliament voted 328–0 (about 73% of the parliament's 450 members) to remove Yanukovych from his post and to schedule an early presidential election for 25 May. The thirty deputies of the Communist Party voted for his removal. In February 2014, the party came out in firm opposition to the violence and identified the protest movement as a "coup" to overthrow the elected government and replace it with a pro-NATO regime and in an open plea from the First Secretary called for all communist and left-wing movements around the world to condemn the events as such. However, the party did vote to remove Yanukovych. During the Russia-Ukraine conflict Immediately after the revolution, pro-Russian, counter-revolutionary protests erupted in southern and eastern Ukraine. Russia occupied and then annexed Crimea, while armed pro-Russian separatists seized government buildings and proclaimed the independent states of Donetsk and Luhansk, sparking the Donbas war. The Security Service of Ukraine gathered intelligence that the Communist Party of Ukraine had been helping the Russian proxy forces. In May 2014, Ukraine's Acting President, Oleksandr Turchynov, asked the Ministry of Justice to examine whether the party was involved in actions aimed at violating Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity, and to take steps to ban the party if this is proven. On 11 April, there was a scuffle in the Verkhovna Rada between KPU leader Petro Symonenko and two MPs from the far-right "Svoboda" party, after Symonenko blamed them for the Russian annexation of Crimea and the pro-Russian unrest. After repeatedly calling for calm, the parliament chairman suspended the session for fifteen minutes. On 6 May, a majority of MPs voted to expel the Communist Party from the parliamentary session hall for making a pro-separatist declaration. In the 2014 Ukrainian presidential election, Symonenko initially again ran as a candidate of his party, but he withdrew from the race on 16 May. The Central Election Commission was unable to remove his name from the ballot because he withdrew from the race after the deadline of 1 May. In the election, he received 1.5% of the vote. On 8 July, the Ministry of Justice asked Kyiv's District Administrative Court to ban the activity of the party as a result of "a large amount of evidence regarding illegal activities and illegal actions on the part of the Communist Party" (according to Justice Minister Pavlo Petrenko). The Party of the European Left and the European United Left–Nordic Green Left grouping in the European Parliament condemned the possible ban and declared their solidarity with the KPU. Russia's State Duma denounced the ban too and said it was "an attempt by the new Kyiv authorities to force political and civil forces that do not agree with the path taken by the ultranationalist powers to shut up". The KPU also received solidarity from the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) in Britain. On 1 July, six MPs left the Communist Party faction in parliament, reducing it to 23 members. On 22 July, a vote supported by 232 MPs gave the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (the speaker of Ukraine's parliament) the power to dissolve a faction that has lost some of its members compared to the number it had while it was formed during the first parliamentary session after the previous election, pending a signature from President Petro Poroshenko. Later that day, Poroshenko signed this bill, giving effect to this new parliamentary regulation. The next day, speaker and former Acting President Turchynov announced the party's impending dissolution and added to MPs: "We only have to tolerate this party for another day". The party's faction in parliament was dissolved on 24 July by Turchynov. That same day, it was announced that 308 criminal proceedings had been opened against members of the party. Communist Party members were accused of openly supporting the Russian annexation of Crimea, supporting the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic, and agitating for Russian annexation of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast. The party leadership at the time stated its support for Ukrainian territorial integrity and excluded separatist dissenters from its membership. On 4 September, the Kyiv District Administrative Court indefinitely postponed the hearing about the ban of the party. The October 2014 parliamentary election further marginalized the party as it won no constituency seats and came 1.12% short of reaching the 5% election threshold. This meant that for the first time since 1918, Communists were not represented in Ukrainian national politics. The first ten members on the party list for the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election were Petro Symonenko (MP), Adam Martynyuk (MP), Kateryna Samoylyk (senior), Vasyl Sirenko (Koretsky Institute of State and Law, non-partisan), Petro Tsybenko (MP), Ihor Aleksyeyev (MP), Serhiy Hordiyenko (MP), Yevhen Marmazov (MP), Spiridon Kilinkarov (MP) and Serhiy Khrapov (unemployed). In May 2015, laws that banned Soviet communist symbols (the so-called "decommunization laws") came into effect in Ukraine, meaning that the party could not use communist symbols or sing the Soviet national hymn or "The Internationale". In a 24 July decree based on these laws, the Ukrainian Interior Ministry stripped the party of its right to participate in elections and stated that it was continuing the court actions (which started in July 2014) to end the registration of Ukraine's communist parties. On 30 September, the District Administrative Court in Kyiv banned two smaller communist parties: the Communist Party of Workers and Peasants and the Communist Party of Ukraine (renewed). However, the Communist Party was not banned because it had filed an appeal against the Justice Ministry's decree on its activity termination. The party decided to take part in the October 2015 local elections as part of the umbrella party Left Opposition. According to the Interior Ministry, this was legal as long as the new party did not use communist symbols. Other party members took part in this election as Nova Derzhava. The political party Nova Derzhava was established in 2012. On 1 August, it elected a new leader Oleh Melnyk. Formally along with the Communist Party, it is also a member of the Left Opposition Association. In late 2015, 19 local party leaders from the party's South and East Ukraine organizations resigned from the central committee to protest against the repression of internal dissent they blamed on Symonenko. Banning On 16 December 2015, at the request of the Ministry of Justice, the District Administrative Court in Kyiv banned the Communist Party for actions aimed at violating Ukraine's sovereignty and territorial integrity, collaboration with Russian proxy forces, and inciting ethnic hatred. This ban was criticized by John Dalhuisen of Amnesty International, who said the ban was "the same style of draconian measures used to stifle dissent" in the Soviet Union. On 25 January 2016, the Supreme Administrative Court of Ukraine denied the party in the consideration of the cassation of the (16 December 2015) ban. The court suspended the appeal for the time being until the Constitutional Court determines the legitimacy of the law on decommunization. Nevertheless, the party appealed its ban at the European Court of Human Rights. The attempts to ban the party never did forbid individual members of the party to take part in elections as an independent candidate. The party still sends in its required financial reports and is still listed on the website of the Ministry of Justice and the website of the Department of State Registration and Notary. In February 2019, the Central Election Commission of Ukraine refused to register the candidacy of Symonenko for the 2019 Ukrainian presidential election due to the fact that the statute, name and symbolism of the Communist Party did not comply with the 2015 decommunization laws. According to a Kyiv Polytechnic professor, who published an article in The Guardian, the party came into conflict with the Ukrainian government after the Revolution of Dignity due to prominent displays of support for ousted Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych during the Euromaidan protests and alleged involvement with the separatist movement in Donbas as well as the party's pro-Russian government agenda. However, the party did vote in favour of the impeachment of Yanukovych. Two days after the Ukrainian parliament changed its regulations regarding the required size of parliamentary groups, the Communist Party faction was dissolved on 24 July 2014. According to political scientist Tadeusz A. Olszański, the party "effectively supports the separatist rebellion" during the Russo-Ukrainian War. Explaining the withdrawal of the status of political party from the KPU and two of its satellites, the secretary of state security and defense Oleksandr Turchynov stated in July 2015 that the Communist Party took a treacherous position from the very first days of Russian aggression and acted as its Fifth Column. Seizure of assets On 6 July 2022, following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the KPU was again banned after a Lviv court ruling which turned over all its assets, including party buildings and funds, to the Ukrainian state. In a statement, the Eighth Administrative Appeal Court said that it had satisfied the claims of the Ministry of Justice and ordered the party's banning. "The activity of the Communist Party of Ukraine is prohibited; the property, funds and other assets of the party, its regional, city, district organisations, primary centres and other structural entities have been transferred to the state." During the Russian invasion, the party was reported to have taken a pro-Russian stance, and the party's leader Petro Symonenko in March had fled to Belarus with the assistance of Russian forces during the Kyiv offensive. In October 2022, Symonenko took part in the International Meeting of Communist and Workers' Parties in Havana, Cuba. During the speech, he blamed the United States and the United Kingdom for the war, and said they wanted to "use Ukraine against Russia and Taiwan against China". In August 2023, the Security Service of Ukraine opened an investigation against him on the charges of sedition and treason. Ideology In its statute, the Communist Party claims that "on voluntary basis it unites citizens of Ukraine who are supporters of the Communist idea". The party considers itself a successor of the Communist Party of Ukraine of the Soviet Union and calls itself a "battle detachment of RKP(b)–VKP(b)–KPSS". The party claims that prohibition of that party in August 1991 was unlawful, which was confirmed by the decision of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine on 27 December 2001. The party sets itself in an opposition to any government and seeks a full restoration of the socialist state in the country without any particular association with any other political parties. Program Political sphere: liquidation of presidency as an institution, strengthening of democratic measures of state and public life; electoral legislation reform ensuring a proper share of representation of workers, peasants, intelligentsia, women, youth in Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine and local government; introduction of practice to recall deputies and judges who received vote of no confidence; election of judges of prime level; filling with real meaning and proper financial support regional and local government; introduction in the country a system of public control; creation of labor group councils vested with powers to monitor economic activity of businesses; suppression of corruption, organized crime, particularly in the upper echelon of power; elimination of benefits and privileges for officials; federalization of Ukraine; comprehensive development of Ukrainian language and culture, granting Russian language the status of state language; changing of Ukraine's state symbol, lyrics and music of the State anthem. Economic policy: modernization and public control over economy, nationalization of strategic businesses; establishing a competitive state sector of economy, energy independence; reforms in Agro-Industrial Complex, Housing and Communal Services, etc.; prohibition of private property. Social sphere: liquidation of poverty, social justice, system of progressive taxation and state price regulation, free medicine, secondary and tertiary education; full compensation of deposits in the Soviet Savings Bank. Spiritual sphere: quality youth politics; preservation of historical and cultural heritage including Soviet; increased punishment for distribution of narcotics, human trafficking, prostitution, promotion of pornography, violence; combating immorality, vulgarity, cynicism, national chauvinism, xenophobia, falsification of history, fascism, neo-Nazism, anti-Communism, anti-Sovietism; banning of neo-Nazi organizations in Ukraine, criminal penalties for acts of fascism; freedom of worldview and expression of faith, secular state. Foreign policy: non-aligned military status, independent foreign policy, active position on creation of a new European system of collective security, reform of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, review international agreements with WTO and IMF, membership and active position in the CIS, Customs Union and Eurasian Economic Community of the Russian Federation, Belarus and Kazakhstan. Soviet legacy The KPU was established as "the inheritor of the ideas and traditions of the KPU, as it existed until its banning in August 1991". In general, the party has laid weight on nostalgia for the Soviet Union to gain votes. In contrast to many parts of the former Soviet Union where leftist conservatives have tried to win votes by promoting local nationalism, the KPU supports a form of Soviet nationalism, considering the establishment of an independent Ukraine as illegal. The party has remained loyal to the legacy of the Soviet Union. In 1998, to celebrate the would-be 80th anniversary of the Soviet Union it published Historical Thesis, a text which painted a rosy picture of the former state. The Soviet Union is barely criticized and controversial events such as the Great Purge and Holodomor are not mentioned in the party press. There are some who are favorable to Joseph Stalin's legacy, giving the impression that things "only began to go wrong with [Nikita] Khrushchev's 'adventurism'". Despite all this, when the Soviet Union and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) is criticized at all, the favored line is that the party and state lost their belief in key Leninist principles. Vladimir Lenin, the founder of the Soviet Union, "is still considered sacrosanct" by the party and official pronouncements talk of the "Leninist Communist Party of Ukraine" and more precisely that the KPU continues "speaking in the words of Lenin". Symonenko has criticized the label of conservative on the KPU, stating that the party is not willing to abandon its own history. He has referred to the dissolution of the Soviet Union as "the tragic events of the recent past". Further, the KPU believes the Soviet Union "was criminally destroyed". The party believes that Ukraine has been living off the legacy of the Soviet Union since its independence. However, certain concessions to the present have been made and at the 2nd KPU Congress it was stated that "it would be utopian to try and revive a socio-economic system of different relations, which existed in different conditions, under different principles and different organizations of production and distribution, different social-class structures of society, a different level of consciousness". Marxism The party adheres and believes in the Marxian concepts of class struggle and historical materialism. Their ongoing belief in historical materialism cements their views that the socialist mode of production will still be the society of the future. It could be said that the party believed stronger than ever in the possibility of a socialist future since the "careerists", symbolized by Mikhail Gorbachev, Boris Yeltsin and Leonid Kravchuk, were gone. The KPU believes that since the West has developed into a post-industrial society, capitalism through globalization was actively "de-modernizing" Ukraine. This was in their favor since de-modernization would lead to the reestablishment of a dominant proletarian class. As Vasyl Tereshchuk, a former party theoretician expelled in 2005, noted: "People are surviving on what they accumulated in the years of Soviet power: that is, they are not yet a classic proletariat as they still have much to lose (a flat, a car, a dacha, etc.). But their full proletarianization will come sooner or later". Secondly, the dissolution of the Soviet Union directly led to the reestablishment of class antagonism in society. This antagonism led to the exploitation of the proletariat by "a comprador bourgeoisie ... behind which stands world imperialism headed by the USA". According to Symonenko, on this basis there was no chance for a social democratic movement ever to develop in Ukraine. The "softening of class antagonism in the West" which had led to the establishment of social democratic parties "was only possible because the local working class, as part of the 'golden billion', lived 'as parasites on the labour of the countries of the world periphery' to which Ukraine was rapidly being consigned. Ukraine could not expect any 'lessening of class antagonism, only the reverse". Symonenko appreciates the economical aid and partnership with China and calls to use the Chinese Communist Party as the example, giving the country back to the working people, and "build our country into a strong country like China". Views on nationalism At least in the beginning, the party is best described as Soviet patriotic. As Yurii Solomatin, a member of parliament, noted in 2000, "we are Soviet communists; we are Soviet people; we are Soviet patriots". The party continues speaking about the existence of a "Soviet people" and "Soviet homeland" and at the beginning no concessions were given to local Ukrainian nationalism. There has been no talk of establishing a national communism unique to Ukraine and the 1st KPU Congress even criticized the notion of establishing a unique "Ukrainian communism". Instead, the KPU has opted promoting Ukraine as a "bi-cultural state". At the 1st KPU Congress, Symonenko told the delegates that "'the interests, rights and specific traits of one nation above those of other nations and nationalities', and in which 'the Ukrainian language' should not be 'over'-privileged, but left alone to enjoy 'its natural development, purged of the imposed language of the diaspora. The Russian language, as the native language of half the population of Ukraine, [should be given] the status of a state language alongside Ukrainian". Their views on patriotism is highly nostalgic. When the Union of Communist Parties – Communist Party of the Soviet Union (UCP–CPSU), a loose organization of post-Soviet parties was formed, it was met with open arms. However, when the Communist Party of the Russian Federation proposed in 1995 to transform the organization into a modern-day Comintern, the KPU opposed because of their Soviet patriotic views. In recent years, their commitment to Soviet patriotism has been partially replaced with a vaguer Eurasianism. Wishing not to reestablish a union with Russia "'as a protectorate of the Russian bourgeoisie", "the Ukrainian Communists have rediscovered the natural link from Soviet to East Slavic or Eurasian nationalism in the supposed common 'economic civilization' and proclivity for collective labour of all the East Slavic peoples". As noted in the party journal Communist, the "'Soviet man ... did not emerge from nothing before him stood the courageous Slavic-Rusich, the labour-loving Ukrainian peasant, the self-sacrificing Cossack". At the 4th KPU Congress, the party conceded that Ukraine would not join any particular union as long as it weakened the country's sovereignty. At the same time, Petro Symonenko publicly backed Ukraine's membership in the Eurasian Customs Union. Symonenko has often been referred to as a Ukrainophobe. Symonenko made controversy in 2007 when he accused the Ukrainian nationalist figure Roman Shukhevych of receiving two Iron Crosses from Adolf Hitler. Shukhevych's kids submitted a lawsuit against Symonenko in response. The Pechersk District Court of Kyiv city declared that Symonenko failed to present any proof of his claim and obligated "to refute the false information he spread about Roman Shukhevych at the next plenary session of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine after the court's decision enters into force". Criticism Writing on The Guardian, Ukrainian sociologist Volodymyr Ishchenko described the KPU as a "conservative and pro-Russian group", whose leaders "became a part of the bourgeois elite and invited business support for their cause", pointing out that the richest deputy of the 7th Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada (Oksana Kaletnik) was a member of the Communist faction. Thus, according to Ishchenko "the only things the party has in common with the determined Bolshevik revolutionaries of the past who spared neither themselves nor others are devotion to the Soviet symbols and appeals to empty “Marxist-Leninist” phrases". After the start of Euromaidan and the Revolution of Dignity, the party newspaper Komunist published an article comparing the protests to riots in Black ghettoes in the United States during the 1960s; the article, titled "White on the outside, black on the inside", stated that "at least in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco the police sometimes make raids on such places and simply kill a few rabid Negroes. […] Even the dark-skinned vendors in Kyiv second hand shops seem a bit more civilized than our ‘light-skinned brothers’ from the western regions of the country, who have gathered on the Maidan". The article was widely condemned as racist. Election results Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Ministerial appointments March–December 2007: Yuriy Haidayev Ministry of Healthcare (Ukraine) (second Yanukovych government) Haidayev was officially unaffiliated, but he was on the party list to parliament from the Communist Party Splinter parties Communist Party of Ukraine (renewed) Communist Party of Workers and Peasants Communist Party of the Donetsk People's Republic See also Antifascist Committee of Ukraine, a committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine acting as a separate organization Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles External links Official website 1993 establishments in Ukraine Banned communist parties in Ukraine Banned political parties in Ukraine Eurosceptic parties in Ukraine Far-left political parties Political parties established in 1993 Political parties in Ukraine Russian political parties in Ukraine International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties Russophilic parties

424806

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995%20Quebec%20referendum

1995 Quebec referendum

The 1995 Quebec referendum was the second referendum to ask voters in the predominantly French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec whether Quebec should proclaim sovereignty and become an independent country, with the condition precedent of offering a political and economic agreement to Canada. The culmination of multiple years of debate and planning after the failure of the Meech Lake and Charlottetown constitutional accords, the referendum was launched by the provincial Parti Québécois government of Jacques Parizeau. Despite initial predictions of a heavy sovereignist defeat, an eventful and complex campaign followed, with the "Yes" side flourishing after being taken over by Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard. Voting took place on 30 October 1995, and featured the largest voter turnout in Quebec's history (93.52%). The "No" option carried by a margin of 54,288 votes, receiving 50.58% of the votes cast. Parizeau, who announced his pending resignation as Quebec premier the following day, later stated that he would have quickly proceeded with a unilateral declaration of independence had the result been affirmative and negotiations failed or been refused, the latter of which was later revealed as the federal position in the event of a "Yes" victory. Controversies over both the provincial vote counting and direct federal financial involvement in the final days of the campaign reverberated in Canadian politics for over a decade after the referendum took place. In the aftermath of the close result, the federal government, after unilaterally recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and amending the federal constitutional veto procedure, referred the issue to the Supreme Court of Canada, which stated that the unilateral secession contemplated in the referendum was illegal. Background Quebec, a province in Canada since its foundation in 1867, has always been the sole majority French-speaking province. Long ruled by forces (such as the Union Nationale) that focused on affirmation of the province's Francophone and Catholic identity within Canada, the Quiet Revolution of the early 1960s prompted a surge in civic and economic nationalism, as well as voices calling for the independence of the province and the establishment of a nation state. Among these was René Lévesque, who founded the Parti Québécois with like-minded groups seeking independence from Canada. After winning power in 1976, the PQ government held a referendum in 1980 seeking a mandate to negotiate "sovereignty-association" with Canada, which was decisively defeated. In response to the referendum result, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau said that he would seek to "patriate" the Canadian Constitution and institute what would eventually become the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. During tense negotiations in November 1981, an agreement was reached between Trudeau and nine of the ten provincial premiers by Trudeau, but not Lévesque. The Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted without the Quebec National Assembly's approval, after the Supreme Court of Canada ruled against the Quebec government that its consent was not necessary for constitutional change. New Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and Quebec Liberal premier Robert Bourassa sought a series of constitutional amendments designed to address Quebec's concerns. In the Meech Lake Accord, the federal government and all provincial premiers agreed to a series of amendments that decentralized some powers and recognized Quebec as a distinct society. The Accord, after fierce debate in English Canada, fell apart in dramatic fashion in the summer of 1990, as two provinces failed to ratify it within the three-year time limit required by the constitution. This prompted outrage among Quebec nationalists and a surge in support for sovereignty. While the Accord was collapsing, Lucien Bouchard, a cabinet minister in Mulroney's government, led a coalition of six Progressive Conservative members of parliament and one Liberal MP from Quebec to form a new federal party devoted to Quebec sovereignty, the Bloc Québécois. Following these events, Bourassa said that a referendum would be held in 1992, with either sovereignty or a new constitutional agreement as the subject. This prompted a national referendum on the Charlottetown Accord of 1992, a series of constitutional amendments that included the proposals of the Meech Lake Accord as well as other matters. The Accord was rejected by a majority of voters both in Quebec and English Canada. In the 1993 federal election, the Liberals returned to power with a majority government under Jean Chrétien, who had been Minister of Justice during the 1980–81 constitutional discussions and the Bloc Québécois won 54 seats with 49.3% of Quebec's vote. The result made the Bloc the second largest party in the House of Commons, giving it the role of Official Opposition and allowing Bouchard to confront Chrétien in Question Period on a daily basis. In Quebec, the 1994 provincial election brought the Parti Québécois back to power, led by Jacques Parizeau. The party's platform promised to hold a referendum on sovereignty during the first year of its term in office. The PQ won a majority government with 44.75% of the popular vote, just ahead of the Liberals' 44.4%. Prelude In preparation for the referendum, every household in Quebec was sent a draft of the Act Respecting the Future of Quebec (also referred to as the Sovereignty Bill), with the announcement of the National Commission on the Future of Quebec to commence in February 1995. The commission was boycotted by the Liberal Party of Quebec, the Liberal Party of Canada, and the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada. The primary issue of debate within the sovereignty movement became on what terms sovereignty would be put before the electorate. Parizeau, long identified with the independantiste wing of the party, was opposed to the PQ's general historical preference for an economic relationship with the rest of Canada to be offered alongside sovereignty, as he thought this would encourage the Federal government to simply refuse to negotiate and cast the project as doomed, as had happened in 1980. As a practical matter, Parizeau believed that given the emotional circumstances of separation a special partnership was unlikely, and that given free trade agreements and other multilateral institutions it was unnecessary. Parizeau's stance created opposition in the sovereignty movement, which coalesced around Bloc Québécois leader Lucien Bouchard. A popular and charismatic figure, Bouchard had come close to death from necrotizing fasciitis and lost his left leg. His recovery, and subsequent public appearances on crutches, provided a rallying point for sovereigntists and the public at large. Bouchard thought a proposal lacking a partnership would doom the project among soft nationalists (such as himself) who worried about the economic consequences of separation. As polls showed Parizeau's approach as highly unlikely to even exceed 40% support in a referendum, leaders of the movement engaged in a heated public debate. After Parizeau moved the planned referendum date to the fall, Deputy Premier Bernard Landry aroused ire by stating he would not want to be involved in a "charge of the light brigade." During the Bloc's April conference, after a speech demanding a change in direction, Bouchard expressed ambivalence to a radio show about participating if a partnership proposal was not included. Mario Dumont, leader of the new Action démocratique du Québec, also stated that he would only consider participation in the referendum if a partnership was made part of the question. The final findings of the National Commission, issued April 19, included a statement that the public generally desired an economic partnership with Canada. Fearing Bouchard and Dumont would further dilute their position as the referendum wore on, Parizeau agreed to negotiate a broader approach, and would agree to a statement that included partnership with Dumont and Bouchard on June 12, 1995. The Agreement contained details of the partnership negotiation process, and a general plan of seeking "sovereignty" while requiring an economic and social partnership offer be negotiated and presented to the rest of Canada. Most importantly for Parizeau, the agreement also allowed the government to declare immediate independence if negotiations were not successful or heard after a successful referendum. Bertrand v. Quebec The looming referendum prompted a number of actions in the Quebec Superior Court, which were consolidated under the application of prominent lawyer Guy Bertrand. Bertrand asked for interim and permanent injunctions against the holding of the referendum. The Federal Attorney General declined to intervene, and after failing in a motion to strike the application, the Quebec Attorney General unilaterally withdrew from the hearing. The Quebec government moved the September sitting of the National Assembly two days forward to be sure that parliamentary immunity would prevent MNAs from being summoned to testify. Justice Lesage of the Court found that secession could only legally be performed by constitutional amendment pursuant to Section V of the Constitution Act, 1982, and that a unilateral declaration of independence would be "manifestly illegal." Lesage refused to issue an injunction to stop the referendum, as he believed that to do so could paralyze the workings of government and cause more disorder than the referendum being held. The Court opted for declaratory relief, declaring that the Sovereignty Bill and the referendum constituted a serious threat to Bertrand's Charter rights. Parizeau denounced the decision as undemocratic, stated that the Constitution Act, 1982 did not apply to Quebec, and refused to move the referendum timetable. Quebec Attorney General Paul Bégin stated that he believed an extra-constitutional referendum was legal pursuant to international law. Daniel Johnson announced the following day that the ruling would not change the strategy of the "No" campaign. Some Federal officials questioned if their level of government could be involved after the declaration, but ultimately the Federal government decided to participate. Referendum question In a dramatic reading at the Grand Théâtre de Québec on September 6, the final version of the Sovereignty Bill was unveiled. The bill would be tabled in the National Assembly awaiting the result of the referendum. The question in the 1980 referendum, in an attempt to build a broad coalition, had sought only the authority to negotiate sovereignty with the Canadian government, and promised a second referendum to ratify the results of any negotiation. Parizeau believed a second referendum was unnecessary and would only encourage the remainder of Canada to use delaying tactics. The draft initial Act featured a question only asking for the authority to declare Quebec sovereign. Pursuant to the partnership agreement with Bouchard and Dumont, the referendum question was changed to incorporate the partnership agreement. It was presented on September 7, 1995, to be voted on October 30, 1995. In English, the question on the ballot asked: The question came under immediate fire from federalists, who had no input in the drafting. Quebec Liberal leader Daniel Johnson stated it was confusing and at the very least should have contained the word "country." Prominent federalists argued that the referendum question should not have mentioned "partnership" proposals, because no Canadian political leaders outside Quebec had shown any interest in negotiating a possible partnership agreement with an independent Quebec, and arguably no entity capable of undertaking such negotiations actually existed. Other federalists argued that the question erroneously implied an agreement had been reached between Canada and Quebec regarding a partnership on June 12, 1995. Parizeau would later express regret that the agreement had to be cited in the question, but noted that the June 12, 1995 agreement had been sent to every registered voter in the province. Campaign Participants Pursuant to Quebec's Referendum Act (enacted by the National Assembly prior to the referendum of 1980), the campaign would be conducted as a provincially governed election campaign, and all campaign spending had to be authorized and accounted for under "Yes" (Le Comité national du OUI) or "No" (Comité des Québécoises et des Québécois pour le NON) umbrella committees. Each committee had an authorized budget of $5 million. Campaign spending by any person or group other than the official committees would be illegal after the official beginning of the referendum campaign. After the agreement of June 12, the "Yes" campaign would be headed by Jacques Parizeau. The official "No" campaign would be chaired by Liberal leader Daniel Johnson Jr. Making matters more complex, especially for the "No" camp, was the federal nature of Canada. The governing Liberal Party of Canada and its leader, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien were not strongly represented in the province outside of Montreal. Chrétien's involvement in the 1982 negotiations and his stance against the Meech Lake Accord made him unpopular with moderate francophone federalists and sovereignists, who would be the swing voters in the referendum. Lucienne Robillard, a nationalist former Bourassa-era cabinet minister, would serve as the federal Liberal representative on the "No" committee. Jean Charest, leader of the Federal Progressive Conservative Party, would be prominently featured, as he and the PCs had closely and productively cooperated with the Quebec Liberals in the Meech Lake negotiations. Fearing missteps by politicians not used to Quebec that had occurred during the Meech Lake and Charlottetown debates, Johnson and the campaign heavily controlled appearances by Federal politicians, including Chrétien. Johnson bluntly banned any appearance by the Reform Party or its leader, Preston Manning. This would go unchallenged by Ottawa for the majority of the campaign, but created much frustration within the governing Liberals in Ottawa. Prominent Chrétien adviser Eddie Goldenberg believed that the "No" campaign at some points was more focused on the future election position of the Quebec Liberals rather than the referendum itself. Early days The campaign officially began on October 2, 1995, with a televised address by both leaders. Parizeau emphasized that he believed this might be the last opportunity for sovereignty for the foreseeable future, while Johnson chose to forecast the uncertainty that a "Yes" vote could provoke. Johnson's campaign focused on the practical problems created by the sovereignty process, emphasizing that an independent Quebec would be in an uncertain position regarding the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and not be able to control the Canadian dollar. Prominent business figures such as Power Corporation president Paul Desmarais and Bombardier Inc. head Laurent Beaudoin spoke that they believed a "Yes" victory could spell doom for their Quebec business interests. The initial campaign for the "Yes" was led by Parizeau, with Dumont campaigning separately in rural areas. In addition to the traditional themes of the movement's appeal to Quebec nationalism, the "Yes" campaign attempted to highlight the slim possibility of any future reform to Canada's federal system. Parizeau bitterly attacked business leaders for intervening in the referendum, calling it a betrayal of their Quebec customers and workers. While Parizeau's responses were highly popular with "Yes" stalwarts, it was generally seen that speeches against business leaders were only highlighting the economic uncertainty that worried swing voters. Polls in the first week were highly disappointing for the "Yes" camp, as they showed them behind by 5–7 percentage points among decided voters, with an even larger gap if "undecided" voters were weighed toward the "No" side as would generally be expected. Parizeau, a general fixture in Quebec politics for decades whose strong views of sovereignty were well known among the populace, was under pressure to create a spark. Appointment of Bouchard In an unannounced ceremony on October 7 at the Université de Montréal, Parizeau made a surprise announcement: He appointed Bouchard as "chief negotiator" for the partnership talks following a "Yes" vote. The move came as a dramatic surprise to the campaign, promoting the popular Bouchard to the fore and simultaneously emphasizing the "partnership" aspect of the question. Bouchard, already popular, became a sensation: in addition to his medical struggles and charisma, his more moderate approach and prominent involvement in the Meech Lake Accord while in Ottawa reminded undecided nationalist voters of federal missteps from years past. Politicians on both sides described his appeal as messianic and almost impossible to personally attack, in contrast to the well-worn figures on both sides of the referendum. "No" advisor John Parisella noted that at focus groups, when presented with statements Bouchard had made that they did not like, participants would refuse to believe he meant them. New polls eventually showed a majority of Quebecers intending to vote "Yes". "No" forces, including Johnson, were shocked by the development, which required wholesale changes in strategy three weeks before the vote. Unwilling to believe Parizeau had given up his leadership role voluntarily, most in the "No" camp and Ottawa had assumed a coup had taken place, though the manoeuvre had been planned and voluntary. The dramatic events prompted many federal politicians to lobby for similarly dramatic intervention from Ottawa and the federal government, which were refused by the "No" committee, who believed that with Bouchard's introduction the margin for error was dramatically reduced. The "No" campaign continued to focus on the economic benefits of federation. Bouchard's speeches asked Quebecers to vote "Yes" to give a clear mandate for change, and that only the clarity of a "Yes" vote would provide a final solution to Canada's long-standing constitutional issues and a new partnership with English Canada for the betterment of both. Bouchard's popularity was such that his remarks that the Québécois were the "white race" with the lowest rate of reproduction, which threatened to cast the project as focused on ethnic nationalism, were traversed with ease. Bloc Québécois MP Suzanne Tremblay was less successful in this regard, and apologized after answering journalist Joyce Napier's question of how minority francophones outside of Quebec would be helped by independence by stating that Napier's last name and lack of a Québécois accent made her ignorant of the subject. Midcampaign Pursuant to the Referendum Act, both committees were required to contribute to a brochure sent to every voter describing their positions. The official "No" brochure, written by the Quebec Liberals, stated that Quebec was a distinct society, and that Quebec should enjoy full autonomy in areas of provincial jurisdiction. Parizeau, while speaking in Hull, challenged Chrétien to tell voters that, if "No" won, Ottawa would withdraw from all provincial jurisdictions, prompting a vague response from the "No" campaign. On October 21 in Longueuil, Johnson, hoping to defuse the issue, ad-libbed a challenge to Chrétien to declare his position on distinct society recognition. When presented with the request, Chrétien, in New York for a United Nations meeting, responded, "No. We're not talking about the Constitution, we're talking about the separation of Quebec from the rest of Canada." The remarks in direct contradiction to Johnson were portrayed in the press as a blunt refusal. Chrétien's position was far more difficult than Johnson's: part of the 1993 Liberal election platform had been moving the country away from large-scale constitutional debates. Provincial governments were also far more hostile to the constitutional process than they had been in the decade prior, with even the federal government's typical ally, Ontario, being firmly against any pursuit of constitutional accommodation. French President Jacques Chirac, while answering a call from a viewer in Montreal on CNN's Larry King Live, said that, if the "Yes" side were successful, the fact that the referendum had succeeded would be recognized by France. At a federalist rally of about 12,500 people which was held at the Verdun Auditorium on October 24, Chrétien introduced a focus on Quebec's emotional attachment to Canada, promised reforms to give Quebec more power, and in a more startling announcement, declared that he would support enshrinement of Quebec as a distinct society, and that he would support reforms to the Canadian constitution. The sudden reversal of Chrétien's long-standing position on the issue, along with Chrétien's wan complexion and atypically nervous appearance, sparked considerable comment. Charest further emphasized his commitment to constitutional reform if a "No" victory was achieved. Aboriginal activism In response to the referendum, aboriginal peoples in Quebec strongly affirmed their own right to self-determination. First Nations chiefs said that forcing their peoples to join an independent Quebec without their consent would violate international law, violating their rights to self-determination. Aboriginal groups also demanded to be full participants in any new constitutional negotiations resulting from the referendum. First Nations communities contributed significantly to the tense debate on a hypothetical partition of Quebec. The Grand Council of the Crees in Northern Quebec was particularly vocal and prominent in its resistance to the idea of being included in an independent Quebec. Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come issued a legal paper, titled Sovereign Injustice, which sought to affirm the Cree right to self-determination in keeping their territories in Canada. On October 24, 1995, the Cree organized their own referendum, asking the question: "Do you consent, as a people, that the Government of Quebec separate the James Bay Crees and Cree traditional territory from Canada in the event of a Yes vote in the Quebec referendum?" 96.3% of the 77% of Crees who cast ballots voted to stay in Canada. The Inuit of Nunavik held a similar local vote, asking voters, "Do you agree that Quebec should become sovereign?", with 96% voting No. 25 October 1995: Three addresses Five days before the vote, United States President Bill Clinton, while recognizing the referendum as an internal issue of Canada, gave a minute-long statement extolling the virtues of a united Canada, ending with "Canada has been a great model for the rest of the world, and has been a great partner of the United States, and I hope that can continue." While the statement provided relief in sovereignist circles for not being a stronger endorsement of the "No" position, the implication of Clinton, who was popular in Quebec and the leader of the province's most important trading partner, endorsing Canadian unity had strong reverberations in the electorate. The same night, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien gave a televised address to the nation in English and French. Broadly similar in both languages, Chrétien promoted the virtues of Canadian federalism to Quebec, touched on the shared values of the country, warned that Parizeau would use the referendum result as a mandate to declare independence from Canada (while explicitly not stating the result would be accepted), and announced that Quebec would be recognized as a distinct society and that any future constitutional reform that impacted Quebec would be made with the province's consent. The "Yes" side was provided airtime for a rebuttal in English and French. Lucien Bouchard was given the task in both languages, with the "Yes" campaign stating that a federal politician should give the response. Bouchard's French address recounted the previous animosities of the constitutional debate, specifically targeting Chrétien's career and actions, including showing a newspaper headline from the aftermath of the 1982 Constitution that featured Trudeau and Chrétien laughing. Bouchard then focused on the details of the partnership aspect of the proposal. He used his English address to ask Canadians to understand the "Yes" side and to announce an intention to negotiate in good faith. The next day, Montreal radio station CKOI broadcast a prank call by radio announcer Pierre Brassard, impersonating Chrétien, to Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, asking her to make a televised address championing national unity. The Queen appeared to reluctantly agree to the request and talked to Brassard for 17 minutes before her staff identified the hoax (after a delay due to a Chrétien aide wrongly speculating to Buckingham Palace staff that it could be a genuine call). Unity Rally Fisheries Minister Brian Tobin, expressing anxiety to his staff about the referendum the week before, was told about a small rally planned in Place du Canada in Montreal for businesspersons on October 27. Asked by Federal advisor John Rae, Pierre Claude Nolin agreed to allow Tobin to invite Canadians outside Quebec to the rally, provided Quebec's referendum laws were adhered to. Tobin then encouraged fellow caucus members to send as many people as possible. After gaining permission from the Prime Minister (over the objections of Quebec members of Cabinet), Tobin then appeared on the national English-language Canada AM, and while disavowing any connection with the "No" organization, announced that the "No" side would be holding a rally in Montreal on October 27, and implored Canadians from around the country to attend the rally to support the "crusade for Canada." Tobin noted that committees were being formed in Ottawa and Toronto, charter aircraft were being ordered, and that Canadian Airlines had a 90% off "unity" sale. Tobin proceeded to call the chairman of Air Canada in his capacity as a private citizen and suggest planes be made available at the same rate, a request that was granted. Tobin's Canada AM appearance resulted in calls flooding MP's offices in English Canada, and bus companies volunteered hundreds of vehicles to take Canadians from outside of Quebec to Montreal. The rally at Place du Canada was estimated to have between 50,000 and 125,000 attendees, with estimates varying wildly as the crowd grew and shrank throughout the day. Jean Chrétien, Jean Charest and Daniel Johnson spoke to the crowd for the occasion, which would become known as the "Unity Rally". Images of the large crowd with an oversized Canadian flag became iconic. Charest felt the rally helped to keep momentum for the "No" campaign moving. The federal government's intervention in the rally attracted strident protests from the "Yes" side, who felt the discounts and coordination were an illegal intervention in the referendum. Bouchard publicly contrasted the rally with what he believed was the inattention of English Canada to the collapse of the Meech Lake Accord. Nolin regretted granting permission for the "No" committee once the scale became known, and Johnson felt the rally only exacerbated tensions with regard to English Canada. Opinions on whether the rally had an impact were divided and unable to be gauged, as the rally happened while the final polls for the Monday referendum were being produced. Opinion polling During the campaign, polls were reported by all pollsters and press outlets with a general guideline of having undecided voters split unevenly in favour of the "No" side: This ranged from 2/3 to 3/4 of the undecided vote. Result 93.52% of the 5,087,009 registered Quebecers voted in the referendum, a higher turnout than any provincial or federal election in Canada's history. The proposal of June 12, 1995 was rejected by voters, with 50.58% voting "No" and 49.42% voting "Yes". The margin was significantly smaller than the 1980 referendum. The "Yes" side was the choice of French speakers by an estimated majority of about 60%. Anglophones and allophones (those who do not have English or French as a first language) voted "No" by a margin of 95%. There was a majority "Yes" vote in 80 out of 125 National Assembly ridings. The "Yes" side was strongest in Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, the Gaspé, the Centre-du-Québec, and generally the suburbs of Quebec City and Montreal. While there was disappointment in the results of Montreal and the Beauce, Quebec City's soft support for "Yes" was the greatest surprise for the "Yes" side. This prompted speculation that provincial civil servants did not want the uncertainty a "Yes" would bring, especially after Parizeau had promised to integrate displaced Federal civil servants in a sovereign Quebec. The largest support for the "No" vote was found in Montreal, the province's largest city; ridings in the West Island, home to a large anglophone population, voted "No" by margins eclipsing 80%, with some polling stations recording no "Yes" votes at all. The far North, the Outaouais, the Beauce, and the Eastern Townships also generally voted "No". The riding with the highest "Yes" result was Saguenay along the northern shore with 73.3% voting yes; The riding with the highest "No" result was D'Arcy-McGee in western Montreal with 96.38% voting "No"; The riding with the closest result was Vimont in Laval, which the "Yes" won by 6 votes and the highest turnout was in Marguerite-D'Youville (96.52%). Results by National Assembly ridings Results by National Assembly ridings. Immediate responses "No" supporters gathered at Métropolis in Montreal, where Johnson expressed hope for reconciliation in Quebec and stated he expected the federal government to pursue constitutional changes. Prime Minister Chrétien echoed similar sentiments to Johnson, and stated that he "extended his hand" to Quebec's premier and government. "Yes" supporters met at the Palais des congrès de Montréal on referendum night. After the result became known, Dumont and Bouchard made speeches accepting the result as part of the movement's democratic convictions and expressing hope that a subsequent referendum would bring a "Yes" victory. Jacques Parizeau, who had not prepared a concession speech, rejected one prepared by Jean-François Lisée and spoke without notes. Noting that 60% of French-speakers had voted yes, he stated that he would address French-speaking Québécois as ("we"), and that they had spoken clearly in favour of the "Yes." He then stated that the only thing that had stopped the "Yes" side was "money and the ethnic vote" and that the next referendum would be successful with only a few more percentage points of French speakers onside. The remarks, widely lambasted in the Canadian and international press as ethnocentric, sparked surprise and anger in the "Yes" camp, as the movement had gone to great lengths to disown ethnic nationalism. Bernard Landry confronted Parizeau at a Cabinet meeting the next morning about the remarks, stating that the movement "had to hide its head in shame." Parizeau, after canvassing opinions, then told his Cabinet that he would resign as premier and leader of the Parti Québécois. It was later revealed that he had declared he would retire anyway if the "Yes" side lost, in an embargoed interview with TVA taped days before the referendum. Six days after the referendum, André Dallaire, a "Yes" supporter with schizophrenia, upset at the result, broke into Chrétien's Ottawa residence armed with a knife. Dallaire attempted to find Chrétien and kill the prime minister in his bed before being discovered by Aline Chrétien, who barricaded the bedroom door. Chrétien was unharmed, and Dallaire would eventually be found not criminally responsible by reason of mental defect. Contingency preparation for a "Yes" victory Sovereignists Sovereignists believed that a "Yes" vote of 50% plus one vote was a binding result pursuant to the Referendum Act and the Sovereignty Bill, as well as the general international law principle of self-determination. In the event of a "Yes" victory, Parizeau had said he intended to return to the National Assembly of Quebec within two days of the result and seek support for a motion recognizing the result of the referendum. In a speech he had prepared in the event of a "Yes" victory, he said a sovereign Quebec's first move would be to "extend a hand to its Canadian neighbour" in partnership pursuant to the wording of the referendum. Parizeau's immediate plans after the referendum relied upon what he felt would be general pressure from economic markets and the business community in English Canada to stabilize the situation as quickly as possible, which he believed would mitigate any catastrophic initial events (such as blockades) and prepare for negotiations. Despite the prominent placement of Bouchard in the referendum campaign, Parizeau planned to retain all authority with regard to negotiations, and to appoint most members of the negotiation team if they were to occur. Parizeau also believed federalist Quebecers such as Chrétien and Charest would be quickly disregarded and replaced at negotiations by representatives from the other nine provinces. If the Federal government refused to negotiate, or if negotiations were to exceed October 30, 1996, Parizeau stated that he would proceed with a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) for an independent Quebec pursuant to Section 26 of the Sovereignty Bill. Parizeau's hopes for international recognition, a practical requirement of statehood, rested with France and the Francophonie. He believed that if Quebec declared independence in these circumstances, President of the French National Assembly Philippe Séguin, a powerful Gaullist power broker who was sympathetic to the sovereignty movement, would pressure President Chirac to recognize the declaration. He counted on a French recognition to spread quickly to the Francophonie and bring the issue to a head. Benoit Bouchard, Canada's ambassador at the time, believed that the plan was irrational as he doubted Séguin, who was supposed to be a neutral figure in his role, could bring sufficient pressure in the country's semi-presidential system. In interviews conducted in 2014, Bouchard and Dumont both believed that negotiations would have resulted had the "Yes" side won and that Quebec would have remained in Canada with a more autonomous status. Bouchard, while approving of Parizeau's intention to unilaterally declare independence should negotiations be refused, implied that he and Dumont would have been able to control negotiations and offer a subsequent referendum on a new agreement. Dumont noted that international recognition would have been difficult had two of the three leaders of the "Yes" campaign been against a UDI, and that he and Bouchard were willing to slow the process down if necessary. For his part, Bernard Landry believed that nothing short of a seat at the United Nations would have been accomplished had the "Yes" won. Federalists Recognition As the referendum was only of force and effect pursuant to a provincial law, neither the provincially sanctioned "No" committee nor the Federal government had any input on the question of the referendum. Federalists strongly differed on how or if a "Yes" referendum result would be recognized. "No" campaign head Daniel Johnson disputed the "Yes" side's position that a simple majority was sufficient to declare independence, as he believed the question was too vague and gave negotiators too broad a mandate given the enormity of the issue and the uncertainty of negotiations. Jean Chrétien refused to publicly comment or consider contingencies regarding a possible "Yes" victory, and at no point stated the referendum bound the Federal government to negotiations or permitted a unilateral declaration of independence. His wording of speeches during the referendum noted that Parizeau would interpret a "Yes" vote as a mandate to separate Quebec from Canada, but never offered recognition that this was legal or recognizable. A speech drafted for Chrétien in the event of a "Yes" vote stated that the question was too ambiguous to be binding and that only dissatisfaction with the status quo had been stated. Reform party leader Preston Manning, a prominent proponent of direct democracy, would have recognized any result, with critics suspecting he preferred a "Yes" vote for electoral gain. Jean Charest recognized the referendum's legitimacy, although a draft post-referendum speech had him interpreting a "Yes" vote as a call for drastic reform of Canadian federation instead of separation. The New Democratic Party's official position was that the result had to be recognized. Negotiations Little planning was made for the possibility of a "Yes" vote by the Canadian federal government, with the general consensus being that the referendum would be easily won and that planning would spark panic or give the referendum undeserved legitimacy. Some members of the federal cabinet met to discuss several possible scenarios, including referring the issue of Quebec's independence to the Supreme Court. Senior civil servants met to consider the impact of a vote for secession on issues such as territorial boundaries and the federal debt. A dispute arose as to whether Jean Chrétien and many prominent members of Cabinet who had been elected in Quebec ridings could represent Canada at a hypothetical partnership negotiation. Manning intended to immediately call for Chrétien's resignation and for a general election if the referendum were successful, even though the Liberals, independently of their Quebec seats, had a sizable majority in the House of Commons. There was also some doubt that Chrétien would be able to assure the governor general that he retained enough support within his party to remain the prime minister. Chrétien's intention was, whatever the result, to stay in office. New Brunswick Premier Frank McKenna later confirmed that he had been invited into a hypothetical "national unity" cabinet if the "Yes" side was victorious, with a general understanding that former Ontario Premier Bob Rae was to be included as well. Premier of Saskatchewan Roy Romanow secretly formed a committee to study consequences if Quebec successfully seceded, including strengthening Saskatchewan's relationships with other western provinces, also seceding from Canada, or joining the United States. Controversies post-referendum Rejected ballots When the counting was completed, approximately 86,000 ballots were rejected by Deputy Returning Officers, alleging that they had not been marked properly by the voter. Each polling station featured a Deputy Returning Officer (appointed by the "Yes") who counted the ballots while a Poll Clerk (appointed by the "No") recorded the result of the count. Controversy arose over whether the Deputy Returning Officers of the Chomedey, Marguerite-Bourgeois and Laurier-Dorion ridings had improperly rejected ballots. In these ridings the "No" vote was dominant, and the proportion of rejected ballots was 12%, 5.5% and 3.6%. Thomas Mulcair, member of the Quebec National Assembly for Chomedey, told reporters that there was "an orchestrated attempt to steal the vote" in his riding. A study released months after the referendum by McGill University concluded that ridings with a greater number of "No" votes had a higher percentage of rejected ballots. Directeur général des élections du Québec (DGEQ), Pierre F. Cote, launched an inquiry into the alleged irregularities, supervised by the Chief Justice of the Quebec Superior Court, Alan B. Gold. All ballots of the three ridings plus a sample of ballots from other ridings were examined. The inquiry concluded that some ballots had been rejected without valid reasons, but the incidents were isolated. The majority of the rejected ballots were "No" votes, in proportion to the majority of the valid votes in those districts. Two Deputy Returning Officers were charged by the DGEQ with violating elections laws, but in 1996 were found not guilty (a decision upheld by the Quebec Court of Appeal), after it was found that the ballots were not rejected in a fraudulent or irregular manner, and that there was no proof of conspiracy. A Quebec Court judge acquitted a Deputy Returning Officer charged with illegally rejecting 53% of the ballots cast at his Chomedey polling district. In 2000, the Quebec Superior Court denied an application by Alliance Quebec that attempted to force the DGEQ to give access to all 5 million ballots, ruling that the only authority that could do so expired in 1996. The referendum ballots were shredded and recycled in 2008 after appeals were exhausted. In May 2005, former PQ Cabinet minister Richard Le Hir said that the PQ coordinated the ballot rejections, which PQ officials denied. Citizenship and Immigration Canada Citizenship Court judges from across Canada were sent into the province to ensure as many qualified immigrants living in Quebec as possible had Canadian citizenship before the referendum, and thus were able to vote. The goal was to have 10,000 to 20,000 outstanding citizenship applications processed for residents of Quebec by mid-October. 43,855 new Quebecers obtained their Canadian citizenship during 1995, with about one quarter of these (11,429) being granted during the month of October. When confronted about the issue by a Bloc Québécois MP who suggested shortcuts were being taken to hurry citizenship applications for immigrants who would most likely vote "No", Minister of Citizenship and Immigration Sergio Marchi responded that this was common before provincial election campaigns in other provinces. Spending limits and Option Canada The Canadian Unity Council incorporated a Montreal-based lobbying group called Option Canada with the mandate to promote federalism in Quebec. Option Canada received $1.6 million in funding from the Canadian Heritage Department in 1994, $3.35 million in 1995 and $1.1 million in 1996. The Montreal Gazette reported in March 1997 that the group also had other funds from undeclared sources. A Committee to Register Voters Outside Quebec was created to help citizens who had left Quebec before the 1995 vote register on the electoral list. The Committee handed out pamphlets during the referendum, including a form to be added to the list of voters. The pamphlet gave out a toll-free number as contact information, which was the same number as the one used by the Canadian Unity Council. After the referendum, the DSEQ filed 20 criminal charges of illegal expenditures by Option Canada and others on behalf of the "No" side, which were dropped after the Supreme Court of Canada in Libman vs. Quebec-Attorney General ruled sections of the Referendum Act restricting third-party expenditures were unconstitutionally restrictive under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Aurèle Gervais, communications director for the Liberal Party of Canada, as well as the students' association at Ottawa's Algonquin College, were charged with infractions of Quebec's Election Act after the referendum for illegally hiring buses to bring supporters to Montreal for the rally. Environment Minister Sergio Marchi told reporters that Gervais should wear [the charges against him] like a badge of honour." Two years later, the Quebec Superior Court dismissed the charges, stating that the actions took place outside of Quebec and so the Quebec Election Act did not apply. The DSEQ asked retired Quebec court judge Bernard Grenier in 2006 to investigate Option Canada after the publication of Normand Lester and Robin Philpot's "The Secrets of Option Canada", which alleged over $5,000,000 had been spent helping the "No" campaign. Grenier determined that was illegally spent by the "No" side during the referendum, although he drew no conclusions over the "Unity Rally." Grenier said there was no evidence of wrongdoing by Jean Charest or that the rally was part of a plan to sabotage the sovereigntist movement. Grenier urged Quebecers in his report to move on. The Bloc Québécois called for a federal inquiry, which did not occur. Responses After the referendum, the ballot for Quebec elections was redesigned to reduce the size of the space where voters could indicate their choice and the rules on allowable markings were relaxed, so that Deputy Returning Officers would have fewer grounds for rejecting ballots. The Quebec government also changed the Electoral Act so that voters would need to show a Canadian passport, Quebec driver's licence or Quebec provincial health care card at the polling station for identification purposes in future elections. Aftermath Quebec Parizeau's resignation led to Bouchard becoming the leader of the PQ and premier unopposed. While Bouchard maintained a third referendum was forthcoming provided "winning conditions" occurred, his government's chief priority became reform of the Quebec economy. Daniel Johnson would resign as leader of the Liberal Party of Quebec, and after significant pressure in English Canada, Charest resigned as national PC leader and was acclaimed as leader of the Quebec Liberals. Observers expected Bouchard to announce another sovereignty referendum if his party won the 1998 Quebec general election. While he defeated Charest, Bouchard continued his government's focus on Quebec's economy. Bouchard retired in 2001 and was replaced by Bernard Landry who, despite promising a more robust stance on the sovereignty issue, was ousted in the 2003 Quebec general election by Charest, who would become premier. Distinct society and veto After the referendum, Chrétien attempted to pursue constitutional recognition of distinct society, but was stopped by the blunt refusal of Ontario Premier Mike Harris to discuss any constitutional matters due to his perception they had dominated the country's debates for too long. Given the impossibility of any meaningful change without Ontario's approval, Chrétien opted to pursue unilateral federal changes to fulfill his government's referendum commitments. This included legislation which required permission from the provinces of Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia for federal approval to be granted to any constitutional amendment, granting Quebec a de facto veto. The Federal parliament also officially recognized Quebec as a distinct society. Both changes, not being constitutional amendments, are theoretically reversible by future parliaments. "Plan B" Chrétien also pursued what he called "Plan B" in hopes of convincing Quebec voters that economic and legal obstacles would follow if Quebec were to declare itself sovereign; its public face would become professor Stéphane Dion. This included a reference to the Supreme Court of Canada, which followed Federal intervention post-referendum into the Bertrand case: The 1998 Reference Re Secession of Quebec stated that unilateral secession was illegal, would require a constitutional amendment, and that only a clear majority on a clear question could bring about any sort of obligation on the federal and provincial governments to negotiate secession. After the decision, the Liberal government passed the Clarity Act, which stated that any future referendum would have to be on a "clear question" and that it would have to represent a "clear majority" for the federal Parliament to recognize its validity. Section 1(4) of the Act stated that questions that provided for only a mandate for negotiation or envisioned other partnerships with Canada would be considered unclear, and thus not recognized. The National Assembly of Quebec passed Bill 99, proclaiming the right of self-determination and the right of the National Assembly to set referendum questions pursuant to the Referendum Act and to declare the winning majority in a referendum as a simple majority of 50% plus 1 vote. Bill 99's constitutionality was litigated for 25 years, until the Quebec Court of Appeal ruled in 2021 that the law, given its general wording, was constitutional when applied within provincial jurisdiction. Sponsorship scandal Following the narrow victory, the Chrétien government established a Federal government funded advertising campaign to promote national symbols and sponsor hunting, fishing and other recreational events to promote Canada within Quebec. The campaign to promote use of the Canadian flag generally prompted apathy and annoyance with the electorate, while it was revealed in an Auditor General's report of November 2003 that the sponsorship program saw a large sum of money mismanaged and sent to politically connected firms for little or no work. This eventually led to the Gomery Commission's investigation of the Sponsorship Scandal. See also 1980 Quebec referendum Quebec sovereignty movement Quebec federalist ideology Quebec nationalism National Question (Quebec) Politics of Quebec History of Quebec Notes References Consulted works/further reading CBC documentary Breaking Point (2005) Paul Jay documentary Neverendum Referendum External links Le Directeur Général des Élections du Québec CBC Digital Archives – Separation Anxiety: The 1995 Quebec Referendum CBC Referendum Night Coverage (from C-SPAN) Quebec Jean Chrétien Quebec sovereignty movement Quebec Quebec 1995 in international relations Quebec referendum Referendums in Quebec 1995 in Quebec October 1995 events in Canada

424825

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English%20Democrats

English Democrats

The English Democrats is a right-wing to far-right, English nationalist political party active in England. Being a minor party, it currently has no elected representatives at any level of UK government. The English Democrats were established in 2002 by members of the Campaign for an English Parliament pressure group. Following growing political devolution in the United Kingdom, which had seen the creation of the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly, the party's founders called for a separate English Parliament. In the 2000s, it obtained a small number of local councillors. In 2009, the party's candidate, Peter Davies, was elected Mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster, although he left the party in 2013 in protest at its admittance of former members of the fascist British National Party (BNP). As well as attracting many ex-BNP members, who then constituted a sizeable percentage of the English Democrats' electoral candidates, in 2015 the political party Veritas merged into it. Ideologically committed to English nationalism, the party previously called for England to become an independent state, thus leaving the United Kingdom. Since 2016, it has instead called only for the creation of a devolved English Parliament within a federal UK. It has also called for a referendum on whether Monmouthshire, a county presently recognised as being in Wales, should instead be classified as part of England. The party is Eurosceptic, and supported the UK leaving the European Union. History In 1998, in response to calls for the devolution of power to Scotland and Wales, Robin Tilbrook aimed at reforming the English National Party, which had ceased operating in 1981. This project included members of the Campaign for an English Parliament, a pressure group that lobbies for a devolved English Parliament. The party was relaunched as the "English Democrats" in September 2002, after merging with several other smaller political parties. In October 2004 the party merged with the Reform UK Party, which was a small splinter group from the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP). The New England Party merged with the English Democrats in February 2007. The English Democrats were co-founders of the English Constitutional Convention, now defunct. In December 2004, it was rumoured that Robert Kilroy-Silk, the former UKIP MEP had entered into negotiation to join the English Democrats. However, Kilroy-Silk formed Veritas instead. In 2007, the columnist and TV medical doctor Vernon Coleman announced he had joined the English Democrats. The party's most significant electoral success came when Peter Davies (a former UKIP and Reform UK member), its candidate for Mayor of Doncaster, was elected. Having received 16,961 votes in the first round, 189 votes behind the independent Michael Maye, Davies was returned in the second count on transfers of second preference votes, with 25,344 votes to 24,990. However, Davies announced his resignation from the party on 5 February 2013 citing "a big influx of new members joining from the British National Party". One of its councillors, Mick Glynn, resigned the following day after the party's chairman, Tilbrook, launched a personal attack on Davies, thus reducing its number of elected representatives to two. The English Democrats lost their remaining councillors in the 2015 local elections. On 18 September 2015, Veritas merged into the English Democrats. The party claimed a total membership of 1,011 at the end of 2004, and 1,202 at the end of 2005. The party has lost the vast majority of its General Election minimum 5% of poll deposits, seen few councillors by election and defection and been regarded by some as a fringe party. Leaders Election performances and campaigns The first person to stand as a candidate for the English Democrats was Gary Cowd, who stood in Rushmoor—West Heath Ward in North Hampshire in a council by-election in May 2003. Cowd was an active member of the English Democrats and a National Council member. He left the party in 2006. House of Commons Parliamentary elections At the 2004 Birmingham Hodge Hill by-election the English Democrat candidate received 277 votes, or 1.4% of the votes cast. The party's slogan for the 2005 general election was "The English Democrats – Putting England First!" In total, the English Democrats fielded 25 candidates for the May 2005 general election, including Staffordshire South where the election was delayed until June due to the death of a candidate. The party withdrew its candidate in North Norfolk and endorsed the Conservative Party candidate, Iain Dale, as he had "taken the issues of English discrimination seriously". Garry Bushell, the former Sun journalist and current Daily Star Sunday TV critic, became the most high-profile candidate for the English Democrats, standing in the Greenwich and Woolwich constituency in London. Bushell's 1,216 votes (3.4%) beat the UKIP candidate, Stan Gain, who secured 709 votes (2.0%); this was the party's best result for the election though still a fifth-place performance. In June 2005, Bushell also stood in Staffordshire South, where he received 643 votes (2.5%) coming fifth out of eight candidates. In 2011, Bushell announced that he would, in future, be supporting UKIP. The English Democrats fielded Joanne Robinson as their candidate in the by-election forced by the resignation of former shadow home secretary David Davis from the House of Commons. Because of the issues raised by David Davis in the by-election, many parties other than the Conservatives, such as Labour, Liberal Democrats, United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) and British National Party (BNP) chose not to stand. Joanne Robinson came third, with 1,714 votes (7.2%), 44 votes fewer than the Green candidate received in second place. Of the 26 candidates she was one of only three to win back her deposit. This result is both the highest place gained and the highest percentage of the votes won by any English Democrat candidate in a parliamentary election or parliamentary by-election. The English Democrats stood 107 candidates in the 2010 general election. 106 is the minimum number required to qualify for a Party Election Broadcast. The English Democrats received 64,826 votes, or 0.3% of the vote in England, and 0.2% of the vote in the United Kingdom. No candidates were elected but the party saved one deposit in the Doncaster North constituency, where candidate Wayne Crawshaw picked up 5.2% of the vote. In subsequent by-elections, the party contested Oldham East and Saddleworth (where Stephen Morris polled 144 (0.4%)), Barnsley Central (Kevin Riddiough polled 544 (2.2%) votes), Feltham and Heston (Roger Cooper polled 322 (1.4%)), Corby (David Wickham polled 432 (1.2%) votes) and Rotherham (David Wildgoose polled 703 (3.3%) votes). At the 2015 general election, the party contested 32 seats, securing a total of 6,531 votes (0.02%). In the 2016 Batley and Spen by-election, the English Democrats received 4.8% of the votes, coming second to Labour's Tracy Brabin, when all of the other major parties did not stand out of respect for the murdered MP, Jo Cox. European Parliament elections 2004 The English Democrats stood candidates for the 2004 European Parliament election in five of the nine regions of England. The party's 2004 election canvassing leaflet featured the slogan, "Not left, not right, just English". Its candidates received 130,056 votes in total. 2009 In June 2009, the English Democrats contested elections to the European Parliament. The party fielded a full slate of candidates across the nine English European parliament constituencies. On 18 May 2009, the English Democrats broadcast their first national Party Election Broadcast. They came seventh in the election in England (ninth in the UK as a whole) with 279,801 votes or 1.8%, a rise from the 0.7% they received at the previous elections in 2004. The English Democrats do not stand in Northern Ireland, Scotland or Wales, and their vote across England in 2009 was 2.1%, an increase of 1.3% yet still did not keep their deposits except in Yorkshire and the Humber where they gained 2.6% of the vote. None of the English Democrats candidates were elected; the English Democrats were the highest-polling party across the UK not to have an MEP elected. 2014 The English Democrats began their 2014 EU election campaign in September 2013 with an extensive social media campaign. On 30 April 2014, they held a rally at Fobbing in Essex, the site of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt, and declared, "let the English revolt begin." The party fielded a full slate of candidates across the nine English European parliament constituencies on 22 May 2014. On 13 February 2014, party chairman Robin Tilbrook appeared on the BBC Daily Politics with Nicola Sturgeon, the deputy leader of the Scottish National Party. The English Democrats performed poorly at the election, taking just 0.8% of the votes, down more than 1% on 2009. They again failed to win any seats. 2019 In May 2019, the English Democrats took part in the elections to the European Parliament, fielding candidates in only four out of nine English constituencies: East of England, North West England, South West England, and Yorkshire and the Humber. In total they received 39,938 votes, 0.2% of the 17,199,701 valid votes cast, being around 10,000 in each of the constituencies they contested. They again failed to win any seats. Local councils In November 2005, the party achieved its first electoral success when Paul Adams was elected to Crowborough Town Council, polling 120 votes, or 56.8% of the poll, on a turnout of 10%. In the 2007 local elections, 78 candidates stood for election in boroughs and districts in 15 English counties, including 20 in Dartford and ten in Portsmouth. All were unsuccessful. In 2008, the party fielded candidates in 12 district council elections. None was elected. The party's best results were when it came second to the Conservatives: in the Finningley ward of Doncaster and in three wards in Rochford. In the 2009 English local elections, the party fielded 84 county council and local authority candidates, with a particular focus in Bristol, Essex, Hampshire, Kent, Northamptonshire, Nottinghamshire, Wiltshire and Lancashire. The party had an unexpected success when Peter Davies, its candidate for Mayor of Doncaster, was elected. Having received 16,961 votes in the first round, 189 votes behind the independent Michael Maye, Davies was returned in the second count on transfers of second preference votes, with 25,344 votes to 24,990. In 2010, the party also stood in the local elections on 6 May, but did not publish a list of candidates. The two sitting English Democrat councillors on Calderdale and Blackburn with Darwen councils retired, and the party did not nominate any candidates to contest the seats. In 2011, the EDP stood about 130 candidates in district level elections; two were elected. The Boston Borough Council elections on 5 May 2011, saw the election of the first two EDP councillors. David Owens and Elliott Fountain were elected in the Fenside Ward for a four-year term, thus becoming the only EDP members of a district council to be elected by public vote. A sitting EDP councillor on Peterborough council lost his seat. The party fielded a candidate in the 3 March 2011 local by-election for the Walkden North ward of Salford City Council. Its candidate, Laurence Depares, polled 125 votes (7%) and came third, ahead of the British National Party and Liberal Democrats; in a by-election in the same city's Swinton South ward on 7 January 2014 the party was fifth with 54 votes (3.7%). In 2012, the party fielded 101 candidates in the local elections in England, including district council elections, mayoral contests and elections to the Greater London Assembly. None was elected, and the party suffered the loss of the two seats it was defending, one that it had gained from a former BNP member who had defected to the party and another from an ex-Tory. The English Democrats has come under fire from the anti-fascist groups Unite Against Fascism and Hope not Hate and from the trades unions NASUWT and Unite the Union over the number of former BNP members standing for election for the party. 43% of English Democrats candidates in the 2012 local elections were former BNP members. The EDP contested the mayoral elections in Liverpool and Salford. In Liverpool, its candidate received 1.42% of the vote, finishing in ninth place, and in Salford 3.6% finishing in eighth place. The party chairman, Robin Tilbrook, declared that he was standing for Mayor of London and asked for donations through one of the party's websites but his name did not appear on the ballot paper. Welsh Assembly In 2007, in line with the English Democrats stance on the status of Monmouthshire, 13 English Democrat candidates contested the Welsh Assembly elections in the South East Wales region, and the constituencies of Monmouth (fifth with 2.7%), Newport East (sixth, 2.2%) and Newport West (fifth, 2.7%). The party also received 0.9% of the vote on the regional list. The party contested the 2016 Welsh Assembly election in Monmouth. Its candidate, Stephen Morris, received 146 votes, 0.5% of the votes cast. London Mayoral elections In July 2007, Garry Bushell was nominated as the English Democrats' Mayoral candidate for the 2008 London mayoral and Assembly elections with the campaign slogan "Serious About London". In January 2008, he stepped down as candidate because of work commitments and Matt O'Connor, the founder of Fathers 4 Justice, was selected by the English Democrats in his place with his campaign expected to start on 14 February. His campaign web site was launched on 31 January 2008. A party political broadcast for O'Connor's campaign was broadcast on 11 April. One week before the election, on 25 April, O'Connor told Vanessa Feltz and the BBC that he was dropping out of the Mayoral race, giving as his reasons the lack of support within the English Democrats on St George's Day and a lack of press coverage as well as the party's co-operation with the far-right group England First. The English Democrats released a press statement on their website in response to his resignation voicing disappointment at his decision to quit the contest. O'Connor received 10,695 first preference votes (representing 0.44% of the votes cast) in the mayoral contest, ranking ninth out of ten candidates; he received 73,538 second preference votes (3.67%), ranking eighth. In December 2015, Winston McKenzie announced that he had joined the English Democrats, along with confirmation that he had been selected as a London Mayoral Candidate for the 2016 London Elections. His nomination was deemed invalid and he did not contest the mayoral election. Police commissioners 2012 English Democrats contested five of the 41 of the Police and Crime Commissioner elections in November 2012. Results were: 2014 David Allen also contested the South Yorkshire Police and Crime Commissioner by-election in October 2014. 2021 The English democrats contested two of the 39 of the 2021 England and Wales police and crime commissioner elections. Results were: Members holding local government seats In November 2005, Paul Adams became the first elected English Democrats councillor at parish level for Crowborough Town Council in East Sussex, polling 120 votes of 211 cast; he was returned in 2007 in an uncontested election. In 2011, he was elected as an independent, so the English Democrats lost the seat. Later that year, Markyate Parish councillor Simon Deacon defected from the British National Party, to the English Democrats, having been elected unopposed. However, he resigned in October 2012. The English Democrats gained another parish council seat when Mick Glynn was elected for the Dunsville ward of Hatfield Town Council, Doncaster. Following the resignation of Peter Davies, Glynn resigned his seat and membership of the party in February 2013. The party had two district councillors elected (the first above parish level) in the 2011 local elections and obtained a further county council seat through the defection of a BNP, later "Independent Nationalist", councillor in Hertfordshire. However, the county councillor did not defend the seat in the May 2013 election, nor did the EDP put forward another candidate, losing them the seat. The EDP lost one of its district councillors, Elliott Fountain, on 25 July 2013 after he failed to attend any meetings in six months. Following the 2015 local elections, the English Democrats have no representation on any local authorities. Electoral fraud In March 2017, Steven Uncles, the former regional chairman and candidate for the Kent Police and Crime Commissioner election, was imprisoned for seven months after he had completed County Council nomination forms using fake names such as "Anna Cleves" and "Rachelle Stevens", or real people who had not signed the relevant forms. He was subsequently expelled from the party for bringing it into disrepute. Party policies It presents itself as an English equivalent to the Scottish National Party, although the Scottish National Party is generally considered to be a centre-left party whereas the English Democrats are on the right of the political spectrum. The English Democrats have welcomed defectors from the far-right British National Party into leadership roles and former members of the party have criticised informal links with other far-right organisations, although party leader Robin Tilbrook has stated that party members are expected to pledge their opposition to racism. An English Parliament, but no longer independence The English Democrat leader frequently changes the party's constitutional offering. Since 2016 they propose creating a unified, devolved English Parliament, within a federal UK, not an independent sovereign state. An English Executive and First Minister with the same powers as Scottish ones, and a reformed Second Chamber at Westminster. It proposes fiscal devolution so that the English, Scottish, Welsh and N. Irish parliaments become responsible for financing their own expenditure. In 2006, the party rejected suggestions that non-English MPs in the House of Commons should be barred from voting on England-specific matters, on the basis that this would lead to there being, in effect, two parliaments in the same building and that this would be problematic. From March 2014 to the 2015 general election, the party chairman Robin Tilbrook had suggested England should become an independent country. Temporarily rekindling its roots, his 2015 general election campaign launch was moved on from Traitors Gate (Tower of London), to the nearby Hung, Drawn and Quartered pub. Tilbrook accused various political parties of being traitors to the English (Labour, the Scottish National Party, Plaid Cymru and Sinn Féin), and the United Kingdom Independence Party "have no interest in England whatsoever". He said the party was "consolidating our position as the English nationalist party". European Union The party has favoured withdrawal from the European Union and was committed to campaign on the "withdrawal" side of any referendum. Since the 2016 Brexit Referendum, the party has been strongly in favour of following through with its result and leaving the EU. Traditional counties The party is supportive of historic counties. It has called for a referendum on whether Monmouthshire should be part of England rather than Wales. It contested the constituency of Monmouth in the 2015 general election, receiving 100 votes (0.2% of votes cast). Nationalist connections On 17 November 2011, the chairman of the English Democrats, Robin Tilbrook, met Sergey Yerzunov, a member of the executive committee of the Russian right-wing group Russky Obraz. Shortly afterwards, Obraz announced that they were in alliance with the English Democrats. Other members of this alliance include Serbian Obraz, 1389 Movement, Golden Dawn, Danes' Party, Slovenska Pospolitost, Workers' Party and Noua Dreaptă. Since 2010, a number of former members of the BNP have joined the project, with the party chairman quoted as saying, "They will help us become an electorally credible party." In an April 2013 interview, Tilbrook said that about 200-300 out of the party's membership of 3,000 were former BNP members. He said it was "perfectly fair" that such people would "change their minds" and join a "moderate, sensible English nationalist party". Mergers Reform UK Party (merged into English Democrats in October 2004) New England Party (merged into English Democrats in February 2007) Veritas (merged into English Democrats on 18 September 2015) New England Party The New England Party was a local party in Dartford from March 2003 to February 2007, when it merged with the English Democrats. Its leader, nominating officer and treasurer was Michael Tibby while Sheila Tibby was its campaigns officer. Michael Tibby and Austen Brooker were councillors on Dartford Borough Council between 2003 and 2007, representing Littlebrook and Newtown. Tibby came second in Littlebrook in the 2003 local elections, while Brooker was elected as one of three Labour councillors for Newtown, but left Labour soon after his election in May 2003, initially as an independent. Brooker stood down at the 2007 local elections and Tibby was unsuccessful in seeking re-election for the English Democrats, coming third. Michael Tibby contested Dartford at the 2005 general election, receiving 1,224 votes (the elected Labour MP, Howard Stoate, received 19,909 votes). The party contested the Dartford Borough Council Heath ward by-election on 27 July 2006, polling 174 votes (9.6%). The candidate was Steven Uncles, who had been the English Democrats candidate in the 2006 Bromley and Chislehurst by-election. The New England Party merged with the English Democrats in February 2007. Reform UK Party Reform UK was a small UKIP splinter group of those opposing Nigel Farage, led by Harold Green from 2000 to 2004, when it merged with the English Democrats. Green received 357 votes (0.9%) in Reigate in the 2001 general election standing for Reform UK. See also Alliance for Democracy English Democrats Party election results Parliament of England West Lothian question References External links English Democrats official website English nationalist parties Eurosceptic parties in the United Kingdom Far-right political parties in England 2002 establishments in England Organisations based in Essex Political parties established in 2002 Pro-independence parties Political parties in England 2002 in British politics

424847

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four%20Chaplains

Four Chaplains

The Four Chaplains, also referred to as the Immortal Chaplains or the Dorchester Chaplains, were four World War II chaplains who died rescuing civilian and military personnel as the American troop ship sank on February 3, 1943, in what has been referred to as the second-worst sea disaster of World War II. The Dorchester was a civilian liner converted for military service in World War II as a War Shipping Administration troop transport. She was able to carry slightly more than 900 military passengers and crew. The ship left New York on January 23, 1943, en route to Greenland, carrying approximately 900 as part of a convoy of three ships escorted by Coast Guard Cutters Tampa, Escanaba, and Comanche. During the early morning hours of February 3 the vessel was torpedoed by the off Newfoundland in the North Atlantic. The chaplains helped the other soldiers board lifeboats and gave up their own life jackets when the supply ran out. The chaplains joined arms, said prayers, and sang hymns as they went down with the ship. The impact of the chaplains' story was deep, with many memorials and extensive coverage in the media. Each of the four chaplains was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Purple Heart. The chaplains were nominated for the Medal of Honor, but were ineligible as they had not engaged in combat with the enemy. Instead, Congress created a medal for them, with the same weight and importance as the Medal of Honor. The chaplains The relatively new chaplains all held the rank of first lieutenant. They included Methodist minister the Reverend George L. Fox, Reform Rabbi Alexander D. Goode (PhD), Catholic priest Father John P. Washington, and Reformed Church in America minister the Reverend Clark V. Poling. Their backgrounds, personalities, and denominations were different, although Goode, Poling and Washington had all served as leaders in the Boy Scouts of America. They met at the Army Chaplains School at Harvard University, where they prepared for assignments in the European theater, sailing on board Dorchester to report to their new assignments. George Lansing Fox George L. Fox was born March 15, 1900, in Lewistown, Pennsylvania, the eldest of eight children. When he was 17, he left school and lied about his age in order to join the Army to serve in World War I. He joined the ambulance corps in 1917, assigned to Camp Newton D. Baker in Texas. On December 3, 1917, George embarked from Camp Merritt, New Jersey, and boarded the USS Huron en route to France. As a medical corps assistant, he was highly decorated for bravery and was awarded the Silver Star, Purple Heart and the French Croix de Guerre. Upon his discharge, he returned home to Altoona, where he completed high school. He entered Moody Bible Institute in Illinois in 1923. He and Isadora G. Hurlbut of Vermont were married in 1923, when he began his religious career as an itinerant preacher in the Methodist faith. He later graduated from Illinois Wesleyan University in Bloomington, served as a student pupil in Rye, New Hampshire, and then studied at the Boston University School of Theology, where he was ordained a Methodist minister on June 10, 1934. He served parishes in Thetford, Union Village, and Gilman, Vermont, and was appointed state chaplain and historian for the American Legion in Vermont. In 1942, Fox volunteered to serve as an Army chaplain, accepting his appointment July 24, 1942. He began active duty on August 8, 1942, the same day his son Wyatt enlisted in the Marine Corps. After Army Chaplains School at Harvard, he reported to the 411th Coast Artillery Battalion at Camp Davis. He was then reunited with Chaplains Goode, Poling and Washington at Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts, where they prepared to depart for Europe on board the Dorchester. Alexander David Goode Reform Rabbi Alexander D. Goode (PhD) was born in Brooklyn, New York, on May 10, 1911, the son of Rabbi Hyman Goodekowitz. He was raised in Washington, D.C., attending Eastern High School, eventually deciding to follow his father's footsteps by studying for the rabbinate at Hebrew Union College (HUC), where he graduated with a B.H. degree in 1937. He later received his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1940. While studying for the rabbinate at HUC, he worked at the Washington Hebrew Congregation during summer breaks. He originally applied to become a Navy chaplain in January 1941, but was not accepted. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, he applied to the Army, receiving his appointment as a chaplain on July 21, 1942. Chaplain Goode went on active duty on August 9, 1942, and was selected for the Chaplains School at Harvard. Chaplain Goode was then assigned to the 333rd Fighter Squadron in Goldsboro, North Carolina. In October 1942, he was transferred to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts, and reunited with Chaplains Fox, Poling and Washington, who had been among his classmates at Harvard. Clark Vandersall Poling Clark V. Poling was born August 7, 1910, in Columbus, Ohio, the son of evangelical minister Daniel A. Poling, who was rebaptized in 1936 as a Baptist minister. Clark Poling studied at Yale University's Divinity School in New Haven, Connecticut and graduated with his B.D. degree in 1936. He was ordained in the Reformed Church in America, and served first in the First Church of Christ, New London, Connecticut, and then as pastor of the First Reformed Church, in Schenectady, New York. He married Betty Jung. With the outbreak of World War II, Poling decided to enter the Army, wanting to face the same danger as others. His father, who had served as a World War I chaplain, told him chaplains risk and give their lives, too—and with that knowledge, he applied to serve as an Army chaplain, accepting an appointment on June 10, 1942, as a chaplain with the 131st Quartermaster Truck Regiment, reporting to Camp Shelby, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, on June 25. Later he reported to Army Chaplains School at Harvard, where he met Chaplains Fox, Goode, and Washington. Clark V. Poling's father, Daniel A. Poling was pastor of Grace Baptist Church of Philadelphia when the Dorchester was sunk. The church had been planning a memorial for its well-known pastor Russell Conwell but decided to put all efforts towards creating the Chapel of the Four Chaplains in the basement of the church instead. John Patrick Washington John P. Washington was born in Newark, New Jersey, on July 18, 1908. He studied at Seton Hall, in South Orange, New Jersey, to complete his high school and college courses in preparation for the Catholic priesthood. He graduated in 1931 with an A.B., entering Immaculate Conception Seminary in Darlington, New Jersey, where he received his minor orders on May 26, 1933. He served as a subdeacon at all the Solemn Masses and later became a deacon on December 25, 1934. He was elected prefect of his class and was ordained a priest on June 15, 1935. Father Washington's first parish was at St. Genevieve's, in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He later served at St. Venantius for a year. In 1938, he was assigned to St. Stephen's in Kearny, New Jersey. Shortly after the Pearl Harbor attack of December 7, 1941, he received his appointment as a chaplain in the United States Army, reporting for active duty on May 9, 1942. He was named chief of the Chaplains' Reserve Pool, in Ft. Benjamin Harrison, Indiana, and in June 1942, he was assigned to the 76th Infantry Division in Ft. George Meade, Maryland. In November 1942, he reported to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts, and met Chaplains Fox, Goode and Poling at Chaplains School at Harvard. The ship and its sinking The Dorchester had been a 5,649 ton civilian liner, 368 feet long with a 52-foot beam and a single funnel, originally built in 1926 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, for the Merchants and Miners Line, operating ships from Baltimore to Florida, carrying both freight and passengers. It was the third of four liners being built for the Line. The ship was converted for military service in World War II as a War Shipping Administration troop transport operated by Atlantic, Gulf & West Indies Steamship Lines (Agwilines) allocated to United States Army requirements. The conversion was done in New York by the Atlantic, Gulf, and West Indies (AGWI) SS Company, and included additional lifeboats and liferafts; guns (a 3-inch gun forward, a 4-inch gun aft, and four 20 mm guns); and changes to the large windows in the pilot house so that they would be reduced to slits to afford more protection. Designed for 314 civilian passengers and 90 crew, she was able to carry slightly more than 900 military passengers and crew. Dorchester left New York on January 23, 1943, en route to Greenland, carrying the four chaplains and approximately 900 others, as part of a convoy of three ships (SG-19 convoy). Most of the military personnel were not told the ship's ultimate destination. The convoy was escorted by Coast Guard Cutters Tampa, Escanaba, and Comanche. The ship's captain, Hans J. Danielsen, had been alerted that Coast Guard sonar had detected a submarine. Because German U-boats were monitoring sea lanes and had attacked and sunk ships earlier during the war, Captain Danielsen had the ship's crew on a state of high alert even before he received that information, ordering the men to sleep in their clothing and keep their life jackets on. "Many soldiers sleeping deep in the ship's hold disregarded the order because of the engine's heat. Others ignored it because the life jackets were uncomfortable." During the early morning hours of February 3, 1943, at 12:55 am, the vessel was torpedoed by the off Newfoundland in the North Atlantic. The torpedo knocked out the Dorchesters electrical system, leaving the ship dark. Panic set in among the men on board, many of them trapped below decks. The chaplains sought to calm the men and organize an orderly evacuation of the ship, and helped guide wounded men to safety. As life jackets were passed out to the men, the supply ran out before each man had one. The chaplains removed their own life jackets and gave them to others. They helped as many men as they could into lifeboats, and then linked arms and, saying prayers and singing hymns, went down with the ship. According to some reports, survivors could hear different languages mixed in the prayers of the chaplains, including Jewish prayers in Hebrew and Catholic prayers in Latin. Only 230 of the 904 men aboard the ship were rescued. Life jackets offered little protection from hypothermia, which killed most men in the water. The water temperature was and the air temperature was . By the time additional rescue ships arrived, "hundreds of dead bodies were seen floating on the water, kept up by their life jackets." Cultural impact In film The 60-minute TV documentary The Four Chaplains: Sacrifice at Sea was produced in 2004. In 2008 development of a movie based on the chaplains' story, titled Lifeboat 13, was announced. As of 2022, no further information had been released about the project. In print In music A composition entitled "The Light Eternal", written by James Swearingen in 1992, tells the story of the Four Chaplains through music. "The Ballad of the Four Chaplains" written and performed by Dead Men's Hollow In art In addition to the stained glass windows recalling the chaplains and their heroism, paintings include: Four Chaplains, 1943, by Alton Tobey A Moment of Peace, Ft. Jackson, South Carolina, painted by Steven Carter. The Four Chaplains, Chapel of Four Chaplains. The Four Chaplains, by Art Seidan (the four, pictured at the rail of the ship). Four Chaplains Mural, by artist Connie Burns Watkins, commissioned by the Rotary Club of York, Pennsylvania. Four Chaplains Mural, painted by Dean Fausett, at entrance to Joseph "Ziggy" Kahn Gymnasium, Jewish Community Center Irene Kaufman Building, Squirrel Hill, Pennsylvania. Four Chaplains Mural, painted by Connie Burns Watkins, in York, Pennsylvania. Four Chaplains Mural, painted by Nils Hogner, at the Chapel of Four Chaplains Four Chaplains Monument and Eternal Flame, Riverview Park, Sebastian Florida Other The two-hour audio documentary No Greater Love tells the story, including interviews with survivors, rescuers, and naval historians. The 23rd degree conferred by the Ancient Accepted Scottish Rite Northern Masonic Jurisdiction, entitled "Knight of Valor" tells the story of the Four Chaplains as a lesson of personal sacrifice to aid one's fellow man. Remembrance Awards On December 19, 1944, all four chaplains were posthumously awarded the Purple Heart and the Distinguished Service Cross. Additionally, members of Congress later authorized a special medal, the Four Chaplains' Medal, approved by a unanimous act of Congress on July 14, 1960, through Public Law 86-656. The medals were presented posthumously to the next of kin of each of the four chaplains by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker at Fort Myer, Virginia, on January 18, 1961. Four Chaplains Day Ceremonies and services are held each year on or around the February 3 Four Chaplains Day by numerous military and civilian groups and organizations. In 1998, February 3 of that year was established by senate resolution 169-98 as Four Chaplains Day to commemorate the 55th anniversary of the sinking of United States Army transport Dorchester and subsequent heroism of these men. Some state or city officials commemorate the day with official proclamations, sometimes including the order that flags fly at half-mast in memory of the fallen chaplains. In some cases, official proclamations establish observances at other times: for example, North Dakota legislation requests that the governor issue an annual proclamation establishing the first Sunday in February as Four Chaplains Sunday. Civitan International, a worldwide volunteer association of service clubs, holds an interfaith Clergy Appreciation Week every year. The event honors the sacrifice of the Four Chaplains by encouraging citizens to thank the clergy that serve their communities. The First Parish Church (Unitarian Universalist) in Dorchester, Massachusetts, hosts an ecumenical Service of the Four Chaplains each January. The American Legion commemorates the day through services and programs at many posts throughout the nation. On February 14, 2002, as part of the annual award of the Immortal Chaplains Prize for Humanity, a special reconciliation meeting took place between survivors of both the American and German sides of the sinking of the Dorchester. Kurt Röser and Gerhard Buske, who had been part of the crew of the German U-boat that had torpedoed the Dorchester met with three Dorchester survivors, Ben Epstein, Walter Miller, and David Labadie, as well as Dick Swanson, who had been on board the Coast Guard Cutter Comanche, escorting the Dorchesters convoy. On February 3, 2011, the Library of Congress Veterans History Project and the United States Navy Memorial co-hosted a special program at the memorial, in Washington, D.C. The Jewish Chaplains Monument at Arlington National Cemetery's Chaplains' Hill was dedicated on October 24, 2011. The monument honors 14 Jewish chaplains who died during their military service. The monument is a granite upright with a bronze plaque, similar to the three other monuments at the site honoring Catholic, Protestant and World War I chaplains. Rabbi Goode's name is the first listed on the plaque. The Jewish Chaplains Monument was approved by the United States Congress in May 2011, and the monument itself, designed by Debora Jackson of Long Island, New York, was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Fine Arts Commission on June 16, 2011. The dedication ceremony was held in Arlington's Memorial Amphitheater. The ceremony was attended by Ernie Heaton, who survived the Dorchester sinking, and Richard Swanson who was on the Coast Guard rescue team. U.S. postage stamp The chaplains were honored with a commemorative stamp that was issued in 1948, and was designed by Louis Schwimmer, the head of the Art Department of the New York branch of the U.S. Post Office Department (now called the USPS). This stamp is highly unusual, because until 2011, U.S. stamps were not normally issued in honor of someone other than a president of the United States until at least ten years after his or her death. The stamp went through three revisions before the final design was chosen. None of the names of the chaplains were included on the stamp, nor were their faiths (although the faiths had been listed on one of the earlier designs): instead, the words on the stamp were "These Immortal Chaplains ... Interfaith in Action". Another phrase included in an earlier design that was not part of the final stamp was "died to save men of all faiths". By the omission of their names, the stamp commemorated the event, rather than the individuals per se, thus obfuscating the ten-year rule in the same way as did later stamps honoring Neil Armstrong in 1969 and Buzz Aldrin in 1994. Chapel of Four Chaplains The Chapel of the Four Chaplains was dedicated on February 3, 1951, by President Harry S. Truman to honor these chaplains of different faiths in the basement of Grace Baptist Church of Philadelphia. In his dedication speech, the President said, "This interfaith shrine ... will stand through long generations to teach Americans that as men can die heroically as brothers so should they live together in mutual faith and goodwill." The chapel dedication included a reminder that the interfaith team represented by the Four Chaplains was unusual. Although the chapel was dedicated as an all-faiths chapel, no Catholic priest took part in the dedication ceremony, because, as Msgr. Thomas McCarthy of the National Catholic Welfare Conference explained to Time magazine, "canon law forbids joint worship." In addition to supporting work that exemplifies the idea of "Interfaith in Action", recalling the story of the Four Chaplains, the chapel presents awards to individuals whose work reflects interfaith goals. 1984 was the first time that the award went to a military chaplain team composed of a rabbi, priest, and minister, recalling in a special way the four chaplains themselves, when the Rabbi Louis Parris Hall of Heroes Gold Medallion was presented to Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff; Catholic priest Fr. George Pucciarelli; and Protestant minister Danny Wheeler—the three chaplains present at the scene of the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing. The story of these three United States Navy chaplains was itself memorialized in a speech by President Ronald Reagan, on April 12, 1984. In 1972, Grace Baptist Church moved to Blue Bell and sold the building to Temple University two years later. Temple University eventually decided to renovate the building as the Temple Performing Arts Center. In February 2001, the Chapel of the Four Chaplains moved to the chapel at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. Memorial foundations The Four Chaplains Memorial Foundation, the only national 501(c)(3) charity related to the Four Chaplains' legacy, is housed at the former U.S. Naval Chapel located at the former South Philadelphia Navy Yard. Its official mission statement is "to further the cause of 'unity without uniformity' by encouraging goodwill and cooperation among all people. The organization achieves its mission by advocating for and honoring people whose deeds symbolize the legacy of the Four Chaplains aboard the U.S.A.T. Dorchester in 1943." In addition to its other goals and objectives, it supports memorial services that honor the memory of the chaplains and tell their story by publishing Guidelines for Four Chaplains Interfaith Memorial Services. Additionally, it sponsors an Emergency Chaplains Corps to provide support for first responders in disaster situations, and scholarship competitions for graduating high school seniors, focusing on the values of "inclusion, cooperation, and unity" exemplified by the Four Chaplains story. The competitions include a National Art Scholarship contest, a National Essay Scholarship contest, and a National Project Lifesaver Scholarship contest. The Four Chaplains Memorial of York County, Pennsylvania, was incorporated in 2018 after more than 25 years of annual remembrances of the Four Chaplains. The York County group came together due to the connection the community had with Rabbi Goode who served a congregation in York prior to his service on the Dorchester. The group holds an annual breakfast event that honors the Four Chaplains, presents legion of honor awards to deserving community members and raises scholarship funds for students from the Goode Middle School in York. The Immortal Chaplains Foundation was incorporated in October 1997 as a Minnesota non-profit corporation. The original concept for the foundation was from David Fox, nephew of Chaplain George Fox, and Rosalie Goode Fried, the daughter of Chaplain Alexander Goode. The organization's goal is "to honor individuals, both past and present, whose lives exemplify the compassion of the four 'Immortal Chaplains' and who have risked all to protect others of different faith or ethnicity." The group presents an annual Prize for Humanity, "to broaden national and international awareness of the legacy of the four 'Immortal Chaplains, "to inspire youth to the values of the four 'Immortal Chaplains, and "to find new partners and ways to tell this story and preserve the legacy". At the 1999 award ceremony, held in Minnesota, South African Bishop Desmond Tutu helped present Prizes for Humanity that included posthumous awards for Amy Biehl, an American Stanford University student and Fulbright scholar who was stabbed to death in South Africa while working to establish a legal education center; and Charles W. David, an African-American Coast Guardsman on board the Coast Guard Cutter Comanche, who rescued many of the Dorchester survivors, later dying from pneumonia as a result of his efforts. The establishment of the Immortal Chaplains Foundation included some controversy, when the Chapel of Four Chaplains sued Fox to prevent him and his new group from using the phrase "The Four Chaplains" or the image of them that appeared on the U.S. postage stamp. Chapels and sanctuaries Immortal Chaplains Memorial Sanctuary – On the Queen Mary in Long Beach, California, and operated by the Immortal Chaplains Foundation. The foundation was founded by the chaplains' families and survivors of the Dorchester tragedy, including three survivors of U-boat 223, which sank the Dorchester on February 3, 1943. The Queen Mary transported these men to the US as POWs one year after the sinking of the Dorchester. The chapel at the Pittsburgh International Airport was dedicated to the Four Chaplains in 1994. Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington, Four Chaplains' Memorial Chapel & Family Life Center. Chapel at Camp Tuckahoe, Boy Scouts of America, in York County, Pennsylvania, dedicated in memory of Chaplain Goode. Camp Humphreys, South Korea, Four Chaplains Memorial Chapel is part of the expansion of the Camp Humphreys Army Base, and is scheduled to open in either 2018 or 2019. Stained glass windows United States Pentagon, "A" Ring Fort Jackson, South Carolina, U.S. Army Chaplain Museum Fort Bliss, Texas, in the U.S. Army Sergeant Majors Academy Four Chaplains Classroom Fort Snelling, Minnesota, Chapel of Immortal Chaplains National Cathedral, Washington, D.C, War Memorial Chapel, Sacrifice for Freedom window Post Chapel at West Point Memorial Chapel, United States Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pennsylvania Basilica of the National Shrine of Mary, Queen of the Universe, Orlando, Florida, North American Saints Window Plymouth Congregational Church, Minneapolis, Minnesota Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama, Grace Chapel Chaplains Window, Saint James the Greater Roman Catholic Church, Charles Town, West Virginia Cathedral of the Air, Lakehurst, New Jersey Sculptures and plaques Brotherhood Memorial, Cleveland Cultural Gardens, Rockefeller Park, Cleveland, Ohio. Installed in 1953. Large granite pillar upon which there is a bronze plaque of the Four Chaplains standing in the prow of a large boat with an angelic figure behind and above them. Text memorializes, by name, each chaplain and finishes with "the unity of this nation founded upon the truth of human brotherhood". Four Chaplains Memorial, resembling a flying white bird, by Italian-American sculptor Costantino Nivola. Former water sculpture located at the entrance to National Memorial Park, in Falls Church, VA, near Washington, D.C. Memorial at Arbor Crest Cemetery, created by sculptor Carlton W. Angell, dedicated to the Four Chaplains in Ann Arbor, Michigan in 1954. Memorial plaque at Belmont Park Racecourse in Elmont, New York. It is located behind the clubhouse section of the grandstand. It is bolted onto a rock on the walkway leading to the racing secretary's office. Memorial plaque in Harvard University's Memorial Church Memorial plaque in the main lobby (second floor) of the Kings County Courthouse, at 360 Adams Street, Brooklyn, New York. Memorial, public park, Dorchester, Wisconsin. Memorial plaque ("The Four Chaplains Marker"), Kingwood Memorial Park, Ohio. St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Hebron, Maryland: memorials set up both inside and outside of the church. Plaque, Rhode Island State House, commemorating the Four Chaplains and a Rhode Island native, Walter McHugh, a Coast Guard member who also lost his life on the Dorchester. Four Chaplains Memorial, Ft. Wadsworth, Staten Island, New York. Four Chaplains Monument, Bottineau, North Dakota. Memorial, Huntington Park, Newport News, Virginia. Memorial plaque, Mayor Andy Parise Park, Cedarhurst, New York Memorial sculpture, Washington Park Cemetery, Indiana. Wax display at the National Historical Wax Museum (open from 1958 to 1982, now closed) in Washington, D.C. Memorial outside American Legion Post 61, Sterling St., Watertown, NY. Four Chaplains Monument, Timothy Frost United Methodist Church, Thetford Center, Vermont. From 1936 to 1938, Rev. George Lansing Fox served as the pastor of this church and the church in Union Village Vermont. Four Chaplains Memorial, outside St. Stephen's Church, Kearny, NJ. St. Stephen's was Father Washington's last assignment before he joined the Army. On the 70th Anniversary of the sinking of the Dorchester, this statue was dedicated. The front shows the four men, arms locked, praying on the stern of the Dorchester, and the back is an angel, carrying four lifejackets for the men. Memorial at Olathe Veterans Memorial Park, in Olathe, Kansas. Plaque, elevator lobby second floor, Raymond G Murphy VA Medical Center, Albuquerque, NM Plaque dedicated to the Four Immortal Chaplains, at the entrance to the Albany, New York War Memorial. Memorial plaque in Riverside Park opposite the entrance to Riverside Church, New York, New York. A bas-relief tribute to the Four Chaplains located at the pedestal base of the Guglielmo Marconi statue, located in Church Square Park in Hoboken, NJ. Miscellaneous remembrances The Four Chaplains Memorial Viaduct, carrying Ohio State Route 172 over the Tuscarawas River in Massillon, Ohio, was built in 1949 and refurbished in 1993. It is part of the old Lincoln Highway. A memorial plaque can be found on the eastern end. "Field of the Four Chaplains" at Fort Benning, Georgia. The 23rd Degree of the Ancient Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry (Northern Jurisdiction) is based on the Four Chaplains incident, teaching "that faith in God will find expression in love for our fellow man, even to the ultimate personal sacrifice". Alexander D. Goode Elementary School in York, Pennsylvania. Students honor the Four Chaplains annually. Four Chaplains Memorial Swimming Pool, Veterans Hospital, Bronx, New York. Knights of Columbus Council #13901, located at Fort Leonard Wood is known as the "Four Chaplains Council". See also Chaplain Corps (United States Army) Cecil Pugh – a South African chaplain in the Royal Air Force who gave his life in similar circumstances in 1941 Musicians of the Titanic – lost at sea as RMS Titanic sank in 1912 Tim Vakoc (1960–2009) – US Army chaplain severely wounded in Iraq in 2004 References External links Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States) Battle of the Atlantic ^ > United States Army personnel killed in World War II United States Army in World War II Groups of Anglican saints American Methodist clergy American Reform rabbis American Roman Catholic priests Reformed Church in America members Articles containing video clips Quartets Anglican saints 20th-century American rabbis

424878

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Roosters

Sydney Roosters

The Sydney Roosters are an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the Eastern Suburbs and parts of inner Sydney including the CBD. The club competes in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition. The Roosters have won fifteen New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) and National Rugby League titles, and several other competitions. First founded as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC), it is the only club to have played in every season at the elite level, and since the 1970s has often been dubbed the glamour club of the league. The Sydney Roosters have won 15 premierships, equal to the record of the St George Dragons. Only the South Sydney Rabbitohs have won more premierships. The club holds the record for having won more matches than any other in the league, the most minor premierships and the most World Club Challenge trophies. The Sydney Roosters are one of only two clubs (the other being the St. George Illawarra Dragons in 1999) to finish runners-up in their inaugural season. Currently coached by Trent Robinson and captained by James Tedesco, the Roosters play home games at the Sydney Football Stadium. The club was founded in 1908 in Paddington, Sydney, as Eastern Suburbs; in 1995 the club's name was changed to the Sydney City Roosters, and in 2000 to the Sydney Roosters. The team's Leagues Club is based in Bondi Junction and its home ground, administration and training facilities are located at nearby Moore Park. The Roosters have long-standing and fierce rivalries with other Sydney-based clubs, especially the South Sydney Rabbitohs, a fellow foundation club based in neighbouring Redfern. History The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC) was formed on 24 January 1908 at a meeting at the Paddington Town Hall in Sydney after it was decided that the district should enter a team in the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Football League. The ESDRLFC was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRFL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Indeed, the locality of Sydney, with postcode 2000, falls entirely within the official boundaries of the ESDRLFC. Unofficially nicknamed the "Tricolours" due to the red, white and blue playing strip, Eastern Suburbs won its first match, defeating Newtown 32–16 at Wentworth Oval on 20 April 1908. In 1913 it became the first club to win three consecutive premierships; the line-ups during this period included the likes of Dally Messenger, Harry "Jersey" Flegg and Sandy Pearce, all regarded as all-time rugby league greats. However, the club rapidly declined and failed to win the premiership for the next nine seasons. Eastern Suburbs missed the finals once from 1926 to 1942, and in that time won four titles and the minor premiership on seven occasions. During this period, Dave Brown set several point-scoring records that still stand. In 1935, the team lost just one game, and recorded the highest winning margin in their history, an 87–7 (equivalent to 106–8 using the modern scoring system) victory over Canterbury. In 1936, Eastern Suburbs became one of five teams in premiership history to remain undefeated for an entire season, a feat they repeated the following year. It is the only club to remain unbeaten for two consecutive seasons. Despite claiming the premiership in 1945, Eastern Suburbs failed to make the finals for the following seven seasons. A runners-up finish in 1960 was the closest the club came to claiming the premiership during this era. Eastern Suburbs were soundly defeated 31–6 in the grand final that year, by the famous record-beating St George outfit. In 1966, the club fell to new depths and was winless for the first time in its history. It was also the last occasion in which the Roosters won the wooden spoon until claiming it again in the 2009 season. It ended a poor run for Eastern Suburbs; from 1963 to 1966, they won 8 of 72 matches, finishing second to last in 1964 and last in the other three years. The club underwent a renaissance in 1967 after appointing Jack Gibson as coach (1967–68), and introducing a new emblem on the playing jerseys, the rooster. From 1972 to 1982, the Roosters won four minor premierships and played in four grand finals, winning two consecutively. Gibson, now dubbed as "Super Coach", returned to lead the team from 1974 to 1976. In 1974 and 1975, the team won 39 of 44 matches, both minor premierships and both grand finals and set a premiership record of 19 consecutive wins. The 38–0 grand final victory in 1975 against St George was the largest margin in a first grade grand final, and the record stood for 33 years until superseded by Manly's 40–0 win over the Melbourne Storm in 2008. Although the 1975 grand final was played during an era of a now-obsolete scoring system - with 3 points awarded for a try - the scoreline using 4 points for tries would mean that the record winning margin for a grand final would still hold with an adjusted score of 46–0. With line-ups including Mark Harris, Elwyn Walters, John Brass, Bill Mullins, Russell Fairfax, Johnny Mayes, John Peard, Ron Coote, Ian Schubert and captain Arthur Beetson, the Centenary of Rugby League panel considered the Roosters of 1974 and 1975 to be among the greatest club teams of all time. Between 1984 and 1995, the Roosters reached the semi-finals once, and became known to critics as the "transit lounge", due to the high frequency of player purchases and releases. The club came close to reaching the premiership in 1987 under coach and favourite son Arthur Beetson, being defeated by eventual premiers Manly in a "bruising" major semi-final, 10–6. As the Super League war built up in the mid-1990s, the Roosters recruited high-profile coach Phil Gould and star five-eighth Brad Fittler, both from the Penrith Panthers. This helped to quickly send the Roosters back to the upper end of the ladder. Fittler's presence proved invaluable; during his reign, the Roosters competed in four grand finals in five years. In 2002, the club captured its 12th premiership – the first in 27 years – defeating Minor Premiers the New Zealand Warriors 30–8 in the 2002 NRL grand final. In the 2003 NRL grand final against the Penrith Panthers, the Roosters lost 18–6 in what was their heaviest defeat for the year. A decisive moment occurred midway through the second half: with the scores tied at 6-all, Roosters winger Todd Byrne made a clear break down the sideline and looked set to score a try before being chased down and tackled into touch by Penrith lock forward, Scott Sattler. From then on, the momentum of the game was with Penrith. The Roosters' made the Grand Final in 2004, when they ceded a 13–6 half-time lead to be defeated by the Bulldogs 16–13. The match was captain Fittler's last for the team. In 2007, the Roosters became the first club to play 100 seasons of first grade rugby league; having been the only outfit to play in each season since the competition's inception in 1908. They appointed Chris Anderson as coach in 2007 and 2008 following two relatively unsuccessful years under Ricky Stuart. On 9 July 2007, Anderson resigned after a 56–0 loss to the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles. Assistant Coach Fittler acted as the caretaker for the remainder of the 2007 season, before being appointed in August to the top job for two years. With eight rounds remaining in a disappointing 2009 season in which the Roosters finished with the wooden spoon for the first time in 43 years, Fittler was informed he would not be the coach in 2010, his position to be taken by veteran coach Brian Smith. The Roosters wound up winning only five games for the entire season; twice against Cronulla and once against each of Canberra in Canberra, eventual grand finalists Parramatta and Newcastle in Newcastle. A year after finishing last, under the coaching of Brian Smith they reached the 2010 NRL Grand Final where the St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated them 32–8. The Roosters led 8–6 at half time but were overrun in the second half. What followed was another relatively disappointing season at Bondi Junction, with the Roosters finishing 11th in a 2011 season plagued by off-field issues involving 2010 Dally M Medallist Todd Carney (who was later sacked by the Roosters at season's end). However, a four-game winning streak to end the season brought hope for the 2012 season. Other high-profile players including Nate Myles, Mark Riddell, Jason Ryles, Kane Linnett, and Phil Graham all left the club at season's end. The Roosters endured a disappointing 2012 season, finishing 13th. Brian Smith resigned from the coaching role shortly after the Roosters' season concluded with a loss to the Minor Premiers Canterbury, and also at season's end captain Braith Anasta left to join the Wests Tigers in 2013. The 2013 season saw new staff, a new coach, Trent Robinson, and several new players, including big signings Michael Jennings, James Maloney, Luke O'Donnell and Sonny Bill Williams, arrive at the club. This culminated in the Roosters finishing the 2013 season with a 24–12 win over the South Sydney Rabbitohs, securing the Minor Premiership for the 2013 season and were the NRL's best attacking and defensive team. The Roosters defeated the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 4–0, in week one of the finals, earning a week's rest. The Roosters defeated the Newcastle Knights 40–14 in week three of the NRL finals, progressing to the 2013 NRL grand final, facing the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, winning 26–18. It was a great comeback by the Roosters, down by 10 points in the second half they went on to score three consecutive tries to seal the win and their 13th premiership. They then went on to win the 2014 World Club Challenge against Wigan 36–14 to claim the treble of club titles. No team in premiership history had come from a lower ladder position to win the following season's title. In the 2014 season, the club finished first on the table winning the Minor Premiership. In the Preliminary Final against arch rivals Souths, Sydney lost the match 32–22 in what was retiring legend Anthony Minichiello's final game.In the 2015 season, Sydney finished first on the table and claimed their third consecutive Minor Premiership. The Roosters again made the Preliminary Final with Brisbane this time being the opponents. The Roosters ended up losing the match 31–12 in front of a sold-out crowd at Suncorp Stadium. In the 2016 season, the Roosters finished 15th on the table after enduring a horror season where star player Mitchell Pearce was suspended for 8 matches, fined $A125,000 and stripped of the captaincy following a pre season incident where Pearce was intoxicated, simulated a sex act with a dog which was filmed on another party goer's mobile phone. The club also struggled due to injuries to star players such as Boyd Cordner and Jared Waerea-Hargreaves. The Roosters finished 2nd at the end of the 2017 season and defeated Brisbane in week one of the finals earning the week off. Sydney's opponents in the Preliminary Final were North Queensland who had finished in 8th position on the table and produced upset victories over Cronulla and Parramatta. In a game that the Roosters were expected to win, the Cowboys surprised everyone winning the match 29–16. In 2018, the Sydney Roosters finished in first place during the regular season, claiming their 20th Minor Premiership. They beat Cronulla-Sutherland 21–12 in week one of the finals, earning the week off. In March 2018, the NRL announced that the club had been successful in their bid for a team in the inaugural NRL Women's competition set to start in September of that year. This inclusion made Eastern Suburbs the only double foundation club in the league. The team would finish the season in second place , losing in the Grand Final to the Brisbane Broncos. The club then broke its preliminary final hoodoo by beating rivals South Sydney 12–4 in what was the last sports match ever played at the Sydney Football Stadium. They managed to keep Souths tryless, and the crowd was the largest ever recorded in a sporting match at the Sydney Football Stadium with 44,380 people in attendance. The Roosters played Melbourne in the 2018 NRL Grand Final, and won 21–6 to claim their 14th premiership. The Roosters started the 2019 NRL season with a round 1 loss against rivals Souths at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The club then went on an eight-game winning run and defeated Melbourne 21–20 in the grand final rematch which was played at AAMI Park. The Roosters also scored impressive victories over Brisbane 36–4 and Wests 42–12 which were both played at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Midway through the 2019 NRL season, Sydney suffered a drop in form during the 2019 State of Origin series period before recovering by winning 7 of their last 8 matches of the season to finish 2nd behind minor premiers Melbourne.The Roosters defeated rivals South Sydney and Melbourne to reach the 2019 NRL Grand Final. In the grand final, Sydney won their second consecutive premiership after a hard-fought victory against Canberra at ANZ Stadium. It was the first time that a team had won consecutive premierships in a unified competition since Brisbane achieved the feat in the 1992 and 1993 seasons. The club began the 2020 NRL season once again as one of the teams to beat for the premiership but suffered back to back losses to start the year before the season was interrupted due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. After the return to play, the club won five matches in a row and only lost three matches between round 8 and round 20. The Roosters finished the season in 4th place and qualified for the finals. In week one of the finals, they were defeated by minor premiers Penrith which forced them into an elimination final match against Canberra. The Roosters quest for a third straight premiership was ended as they lost against Canberra 22–18 at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The club began the 2021 NRL season as one of the teams tipped to challenge for the premiership. In the opening two rounds of the year, the club defeated both Manly and the Wests Tigers by 40 points. Throughout the season however, the club suffered one of the biggest injury tolls in recent history losing Jake Friend, Boyd Cordner and Brett Morris to retirement and season ending injuries to Luke Keary, Lindsay Collins, Joseph Manu and Billy Smith. The Roosters were forced to blood nine debutants, including the likes of Sam Walker, Ben Marschke, Egan Butcher and Fletcher Baker and call upon players from the club's feeder side the North Sydney Bears. The club also suffered injuries and suspensions to other key players such as Victor Radley. The Roosters ended the 2021 NRL season in fifth place and qualified for the finals. In week one of the finals, the club defeated the Gold Coast 25–24. The following week, the Roosters season ended after losing 42–6 against Manly.In the 2022 NRL season, the club finished sixth on the table. The Sydney Roosters won eight straight matches late in the season, but were knocked out in the first week of the finals. The Sydney Roosters entered the 2023 NRL season as one of the favourites to take out the competition but by round 20, the club were sat 14th on the table. The tri-colours then went on to win their remaining five matches of the season against also-rans Manly, the Dolphins, Parramatta, Wests Tigers and lastly arch-rivals South Sydney to finish 7th on the table. In week one of the finals, the club would defeat an out of sorts Cronulla side to reach the second week with their opponent being Melbourne. Melbourne were heavy favourites going into the game but with only minutes remaining the Sydney Roosters were in front 13-12 before Melbourne scored a try through William Warbrick to win the match 18-13. The match wasn't without controversy due to Melbourne scoring a try in the first half which came directly after Harry Grant had knocked the ball on from a cross-field kick, which was not called by referee Ashley Klein. Emblem Eastern Suburbs did not traditionally sport a crest on their jerseys in the first half of the 20th century. Other clubs occasionally sported simple designs on their strip; however, this was not seen consistently on all jerseys until the 1950s and 1960s. In 1967, the club introduced its first logo, displaying the mantra "Easts to Win", following a winless season. The crest also incorporated a rooster or cockerel in the design; one source suggested that this choice of mascot followed after the Roosters' jersey design was inspired by the French national team's jersey. Given that the French team's mascot was affectionately known to supporters as le coq, "the rooster", connections have been made as to the choosing of a rooster for Eastern Suburbs' mascot. In 1978, the mantra was replaced with the team's name, "Eastern Suburbs". This name was kept until 1994, when the club changed its team name to the "Sydney City Roosters" for the start of the 1995 season to appeal to the club's widening fan base. In 2000, the club shortened its name to the "Sydney Roosters". Although marketing names have changed, the Roosters are still registered with the National Rugby League competition as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club, the entity holding the NRL licence. Colours Red, white and blue have been the colours of every jersey design in the club's history; however, the jersey design has undergone several alterations. During World War II, the design of the jersey was modified because the dye used to colour jerseys was needed for the war effort. This saw Eastern Suburbs playing in different colours and an altered design. Instead of using the traditional hoops, the side used a sky-blue based jersey and a red and white V-strip around the collar. This is the only noted time in the club's history where the traditional deep blue, red and white combination was absent from the jersey. After the war, the V-strip design reverted to the original blue that had been present in the original jerseys, and the single red and white stripes around the shirt's chest were incorporated with a single white stripe surrounded by a red stripe on either side. This jersey appeared in the 1950s and remains the team's base design. Primary jerseys Rivals Main: South Sydney Rabbitohs. Major: St. George Illawarra Dragons, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, Melbourne Storm. Minor: Penrith Panthers, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, Brisbane Broncos, Parramatta Eels, Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks. Head-to-head records Stadium Most sources suggest that the Royal Agricultural Ground was often used as a home venue between 1908 and 1910, before the club hosted matches at the Sydney Sports Ground from 1911 onwards. It was here that the team played almost all of their home games up until 1986, when the ground was demolished with the Sydney Cricket Ground No. 2 to make way for Sydney's main rectangular field, the Sydney Football Stadium. In 1987, games were moved away to the Newtown Jets' home ground, Henson Park, temporarily to await the completion of the Sydney Football Stadium. The team capitalised on this move, and under coach Arthur Beetson finished second in the regular season, and narrowly missed playing in the grand final. It was the only time between 1983 and 1995 that the club reached the finals. In 1988, the club moved its home ground to the newly built Sydney Football Stadium on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground, opening the season with a 24–14 defeat at the hands of the St George Dragons in front of 19,295 spectators on a wet night on 4 March 1988. At the Sydney Football Stadium, the Roosters have a 59% win record from 256 games with a 58% and 55% win record at former home grounds the Sydney Sports Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground respectively. The Roosters played their last game, a Preliminary Final against South Sydney, at the Sydney Football Stadium on 22 September 2018 in front of a ground record crowd of 44,380. In 2019, the Sydney Roosters home became the Sydney Cricket Ground whilst the replacement Sydney Football Stadium (2022) was being built. Supporters While the Sydney Roosters have supporters outside of its traditional area, its main fan base is in Sydney, which in the early days was concentrated in Sydney's Eastern Suburbs but has now branched out due to the changing demographics of that region with most fans of the club coming from outside the traditional area. They have an estimated 800k fans due to a club estimate. When calculating their 'average exposure value' across the 2019, 2020 and 2021 seasons it was determined that they were the most watched NRL club and the third most watched club across all sporting codes in Australia. They had 18.6 million game views in 2021 alone. In 2013 the club tallied the fourth-highest home attendance of all National Rugby League clubs (behind the Brisbane Broncos) with an average of 19,368 spectators at the Sydney Football Stadium. This figure does not factor in whether supporters are from the home or away team. At the club's home ground, the Sydney Football Stadium, the supporters congregate in distinct sections. The "Chook Pen", a designated area in Bay 35, is the preferred location for the most animated fans. Members of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust are seated in the Members Pavilion, and season ticket holders are located in Bays 12–14. In 2021, the Roosters had over 16,853 paying members, in addition to the 46,486 members of the Easts Leagues Club, which is the major benefactor of the football club. The Easts Leagues Club and the Sydney Roosters "operate as one entity" known as the Easts Group. Under this arrangement, the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is the 'parent company' of the Easts Group. The Football Club delegates, however, overarching responsibility for both football and leagues club operations to a single general manager who oversees the group's performance. The leagues club provides financial support to the football club only when necessary as the football club's sponsorships and TV revenues are generally adequate to cover most Rugby League expenditures. Notable supporters Statistics and records Mitchell Aubusson holds the record for the most first grade games (306), having surpassed Anthony Minichiello's tally of 302 matches in round 24 of the 2020 season. Former team captain Craig Fitzgibbon holds the club record for scoring the most points, tallying 1,376 over his 210 matches. Fitzgibbon also broke the all-time point scoring record for a forward in the later rounds of 2006. Dave Brown's tally of 45 points (five tries and 15 goals) in a single match against Canterbury in 1935 remains a competition record after more than seven decades. Ivan Cleary scored 284 points in 1998, which at the time was an all-time points scoring record in a season. Bill Mullins, father of 2002 premiership player Brett, scored 104 tries in his 11-year, 190-game career with Eastern Suburbs between 1968 and 1978, meaning that on average, he scored at least one try every two games. Anthony Minichiello became the highest try scorer in the Roosters history when he scored his 105th try against the Newcastle at Ausgrid Stadium in June 2011. 'Mini' finally retired after the 2014 season, and ended his career with 139 tries. He is also the first fullback in 70 years to win the Grand Final (2013), while captaining the club. Rod O'Loan scored seven tries in a single match against Sydney University in 1935, and Dave Brown's 38 tries in 15 games in the same year remains a competition record. In 1975, the Eastern Suburbs Roosters set a record 19-match winning streak on their way to their 11th premiership. In a 1935 match against Canterbury, Dave Brown scored 45 points, the highest score and victory margin for the club (the 87–7 scoreline is equivalent to 106–8 under the contemporary scoring system). The winning margin is the second largest overall, behind St. George's 91–6 win over Canterbury a week earlier. The club's record attendance for a regular season game at its home ground—the Sydney Football Stadium—stands at 40,864, achieved in a match on ANZAC Day against the St George Illawarra Dragons in 2017. The club's record attendance for a regular season game at the SCG stands at 50,130 on 4 May 1974 against the Manly Sea Eagles The 2000 grand final between the Sydney Roosters and the Brisbane Broncos attracted 94,277 spectators to the Olympic Stadium. Squads Current squad Team of the Century In 2000, the Sydney Roosters named their "Team of the Century", which included players from 1908 to 2000. The official team is listed below along with their Sydney Roosters cap number. The Centurions In 2007, the Sydney Roosters announced "The Centurions", a team consisting of those regarded as the greatest players to have played 100 or more games for the club between 1908 and 2007. The team was selected by Ray Chesterton, Ian Heads, David Middleton and Alan Clarkson and was unveiled at the centenary season launch at the Michael Algeri Pavilion on 10 March 2007. Honours Titles Premierships – 151911, 1912, 1913, 1923, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1945, 1974, 1975, 2002, 2013, 2018, 2019 Runners-up – 151908, 1919, 1921, 1928, 1931, 1934, 1938, 1941, 1960, 1972, 1980, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2010 Minor Premierships – 201912, 1913, 1923, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1945, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1981, 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018 World Club Challenge – 51976, 2003, 2014, 2019, 2020 Amco Cup – 21975, 1978 City Cup – 31914, 1915, 1916 Auckland Nines – 12017 World Sevens – 11993 Youth/Pre-season Titles Club Championship – 121930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1945, 1970, 1974, 1975, 2004, 2006 Second Grade – 91908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1935, 1937, 1949, 1986, 2004 Third Grade/Under 23 – 111914, 1917, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1941, 1947, 1970, 1976 Pre-Season Cup – 41974, 1977, 1979, 1981 Under-20s Competition – 12016 Jersey Flegg Cup – 31995, 2002, 2004 Presidents Cup – 161910, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1938, 1948, 1949, 1955, 1978, 1987, 1993 S. G. Ball Cup – 41997, 2008, 2010, 2014 The Knock On Effect NSW Cup – 0 NRL State Championship – 0 Women's team On 27 March 2018, the Sydney Roosters applied for, and won, a license to participate in the inaugural 2018 NRL Women's season. Adam Hartigan was named as the coach of the women's side. In June 2018, the club used up the maximum of fifteen marquee signings ahead of the inaugural season which subsequently commenced in September. Players signed included Karina Brown, Isabelle Kelly and Ruan Sims. The club finished runners-up in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership, losing to the Brisbane Broncos by 34–12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final. Zahara Temara claimed the 2018 Player of the Season award. In 2019, Rick Stone took over as coach. The club, however, failed to win a match, claiming the wooden spoon. Tallisha Harden was awarded the club's Best & Fairest Player for the 2019 season. Jamie Feeney was appointed the head coach for the 2020 season, being determined to turn the club's fortunes around. He was assisted by Kylie Hilder and John Strange. Feeney immediately appointed Corban McGregor as the club's new captain. The club also announced the big signing of Sevens Rugby star and 2016 Gold Medalist, Charlotte Caslick. Current squad Footnotes References External links National Rugby League clubs Fan-owned football clubs 1908 establishments in Australia Rugby clubs established in 1908

424899

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity

Productivity

Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production process, i.e. output per unit of input, typically over a specific period of time. The most common example is the (aggregate) labour productivity measure, one example of which is GDP per worker. There are many different definitions of productivity (including those that are not defined as ratios of output to input) and the choice among them depends on the purpose of the productivity measurement and data availability. The key source of difference between various productivity measures is also usually related (directly or indirectly) to how the outputs and the inputs are aggregated to obtain such a ratio-type measure of productivity. Productivity is a crucial factor in the production performance of firms and nations. Increasing national productivity can raise living standards because more real income improves people's ability to purchase goods and services, enjoy leisure, improve housing, and education and contribute to social and environmental programs. Productivity growth can also help businesses to be more profitable. Partial productivity Productivity measures that use one class of inputs or factors, but not multiple factors, are called partial productivities. In practice, measurement in production means measures of partial productivity. Interpreted correctly, these components are indicative of productivity development, and approximate the efficiency with which inputs are used in an economy to produce goods and services. However, productivity is only measured partially – or approximately. In a way, the measurements are defective because they do not measure everything, but it is possible to interpret correctly the results of partial productivity and to benefit from them in practical situations. At the company level, typical partial productivity measures are such things as worker hours, materials or energy used per unit of production. Before the widespread use of computer networks, partial productivity was tracked in tabular form and with hand-drawn graphs. Tabulating machines for data processing began being widely used in the 1920s and 1930s and remained in use until mainframe computers became widespread in the late 1960s through the 1970s. By the late 1970s inexpensive computers allowed industrial operations to perform process control and track productivity. Today data collection is largely computerized and almost any variable can be viewed graphically in real time or retrieved for selected time periods. Labour productivity In macroeconomics, a common partial productivity measure is labour productivity. Labour productivity is a revealing indicator of several economic indicators as it offers a dynamic measure of economic growth, competitiveness, and living standards within an economy . It is the measure of labour productivity (and all that this measure takes into account) which helps explain the principal economic foundations that are necessary for both economic growth and social development. In general labour productivity is equal to the ratio between a measure of output volume (gross domestic product or gross value added) and a measure of input use (the total number of hours worked or total employment) . The output measure is typically net output, more specifically the value added by the process under consideration, i.e. the value of outputs minus the value of intermediate inputs. This is done in order to avoid double-counting when an output of one firm is used as an input by another in the same measurement. In macroeconomics the most well-known and used measure of value-added is the gross domestic product or GDP. Increases in it are widely used as a measure of the economic growth of nations and industries. GDP is the income available for paying capital costs, labor compensation, taxes and profits. Some economists instead use gross value added (GVA); there is normally a strong correlation between GDP and GVA. The measure of input use reflects the time, effort and skills of the workforce. The denominator of the ratio of labour productivity, the input measure is the most important factor that influences the measure of labour productivity. Labour input is measured either by the total number of hours worked of all persons employed or total employment (head count). There are both advantages and disadvantages associated with the different input measures that are used in the calculation of labour productivity. It is generally accepted that the total number of hours worked is the most appropriate measure of labour input because a simple headcount of employed persons can hide changes in average hours worked and has difficulties accounting for variations in work such as a part-time contract, paid leave, overtime, or shifts in normal hours. However, the quality of hours-worked estimates is not always clear. In particular, statistical establishment and household surveys are difficult to use because of their varying quality of hours-worked estimates and their varying degree of international comparability. GDP per capita is a rough measure of average living standards or economic well-being and is one of the core indicators of economic performance. GDP is, for this purpose, only a very rough measure. Maximizing GDP, in principle, also allows maximizing capital usage. For this reason, GDP is systematically biased in favour of capital intensive production at the expense of knowledge and labour-intensive production. The use of capital in the GDP-measure is considered to be as valuable as the production's ability to pay taxes, profits and labor compensation. The bias of the GDP is actually the difference between the GDP and the producer income. Another labour productivity measure, output per worker, is often seen as a proper measure of labour productivity, as here: "Productivity isn't everything, but in the long run it is almost everything. A country's ability to improve its standard of living over time depends almost entirely on its ability to raise its output per worker." This measure (output per worker) is, however, more problematic than the GDP or even invalid because this measure allows maximizing all supplied inputs, i.e. materials, services, energy and capital at the expense of producer income. Multi-factor productivity When multiple inputs are considered, the measure is called multi-factor productivity or MFP. Multi-factor productivity is typically estimated using growth accounting. If the inputs specifically are labor and capital, and the outputs are value added intermediate outputs, the measure is called total factor productivity (TFP]. TFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour and capital. MFP replaced the term TFP used in the earlier literature, and both terms continue in use (usually interchangeably). TFP is often interpreted as a rough average measure of productivity, more specifically the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. The most famous description is that of Robert Solow's (1957): "I am using the phrase 'technical change' as a shorthand expression for any kind of shift in the production function. Thus slowdowns, speed ups, improvements in the education of the labor force and all sorts of things will appear as 'technical change' ." The original MFP model involves several assumptions: that there is a stable functional relation between inputs and output at the economy-wide level of aggregation, that this function has neoclassical smoothness and curvature properties, that inputs are paid the value of their marginal product, that the function exhibits constant returns to scale, and that technical change has the Hicks’n neutral form. In practice, TFP is "a measure of our ignorance", as put it, precisely because it is a residual. This ignorance covers many components, some wanted (like the effects of technical and organizational innovation), others unwanted (measurement error, omitted variables, aggregation bias, model misspecification) Hence the relationship between TFP and productivity remains unclear. Total productivity When all outputs and inputs are included in the productivity measure it is called total productivity. A valid measurement of total productivity necessitates considering all production inputs. If we omit an input in productivity (or income accounting) this means that the omitted input can be used unlimitedly in production without any impact on accounting results. Because total productivity includes all production inputs, it is used as an integrated variable when we want to explain income formation of the production process. Davis has considered the phenomenon of productivity, measurement of productivity, distribution of productivity gains, and how to measure such gains. He refers to an article suggesting that the measurement of productivity shall be developed so that it ”will indicate increases or decreases in the productivity of the company and also the distribution of the ’fruits of production’ among all parties at interest”. According to Davis, the price system is a mechanism through which productivity gains are distributed, and besides the business enterprise, receiving parties may consist of its customers, staff and the suppliers of production inputs. In the main article is presented the role of total productivity as a variable when explaining how income formation of production is always a balance between income generation and income distribution. The income change created by production function is always distributed to the stakeholders as economic values within the review period. Benefits of productivity growth Productivity growth is a crucial source of growth in living standards. Productivity growth means more value is added in production and this means more income is available to be distributed. At a firm or industry level, the benefits of productivity growth can be distributed in a number of different ways: to the workforce through better wages and conditions; to shareholders and superannuation funds through increased profits and dividend distributions; to customers through lower prices; to the environment through more stringent environmental protection; and to governments through increases in tax payments (which can be used to fund social and environmental programs). Productivity growth is important to the firm because it means that it can meet its (perhaps growing) obligations to workers, shareholders, and governments (taxes and regulation), and still remain competitive or even improve its competitiveness in the market place. Adding more inputs will not increase the income earned per unit of input (unless there are increasing returns to scale). In fact, it is likely to mean lower average wages and lower rates of profit. But, when there is productivity growth, even the existing commitment of resources generates more output and income. Income generated per unit of input increases. Additional resources are also attracted into production and can be profitably employed. Drivers of productivity growth In the most immediate sense, productivity is determined by the available technology or know-how for converting resources into outputs, and the way in which resources are organized to produce goods and services. Historically, productivity has improved through evolution as processes with poor productivity performance are abandoned and newer forms are exploited. Process improvements may include organizational structures (e.g. core functions and supplier relationships), management systems, work arrangements, manufacturing techniques, and changing market structure. A famous example is the assembly line and the process of mass production that appeared in the decade following commercial introduction of the automobile. Mass production dramatically reduced the labor in producing parts for and assembling the automobile, but after its widespread adoption productivity gains in automobile production were much lower. A similar pattern was observed with electrification, which saw the highest productivity gains in the early decades after introduction. Many other industries show similar patterns. The pattern was again followed by the computer, information and communications industries in the late 1990s when much of the national productivity gains occurred in these industries. There is a general understanding of the main determinants or drivers of productivity growth. Certain factors are critical for determining productivity growth. The Office for National Statistics (UK) identifies five drivers that interact to underlie long-term productivity performance: investment, innovation, skills, enterprise and competition. Investment is in physical capital — machinery, equipment and buildings. The more capital workers have at their disposal, generally the better they are able to do their jobs, producing more and better quality output. Innovation is the successful exploitation of new ideas. New ideas can take the form of new technologies, new products or new corporate structures and ways of working. Speeding up the diffusion of innovations can boost productivity. Skills are defined as the quantity and quality of labour of different types available in an economy. Skills complement physical capital, and are needed to take advantage of investment in new technologies and organisational structures. Enterprise is defined as the seizing of new business opportunities by both start-ups and existing firms. New enterprises compete with existing firms by new ideas and technologies increasing competition. Entrepreneurs are able to combine factors of production and new technologies forcing existing firms to adapt or exit the market. Competition improves productivity by creating incentives to innovate and ensures that resources are allocated to the most efficient firms. It also forces existing firms to organise work more effectively through imitations of organisational structures and technology. Individual and team productivity Technology has enabled massive personal productivity gains—computers, spreadsheets, email, and other advances have made it possible for a knowledge worker to seemingly produce more in a day than was previously possible in a year. Environmental factors such as sleep and leisure play a significant role in work productivity and received wage. Drivers of productivity growth for creative and knowledge workers include improved or intensified exchange with peers or co-workers, as more productive peers have a stimulating effect on one's own productivity. Productivity is influenced by effective supervision and job satisfaction. An effective or knowledgeable supervisor (for example a supervisor who uses the Management by objectives method) has an easier time motivating their employees to produce more in quantity and quality. An employee who has an effective supervisor, motivating them to be more productive is likely to experience a new level of job satisfaction thereby becoming a driver of productivity itself. There is also considerable evidence to support improved productivity through operant conditioning reinforcement, successful gamification engagement, research-based recommendations on principles and implementation guidelines for using monetary rewards effectively, and recognition, based on social cognitive theory, which builds upon self-efficacy. Detrimental impact of bullying, incivility, toxicity and psychopathy Workplace bullying results in a loss of productivity, as measured by self-rated job performance. Over time, targets of bullying will spend more time protecting themselves against harassment by bullies and less time fulfilling their duties. Workplace incivility has also been associated with diminished productivity in terms of quality and quantity of work. A toxic workplace is a workplace that is marked by significant drama and infighting, where personal battles often harm productivity. While employees are distracted by this, they cannot devote time and attention to the achievement of business goals. When toxic employees leave the workplace, it can improve the culture overall because the remaining staff become more engaged and productive. The presence of a workplace psychopath may have a serious detrimental impact on productivity in an organisation. In companies where the traditional hierarchy has been removed in favor of an egalitarian, team-based setup, the employees are often happier, and individual productivity is improved (as they themselves are better placed to increase the efficiency of the workfloor). Companies that have these hierarchies removed and have their employees work more in teams are called liberated companies or "Freedom Inc.'s". The Kaizen system of bottom-up, continuous improvement was first practiced by Japanese manufacturers after World War II, most notably as part of The Toyota Way. Business productivity Productivity is one of the main concerns of business management and engineering. Many companies have formal programs for continuously improving productivity, such as a production assurance program. Whether they have a formal program or not, companies are constantly looking for ways to improve quality, reduce downtime and inputs of labor, materials, energy and purchased services. Often simple changes to operating methods or processes increase productivity, but the biggest gains are normally from adopting new technologies, which may require capital expenditures for new equipment, computers or software. Modern productivity science owes much to formal investigations that are associated with scientific management. Although from an individual management perspective, employees may be doing their jobs well and with high levels of individual productivity, from an organizational perspective their productivity may in fact be zero or effectively negative if they are dedicated to redundant or value destroying activities. In office buildings and service-centred companies, productivity is largely influenced and affected by operational byproducts—meetings. The past few years have seen a positive uptick in the number of software solutions focused on improving office productivity. In truth, proper planning and procedures are more likely to help than anything else. Productivity paradox Overall productivity growth was relatively slow from the 1970s through the early 1990s, and again from the 2000s to 2020s. Although several possible causes for the slowdown have been proposed there is no consensus. The matter is subject to a continuing debate that has grown beyond questioning whether just computers can significantly increase productivity to whether the potential to increase productivity is becoming exhausted. National productivity In order to measure the productivity of a nation or an industry, it is necessary to operationalize the same concept of productivity as in a production unit or a company, yet, the object of modelling is substantially wider and the information more aggregate. The calculations of productivity of a nation or an industry are based on the time series of the SNA, System of National Accounts. National accounting is a system based on the recommendations of the UN (SNA 93) to measure the total production and total income of a nation and how they are used. International or national productivity growth stems from a complex interaction of factors. Some of the most important immediate factors include technological change, organizational change, industry restructuring and resource reallocation, as well as economies of scale and scope. A nation's average productivity level can also be affected by the movement of resources from low-productivity to high-productivity industries and activities. Over time, other factors such as research and development and innovative effort, the development of human capital through education, and incentives from stronger competition promote the search for productivity improvements and the ability to achieve them. Ultimately, many policy, institutional and cultural factors determine a nation's success in improving productivity. At the national level, productivity growth raises living standards because more real income improves people's ability to purchase goods and services (whether they are necessities or luxuries), enjoy leisure, improve housing and education and contribute to social and environmental programs. Some have suggested that the UK's 'productivity puzzle' is an urgent issue for policy makers and businesses to address in order to sustain growth. Over long periods of time, small differences in rates of productivity growth compound, like interest in a bank account, and can make an enormous difference to a society's prosperity. Nothing contributes more to reduction of poverty, to increases in leisure, and to the country's ability to finance education, public health, environment and the arts’. Productivity is considered basic statistical information for many international comparisons and country performance assessments and there is strong interest in comparing them internationally. The OECD publishes an annual Compendium of Productivity Indicators that includes both labor and multi-factor measures of productivity. See also References Citations Sources Further reading World Bank, 2020. Global Productivity: Trends, Drivers, and Policies. Edited by Alistair Dieppe. Caves, Douglas W & Christensen, Laurits R & Diewert, W Erwin, March 1982. "Multilateral Comparisons of Output, Input, and Productivity Using Superlative Index Numbers", The Economic Journal, Royal Economic Society, vol. 92(365), pp. 73–86. Caves, Douglas W & Christensen, Laurits R & Diewert, W Erwin, November 1982. "The Economic Theory of Index Numbers and the Measurement of Input, Output, and Productivity", Econometrica, vol. 50(6), pp. 1393–1414. Alexandra Daskovska & Léopold Simar & Sébastien Bellegem, 2010. "Forecasting the Malmquist productivity index", Journal of Productivity Analysis, Springer, vol. 33(2), pp. 97–107, April. Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., Norris, M., & Zhang, Z. 1994. "Productivity growth, technical progress, and efficiency change in industrialized countries". American Economic Review 84, pp. 66–83. Simar, Leopold & Wilson, Paul W., June 1999. "Estimating and bootstrapping Malmquist indices", European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 115(3), pp. 459–471. Mayer, A. and Zelenyuk, V. 2014. "Aggregation of Malmquist productivity indexes allowing for reallocation of resources", European Journal of Operational Research, Elsevier, vol. 238(3), pp. 774–785. Zelenyuk, V. 2006. "Aggregation of Malmquist productivity indexes". European Journal of Operational Research, vol. 174(2), pp. 1076–1086. "2020 Home Office Productivity Set Up" External links Productivity and Costs – Bureau of Labor Statistics United States Department of Labor: contains international comparisons of productivity rates, historical and present Productivity Statistics—Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Greenspan Speech OECD estimates of labour productivity levels Handbooks Measuring Productivity—OECD Manual Bureau of Labor Statistics, Productivity Statistics (U.S.) Production economics Manufacturing Economic growth

424901

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Michigan

List of people from Michigan

This is a list of notable people from the US state of Michigan. People from Michigan are sometimes referred to as Michiganders, Michiganians, or, more rarely, Michiganites. This list includes people who were born, have lived, or worked in Michigan. Actors, entertainers, and filmmakers Actors Directors, filmmakers, and producers Ford Beebe, director of films, including serials The Green Hornet and Buck Rogers (born in Grand Rapids) Mike Binder, director, screenwriter and actor, The Upside of Anger, Reign Over Me (born in Birmingham) John Randolph Bray, early film animator and producer (born in Addison) Jerry Bruckheimer, film and television producer, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Pirates of the Caribbean (born in Detroit) Timothy Busfield, actor and television director, Lipstick Jungle, Without A Trace, Damages (born in Lansing) Bill Carruthers, television producer and director (born in Detroit) William Clemens, director of Nancy Drew and Perry Mason films (born in Saginaw) Kerry Conran, screenwriter and director, Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow (born in Flint) Francis Ford Coppola, film director and screenwriter, The Godfather trilogy, Apocalypse Now (born in Detroit) Roger Corman, director and producer, The Little Shop of Horrors, The Wild Angels (born in Detroit) Gerald Di Pego, screenwriter and producer, Message in a Bottle (born in Flint) Paul Feig, film and television director, Bridesmaids (born in Mount Clemens) Robert J. Flaherty, filmmaker of Nanook of the North, first commercially successful documentary (born in Iron Mountain) Anne Fletcher, director, actress, and choreographer, The Proposal (born in Detroit) Loyal Griggs, Oscar-winning cinematographer (born in Sanilac County) Albert Hughes and Allen Hughes, film directors, producers, and screenwriters, Menace II Society (born in Detroit) John Hughes, director and writer, Ferris Bueller's Day Off, Home Alone (born in Lansing) Jake Kasdan, film and television director, Bad Teacher, Sex Tape (born in Detroit) Lawrence Kasdan, screenwriter and director, The Big Chill, Body Heat, Silverado, Wyatt Earp (educated in Ann Arbor) Lee H. Katzin, film and television director, Le Mans (born in Detroit) Woodie King Jr., stage and film director and producer (raised in Detroit) Neil LaBute, film director, screenwriter and playwright, In the Company of Men (born in Detroit) Mitchell Leisen, director, Death Takes a Holiday, Midnight (born in Menominee) Norman Z. McLeod, director, Horse Feathers, Topper, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty (born in Grayling) McG, film director, Charlie's Angels, Terminator Salvation (born in Kalamazoo) Michael Moore, Oscar-winning documentary filmmaker and writer (born in Flint) Robert Moore, director, Murder By Death, Chapter Two (born in Detroit) Jane Murfin, screenwriter, What Price Hollywood? (born in Quincy) Vincenzo Natali, director and screenwriter, Cube (born in Detroit) Joel Potrykus, director and screenwriter, Ape, Buzzard (born in Ossineke) Bill Prady, television writer and producer (born in Detroit) Richard Quine, director and producer, Bell, Book and Candle, Sex and the Single Girl (born in Detroit) Sam Raimi, director, screenwriter, producer, Spider-Man, television series Xena: Warrior Princess (born in Royal Oak) Gene Reynolds, Emmy Award-winning director, co-creator of M*A*S*H (raised in Detroit) Lloyd Richards, stage director, National Medal of Arts recipient (raised in Detroit) Terry Rossio, screenwriter and film producer (born in Kalamazoo) Leonard Schrader, screenwriter, Kiss of the Spider Woman, The Yakuza (born in Grand Rapids) Paul Schrader, director, screenwriter, American Gigolo, Blue Collar, Taxi Driver, Raging Bull (born in Grand Rapids) Robert Shaye, co-CEO of New Line Cinema (born in Detroit) Robert Tapert, producer of The Evil Dead, Timecop, Xena: Warrior Princess (born in Royal Oak) Paul Weatherwax, film editor, two-time Academy Award winner (born in Sturgis) Harry Winer, film and television director and producer (born in Detroit) Radio and television people Byron Allen, comedian, television talk show host (born in Detroit) Tim Allen, actor and comedian, Home Improvement (lived in Birmingham) Gillian Anderson, actress, The X Files (lived and went to school in Grand Rapids) Sean Baligian, radio host at WDFN, pre and post game Detroit Lions (born in Livonia) Kristen Bell, actress, Veronica Mars (born in Huntington Woods) Elizabeth Berkley, actress, Saved by the Bell (born and raised in Farmington Hills) Sandra Bernhard, comedian and actress (born in Flint) Cam Brainard, radio and television announcer, narrator of Breed All About It on Animal Planet (born in Flint) Selma Blair, actress, Kath & Kim, Anger Management (born in Southfield) Bill Bonds, television journalist, WXYZ-TV (born in Pontiac) Dave Campbell, baseball player and broadcaster (born in Manistee) Dave Coulier, actor and stand-up comedian, Full House (born in St. Clair Shores) Jeff Daniels, actor, The Newsroom (grew up in Chelsea) Bob Eubanks, host of television game show The Newlywed Game (born in Flint) Paula Faris, correspondent for ABC News and The View (born in Jackson) Fred Foy, announcer, narrator of The Lone Ranger television series (born in Detroit) Cyndy Garvey, co-host with Regis Philbin on what later became Regis & Kathie Lee, ex-wife of Steve Garvey (born in Detroit) John Gordon, radio voice of Minnesota Twins (born in Detroit) Chris Hansen, television journalist (born in Chicago, but grew up in Michigan) Thom Hartmann, radio talk show host, author (born in Lansing) Ernie Harwell, radio broadcaster of Detroit Tigers baseball (1960–2002) (born in Georgia, lived in Novi) Mario Impemba, television broadcaster of Detroit Tigers baseball (born in Detroit) Art James, quiz show host and announcer (born in Dearborn) Jackie Johnson, Los Angeles television meteorologist (born in Plymouth) Jana Kramer, actress, One Tree Hill (born in Rochester Hills) Taylor Lautner, actor, Scream Queens (born in Grand Rapids) Casey Kasem, radio personality, host of American Top 40 (born in Detroit) James Lipton, host of Bravo cable television series Inside the Actors Studio, writer and poet (born in Detroit) Loni Love, comedian, featured on Chelsea Lately and I Love The '80s (born in Detroit) Bruce Martyn, radio broadcaster of Detroit Red Wings hockey (from Sault Ste. Marie) Greg Mathis, television judge (born in Detroit) J.P. McCarthy, radio personality, WJR (1960–1995) (born in New York) Ed McMahon, actor, announcer, The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, sidekick to Carson (born in Detroit) Seth Meyers, comedian, Saturday Night Live cast member, host of Late Night with Seth Meyers Martin Milner, actor, starred in Route 66 and Adam-12 television shows (born in Detroit) George Noory, radio talk show host, Coast to Coast AM (born in Detroit, raised in Dearborn Heights) Carter Oosterhouse, television personality, Trading Spaces (born in Traverse City) Jack Paar, television talk show host, The Tonight Show (raised in and worked in Jackson) Van Patrick, sportscaster for Lions football and Tigers baseball in Detroit Arthur Penhallow, radio personality, WRIF (1970–2009) (born in Hawaii) Dick Purtan, longtime radio personality in Detroit area (lives in West Bloomfield) Gilda Radner, comedian and actress, Saturday Night Live (born in Detroit) Rob Rubick, football player and radio-TV commentator (born in Newberry) Tom Selleck, actor, star of 1980s hit TV show Magnum, P.I., producer, National Guard veteran (born in Detroit) Dax Shepard, actor, Parenthood (raised in Walled Lake and Milford) Ralph Story, radio and television personality (born in Kalamazoo) Katherine Timpf, television personality, reporter and comedian (born in Detroit) Lily Tomlin, comedian and actress, Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In (born in Detroit) Toni Trucks actress, Twilight Saga, SEAL Team (born in Grand Rapids, raised in Manistee) Willie Tyler, comedian and ventriloquist (raised in Detroit) Ty Tyson, sportscaster, voice of Detroit Tigers (1927–1953) (born in Pennsylvania, moved to Detroit) Kimberly Paigion Walker, radio and television personality, actress, host of 106 & Park (born in Oak Park) Ginger Zee, meteorologist for ABC News and Good Morning America (attended high school in Rockford) Reporters, editors, photographers, and broadcasters Jim Bellows, newspaper editor, first managing editor of Entertainment Tonight (born in Detroit) Charles Collingwood, CBS television news correspondent (born in Three Rivers) Candy Crowley, CNN broadcast journalist (born in Michigan) Jill Dobson, Fox News entertainment correspondent (born in Quincy) Dick Enberg, sportscaster (born in Mount Clemens and raised in Armada) Joe Falls, sportswriter for Detroit newspapers (1956–2004) (born in New York, moved to Detroit) Paula Faris, correspondent for ABC News (born and raised in Jackson) Sara Ganim, correspondent for CNN (born in Detroit) Robin Givhan, fashion editor for the Washington Post (born in Detroit) Wendell Goler, Fox News senior White House and foreign affairs correspondent (raised in Jackson) Gael Greene, New York restaurant critic and author (born and raised in Detroit) Sanjay Gupta, chief medical correspondent for CNN (born in Novi) Jemele Hill, columnist and television personality for ESPN (born in Detroit) Gus Johnson, sportscaster for Fox Sports (born in Detroit) Jim Kaat, MLB Network sportscaster (born in Zeeland) Suzanne Malveaux, CNN reporter and White House correspondent (born in Lansing) Miles O'Brien, broadcast news journalist for PBS NewsHour (born in Detroit) Michael Parks, Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter and editor (both in Detroit) Steve Phillips, former ESPN baseball analyst (from Detroit) William E. Quinby, 19th-century editor and owner of the Detroit Free Press (born in Maine, moved to Detroit) Carl Quintanilla, anchor of the Sunday edition of Today and NBC Nightly News (born in Midland) Amy Robach, ABC news correspondent (born in St. Joseph) H.G. Salsinger, sports editor of Detroit News (1909–1958) (born in Ohio, moved to Detroit) Jay Schadler, ABC television news correspondent (born and raised in St. Joseph) Serena Shim, Lebanese-American journalist for Press TV (born in Detroit) Watson Spoelstra, sportswriter for the Detroit News 1945–73 (born in Grand Rapids) Mike Tirico, sportscaster for ESPN, NBC (lives in Ann Arbor) Lem Tucker, pioneering African-American two-time Emmy Award-winning news reporter (born in Saginaw) David Turnley, photojournalist and 1990 Pulitzer Prize winner (lives in Ann Arbor) Taro Yamasaki, photojournalist and 1981 Pulitzer Prize winner (born in Detroit) Other Edgar Bergen, ventriloquist and actor (born in Chicago, raised in Decatur) Melrose Bickerstaff, model, 1st runner-up on America’s Next Top Model Cycle 7 John Heffron, comedian and winner of NBC's Last Comic Standing (born in Detroit) Jamie Hyneman, special effects expert on MythBusters (born in Marshall) Gregory Jbara, film, television and stage actor (born in Westland) Connie Kreski, model, Playboy magazine Playmate of the Year 1969 (born in Wyandotte) Lashonda Lester (died 2017), American stand-up comedian Loretta Long, "Miss Susan" on PBS's Sesame Street (born and raised in Paw Paw) Bob Murawski, film editor (born in Detroit) Tariq Nasheed, conspiracy theorist (Detroit) Tyler Oakley, YouTuber, activist, and author (born in Jackson) TooTurntTony, American social media personality, (born in Commerce) Kristina and Karissa Shannon, twin sister models and Playboy Playmates (born in Ann Arbor) Kate Upton, model and actress, Sports Illustrated swimsuit issue "Rookie of the Year" 2011, cover model 2012 (born in St. Joseph) Architects Constance Abernathy, architect, jeweler, and associate of Buckminster Fuller (born in Detroit) Charles N. Agree, builder of Whittier Hotel and Grande Ballroom Marcus Burrowes, designer of Herman Strasburg House Emily Helen Butterfield, Michigan's first female licensed architect, artist and church architecture innovator (born in Algonac) C. Howard Crane, designer of Detroit's Fox Theater and Olympia Stadium (born in Connecticut, moved to Detroit) John M. Donaldson, 19th-century Detroit architect Alden B. Dow, architect and Dow Chemical heir, based in Midland Joseph N. French, designer of Detroit's Fisher Building Norman Bel Geddes, architectural industrial designer, aviation designer, and theatrical designer best known for the 1939 New York World's Fair pavilion Futurama he designed for General Motors (born in Adrian) Eric J. Hill, University of Michigan professor Albert Kahn, architect (born in Rhaunen, Germany; moved to Detroit) Louis Kamper, designed Cadillac Square Building and Book Cadillac Hotel William E. Kapp, designed The Players Club Florence Knoll, minimalist architect and furniture designer (born in Saginaw) John Lautner, Los Angeles-based architect (born in Marquette) Gordon W. Lloyd, British-born, Detroit-based architect, builder of many churches George D. Mason, designer of Detroit Masonic Temple and Detroit Yacht Club Charles Willard Moore, architect, leader of the humanistic architecture movement (born in Benton Harbor) S. Kenneth Neumann, designer of One Kennedy Square A.B. Pond and Irving Kane Pond, Chicago architects, builders of Hull House (born in Ann Arbor) Ralph Rapson, architect best known for the design of the original Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis (born in Alma) Harry J. Rill, designed Globe Tobacco Building Gino Rossetti, architect whose firm designed Ford Field and The Palace of Auburn Hills Matthew L. Rossetti, architect whose firm designed Detroit-area sports stadiums, son of Gino Rossetti Wirt C. Rowland, known for Guardian Building and Buhl Building (born in Clinton) Eero Saarinen, industrial designer (born in Finland, raised in Bloomfield Hills) Eliel Saarinen, known for art deco buildings, father of Eero Saarinen (lived in Bloomfield Hills) Victor Saroki, designed Royal Park Hotel Ossian Cole Simonds, late 19th-century landscape architect (born in Grand Rapids) Fred L. Smith, architect whose firm designed Comerica Park Minoru Yamasaki, architect, known for designing the World Trade Center (born in Seattle, later moved to Grand Rapids) Artists and artisans Ceramists Horace Caulkins, known for Pewabic Pottery used to make architectural tiles Tom Lollar, ceramist and professor of fine arts Diana Pancioli, ceramist, professor, and author Mary Chase Perry Stratton, known for Pewabic Pottery used to make architectural tiles Hoon Lee, ceramist and professor Fashion designers Tracy Reese, fashion designer (born in Detroit) Anna Sui, fashion designer (born in Detroit) Illustrators Norman Bel Geddes, theatrical and industrial designer (Adrian) Jef Mallett, Wilbur Award-winning cartoonist and triathlete, Frazz (from Lansing) Painters Robert Seldon Duncanson, painter (born in NY raised in Monroe, Michigan), the 19th Century's greatest Western Landscape Artist [Smithsonian Institution], buried in Monroe's historic Woodland Cemetery, 1820-1871 Mathias Alten, impressionist painter (from Grand Rapids) Frederick Stuart Church, 19th-century painter (born in Grand Rapids) E. Irving Couse, painter and founding member of the Taos artist colony (born in Saginaw) Frederick Carl Frieseke, impressionist painter (from Owosso) Ian Hornak, realist painter (born in Philadelphia, moved to Mount Clemens, then Detroit) Chase Langford, contemporary painter (born in Pontiac) Hughie Lee-Smith, painter (born in Florida, moved to Detroit, attended Wayne State) Charles McGee, sculptor and painter (born in South Carolina, moved to Detroit) Gari Melchers, naturalism artist (born in Detroit) Ann Mikolowski, painter (born in Detroit) Julius Rolshoven, Santa Fe-based painter (born in Detroit) John Mix Stanley, 19th-century painter and portraitist; co-founder of forerunner to Detroit Institute of Arts (born in Canandaigua, New York; moved to Detroit) Kent Twitchell, muralist and painter (born in Lansing) Carol Wald, painter and illustrator (born in Detroit) Kurt Wenner, painter (born in Ann Arbor) Ezra Winter, muralist, born 1886, works include Canterbury Tales mural (1939), Library of Congress John Adams Building, Washington, D.C. and murals in Guardian Building, Detroit (born in Traverse City) Photographers Talbert Abrams, "father of aerial photography" (born in Tekonsha) M.J. Alexander, American West photoessayist (born in Sault Ste. Marie) Louis James Pesha, pioneering marine photographer (born in Euphemia, Ontario, moved to Marine City) Bill Schwab, fine arts photographer (born in Detroit) Irakly Shanidze, advertising, fashion, portrait, fine arts photographer (living in Detroit) Sculptors Michele Oka Doner Marshall Fredericks Julius T. Melchers Carl Milles Isamu Noguchi Corrado Parducci Carlo Romanelli Edward Wagner Astronauts and aviation pioneers Dominic A. Antonelli, astronaut (born in Detroit) Michael J. Bloomfield, astronaut (born in Flint, raised in Lake Fenton) William Boeing, aviation pioneer, founder of Boeing Company (born in Detroit) Roger B. Chaffee, astronaut (born in Grand Rapids) Edward Heinemann, aircraft designer responsible wholly or in part for 20 major military aircraft, including the A-4 Skyhawk, the F3D Skyknight, and the F4D Skyray (born in Saginaw) Augustus Moore Herring, aviation pioneer (lived in St. Joseph) Gregory Jarvis, astronaut and payload specialist; died in the explosion of the space shuttle Challenger (born in Detroit) Brent W. Jett, astronaut (born in Pontiac) Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson, aircraft engineer and aeronautical innovator (born in Ishpeming) Iven Carl Kincheloe Jr., test pilot pioneer (born in Detroit; raised in Cassopolis) David Leestma, astronaut (born in Muskegon) Jerry M. Linenger, astronaut (born in Eastpointe) Charles Lindbergh, pioneer aviator (born in Detroit) Jack R. Lousma, astronaut (born in Grand Rapids) Nancy Harkness Love, World War II pilot, squadron commander and aviation training pioneer (born in Houghton) James McDivitt, astronaut (born in Chicago; moved to Jackson) Donald R. McMonagle, astronaut and Manager of Launch Integration at the Kennedy Space Center (born in Flint) Philip Orin Parmelee, aviation pioneer trained by the Wright brothers (born in Matherton; raised in Saint Johns) Harriet Quimby, aviation pioneer and first US woman to receive a pilot's license (born in Coldwater) Ralph Royce, flew the first US military air operation (in 1916 in Mexico), oversaw air commands from the 1920s to the 1940s (born in Marquette) Richard A. Searfoss, astronaut (born in Mount Clemens) Alfred V. Verville, aviation pioneer from Atlantic Mine; Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame, 1991 inductee; Pulitzer Trophy Race two-time winner; fellow of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum Alfred Worden, astronaut (born in Jackson) Fred Zinn, World War I aviator and aviation reconnaissance pioneer (born in Battle Creek) Business leaders and inventors Automotive industry Mary Barra, CEO of General Motors (born in Waterford) David Dunbar Buick, founder of Buick Motor Company (born in Scotland; emigrated to Detroit where he founded his company; moved with firm to Flint) Roy D. Chapin, founder of Hudson Motor Car Company and US secretary of commerce (born in Lansing) Roy D. Chapin Jr., CEO and chairman of American Motors Company (born in Grosse Pointe) Louis Chevrolet, founder of Chevrolet motor company (born in Switzerland, lived and died in Detroit) Harlow Curtice, CEO and president of General Motors and 1955 Time magazine Man of the Year (born in Petrieville; raised in Eaton Rapids and began career in Flint) William Davidson, CEO of Guardian Industries, philanthropist and chairman of Palace Sports and Entertainment, which owns the Detroit Pistons of the NBA, the Detroit Shock of the WNBA, and the Tampa Bay Lightning of the NHL (born in Detroit) John DeLorean, automobile industry entrepreneur (born in Detroit) Horace Elgin Dodge, automobile manufacturing pioneer (born in Niles) John Francis Dodge, automobile manufacturing pioneer (born in Niles) William C. Durant, automobile industry pioneer (born in Boston, Massachusetts; moved to Flint and later Pontiac) Harley Earl, executive at General Motors, designer of the Corvette (born in Hollywood, California, worked in Detroit) Pete Estes, president of Pontiac, Chevrolet and General Motors (born in Mendon) Virgil Exner, automotive designer for Studebaker and Chrysler (born in Ann Arbor) Charles T. Fisher, president of Detroit's Fisher Body automotive Max M. Fisher, industrialist, philanthropist (born in Pittsburgh; raised in Salem, Ohio; moved as an adult to metro Detroit) Edsel Ford, automaker, president of Ford Motor Company, founder of Mercury autos (born in Detroit) Henry Ford, iconic automaker, founder of Ford Motor Company (born in Dearborn) Henry Ford II, automaker, president and CEO of Ford (born in Detroit) William Clay Ford Jr., automaker and owner of NFL's Detroit Lions (born in Detroit) William Clay Ford Sr., automaker, owner of Detroit Lions, chairman of Henry Ford Museum (born in Detroit) Lee Iacocca, CEO of Chrysler Corporation, television spokesman and author (born in Allentown, Pennsylvania; moved to Detroit) Semon Knudsen, auto executive, head of Pontiac (born in Buffalo, New York; moved to Detroit) William S. Knudsen, president of General Motors (born in Denmark, lived and died in Detroit) Henry M. Leland, machinist, inventor and engineer who founded Cadillac and Lincoln autos (born in Vermont; relocated to Detroit) Walter Lorenzo Marr, first chief engineer of Buick (born in Lexington) Bill Mitchell, created or influenced design of many General Motors models (born in Cleveland, lived and died in metro Detroit) Charles Stewart Mott, first American partner of General Motors, also mayor of Flint, Michigan (born in Newark, New Jersey, moved to Flint) John Najjar, auto designer, developed prototype for Ford Mustang (born in Omaha, Nebraska, moved to Dearborn) Charles W. Nash, auto pioneer, founder of Nash Motors (born in Illinois, moved to Mount Morris and Flint) Ransom E. Olds, auto manufacturer; founder of Oldsmobile (born in Geneva, Ohio, longtime resident of Lansing) Roger Penske, founder of Penske Corporation and the automobile racing team Penske Racing (born in Ohio; moved to Bloomfield Hills) Harold Arthur Poling, president, chairman and CEO of Ford Motor Co. (born in Troy) Irving Jacob Reuter, president of Oldsmobile Jack Roush, CEO/owner of Roush Racing NASCAR (born in Kentucky; lived in Ypsilanti before moving to North Carolina) Frederic L. Smith, one of the founders of Oldsmobile and General Motors (born in Lansing) Roger Smith, chairman and CEO of General Motors, subject of documentary Roger & Me (born in Ohio before moving to Detroit) Preston Tucker, automobile designer, entrepreneur (born in Capac) Childe Wills, auto pioneer, designer of Ford Model T (born in Fort Wayne, Indiana; moved to Detroit) Computers, Internet, and high-tech industries Steve Ballmer, former Microsoft CEO (1999–2014); first person to be worth over a billion dollars based on stock options received as a corporate employee; owner of NBA's Los Angeles Clippers (born in Detroit) Jim Buckmaster, CEO of Craigslist (born in Ann Arbor) Dick Costolo, CEO of Twitter (born in Royal Oak) Tony Fadell, CEO of Nest Labs, "father of the iPod" (born in Detroit) William Hewlett, co-founder of Hewlett-Packard (born in Ann Arbor) Bill Joy, co-founder of Sun Microsystems and its former chief scientist (born in Farmington Hills) Peter Karmanos Jr., founder of Compuware. Michael Kinsley, founding editor of Slate (born in Detroit) Jack McCauley, engineer, inventor and video game developer (born in Battle Creek) Kevin O'Connor, co-founder and CEO of Doubleclick Internet ad serving software company and advertising network (born in Detroit) Scott McNealy, co-founder of Sun Microsystems (alumnus of Cranbrook) Larry Page, entrepreneur, co-founder of and former CEO of Google search engine (born in East Lansing) Food and food-service industry Mike Ilitch, owner and founder of Little Caesars Pizza, owner of Detroit Red Wings and Detroit Tigers (born in Detroit) Will Keith Kellogg, founder of Kellogg Company (born in Battle Creek) Tom Monaghan, founder of Domino's Pizza, former owner of Detroit Tigers (born in Ann Arbor) David M. Overton, founder and CEO of the Cheesecake Factory, Inc. (born in Detroit) C. W. Post, founder of Post Cereals, inventor of Grape-Nuts (born in Illinois, moved to Battle Creek) James Vernor, founder of Vernor's Company and creator of Vernor's Ginger Ale (born in Detroit) Hiram Walker, founder of Hiram Walker & Sons distillery (born in Massachusetts, moved to Vegas Furniture Art Van Elslander, founder of Art Van Furniture from 1959 to present (born in 1930 in Detroit) D. J. DePree, founder of Herman Miller office equipment company (raised in Zeeland) Max DePree, CEO of Herman Miller office equipment company from 1980 to 1987 (born in Zeeland) Other business Sewell Avery, chairman of US Gypsum 1905–36, Montgomery Ward (born in Saginaw) James Anthony Bailey, circus showman, co-founder of the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus (born in Detroit) Don Barden, cable company pioneer and casino investor (born in Detroit) Andrew "Andy" Beal, businessman, banking and real estate, founder and chairman of Beal Bank (born in Lansing) George Gough Booth, publisher (from Michigan) Walter Briggs Sr., manufacturer, Detroit Tigers owner 1919–52 (born in Ypsilanti) John W. Brown, CEO of Stryker Corporation from 1977 to 2004 (born in Tennessee, moved to Kalamazoo) Joseph Bruce, co-founder of Psychopathic Records, hip-hop singer and professional wrestler (born in Wayne) Leo Burnett, advertising firm founder (born in St. Johns) Wellington R. Burt, lumberman, industrialist, politician (Saginaw) Irving T. Bush, business leader, funded Bush House in London and Bush Terminal in Brooklyn Michael Cohrs, member of the board of Deutsche Bank (born in Midland) Adam E. Coffey, business executive William Davidson, glass industry mogul, former owner of Detroit Pistons (born in Detroit) Richard DeVos, founder of Alticor and former president of Amway (born in Forest Hills in metro Grand Rapids) Herbert Henry Dow, inventor and one of the founders of the US chemical industry (born in Belleville, Ontario; moved to Midland) John Fetzer, owner of Michigan radio and television companies and Detroit Tigers (born in Indiana, moved to Michigan) Orville Gibson, founder of Gibson Guitar Corporation (born in Chateaugay, New York; moved to Kalamazoo) Daniel Gilbert, financier founder of online mortgage company Quicken Loans, owner of NBA's Cleveland Cavaliers (from Livonia) Arnold Gingrich, founder of Esquire magazine (born in Grand Rapids) Berry Gordy Jr., founder of Motown Records (born in Detroit) Joseph Lowthian Hudson, founder of Hudson's department store (born in England, moved to Detroit) Fred Knorr, radio executive, Detroit Tigers part-owner 1956–60 (born in Detroit) Sebastian S. Kresge, founder of K-Mart (born in Bald Mountain, Pennsylvania; moved to Detroit) Louis K. Liggett, founder of Rexall drug store chain (born in Detroit) Jerome D. Mack, president of Las Vegas hotels the Riviera and Dunes, founder of UNLV (born in Albion) Alexander Macomb, early 19th-century merchant and land owner (born in Ireland, moved to Michigan) William Macomb, 18th-century merchant and land owner (born in Ireland, moved to Michigan in 1755) Alex Manoogian, inventor, founder of Masco, philanthropist (born in Smyrna, Ottoman Empire; moved to Detroit) Harold Matson, literary agent, founder of the Harold Matson Company (born in Grand Rapids) Orville D. Merillat, founder of Merillat Kitchens, later Merillat Industries (born in Fulton Co., Ohio, moved to Adrian) Richard Merillat, entrepreneur, former CEO of Merillat Industries and philanthropist (from Adrian) Harry Mohney, founder of Deja Vu Showgirls (born in Durand) Frank Navin, owner of Detroit Tigers 1908–35 (born in Adrian) Edgar Prince, founder of the Prince Corporation (born in Holland) Erik Prince, founder and owner of Xe Services, formerly Blackwater Worldwide (born in Holland) Stephen M. Ross, founder and CEO of The Related Companies real estate firm, helped establish Ross School of Business at University of Michigan which bears his name, 95% owner of Miami Dolphins (born in Detroit) William Shell, physician and co-founder of Targeted Medical Pharma, Inc. (born in Detroit) Frank Stanton, early television executive, president of CBS from 1946 to 1972 (born in Muskegon) Wilbur F. Storey, 19th-century publisher and owner of the Detroit Free Press, other newspapers (born in Vermont, moved to Jackson) Homer Stryker, M.D., inventor of mobile hospital bed; founder of orthopedic implant and medical product maker Stryker Corporation (born in Athens) Jon Lloyd Stryker, architect of Stryker Corp.; founder of Arcus Foundation for gay/lesbian issues and ape conservation (born in Kalamazoo) Pat Stryker, co-owner of the Stryker Corp. (born in Kalamazoo; moved to Fort Collins, Colorado) William E. Upjohn, founder of The Upjohn Company (born in Kalamazoo) Frederick Upton, senior vice president of Whirlpool Corporation (born in Battle Creek) Louis Upton, founder of Whirlpool Corporation (born in Battle Creek) Joseph Utsler, co-founder of Psychopathic Records and hip-hop singer (born in Wayne) Jay Van Andel, co-founder of Alticor and Amway (born in Grand Rapids) Brad Wardell, president and CEO of Stardock software and computer game company (born in Texas, lives in Michigan) Garfield Wood, inventor, boat builder, hydroplane and motorboat pioneer (born in Iowa, moved to Detroit) Samuel Zell, real estate investor, publisher, philanthropist (born in Chicago, attended University of Michigan) Cartoonists, illustrators, and animators Glenn Barr, artist for DC Comics and the Ren And Stimpy animated television series Jim Benton, cartoonist and author (from metro Detroit area) T. Casey Brennan, comic book author for Vampirella, Creepy and Eerie (from Ann Arbor) J. Scott Campbell, co-founder of the Cliffhanger imprint of Wildstorm Productions co-creator of Danger Girl and Gen¹³ (born in East Tawas) Dave Coverly, syndicated cartoonist, Speed Bump comic strip (born in Plainwell) Dave Dorman, science-fiction and fantasy illustrator and animationist (born in Michigan) Bill Freyse, cartoonist known for Our Boarding House (born in Detroit) David S. Goyer, comic book writer and filmmaker, authored many issues of Justice Society of America and comic-based films including The Crow: City of Angels and Blade; co-wrote Batman Begins (born in Ann Arbor) Cathy Lee Guisewite, creator of Cathy comic strip (born in Dayton, Ohio; grew up in Midland) Butch Hartman, animator, producer, director for The Fairly OddParents (born in Highland Park, Michigan) Ed Emshwiller, animator, visual artist, and founder of CalArts Computer Animation Lab (born in Lansing) Al Jean, creator of The Critic, writer for The Simpsons and Family Guy (born in Farmington Hills) Geoff Johns, comic book writer, known primarily for his work with DC Comics (born in Detroit) Vincent Locke, comic book illustrator, best known for his work on Deadworld and A History of Violence (from metro Detroit area) Mike Manley, one of the main illustrators of DC Comics's Batman and co-creator of Marvel Comics's Darkhawk (born in Detroit) Winsor McCay, pioneer film animator and artist of comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland (born in Spring Lake) William Messner-Loebs, comic book writer and artist (from Michigan) Dan Mishkin, comic book writer, co-creator of Amethyst, Princess of Gem World and Blue Devil Bill Morrison, cartoonist and illustrator; editor, principal writer and artist for Bongo Comics Group overseeing the Simpsons comic book family; director of Futurama (born in Lincoln Park) James O'Barr, creator of the comic book series The Crow (born in Detroit) Gary Reed, comic book writer and publisher of Caliber Comics (born in Detroit) Chris Savino, writer, animator, comic book artist, director for The Loud House (born in Royal Oak, Michigan) Jim Starlin, Marvel Comics illustrator and writer (born in Detroit) John Henry Striebel, 20th-century comic strip pioneer (born in Bertrand) Haddon Sundblom, commercial illustrator and artist; created Coca-Cola Santa (born in Muskegon) Craig Thompson, cartoonist and graphic novelist best known for Blankets (born in Traverse City) Jerry Van Amerongen, comic strip writer best known for his syndicated comic panel The Neighborhood (born in Grand Rapids) Sam Viviano, caricature artist and art director best known for his work in Mad magazine (born in Detroit) Larry Wright, two-time winner of the National Cartoonist Society Editorial Cartoon Award and creator of the comic strips Wright Angles, Motley, and Kit 'N' Carlyle (from Allen Park) Civil rights and suffrage leaders and abolitionists Irene Osgood Andrews, woman's rights advocate best known for her writings on the problems of women in industry (born in Big Rapids) Leonard Baker, abolitionist, American Congregational minister (born in Detroit) Olympia Brown, women's suffrage leader (born in Prairie Ronde) Pearl M. Hart, civil rights advocate and lawyer, activist for gay rights and the rights of immigrants (born in Traverse City) Erastus Hussey, abolitionist and leading Underground Railroad stationmaster (from Battle Creek) Viola Liuzzo, 1960s white civil rights advocate who was murdered by the Ku Klux Klan (born in California, Pennsylvania; moved to Detroit) Malcolm X, civil rights leader (born in Omaha, Nebraska; raised in Lansing) Katharine Dexter McCormick, biologist, woman suffrage leader & philanthropist (born in Dexter) Rosa Parks, civil rights activist (born in Tuskegee, Alabama; moved to Detroit) Lawrence Plamondon, cofounder of the White Panther Party, activist, and first hippie to be on the FBI's Most Wanted List (adopted and raised in Traverse City, active in Ann Arbor, now living in Barry County) Anna Howard Shaw, leader in the women's suffrage movement (raised in northern Michigan wilderness and moved to Big Rapids, Michigan for college) Sojourner Truth, abolitionist (lived in Battle Creek) Jonathan Walker, abolitionist and subject of John Greenleaf Whittier's poem "Man with the Branded Hand" (born in Cape Cod, Massachusetts; settled in Muskegon) Infamous Michiganders Jim Bakker, scandal-ridden televangelist (born in Muskegon) Abe Bernstein, Prohibition-era gangster (born in New York; moved to Detroit) Ivan Boesky, inside trader (born in Detroit) Tony Chebatoris (1899–1938), murderer, bank robber and the only person executed for a crime in Michigan's history Caryl Chessman (1921–1960), convicted robber and rapist who gained fame as a death row inmate (born in St. Joseph) John Norman Collins, "co-ed killer" (lived in Ypsilanti) Charles Coughlin (1891–1979), anti-Semitic, pro-Hitler priest (born in Hamilton, Ontario; moved to Birmingham) Hawley Harvey Crippen, murderer (and first criminal to be captured with the aid of wireless communication) (born in Michigan, caught in England) Leon Czolgosz (1873–1901), assassin of President William McKinley (born in Detroit) Sile Doty (1800–1876), burglar, horse thief (born in Vermont, spent later years in Michigan) May Dugas de Pallandt van Eerde (1869–1937), notorious conwoman, raised in Menominee Andrew Kehoe (1872–1927), Bath School disaster bomber Jack Kevorkian, physician infamous for assisted suicides (born in Pontiac) Kwame Kilpatrick, incarcerated former Detroit mayor (born in Detroit) John List, mass murderer (born in Bay City) John Mitchell, conspiratorial attorney general during Watergate under President Richard Nixon (born in Detroit) Terry Nichols, Oklahoma City bombing co-conspirator (born in Michigan) The Purple Gang, 1920s organized crime group in Detroit Reed Slatkin, perpetrator of the largest Ponzi scheme in the United States since that conducted by Ponzi himself (born in Detroit) Eddie Slovik, last US soldier executed for desertion (born in Detroit, raised in Dearborn) Carolyn Warmus, murderer whose murder case led to comparisons to Fatal Attraction (born in Troy, grew up in Birmingham) Aileen Wuornos, murderer made famous as the subject of the 2003 film Monster starring Charlize Theron (born in Rochester) Inventors Thomas Edison, inventor, entrepreneur (born in Milan, Ohio; later settled in Port Huron) Robert Jarvik, medical inventor (born in Midland) Elijah McCoy, steam engine lubricator inventor; origin of the phrase "the real McCoy" (born in Ontario; moved to Ypsilanti) Sid Meier, "father of computer gaming," created the computer game Civilization and others (born in Ontario moved to Detroit) Ephraim Shay, inventor of the Shay locomotive (born in Sherman Township, Huron County, Ohio; moved to Harbor Springs) Labor leaders Leon E. Bates, labor leader (born in Carrollton, Missouri, moved to Detroit) Owen Bieber, labor leader (born in North Dorr, worked in Grand Rapids) Frank Fitzsimmons, labor leader (born in Pennsylvania, moved at 16 to Detroit) Douglas A. Fraser, labor leader (born in Glasgow, Scotland; raised in Detroit) James P. Hoffa, labor leader (born in Detroit) James R. Hoffa, labor leader (born in Indiana, moved to Lake Orion) Joseph Labadie, labor leader, political activist (born in Paw Paw) Walter Reuther, labor leader (born in Wheeling, West Virginia; moved to Detroit; died in Pellston) Leonard Woodcock, labor leader (born in Providence, Rhode Island; raised in Detroit) Military figures Christopher C. Augur, commanding officer of Union Army XXII Corps (ACW) at Battle of Plains Store in Civil War (born in New York, settled in Michigan) Remi A. Balduck, World War II naval hero (born in Detroit) Frank Dwight Baldwin, major general in US Army, twice awarded Medal of Honor; served in Civil War, Indian Wars, Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War (born in Manchester) Harry Hill Bandholtz, US brigadier general in World War I, head of US Military Mission to Hungary (born in Constantine) Joseph Beyrle, only soldier to have served in both US Army and Soviet Army in World War II (born in Muskegon) Ronald A. Burdo, World War II US Marine Corps hero for whom high speed transport USS Burdo (APD-133) was named (born in Cheboygan) George H. Cannon, first US Marine to receive Medal of Honor in World War II (born in Webster Groves, Missouri; raised in Detroit) Lewis Cass, US secretary of war, secretary of state, brigadier general in War of 1812, 1848 Democratic Party presidential nominee, governor of Michigan Territory (born in New Hampshire; moved to Michigan when appointed governor) William R. Charette, Korean War US Navy hospital corpsman who selected Unknown Soldier of World War II (born in Ludington) Ferdinand J. Chesarek, US Army general who served as Comptroller of the Army (born in Calumet) John G. Coburn, Four-star general, commander US Army Materiel Command (born in Ypsilanti) George Armstrong Custer, US general, born in New Rumley, Ohio; moved to Monroe) Hugh A. Drum, US general who fought in Philippine–American War and World War I, later Chief of Staff of First United States Army, AEF (born in Fort Brady) Sarah Emma Edmundson, Union spy and (disguised as a man) soldier (born in Magaguadavic Settlement, New Brunswick, Canada; moved to Flint) Daniel Ellsberg, military analyst, known for releasing Pentagon Papers (grew up Detroit) Anna Etheridge (aka Michigan Annie), Civil War nurse enlisted with Michigan 2nd Infantry; active in nearly every major battle; awarded Kearney Cross for bravery at Battle of Chancellorsville (born in Wayne County) Elon J. Farnsworth, Union Army cavalry general in Civil War, killed at Battle of Gettysburg (born in Green Oak) Aubrey Fitch, US Navy admiral (born in Saint Ignace) Douglas Harold Fox, World War II naval hero killed at Guadalcanal (born in Walled Lake) Ben Hebard Fuller, commandant of the Marine Corps (born in Big Rapids) Duane D. Hackney, Vietnam War US Air Force hero (born in Flint) Francis P. Hammerberg, United States Navy diver who was awarded Medal of Honor (born in Daggett) Henry Moore Harrington, officer in the US 7th Cavalry Regiment who died with George Armstrong Custer at Battle of Little Big Horn (born in Albion, New York; moved as child to Coldwater Thomas C. Hart, US Navy director of submarines in World War I, US Navy admiral in World War II and later senator from Connecticut (born in Davison) Micki King, Air Force colonel and Olympic gold-medalist diver (born in Pontiac) Frank Knox, secretary of the Navy under Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1936 Republican vice-presidential candidate and newspaper owner (born in Boston, Massachusetts; moved to Grand Rapids) William S. Knudsen, US Army general during World War II, General Motors president (born in Denmark, lived and died in Detroit) Aleda E. Lutz, Army flight nurse during World War II, second-most decorated woman in American military history (born in Freeland, Michigan; died in Mont Pilat, France) Alexander Macomb, commanding general of the United States Army from 1828 to 1841 (born in Detroit) Montgomery M. Macomb, brigadier general (born in Detroit) William H. Macomb, commander in US Navy during Civil War (born in Detroit) Robert Neller, commandant of the Marine Corps (born in Louisiana, grew up in East Lansing) James Joseph Raby, rear admiral, USN (born in Bay City) Karl W. Richter, youngest pilot in Vietnam War to shoot down MiG in air-to-air combat, winner of Air Force Cross, Distinguished Flying Cross, and Purple Heart (born in Holly) Dean Rockwell, D-Day hero, coach of Greco-Roman wrestling team at 1964 Summer Olympics and Albion College football coach (born in rural Cass County) William Rufus Shafter (1835-1906) Union Army officer and Major General in the Spanish-American War (born in Galesburg) Frederick C. Sherman, World War II US Navy admiral (born in Michigan) Oliver Sipple, marine who saved President Gerald Ford's life during a 1975 assassination attempt (born in Detroit) Willard J. Smith, United States Coast Guard commandant (born in Suttons Bay) Carl W. Weiss, World War II US Marine Corps hero who was killed in action at Guadalcanal (born in Detroit) Donald W. Wolf, World War II US Marine Corps hero who was killed in action at Guadalcanal (born in Hart) Musicians and composers Classical Joseph Alessi, trombonist (born in Detroit) Robert Ashley, opera composer (born in Ann Arbor) Theodore Baskin, principal oboist of the Montreal Symphony Orchestra (born in Detroit) William Bolcom, Grammy and Pulitzer Prize-winning pianist and composer (born in Seattle; moved to Ann Arbor) David DiChiera, director of the Detroit Opera House's Michigan Opera Theatre Maria Ewing, operatic soprano (born in Detroit) John S. Hilliard, composer (born in Hot Springs, Arkansas; lived in Interlochen) Angela Jia Kim, pianist (born in East Lansing) Robert Longfield, composer (born in Grand Rapids) David Ott, composer (born in Kalamazoo) Elizabeth Parcells, operatic soprano (born in Detroit; retired in Grosse Pointe Farms) Roger Reynolds, composer, Pulitzer Prize winner (born in Detroit) Leo Sowerby, organist, composer, Pulitzer Prize winner (born in Grand Rapids) Thomas Schippers, conductor of the Metropolitan Opera and the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra (born in Kalamazoo) George Shirley, tenor, National Medal of Arts recipient (born in Indianapolis; raised in Detroit) Joseph Silverstein, violinist and concertmaster of Boston Symphony Orchestra (born in Detroit) Cheryl Studer, dramatic soprano (born in Midland) David Weber, clarinetist (born in Vilna, Lithuania; raised in Detroit) Jazz and blues Pepper Adams, jazz baritone saxophonist (born in Highland Park) Geri Allen, jazz pianist (born in Detroit) Dorothy Ashby, jazz harpist (born in Detroit) Anita Baker, jazz and R&B singer (born in Toledo, Ohio; raised in Detroit) Marcus Belgrave, jazz trumpeter (born in Detroit) The Bluescasters, blues group (formed in Ann Arbor) Kenny Burrell, jazz guitarist (born in Detroit) Donald Byrd, jazz trumpeter (born in Detroit) Betty Carter, Grammy Award-winning jazz vocalist (born in Flint) Regina Carter, jazz violinist (born in Detroit) James Carter, jazz woodwind player (born in Detroit) Ron Carter, jazz bassist and member of the Miles Davis Quintet (born in Ferndale) Bob Chester, jazz saxophonist and big band leader (born in Detroit) Alice Coltrane, jazz keyboardist, harpist and composer (born in Detroit) Xavier Davis, jazz pianist (born in Grand Rapids) Clare Fischer, jazz, bossa nova, and Afro-Cuban jazz keyboardist, composer, and bandleader (born in Durand) Tommy Flanagan, jazz pianist best known as Ella Fitzgerald's accompanist (born in Detroit) Kenny Garrett, jazz saxophonist (born in Detroit) Barry Harris, bebop jazz pianist and educator (born in Detroit) Joe Henderson, jazz saxophonist (born in Lima, Ohio; moved to Detroit) Milt Jackson, jazz vibraphonist (born in Detroit) Elvin Jones, jazz drummer of the hard bop era, part of John Coltrane's quartet (born in Pontiac) Hank Jones, jazz pianist, National Medal of Arts recipient (born in Vicksburg, Mississippi, grew up in Pontiac) Isham Jones, 1920s bandleader, violinist, saxophonist and songwriter (born in Coalton, Ohio, grew up in Saginaw) Thad Jones, jazz trumpeter (born in Pontiac) Earl Klugh, Grammy Award-winning jazz guitarist (born in Detroit) Yusef Lateef, jazz saxophonist and flutist (born in Chattanooga, Tennessee; raised in Detroit) Father Norman O'Connor (1921–2003), priest, jazz aficionado, writer, radio and television host (born in Detroit) Sy Oliver, trumpeter and bandleader (born in Battle Creek) Dave Pike, jazz vibraphonist (born in Detroit) Dianne Reeves, jazz vocalist and only person to have won the Grammy Award for "Best Jazz Vocal Performance" three times in a row (born in Detroit) Frank Rosolino, jazz trombonist (born in Detroit) Sonny Stitt, jazz saxophonist (born in Boston, Massachusetts; raised in Saginaw) Art Van Damme, jazz accordionist (born in Norway) Sippie Wallace, blues singer (born in Houston, later settled in Detroit) Rudy Weidoeft, jazz saxophonist (born in Detroit) Motown, R&B, and soul music Florence Ballard, Motown-era singer, original lead singer of The Supremes, inductee Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Mississippi; raised in Detroit) Oliver Cheatham, contemporary R&B singer (born in Detroit) Lamont Dozier, Motown-era composer, member of Holland-Dozier-Holland (born in Detroit) Dwele, soul singer, songwriter and record producer (born in Detroit) The Four Tops, Motown-era group with two No. 1 hits, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (formed in Detroit) Aretha Franklin, singer, "The Queen of Soul", Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Memphis, Tennessee; raised in Detroit) Matt Giraud, piano player, drummer, R&B, soul & blues singer; American Idol top 5, season 8 (born in Dearborn; raised in Ypsilanti; Western Michigan University graduate) Al Green, soul & gospel singer and pastor, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (grew up in Grand Rapids) Brian Holland, Motown-era composer, member of Holland-Dozier-Holland (born in Detroit) Edward Holland Jr., Motown-era composer, member of Holland-Dozier-Holland (born in Detroit) Adina Howard, R&B singer (born in Grand Rapids) Mable John, first female singer to sign with Berry Gordy (born in Bastrop, Louisiana; raised in Detroit) The Jones Girls, R&B trio (born in Detroit) LaKisha Jones, contestant on American Idol (born in Flint) Jr. Walker & the All-Stars, Motown-era group whose song "Shotgun" was a No. 1 hit (formed in Battle Creek) Kem, R&B and soul singer (raised in Detroit) Bettye LaVette, soul singer (born in Muskegon) Barbara Lewis, singer known for hits "Baby I'm Yours" and "Hello Stranger" (born in South Lyon) The Marvelettes, Motown-era group whose "Please Mr. Postman" was a No. 1 hit (formed in Inkster) Queen Naija, R&B singer Freda Payne, Motown-era singer known for "Band of Gold" (born in Detroit) Martha Reeves, lead singer of Motown group Martha and the Vandellas, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Eufaula, Alabama; raised in Detroit) Smokey Robinson, Motown-era singer, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Detroit) Diana Ross, lead singer of The Supremes and solo artist, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Detroit) The Spinners, R&B group whose hits included "Could It Be I'm Falling in Love" (formed in Ferndale) The Temptations, Motown group, three Grammy awards with 14 No. 1 hits, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (begun in Detroit) Edwin Starr, soul music singer, best known for his anti-war No. 1 hit "War" (born in Nashville, raised in Cleveland, lived in Detroit) Mary Wells, Motown-era singer best known for her No. 1 hit song "My Guy" (born in Detroit) Kim Weston, Motown and R&B singer (born in Detroit; currently lives in Israel) Jackie Wilson, R&B singer, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Detroit) BeBe Winans, R&B and gospel singer (born in Detroit) Stevie Wonder, singer, musician, songwriter and winner of 24 Grammy awards, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Saginaw) Philippe Wynne, R&B and gospel singer (born in Detroit) Rock, rap, and pop Aaliyah, singer and actress (born in Brooklyn, New York; raised in Detroit) Maurice Ager, producer (born in Detroit) Gregg Alexander, singer-songwriter (from Grosse Pointe) Anybody Killa, rapper (raised in Detroit) Hank Ballard, early rock musician best known for "The Twist" (born in Detroit) Andrew Bazzi, singer, songwriter (born in Dearborn, raised in Canton Township, attended Plymouth-Canton Educational Park) Big Sean, rapper (raised in Detroit) Danny Brown, rapper (born in Detroit) The Black Dahlia Murder, melodic death metal/metalcore band (begun in Detroit) Blaze Ya Dead Homie, rapper (raised in Romeo) Bliss 66, pop band (from Taylor) Sonny Bono, singer-songwriter, record producer and politician (born in Detroit) Rob Cantor, singer-songwriter and guitarist for rock band Tally Hall (born in Bloomfield Hills) Tally Hall, rock band (formed in Ann Arbor) Kellin Quinn Bostwick, lead singer of Sleeping with Sirens (raised in Whitehall) Donald Brewer, drummer for Grand Funk Railroad (born in Flint) Shana Cleveland, guitarist and vocalist (born in Kalamazoo) Alice Cooper, musician, 2011 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Detroit) Marshall Crenshaw, musician (born in Detroit) DDG, rapper (born in Pontiac) 42 Dugg, rapper Eminem, rapper (born in St. Joseph, Missouri; raised in Warren) Esham, rapper (born in Long Island, New York; raised in Detroit) Every Avenue, pop band (from Marysville) Factory 81, rock band (from Detroit) Mark Farner, lead singer of Grand Funk Railroad (born in Flint) Fireworks, pop-punk band (begun in Metro Detroit) Doug Fieger, lead singer of The Knack and co-writer of "My Sharona" (from Detroit) Glenn Frey, founding member of The Eagles, 2008 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Royal Oak) Craig Frost, keyboardist (born in Flint) James Gurley, rock guitarist (born in Detroit) J Dilla (James Dewitt Yancey), hip hop producer (born in Detroit) Bill Haley, 1950s musician, 1987 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Highland Park) Mayer Hawthorne, singer, producer, songwriter, DJ, rapper and multi-instrumentalist (born in Ann Arbor) Insane Clown Posse, hip hop group (formed in Detroit) I See Stars, electronicore band (formed in Warren) Billy Jones, lead guitarist, singer-songwriter for The Outlaws (born Ann Arbor) Maynard James Keenan, frontman of Tool and A Perfect Circle (born in Ravenna, Ohio, raised in Scottville) Anthony Kiedis, lead singer, Red Hot Chili Peppers (born in Grand Rapids) Kid Rock, musician (born in Romeo; raised in Mount Clemens) Wayne Kramer, guitarist (born in Detroit) Madonna, singer, inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Bay City; raised in Pontiac and Rochester Hills) MC5, protopunk band (begun in Lincoln Park) Guy Mitchell, pop singer known for "Singing the Blues", "Heartaches by the Number" (born in Detroit) Natas, hip hop group (begun in Detroit) Jason Newsted, bassist for Metallica (born in Battle Creek) NF, hip-hop/rapper (born in Gladwin, Michigan) Matt Noveskey, bassist for Blue October Ted Nugent, musician, activist (born in Detroit) Craig Owens, vocalist of the band Chiodos (from Davison) Daniel Passino, musician, contemporary R&B and pop singer-songwriter; contestant from NBC's The Voice season 10 (born in New Boston) Britta Phillips, singer-songwriter (from Boyne City) Pop Evil, rock band (began in Muskegon) Iggy Pop, rock musician, 2010 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Muskegon) Mike Posner, musician, synthpop and electropop singer-songwriter (born in Detroit) Suzi Quatro, singer, bassist, and actress (born in Detroit) Question Mark & the Mysterians, rock band (begun in Bay City) The Romantics, new wave rock band (begun in Detroit) Royce da 5'9", rapper (born in Detroit) DeJ Loaf, rapper (born in Detroit) Mitch Ryder, rock musician known for "Devil with a Blue Dress On" (born in Hamtramck) Bob Schneider, Texas-based rock musician (born in Ypsilanti) Bob Seger, singer, 2004 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Dearborn; raised in Ann Arbor) Bob Gentry, singer-songwriter (born in Detroit) Del Shannon, singer, 1999 inductee in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (born in Coopersville) Chad Smith, drummer, Red Hot Chili Peppers (raised in Bloomfield Hills) Sponge, post-grunge band (begun in Detroit) Still Remains, metalcore band (begun in Grand Rapids) The Stooges, rock band, 2010 inductees in Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (begun in Ann Arbor) Taproot, nu metal band (begun in Ann Arbor) Thought Industry, progressive metal band (begun in Kalamazoo) Twiztid, hip hop group (begun in Eastpointe) Uncle Kracker, rock musician (born in Mount Clemens) Greta Van Fleet, rock band (began in Frankenmuth) The Verve Pipe, post-grunge band (formed in East Lansing) The Von Bondies, indie rock/alternative band (from Detroit) Narada Michael Walden, multi-platinum record producer and songwriter (born in Kalamazoo) Malaya Watson, American Idol contestant (from Southfield) Wayne Static, singer for Static-x (born in Muskegon) We Came as Romans, melodic metal core band (from Troy) Jack White, singer-songwriter (born in Detroit; raised in Detroit and Kalamazoo) Meg White, drummer and Grammy Award winner (born in Grosse Pointe Farms) The White Stripes, minimalist blues-rock duo (begun in Detroit) Joyce Vincent Wilson, singer with Tony Orlando and Dawn (born in Detroit) Andrew W.K., metal/hard rock composer (born in Ann Arbor) D'arcy Wretzky, bass player for The Smashing Pumpkins (born in South Haven) Other musicians The Accidentals, alternative-rock band (formed in Traverse City) Roy Bargy, musician, composer, Jimmy Durante bandleader (born in Newaygo) Muruga Booker, drummer (born in Detroit, lives in Ann Arbor) Ralston Bowles, folk musician, singer/songwriter (lives in Grand Rapids) William David Brohn, Tony Award-winning orchestrator and arranger (born in Flint) Hughie Cannon, songwriter, "Won't You Come Home Bill Bailey" (born in Detroit) Erika Costell, YouTuber, model, and singer (born in Bedford) Johnny Desmond, big-band singer and recording artist (born in Detroit) Harlan Howard, songwriter in Country Music Hall of Fame (born in Detroit) Marion Hutton, singer with Glenn Miller orchestra (raised in Battle Creek) Herb Jeffries, singer (born in Detroit) Mary Kaye, guitarist (born in Detroit) Bernie Krause, pioneer in Moog synthesizers and folk singer with The Weavers (born in Detroit) Joseph LoDuca, film score composer (born in Michigan) John Lowery, guitarist, a.k.a. John5, former member of Marilyn Manson (born in Grosse Pointe) Stephen Lynch, comic musician (born in Abington, Pennsylvania; raised in Saginaw) Geoff Moore, Christian contemporary music Grammy-winning singer and songwriter (born in Michigan) Carrie Newcomer, folk musician (born in Dowagiac) Karen Newman, singer and anthem voice of Detroit Red Wings hockey (raised in Rochester) Zeena Parkins, avant garde harpist (born in Detroit) Rodriguez, singer, songwriter, subject of film Searching for Sugar Man (born in Detroit) Sycamore Smith, folk singer (born in Marquette) Tom Smith, filker, folk musician (lives in Ann Arbor) Noel Stookey, "Paul" of Peter, Paul and Mary folk group (born in Baltimore, raised in Birmingham) Sufjan Stevens, folk musician (born in Detroit) Bob Vincent, big-band singer (born in Detroit) Margaret Whiting, singer and recording artist (born in Detroit) CeCe Winans, gospel singer (born in Detroit) Vickie Winans, gospel singer (born in Detroit) George Winston, Grammy Award-winning new age pianist (born in Michigan) Margaret Young, singer (born in Detroit) Native-American leaders Andrew Blackbird, Ottawa leader, historian and negotiator in Treaty of 1855 (born in Harbor Springs) Match-E-Be-Nash-She-Wish (or Bad Bird), Potawatomi chief (from Michigan) Mecosta, Potawatomi chief, for whom Mecosta County is named (born near present-day Big Rapids) John Okemos, Ojibwa chief, for whom the city of Okemos is named, signer of Treaty of Saginaw (born on Apple Island in present-day West Bloomfield) Simon Pokagon, Potawatomi chief, from whom Western Michigan's Pokagon Potawatomi take their name (born in Berrien County, settled in Hartland) Pontiac, Native American chief and war leader (born near Detroit River) Shavehead, Potawatomi chief and warrior (born in Cass County) Shaw-shaw-way-nay-beece, Ojibwa chief and signer of Treaty of 1855 (born in Isabella County) Wawatam, Ojibwa chief at Michilimackinac (born near Mackinaw City) Wosso (also called Owosso), for whom the city of Owosso is named), chief of Shiawassee band of Ojibwa and signer of Treaty of Saginaw (born near present-day Owosso) Political figures National political figures Spencer Abraham, US senator 1995–2001 and secretary of energy 2001–05 (born in East Lansing) Henry B. Brown, US Supreme Court justice from 1891 to 1906 and author for court opinion in Plessy v. Ferguson (born in South Lee, Massachusetts; settled and practiced law in Detroit) Jesse Brown, US secretary of Veterans Affairs under President Bill Clinton (born in Detroit) Wilber M. Brucker, US secretary of the army 1955–61 and governor of Michigan 1931–33 (born in Saginaw) Dr. Ben Carson, US secretary of Housing and Urban Development, retired neurosurgeon, 2016 presidential candidate (born in Detroit) Roy D. Chapin Sr., US secretary of commerce under President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (born in Lansing) Betsy DeVos (born 1958), US secretary of education under President Donald Trump (born in Holland) Donald M. Dickinson, United States postmaster general of 19th century (born in New York, lived and died in Detroit) Thomas W. Ferry, United States senator 1871–1883, president pro tempore of the United States Senate 1875–1879 Betty Ford, First Lady of the United States 1974–77; advocate of breast cancer early detection and chemical dependency treatment (born in Chicago; raised in Grand Rapids) Gerald R. Ford, US representative and 38th president of the United States (born in Omaha, Nebraska; raised in Grand Rapids) Jennifer Granholm, 47th governor of Michigan (born in Canada; raised in California; Northville resident at time of her election), US secretary of Energy under President Joe Biden Reed E. Hundt, Federal Communications Commission chairman under President Bill Clinton (born in Ann Arbor) Herbert W. Kalmbach, attorney to President Richard Nixon (born in Port Huron) Robert McClelland, governor of Michigan from 1852 to 1853 and US secretary of the interior under President James Buchanan (born in Greencastle, Pennsylvania; settled in Monroe) John N. Mitchell, US attorney general under President Richard Nixon 1969–72 (born in Detroit) Cecilia Muñoz, White House director of Intergovernmental Affairs under President Barack Obama (born in Detroit; raised in Livonia) Frank Murphy, Detroit mayor, Michigan governor, last governor-general of the Philippines and first high commissioner to the Philippines, US attorney general and Supreme Court justice (born in Harbor Beach) Tom Price (born 1954), US secretary of Health and Human Services under President Donald Trump (born in Lansing, raised in Dearborn) Ann Romney, former First Lady of Massachusetts (born in Detroit) George W. Romney, governor of Michigan 1963–69, chairman of American Motors, US secretary of Housing and Urban Development (born in Chihuahua, Mexico; raised in Salt Lake City, moved to Detroit) Mitt Romney, US senator for Utah, governor of Massachusetts (2003–2007), and 2012 Republican nominee for president (born in Detroit; raised in Bloomfield Hills) Rodney E. Slater, US secretary of transportation under President Bill Clinton (born in Marianna, Arkansas; lived some time in Ypsilanti) Margaret Spellings, US secretary of education under President George W. Bush, co-author of No Child Left Behind Act (born in Ann Arbor) Gene Sperling, director of National Economic Council under presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama (born in Ann Arbor) Potter Stewart, US Supreme Court justice (born in Jackson) Arthur Summerfield, US postmaster general 1953–61 (born in Pinconning) Edwin F. Uhl, mayor of Grand Rapids, ambassador to Germany, assistant secretary of state, and for 13 days in 1895 was acting US Secretary of State (born in Rush, New York, raised in Ypsilanti, moved to Grand Rapids) Michigan political figures Russell A. Alger, governor of Michigan 1902–07, US senator, secretary of War during Spanish–American War (born in Ohio; moved to Grand Rapids) Dennis Archer, mayor of Detroit 1994–2001 (born in Detroit) Dave Bing, mayor of Detroit 2009–2013 (born in Washington, D.C.; moved to Michigan) Austin Blair, anti-slavery governor of Michigan (born in New York; settled in Eaton Rapids) James Blanchard, governor of Michigan 1983–91, ambassador to Canada (born in Detroit) Prentiss M. Brown, US senator, chairman of Detroit Edison Company and Mackinac Bridge Authority (born in St. Ignace) Jerome Cavanagh, mayor of Detroit 1962–70 (born in Detroit) John Conyers, second longest-serving member of US House of Representatives (born in Detroit) Debbie Dingell, US representative (born in Detroit) John Dingell, longest-serving member of US House of Representatives (born in Colorado Springs, Colorado; raised in Detroit) John Engler, three-term governor of Michigan (born in Mount Pleasant) Paul G. Goebel, two-term mayor of Grand Rapids (born in Grand Rapids) Roman Gribbs, mayor of Detroit 1970–74 (born in Detroit) Alexander Groesbeck, 30th governor of Michigan (born in Warren) Ebenezer O. Grosvenor, 14th lieutenant governor and state treasurer (born in New York, lived and died in Jonesville) Philip A. Hart, US senator (born in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania; moved to Detroit) Andy Levin, US congressman (born in Berkley) Carl Levin, US senator 1979–2015 (born in Detroit) T. John Lesinski, Michigan lieutenant governor and judge (born in Detroit) Sander M. Levin, US congressman (born in Detroit) Oscar Marx, mayor of Detroit 1913–18 (born in Wayne County) Louis Miriani, mayor of Detroit 1957–62 (born in Detroit) Russell C. Ostrander, mayor of Lansing and chief justice of state Supreme Court (born in Ypsilanti) Hazen S. Pingree, mayor of Detroit 1890–97 (born in Denmark, Maine; moved to Detroit) Charles E. Potter, US senator 1952–59 (born in Lapeer) Donald W. Riegle Jr., US senator 1976–95 (born in Flint) Dorothy Comstock Riley, Michigan Supreme Court judge, first Hispanic woman elected to Supreme Court of any state (born in Detroit) Lenore Romney, former First Lady of Michigan, 1970 US senate candidate (born in Utah, lived in Bloomfield Hills, died in Royal Oak) Solomon Sibley, first mayor of Detroit (born in Sutton, Massachusetts, moved to Michigan) Debbie Stabenow, US senator (born in Gladwin) Rashida Tlaib, US representative (born in Detroit) Arthur H. Vandenberg, US senator, founder of the United Nations (born in Grand Rapids) George W. Welsh, mayor of Grand Rapids 1938–49 and lieutenant governor (born in Scotland) Gretchen Whitmer, 49th governor of Michigan (born in Lansing) G. Mennen Williams, 41st governor of Michigan (born in Detroit) Howard Wolpe, US congressman, special envoy to Great Lakes Region of Africa, director of Africa Program at Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (born in California, settled in Kalamazoo) Coleman Young, mayor of Detroit 1974–94 (born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, moved to Detroit) Other political figures Allen Alley, chairman of Oregon Republican Party (born in Kalamazoo) Arthur Brown, US senator from Utah (born in Kalamazoo) Jane L. Campbell, mayor of Cleveland, Ohio, 2002–06 (born in Ann Arbor) Amanda Carpenter, political adviser and speechwriter for Sen. Jim DeMint (born in Montrose) Laurie Perry Cookingham, city manager of Kansas City, Missouri, for 19 years, tenure longer than any US city manager (born in Saginaw) Dr. Royal S. Copeland, US senator from New York (born in Dexter) Rennie Davis, prominent anti-Vietnam War protest leader of 1960s (born in Lansing) Thomas Dewey, governor of New York, lost presidential race in 1944 and 1948 (born in Owosso) Frank Emerson, 15th governor of Wyoming (born in Saginaw) Michael Fougere, mayor of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada (born in Farmington) Elisha Peyre Ferry, first governor of Washington Territory and Civil War colonel (born in Monroe) Obadiah Gardner, US senator for Maine (born near Port Huron) Tom Hayden, social and political activist, politician (born in Detroit) Clyde L. Herring, 26th governor of Iowa and US senator (born in Jackson County) William J. McConnell, third governor of Idaho (born in Commerce) William E. Quinby, US ambassador to the Netherlands (born in Maine, moved to Detroit) Henry Hastings Sibley, first governor of Minnesota (born in Detroit) John Sinclair, political activist, writer, musician (born in Flint) Jan Ting, unsuccessful 2006 US senate candidate for Delaware (born in Dearborn) Religious leaders Frederic Baraga, Roman Catholic missionary, bishop and Ojibway and Ottawa grammarian (born in present-day Slovenia; settled among the Native American mission at Arbre Croche (now Cross Village) Emma Pow Bauder, Conference Missionary, California Conference, Church of the United Brethren in Christ (born in North Adams) D. M. Canright, early leader of the Seventh-day Adventist Church (born in Kinderhook) D. Stanley Coors, American bishop of the Methodist Church (born in Pentwater) Daniel Dolan, Traditional Catholic bishop (born in Detroit) Walter Elliott, 19th-century Roman Catholic priest whose writing sparked the Americanism heresy (born in Detroit) William Montague Ferry, Presbyterian minister and missionary who founded several settlements in Ottawa County, known as the father of Grand Haven and of Ottawa County Lucien Greaves, social activist; spokesman and co-founder of The Satanic Temple Virginia Harris, publisher of the writings of Mary Baker Eddy; president and founding trustee of the Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity; chair of the Christian Science Board of Directors, 1990–2004 (lived in Birmingham) James Aloysius Hickey, cardinal and Roman Catholic archbishop of the Archdiocese of Washington (born in Midland) John C. Maxwell, evangelical Christian author, speaker, and pastor (born in Garden City) Bruce R. McConkie, prominent apostle and theologian of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (born in Ann Arbor) Josh McDowell, leading Evangelical Christian apologist and author (born in Battle Creek and grew up in Union City) Jason Miller, rabbi and entrepreneur (born in Detroit) Warith Deen Mohammed (1933–2008), son of Elijah Muhammad, leader of American Society of Muslims (born in Hamtramck) Wallace Fard Muhammad, founder of Nation of Islam (birthplace debated; moved to Detroit and founded his first mosque there) Thomas Gumbleton, Roman Catholic auxiliary bishop (born in Detroit) Henry Churchill King, theologian, president of Oberlin College and member of the King-Crane Commission on the status of Palestine (born in Hillsdale) Baba Rexheb, Moslem leader and mystic, founder of the Bektashi Sufi lodge in Taylor (born in what is now Albania; fled to Taylor) Edmund Szoka, president of the Pontifical Commission for Vatican City State (born in Grand Rapids) John A. Trese, priest of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit (born in St. Clair) Allen Henry Vigneron, Roman Catholic Bishop of Oakland in California (born in Mount Clemens) Geerhardus Vos, theologian known as the "Father of Reformed Biblical Theology" (born in the Netherlands; moved to Grand Rapids) Ellen G. White, founding member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church (born in Maine, settled in Battle Creek with husband James) James Springer White, founding member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church (born in Palmyra, Maine, settled in Battle Creek) Rabbi Sherwin Wine, founder of the Society for Humanistic Judaism (born in Detroit) Scholars Art historians Alfred Barr, art historian and the founding director of the Museum of Modern Art (born in Detroit) Louis A. Waldman, art historian (born in Wyandotte) Economists, mathematicians, and social scientists Henry Carter Adams, economist (born in Davenport, Iowa; moved to Ann Arbor) Akhil Reed Amar, legal scholar, an expert on constitutional law and criminal procedure (born in Ann Arbor) Earl Babbie, sociologist (born in Detroit) Bruce Bartlett, economist, advisor to presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush (born in Ann Arbor) Edward Griffith Begle, mathematician specializing topology, director of the School Mathematics Study Group (born in Saginaw) George David Birkhoff, mathematician best known for the ergodic theorem (born in Overisel) Robert John Braidwood, archaeologist and anthropologist (born in Detroit) Napoleon Chagnon, anthropologist (born in Port Austin) Charles Cooley, sociologist, known for his concept of the looking-glass self (born in Ann Arbor) Samuel J. Eldersveld, political scientist, mayor of Ann Arbor, department chair at University of Michigan Carol Karp, mathematician and leader in the theory of infinitary logic (born in Forest Grove)) Alfred V. Kidder, archaeologist (born in Marquette) Leslie Kish, sociologist and statistician, pioneer in survey sampling methodology, professor at University of Michigan Eduard Lindeman, educational pioneer (born in St. Clair) Tom Morey, mathematician, aerospace engineer, musician and surfing analyst (born in Detroit) Walter Pitts, logician who worked in the field of cognitive psychology (born in Detroit) Wardell Pomeroy, psychologist known for his work on sexual behavior (born in Kalamazoo) Michael Porter, economist and author (born in Ann Arbor) Paul Rehak, archaeologist (born in Ann Arbor) Jeff Sachs, economist, economic adviser to nations, author, director of the Earth Institute at Columbia University (born in Detroit) Claude E. Shannon, "father of information theory and of digital computer circuit design" (born in Petoskey; raised in Gaylord) Robert Shiller, Nobel Prize winning economist, academic, author (born in Detroit) Nate Silver, statistician, psephologist, and writer (born in East Lansing) Isadore Singer, mathematician (born in Detroit) Theda Skocpol, sociologist and political scientist (born in Detroit) Stephen Smale, Fields Medal-winning mathematician (born in Flint) Gene Sperling, economist, political expert, counselor to Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner (born in Ann Arbor) Kenneth Waltz, prominent international relations theorist (born in Ann Arbor) Brian Wesbury, economist (born in Ann Arbor) Leslie White, anthropologist and major advocate of neoevolutionism (born in Kansas, moved to Ann Arbor) Historians Ray Stannard Baker, historian and biographer of President Woodrow Wilson (born in Lansing) Charles Bigelow, print historian, font designer, MacArthur Foundation Award winner (born in Detroit) Bruce Catton, historian of the US Civil War (born in Petoskey; raised in Benzonia) John D'Arms, history of ancient Rome (born in Poughkeepsie, New York, moved to Ann Arbor) Natalie Zemon Davis, historian and feminist, pioneered the "new social history," author of The Return of Martin Guerre (born in Detroit) Samuel J. Eldersveld, political scientist at the University of Michigan; former mayor of Ann Arbor (from Ann Arbor) Natural scientists and engineers Charles Bachman, computer scientist (lived in East Lansing) Werner Emmanuel Bachmann, biochemistry pioneer in steroid synthesis who carried out the first total synthesis of a steroidal hormone, equilenin (born in Detroit) Liberty Hyde Bailey, botanist (born in South Haven) Bob Bemer, computer scientist (born in Sault Ste. Marie) J Harlen Bretz, geologist (born in Saranac) Lyman James Briggs, engineer, physicist, headed the Briggs Advisory Committee on Uranium (born in Assyria) Robert L. Carroll, paleontologist (born in Kalamazoo) Douglas Houghton Campbell, botanist (born in Detroit) Kazimierz Fajans, chemist (born in Warsaw, Poland, fled Nazi persecution to settle in Ann Arbor) David Fairchild, botanist (born in Lansing) Robert M. Graham, computer scientist, contributed to Multics (born in Michigan) Michael Hendricks, psychologist, suicidologist, and an advocate for the LGBT community Alfred Hershey, Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist (born in Owosso) Robert E. Horton, "father of hydrology, ecologist and soil scientist (born in Parma) Nicholas Hotton III, paleontologist (born in Michigan) Douglass Houghton, first state geologist of Michigan, explorer of Keweenaw County (born in New York; moved to Detroit) John H. Hubbell, radiation physicist (born in Ann Arbor) Edward Israel, astronomer and polar explorer (born in Kalamazoo) Ernest Kirkendall, chemist and metallurgist (born in East Jordan, raised in Highland Park) William LeMessurier, structural engineer (born in Pontiac) Forest Ray Moulton, astronomer (born in Le Roy) Jonas Salk, Head of Epidemiology at the University of Michigan Glenn T. Seaborg, chemist, Nobel prize winner (born in Ishpeming) Werner Spitz, forensic pathologist, emigrated from Israel to St. Clair Shores Samuel C. C. Ting, Nobel Prize-winning physicist (born in Ann Arbor) James Craig Watson, astronomer (born in Fingal, Ontario; raised in Ann Arbor) Thomas Huckle Weller, virologist and Nobel Prize winner in medicine (born in Ann Arbor) Philosophers Brand Blanshard, Yale University rationalist philosopher (born in Fredericksburg, Ohio; raised in Bay View) Voltairine de Cleyre, anarchist philosopher and political activist (born in Leslie) William A. Earle, Northwestern University philosopher of existentialism and phenomenology (born in Saginaw) Gary Habermas, historian, New Testament scholar, and philosopher of religion (born in Detroit) Reinhold Niebuhr, political philosopher and theologian (moved to Detroit) Alvin Plantinga, philosopher of religion (born in Ann Arbor) Wilfrid Sellars, philosopher (born in Ann Arbor) Other scholars and researchers Benjamin Franklin Bailey, electrical engineer, professor and researcher (born in Sheridan) Ellen Dannin, Penn State law professor, expert in labor law of New Zealand and US (born in Flint) Richard Ellmann, literary critic and biographer (born in Highland Park) H. Wiley Hitchcock, musicologist director for Institute for Studies in American Music, co-author of New Grove Dictionary of American Music (born in Detroit) Emmett Leith, electrical engineering professor and inventor of three-dimensional holography (born in Detroit; moved to Ann Arbor) Larry Soderquist, corporate and securities law expert, novelist, Vanderbilt professor (born in Ypsilanti) Sports figures Writers Others Huwaida Arraf, co-founder of International Solidarity Movement (ISM), a pro-Palestinian organization (born in Detroit) Todd Beamer, passenger aboard United Airlines Flight 93 recognized as a hero for his actions (born in Flint) Harry Blackstone Sr., magician (born in Illinois, settled in Colon, where his home is now American Museum of Magic) Harry Blackstone Jr., magician and television performer (born in Three Rivers) Ralph Bunche, 1950 Nobel Peace Prize winner, first won by an African American (born in Detroit) Christie Brinkley, supermodel and actress (born in Monroe) William Durant Campbell, major leader in World Scout Foundation (born in Flint) Martin H. Carmody, Depression-era Supreme Knight of Knights of Columbus (born in Grand Rapids) Emor L. Calkins, State president of the Michigan Woman's Christian Temperance Union for 25 years Patricia Donnelly, Miss America 1939 (born in Detroit) Pamela Eldred, Miss America 1970 (born in West Bloomfield) Nancy Fleming, Miss America 1961 (born in Montague) Frederick Carl Frieseke, Impressionist painter (born in Owosso) Joe Girard, salesman and author (born in Detroit) Carole Gist, Miss USA 1990 (born in Detroit) Kirsten Haglund, Miss America 2008 (born in Farmington Hills) Mona Hanna-Attisha, pediatrician and public health advocate (grew up in Royal Oak) Robert G. Heft, designer of current 50-star American flag (born in Saginaw) Lewis Cass Ledyard, lawyer, president of New York City Bar Association (born in Detroit) Tom McEvoy, professional poker player, 1983 World Series of Poker champion (born in Grand Rapids) Vince Megna, lawyer, author and primary shaper of so-called "lemon laws" (born in Iron Mountain) Perle Mesta, prominent Washington, D.C., socialite (born in Sturgis) Marvin Mitchelson, celebrity divorce attorney (born in Detroit) Jerry Mitchell, Tony Award-winning choreographer (born in Paw Paw) Kenya Moore, Miss USA 1993 (born in Detroit) Lenda Murray, bodybuilder, 8-time Ms. Olympia (born in Detroit) Kaye Lani Rae Rafko, Miss America 1988 (born in Monroe) Terry Rakolta, founder of Americans for Responsible Television (from Bloomfield Hills) Greg Raymer, 2004 World Series of Poker champion (born in Minot, North Dakota; raised in Lansing) Helen Cary Russell, president, Michigan State Federation of Women's Clubs Norman Shumway, heart transplant pioneer (born in Kalamazoo) Annie Edson Taylor, first person to go over Niagara Falls in a barrel (lived in Bay City) R.J. Thomas, labor leader (born in East Palestine, Ohio; moved to Detroit in his early 20s) Dita Von Teese, burlesque dancer (born in West Branch) Veronica Webb, model, Revlon spokesperson (born in Detroit) Ken Westerfield, disc sport (Frisbee) pioneer, athlete, showman, promoter (born in Detroit) Floyd Wilcox, president of Shimer College (born in Mason) See also List of people from Adrian, Michigan List of people from Ann Arbor, Michigan List of people from Bloomfield Hills, Michigan List of people from Detroit List of people from Flint, Michigan List of people from Grand Rapids, Michigan List of people from Saginaw, Michigan Notes References and further reading

424928

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-6-4

4-6-4

Under the Whyte notation for the classification of locomotives, represents the wheel arrangement of four leading wheels, six powered and coupled driving wheels and four trailing wheels. In France where the type was first used, it is known as the Baltic while it became known as the Hudson in most of North America. Overview Tender locomotives The 4-6-4 tender locomotive was first introduced in 1911 and throughout the 1920s to 1940s, the wheel arrangement was widely used in North America and to a lesser extent in the rest of the world. The type combined the basic design principles of the 4-6-2 type with an improved boiler and larger firebox that necessitated additional support at the rear of the locomotive. In general, the available tractive effort differed little from that of the 4-6-2, but the steam-raising ability was increased, giving more power at speed. The 4-6-4 was best suited to high-speed running across flat terrain. Since the type had fewer driving wheels than carrying wheels, a smaller percentage of the locomotive's weight contributed to traction, compared to other types. Like the 4-6-2, it was well suited for high speed passenger trains, but not for starting heavy freight trains and slogging on long sustained grades, where more pairs of driving wheels are better. The first 4-6-4 tender locomotive in the world was a four-cylinder compound locomotive, designed by Gaston du Bousquet for the Chemins de fer du Nord in France in 1911. Since it was designed for the Paris-Saint Petersburg express, it was named the Baltic after the Baltic Sea, which was a logical extension of the naming convention that started with the 4-4-2 and 4-6-2. The first 4-6-4 in the United States of America, J-1a #5200 of the New York Central Railroad, was built in 1927 to the railroad's design by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO). There, the type was named the Hudson after the Hudson River. They are also designed to pull 16-18 passenger cars in passenger service. The world speed record for steam locomotives was held by a 4-6-4 at least twice. In 1934, the Milwaukee Road's class F6 no. 6402 reached and, in 1936, the German class 05.002 reached . That record was broken by the British 4-6-2 no. 4468 Mallard on 3 July 1938, when it reached , still the world speed record for steam traction. Tank locomotives The 4-6-4T was also a fairly common wheel arrangement for passenger tank locomotives. As such, it was essentially the tank locomotive equivalent of a tender locomotive, with water tanks and a coal bunker supported by four trailing wheels instead of in a tender. In New Zealand, some 4-6-4T locomotives (the Wab class) were tank versions of 4-6-2 locomotives (of the Ab class). The first known 4-6-4 tank locomotive was rebuilt from a Natal Government Railways (NGR) K&S Class 4-6-0T which was modified in 1896 to enable it to run equally well in either direction on the Natal South Coast line, where no turning facilities were available at the time. This sole locomotive later became the Class C2 on the South African Railways (SAR). The first known locomotive class to be designed with a 4-6-4T wheel arrangement, the NGR's Class F tank locomotive, was based on this modified locomotive and built by Neilson, Reid & Company in 1902. These became the Class E on the SAR in 1912. One streamlined 4-6-4T was built for the Deutsche Reichsbahn in 1935. Use Australia Tender locomotives Seventy R class 4-6-4 tender locomotives, the only class of this configuration in Australia and built by North British Locomotive Company, were introduced by the Victorian Railways in 1951 for mainline express passenger operations. However, the introduction in 1952 of the B class diesel-electric locomotives saw the R class almost immediately being relegated to secondary passenger and freight use, with many being staged at depots around the state. A number were preserved and some of these continued to operate on special excursion trains. With the privatisation of regional passenger operations in Victoria in the mid-1990s, two R class locomotives were brought back into normal revenue service by the West Coast Railway, for regularly scheduled mainline passenger trains between Melbourne and Warrnambool. The locomotives underwent a number of modifications to allow for reliable high speed operation, including dual Lempor exhausts, oil firing and the addition of a diesel control stand for multiple unit operation. The use of these R class locomotives ceased after the demise of the private operator in 2004. Tank locomotives The tank locomotive configuration was a popular type with the Western Australian Government Railways. The D class was introduced for suburban passenger service in 1912. Its successors, both also of the 4-6-4T wheel arrangement, were the Dm class of 1945 that was rebuilt from older E class 4-6-2 tender locomotives, and the Dd class of 1946. The New South Wales Government Railways 30 Class 4-6-4T locomotives were used on Sydney and Newcastle suburban passenger train workings from 1903 until the end of steam operations in the 1970s. No. 3046 is preserved at the Dorrigo Steam Railway & Museum. No. 3013 is stored, dismantled at the Canberra Railway Museum. 3085 is awaiting restoration at Goulburn Roundhouse. 3112 operated tour trains for a number of years but is currently out of service in Canberra. 3137 saw regular use in the 1970s and 1980s as part of the NSW Rail Museum operating fleet, but is out of service and now on static display at Thirlmere. Canada Tender locomotives The second-largest user of the type in North America was the Canadian Pacific with 65 H1a to H1e class locomotives, numbered 2800 to 2864 and built by Montreal Locomotive Works (MLW) between 1929 and 1940. They were highly successful and improved service and journey times on the CPR's transcontinental routes. The third and later batches of CPR Hudsons, H1c to H1e numbers 2820 to 2864, were dubbed Royal Hudsons and were semi-streamlined. Royal permission was given for these locomotives to bear the royal crown and arms after locomotive No. 2850 hauled King George VI across Canada in 1939. Five CPR Hudsons survived. H1b class no. 2816 Empress is the sole remaining unstreamlined CPR Hudson. It was repatriated from static display at Steamtown in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to the CPR in 1998 and was restored and converted to oil-burning to haul excursions for CPR. The other remaining H1 class locomotives are all Royal Hudsons. As of 2008, three were on display in museums, No. 2839 in California, No. 2850 in Quebec and No. 2858 in Ontario, while No. 2860, the first oil-burning Royal Hudson of the class, was operational and based in British Columbia. By 2008, the CPR Hudsons were the only operational Hudsons in North America. (Also see North American production list) Tank locomotives The Grand Trunk Railway (GTR) had six K2 class locomotives, built in September 1914 by MLW and acquired for suburban service. Numbered 1540 to 1545 on the GTR, they were reclassified as X-10-a and renumbered 45 to 50 after being absorbed by the Canadian National (CN) in 1923. Three of them are preserved, numbers GT 1541 (CN 46) and (CN 47) at the Steamtown National Historic Site in Scranton, Pennsylvania, and GT 1544 (CN 49) at the Canadian Railway Museum in Delson, Quebec. (Also see North American production list) Finland The Finnish State Railways Class Pr2, nicknamed Henschel, was a gauge passenger tank locomotive class, ordered from Henschel & Son by the Estonian State Railways in the spring of 1939 and completed in 1941. The outbreak of the Second World War prevented their delivery to Estonia, but a few of these engines did operate in Latvia in 1942. They became superfluous when the Germans began converting the Baltic tracks to , and the four locomotives were sold to Finland. They were classified Pr2 and numbered 1800 to 1803 upon their arrival in Finland in December 1942. The Class Pr2 tanks were quite advanced locomotives and were based on the Henschel-built DRG Class 62 tank engine design of 1928 for the Deutsche Reichsbahn. After their initial teething problems were solved, they proved to be fast runners and an ideal addition to the motive power stable. They were originally built as oil-burners and reverted to this type of fuel between 1947 and 1954, when oil prices were low. With its coupled wheels, it was very fast and one of them achieved during a test run. No. 1803, the last Class Pr2 in service, was withdrawn in May 1960. Only no. 1800 has been preserved. France The four-cylinder compound locomotive designed by Gaston du Bousquet for the French Chemins de fer du Nord, of which two (3.1101 and 3.1102) were built at the company's workshops in 1911, was the first tender locomotive in the world with this wheel arrangement. Named the Baltic since it was intended for service on the Paris-Saint Petersburg express, its most remarkable feature was the en echelon arrangement of the two low-pressure inside cylinders in order to accommodate the very large bore. One of them was built with a water-tube firebox. Although they were not multiplied, they were the forerunners of the highly successful 4-6-2 Nord Pacifics and Super-Pacifics. One survives in the Cité du Train at Mulhouse in eastern France, cut up in sectioned form to display its interior during the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937. Its tender was not preserved. France also produced some of the last Baltic locomotives. In 1938, Marc de Caso, the last Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Nord, originated the construction of eight Baltic locomotives, all delivered to the newly established SNCF. Of these eight, three were 232.R class three-cylinder simple expansion (simplex) locomotives with rotary cam poppet valve gear, while four were 232.S class four-cylinder compound locomotives, initially also with poppet valve gear that was later replaced by Walschaerts valve gear driving oscillating cams. Built for comparative purposes, it was found that the compounds outperformed the simples. The eighth of the class, the final French Baltic type, was completed in 1949 as the 232.U.1 class. This was another four-cylinder compound with Walschaerts valve gear, but with very large and light piston valves, that proved capable of more than . This locomotive is also preserved at Mulhouse. (Also see Netherlands) Germany Tender locomotives Three tender locomotives were built for the Deutsche Reichsbahn (DRG) by August Borsig in 1935. Designated Class 05, they were designed for high speed running. They were three-cylinder locomotives with giant driving wheels and powerful clasp brakes on all wheels. The first two locomotives were conventional locomotives, but the third was built as a cab forward and burned pulverised coal. All three were built streamlined, in shrouds that covered the locomotives almost to the railhead. On 11 May 1936, the 05.002 set a world speed record of that was bettered by the British 4-6-2 Mallard two years later, on 3 July 1938. The 05.003 was converted to conventional boiler-forward running in 1944. All three survived the Second World War and were rebuilt as conventional non-streamlined locomotives in 1950, with new boilers. They worked in this form until 1957, when electric locomotives took over on the high-speed routes. The first locomotive, 05.001, was restored to its original streamlined configuration in 1961, for display in the Nuremberg Transport Museum. Tank locomotives A number of German locomotive classes were built, the best known being the Prussian T 18 class of 1912. Altogether 534 of them were built by the Stettiner Maschinenbau AG Vulcan and Henschel & Son between 1912 and 1927. Of these, 458 went to the Prussian state railways and subsequently the Deutsche Reichsbahn, where they became the DRG Class 78. India There were two classes of tender locomotives in India, both early in the history of the wheel arrangement and also of unusually narrow gauge. The nine G class locomotives of the gauge Barsi Light Railway in western India were built by Nasmyth, Wilson & Company in 1928 and 1930 and by WG Bagnall in 1939. The four ND class locomotives of the gauge Scindia State Railway in Gwalior were built in 1928 by Kerr, Stuart & Company. Indonesia Java Staatsspoorwegen as state-owned railways in Dutch East Indies ordered 39 units of 4-6-4T for the need of increasing traffic of express trains, manufactured by Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works (SLM), Switzerland, Armstrong Whitworth, UK and Werkspoor, Netherlands and soon classified as SS Class 1100 (SS 1101–1139) which were came in 1919–1920. The class was designed to meet the requirement to haul trains of 400 tons at a speed of on a incline with radius curves and must be able to turn corners with a radius of 120 metres and a speed of 80 kilometres per hour (50 miles per hour). These SS 1100s were initially made to work the express interurban train which connecting Surabaya–Malang and could achieve its speeds at 100 kilometres per hour (62 miles per hour). The SS 1100s were superseded by more fast and reliable SS 1300s in 1921. As an alternative, several SS 1100s were made to work the East Java Express trains, working in tandem with the 2-8-0 SS Class 900 (D50) providing 5 hours travel between Surabaya and Banyuwangi. After Japanese occupation and Indonesian Independence they renumbered to C27 class. Of the 39 built, two are preserved as static exhibits at the Ambarawa Railway Museum and the Transportation Museum of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. By 1921, 58 units of new express locomotives were built for the Java Staatsspoorwegen from 3 German builders (Henschel & Son, Sächsische Maschinenfabrik and Maschinenfabrik Esslingen) with specifications could haul some series of trains at speeds of 90 kilometres per hour (56 miles per hour) on flat line and 45 kilometres per hour (28 miles per hour) on incline, they were classified as SS Class 1300 (1301-1358). During some tests, the power output jumped to 1,000 horsepower (hp) from its design which only 900 horsepower. SS 1300s could easily driven at speeds of 100 kilometres per hour (62 miles per hour) on flat routes and 55 kilometres per hour (34 miles per hour) on inclines. It was declared the world's fastest steam locomotive on gauge when the drivers could spur locomotives up to and used to haul some express trains like Eendaagsche and Java Nacht on Batavia (Weltevreden)–Surabaya line, Vlugge Vier on Batavia (Weltevreden)–Bandung line and Vlugge Vijf on Surabaya–Malang line. After Japanese occupation and Indonesian Independence, they renumbered as C28 class. The C28s were one of the most popular in Indonesia especially for the drivers, beside achieving speeds of up to , they were reliable and also easy to maintain. One of the C28 class number 35 was also modified to tender locomotive (4-6-4) on Cepu line which carried out by Djawatan Kereta Api (DKA) or The Department of Railway of the Republic of Indonesia for presidential train. This modification was actually part of a plan carried out by SS since 1930s to modified their 4-6-4 tank engines to tender one using tenders from the scrapped Bull Moose Alco 2-8-8-0 SS Class 1200 (DKA DD50) to extend their operational range when hauled the express trains but it was cancelled due to Great Depression and Second World War. But unfortunately, the modified tank-tender locomotive was also scrapped in the end of steam ages in Indonesia. Ireland The first and longest-lived Baltics in Ireland were two locomotives, built by Nasmyth, Wilson in 1904 for the narrow-gauge County Donegal Railways. Both were later superheated and one lasted until 1967, albeit derelict. Japan Between 1947 and 1961, the Japanese National Railways built three classes of rather advanced American style gauge Hudson tender locomotives. Between 1947 and 1949, 33 Class C61 locomotives were rebuilt from former Class D51 Mikado freight locomotives. The Class C61 was the first Japanese locomotive with the Hudson wheel arrangement. In 1948 and 1949, 49 Class C62 locomotives were built with new 4-6-4 frames and using the boilers of Class D52 Mikado locomotives. These were the largest and fastest steam passenger locomotives to run in Japan. Between 1953 and 1961, 47 Class C60 locomotives were rebuilt from surplus Class C59 Pacific locomotives at the Hamamatsu and Kōriyama factories. The Class C60 and Class C61 were smaller locomotives than the Class C62, which filled the tight Japanese loading gauge. They were equipped with Boxpok driving wheels and used several American-style appliances, even though they had British-style smokebox doors. Netherlands The Dutch Railways ordered six 4-6-4T passenger locomotives from Beyer, Peacock and Company in 1913. A follow-up order for 34 locomotives was only partly delivered when, due to the downturn in traffic caused by World War I, the Dutch authorities cancelled the remainder of the order. The 40 locomotives as ordered were originally to be numbered 1201 to 1240, but the 26 that were delivered were later renumbered 6001 to 6026. The 14 undelivered locomotives were sold to the British War Department for use on the Western Front, where air-braked passenger locomotives were in short supply. They were assigned Railway Operating Division (ROD) numbers 1 to 12, 14 and 15 and were used on ambulance and troop trains as well as civilian passenger trains in the British sector. After the war, they were sold to the Chemins de Fer du Nord in France, who numbered them 3.871 to 3.884. In 1938, all fourteen passed on to the SNCF, who renumbered them 232.TB.1 to 232.TB.14. Two were withdrawn in 1946, but the rest remained in service until 1950–1951. They were outlived by their Dutch sister locomotives, of which twenty were still in service in 1952. (Also see France) There were also ten four-cylinder 6100 class locomotives, built in 1929 by Hohenzollern and Werkspoor and based on the 3700 4-6-0 class. The last two were withdrawn in 1958. Philippines There were two 4-6-4 tank locomotives built by the North British Locomotive Company as an extension of the original 120 class for the Manila Railroad Company built in 1910. Numbered Manila Railroad 127 and 128, the two locomotives were based in Tarlac City yards. No. 128 remained in service with the Manila Railroad by 1946 on the Canlubang branch line, and were scrapped before 1952. The original Manila Railroad 160 class was also assigned to an order of seven 4-6-4T types also built by NBL in 1914. However, due to World War I hampering the transfer of British equipment to Asia, the 4-6-4s were instead given to South Africa. The 160 class numbering was later given to four 2-6-0+0-6-2 Kitson Meyer locomotives known as the Manila Railroad 160 class. South Africa No tender locomotives saw service in South Africa, but six 4-6-4T tank locomotive classes were used, all of them on . In 1896, the Natal Government Railways (NGR) rebuilt one of its Class K&S 4-6-0 tank locomotives to a configuration, as directed by NGR Locomotive Superintendent George William Reid. This was the first known use of this wheel arrangement and was done to enable the locomotive to run equally well in either direction in shuttle service on the Natal South Coast line, where no turning facilities were available. In 1912, when it was assimilated into the South African Railways (SAR), this locomotive was designated Class C2. Ten tank locomotives, designed by G.W. Reid, were built for the NGR by Neilson, Reid & Company in 1902. It was the first known locomotive in the world to be designed and built as a Baltic type. Known as the Neilson, Reid locomotives until they were designated the NGR's Class F, they were larger versions of the rebuilt Class H locomotive of 1896 and many of the main dimensions were identical. It had a plate frame, Stephenson valve gear and used saturated steam. In 1912 they became the Class E on the SAR. Eight Class F tank locomotives were placed in service on the Central South African Railways (CSAR) in 1904, designed by CSAR Chief Locomotive Superintendent P.A. Hyde and built by Vulcan Foundry. It had a bar frame, Stephenson valve gear and used saturated steam, and was acquired for the suburban services between Springs and Randfontein. The double red lining on their black livery and polished copper-capped chimneys, brass domes and boiler bands earned them the nickname Chocolate Boxes. These locomotives retained their Class F classification on the SAR. In 1905, two rack tank locomotives were built for the CSAR by Vulcan Foundry, for use on the steep rack section between Waterval Onder and Waterval Boven on the line to Mozambique. Designed as two-cylinder locomotives by Hyde, the design was modified by the builders to four cylinders with the inside cylinders driving the rack equipment, but without a compensating increase in boiler capacity. The locomotives were failures on the rack section, their rack equipment was removed within a year of entering service and they were reassigned to shunting duty. In 1912, they were considered obsolete by the SAR and not classified, but they remained in service until 1915. Seven Class K tank locomotives which had been built for the Manila Railway Company in the Philippine Islands by the North British Locomotive Company in 1914, were sold to the SAR in 1917 since delivering them to the Philippines during the First World War became impossible. They were superheated, had Walschaerts valve gear and were the first locomotives in South Africa to be equipped with exhaust steam injectors, which were of the Davies & Metcalfe pattern. Nicknamed Manila, they remained in service until 1938. Six tank locomotives, designed by SAR Chief Mechanical Engineer D.A. Hendrie and built by Nasmyth, Wilson & Company, were introduced on the SAR in 1915. Designated Class J, they had Walschaerts valve gear and Belpaire fireboxes and used saturated steam. Acquired to cope with increasing traffic on the Natal South Coast, but unable to handle the rapidly increasing loads due to their small proportions, they soon ended up being employed as shunting engines in the Durban harbour, at Mossel Bay and in the Cape Midlands, until they were withdrawn from service by 1957. Soviet Union Only three prototype Hudson locomotives were built in the former Soviet Union, in 1937 and 1938. They were all streamlined and were the only streamlined series of Soviet steam locomotives, although a later post-war P36 series Northern locomotive was semi-streamlined. All three were scrapped in the 1950s. In 1937, two were built by the Kolomna Locomotive Works. These were known as the 2-3-2K locomotives, designed by Lev Lebedyanskii and rated at . Designated the P12 series, they were used to haul the Red Arrow passenger train between Moscow and Leningrad. The intention was to build up to ten 2-3-2K locomotives to haul all express passenger trains between Moscow and Leningrad, but these plans were interrupted by the Second World War and not resumed. Another one was built in Voroshilovgrad in 1938, known as the 2-3-2V experimental locomotive number 6998. This locomotive was never used on mainline service. United Kingdom Tender locomotives The only tender locomotive in the United Kingdom was the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) no. 10000, built in 1930 as an experimental high-pressure compound locomotive with an experimental high-pressure water-tube boiler. It was the only locomotive of the Class W1 and became known as the Hush-hush locomotive on account of the great secrecy under which it was built. Its trailing wheels were arranged uniquely. Instead of being in one four-wheel trailing truck, the first pair was a Cartazzi axle, mounted in a rigid frame but still allowed sideways deflection against a centering force, as typical of the LNER's practice on its Pacific locomotives. The second pair was in a two-wheel trailing truck. The experiment proved much less successful than had been hoped and in 1936 it was rebuilt along the lines of a streamlined LNER Class A4 4-6-2, though it retained its 4-6-4 wheel arrangement. After being rebuilt, the Class W1 was still easily distinguishable from an A4 at a glance, without looking for the extra trailing wheels, by the fact that it was never officially named even though the name Pegasus had been proposed. It therefore became known among trainspotters as the Un-named or No-name Streak. Tank locomotives A number of locomotives were built for various British railway companies. The first standard-gauge examples were Robert Whitelegg's design in 1912 for the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway (LT&SR). They were only delivered after the LT&SR had been taken over by the Midland Railway, where they were designated the 2100 class. Between 1914 and 1922, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR) built seven L class tank locomotives, known as the Brighton Baltics. The first examples suffered from instability problems until they were rebuilt with well-tanks. These high-speed tank locomotives hauled the famous Brighton Belle train until the electrification of the Brighton Main Line in 1933, after which they were converted into N15X class tender locomotives. They remained in service until 1957. The Glasgow and South Western Railway and a number of other railways also had tank locomotive classes of this wheel arrangement. The Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway examples were very rare in having four cylinders. Known as the Dreadnought Tanks, they proved to be too large and too complex for the duties they performed. The saturated steam tank locomotives of the Belfast and County Down Railway were spectacularly unsuccessful because of poor valve settings. On the other hand, the Furness Railway tank locomotives, also using saturated steam and with inside cylinders, were very popular with their crews. United States With the exception of the Grand Trunk Railway's K2 Class tank locomotives built in the 1910s, all American 4-6-4 locomotives had tenders. The first Hudson locomotive in North America was built in 1927 for the New York Central Railroad (NYC) by the American Locomotive Company (ALCO), to the railroad's design. The locomotive proved to be very successful and was named the Hudson type, after the Hudson River. Thirteen of these locomotives, one J-1e type and twelve J-3a types, were streamlined for use with named passenger trains like the Empire State Express and the 20th Century Limited. Between the NYC and its subsidiaries, the Boston & Albany Railroad (B&A), the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis Railway (CCC&StL or Big Four) and the Michigan Central Railroad (MC), they acquired altogether 275 locomotives of several different types, the largest Hudson fleet in North America. The Milwaukee Road could have produced the first American since its design work was done earlier than that of the NYC, but financial constraints delayed the project and the Milwaukee's locomotives only emerged in 1930. The Milwaukee called them Baltic, following the European practice started in France. The initial order of fourteen Class F6 locomotives was followed by eight more Class F6a locomotives in 1931 and, in 1938, the Milwaukee acquired six streamlined Class F7 Hudsons with the shrouds. These took over the Milwaukee's crack Hiawatha express trains from the Class A Atlantics and were among the fastest steam locomotives of all time. Similar to the Milwaukee F7s, the Chicago & North Western (CNW) Class E-4 were streamlined 4-6-4s with 84in drivers. Another early adopter of the 4-6-4 was the Atchison, Topeka, & Santa Fe (Santa Fe) who ordered 10 3450 class 4-6-4 locomotives in 1927 from Baldwin. The 3450 class employed the same boiler as Santa Fe's 3400 class Pacifics with a larger grate and slightly smaller 73 in drivers. Santa Fe designated their new 4-6-4 a "Heavy Pacific". In 1937, Santa Fe substantially modified their 3450 class, reducing tubing, increasing the firebox area, and increasing drivers to 79in. The same year, they ordered 6 more Heavy Pacific 4-6-4s (class 3460) from Baldwin including one streamlined locomotive (the Blue Goose, 3460). Like the F7 and E4, the 3460 class employed drivers. In December 1937, locomotive #3461 set a world record for the longest single run by a steam locomotive by completing the 2,227 miles (3,584 km) from Los Angeles, California to Chicago without maintenance other than five re-fuelling stops en route, hauling Train #8, the Fast Mail Express. In 1937, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad (Burlington Route) needed backup locomotives for their streamlined diesel-hauled Zephyr passenger trains. Their solution was to streamline their Baldwin-built no. 3002 in their main Iowa shops. The locomotive was renumbered as No. 4000 and given the name Aeolus, after the mythical keeper of the winds. A second streamlined was built for this purpose and numbered 4001. There were also some once-off and experimental locomotives. A number were rebuilt from Pacific locomotives, or in some cases from other designs. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) built four as experimental locomotives between 1933 and 1936, using Colonel Emerson's water-tube fireboxes, but eventually turned to diesel-electric traction instead. In 1937, the Illinois Central Railroad (IC) rebuilt a 2-8-4 Berkshire into its only Hudson, the Illinois Central No. 1, which was not a success and was not repeated. The railroad had also rebuilt seven 4-6-0s gained with acquisition of the Chesapeake, Ohio and Southwestern Railroad into 4-6-4Ts for easier bi-directional operation. All were scrapped with their line's electrification finishing in 1928. The Wabash Railroad rebuilt its seven Class P1 Hudsons from their unsuccessful K-4 and K5 Class 2-8-2 Mikado locomotives. From 1937 to 1941 the Frisco Railroad rebuilt their 10 1060 class 1917-built 4-6-2s. While large and powerful they had initially had firebox problems, but the rebuild as hudsons resolved this in addition to further boosting their strength. They received blue streamlining on their running boards and some lasted into the last year of steam on the Frisco in 1952. In 1946 the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad rebuilt their five F-19 class pacifics into hudsons, with four of them gaining streamlining. These were in addition the as-built 4-6-4s purchased and to be purchased by the road. They were intended to serve alongside the new streamlined M-1 class steam turbine locomotives on the new Chessie service. However, the train's launch was cancelled due to declining post-war passenger numbers, and dieselization meant both the rebuilds and newbuilds were all retired by the mid-1950s. One of the rebuilds, 490, has been preserved, still with its streamlining, at the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Museum. North American production list Altogether 21 railroads in North America owned s. Many were similar in concept to the NYC Hudsons, with driving wheels, but most were a little larger than the NYC locomotives, such as the F6 and F6a classes of the Milwaukee Road, the class of the Canadian National, the Canadian Pacific locomotives, the class of the Burlington Route, the class of the New Haven and the 1151 class of the Lackawanna. The heaviest were the C&O's class at 443,000 lbs, There were also the lightweights, which include the class of the Nickel Plate Road, the class D of the Maine Central and the class of the Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México (N de M). On these, the extra axle was used to reduce the axle load in comparison to a Pacific locomotive. Because the design was really only optimally suited to express passenger trains, which were dieselised early, the Hudsons were early candidates for withdrawal and scrapping. None of the NYC locomotives survived and neither did any of the Milwaukee locomotives. Five Canadian Pacific Hudsons survive, including four Royal Hudsons and the un-streamlined Canadian Pacific 2816. Five of the Burlington Route locomotives survive, including the Aeolus. Other surviving 4-6-4 locomotives are two each of the Santa Fe and Canadian National, and single examples from the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway, N de M and Nickel Plate Road. The Pennsylvania Railroad also owned the P5 class of electric locomotives, also with a wheel arrangement. In Model Railroading The Lionel Corporation used the 4-6-4 arrangement in several of its locomotives. These locomotives have become very prized by the public today. References External links 6,4-6-4

424948

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brutalist%20architecture

Brutalist architecture

Brutalist architecture is an architectural style that emerged during the 1950s in the United Kingdom, among the reconstruction projects of the post-war era but commonly known for its presence in post-war communist nations. Brutalist buildings are characterised by minimalist constructions that showcase the bare building materials and structural elements over decorative design. The style commonly makes use of exposed, unpainted concrete or brick, angular geometric shapes and a predominantly monochrome colour palette; other materials, such as steel, timber, and glass, are also featured. Descending from the modernist movement, brutalism is said to be a reaction against the nostalgia of architecture in the 1940s. Derived from the Swedish phrase nybrutalism, the term "new brutalism" was first used by British architects Alison and Peter Smithson for their pioneering approach to design. The style was further popularised in a 1955 essay by architectural critic Reyner Banham, who also associated the movement with the French phrases béton brut ("raw concrete") and art brut ("raw art"). The style, as developed by architects such as the Smithsons, Hungarian-born Ernő Goldfinger, and the British firm Chamberlin, Powell & Bon, was partly foreshadowed by the modernist work of other architects such as French-Swiss Le Corbusier, Estonian-American Louis Kahn, German-American Mies van der Rohe, and Finnish Alvar Aalto. In the United Kingdom, brutalism was featured in the design of utilitarian, low-cost social housing influenced by socialist principles and soon spread to other regions around the world, most notably Eastern Europe. Brutalist designs became most commonly used in the design of institutional buildings, such as provincial legislatures, public works projects, universities, libraries, courts, and city halls. The popularity of the movement began to decline in the late 1970s, with some associating the style with urban decay and totalitarianism. Brutalism's popularity in socialist and communist nations owed to traditional styles being associated with bourgeoisie, whereas concrete emphasized equality. Brutalism has been polarising historically; specific buildings, as well as the movement as a whole, have drawn a range of criticism (often being described as "cold" or "soulless") but have also elicited support from architects and local communities (with many brutalist buildings having become cultural icons, sometimes obtaining a protected status). In recent decades, the movement has become a subject of renewed interest. In 2006, several Bostonian architects called for a rebranding of the style to "heroic architecture" to distance it from the negative connotations of the term "brutalism". History The term nybrutalism (new brutalism) was coined by the Swedish architect Hans Asplund to describe Villa Göth, a modern brick home in Uppsala, designed in January 1950 by his contemporaries Bengt Edman and Lennart Holm. Showcasing the 'as found' design approach that would later be at the core of brutalism, the house displays visible I-beams over windows, exposed brick inside and out, and poured concrete in several rooms where the tongue-and-groove pattern of the boards used to build the forms can be seen. The term was picked up in the summer of 1950 by a group of visiting English architects, including Michael Ventris, Oliver Cox, and Graeme Shankland, where it apparently "spread like wildfire, and [was] subsequently adopted by a certain faction of young British architects". The first published usage of the phrase "new brutalism" occurred in 1953, when Alison Smithson used it to describe a plan for their unbuilt Soho house which appeared in the November issue of Architectural Design. She further stated "It is our intention in this building to have the structure exposed entirely, without interior finishes wherever practicable." The Smithsons' Hunstanton School completed in 1954 in Norfolk, and the Sugden House completed in 1955 in Watford, represent the earliest examples of new brutalism in the United Kingdom. Hunstanton school, likely inspired by Mies van der Rohe's 1946 Alumni Memorial Hall at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago, United States, is notable as the first completed building in the world to carry the title of "new brutalist" by its architects. At the time, it was described as "the most truly modern building in England". The term gained increasingly wider recognition when British architectural historian Reyner Banham used it to identify both an ethic and aesthetic style, in his 1955 essay The New Brutalism. In the essay, Banham described Hunstanton and the Soho house as the "reference by which The New Brutalism in architecture may be defined." Reyner Banham also associated the term new brutalism with art brut and béton brut, meaning raw concrete in French, for the first time. The best-known béton brut architecture is the proto-brutalist work of the Swiss-French architect Le Corbusier, in particular his 1952 Unité d'habitation in Marseille, France; the 1953 Secretariat Building (Palace of Assembly) in Chandigarh, India; and the 1955 church of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France. Banham further expanded his thoughts in the 1966 book, The New Brutalism: Ethic or Aesthetic?, to characterise a somewhat recently established cluster of architectural approaches, particularly in Europe. In the book, Banham says that Le Corbusier's concrete work was a source of inspiration and helped popularise the movement, suggesting "if there is one single verbal formula that has made the concept of Brutalism admissible in most of the world's Western languages, it is that Le Corbusier himself described that concrete work as 'béton-brut'". He further states that "the words 'The New Brutalism' were already circulating, and had acquired some depth of meaning through things said and done, over and above the widely recognised connection with béton brut. The phrase still 'belonged' to the Smithsons, however, and it was their activities above all others that were giving distinctive qualities to the concept of Brutalism." Characteristics New brutalism is not only an architectural style; it is also a philosophical approach to architectural design, a striving to create simple, honest, and functional buildings that accommodate their purpose, inhabitants, and location. Stylistically, brutalism is a strict, modernistic design language that has been said to be a reaction to the architecture of the 1940s, much of which was characterised by a retrospective nostalgia. Peter Smithson believed that the core of brutalism was a reverence for materials, expressed honestly, stating "Brutalism is not concerned with the material as such but rather the quality of material", and "the seeing of materials for what they were: the woodness of the wood; the sandiness of sand." Architect John Voelcker explained that the "new brutalism" in architecture "cannot be understood through stylistic analysis, although some day a comprehensible style might emerge", supporting the Smithsons' description of the movement as "an ethic, not an aesthetic". Reyner Banham felt the phrase "the new brutalism" existed as both an attitude toward design as well as a descriptive label for the architecture itself and that it "eludes precise description, while remaining a living force". He attempted to codify the movement in systematic language, insisting that a brutalist structure must satisfy the following terms, "1, Formal legibility of plan; 2, clear exhibition of structure, and 3, valuation of materials for their inherent qualities 'as found'." Also important was the aesthetic "image", or "coherence of the building as a visual entity". Brutalist buildings are usually constructed with reoccurring modular elements representing specific functional zones, distinctly articulated and grouped together into a unified whole. There is often an emphasis on graphic expressions in the external elevations and in the whole-site architectural plan in regard to the main functions and people-flows of the buildings. Buildings may use materials such as concrete, brick, glass, steel, timber, rough-hewn stone, and gabions among others. However, due to its low cost, raw concrete is often used and left to reveal the basic nature of its construction with rough surfaces featuring wood 'shuttering' produced when the forms were cast in-situ. Examples are frequently massive in character (even when not large) and challenge traditional notions of what a building should look like with focus given to interior spaces as much as exterior. A common theme in brutalist designs is the exposure of the building's inner-workings—ranging from their structure and services to their human use—in the exterior of the building. In the Boston City Hall, designed in 1962, the strikingly different and projected portions of the building indicate the special nature of the rooms behind those walls, such as the mayor's office or the city council chambers. From another perspective, the design of the Hunstanton School included placing the facility's water tank, normally a hidden service feature, in a prominent, visible tower. Rather than being hidden in the walls, Hunstanton's water and electric utilities were delivered via readily visible pipes and conduits. Brutalism as an architectural philosophy was often associated with a socialist utopian ideology, which tended to be supported by its designers, especially by Alison and Peter Smithson, near the height of the style. Indeed, their work sought to emphasize functionality and to connect architecture with what they viewed as the realities of modern life. Among their early contributions were "streets in the sky" in which traffic and pedestrian circulation were rigorously separated, another theme popular in the 1960s. This style had a strong position in the architecture of European communist countries from the mid-1960s to the late 1980s (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, USSR, Yugoslavia). In Czechoslovakia, Brutalism was presented as an attempt to create a "national" but also "modern socialist" architectural style. Such prefabricated socialist era buildings are called panelaky. Designers Architects whose work reflects certain aspects of the brutalist style include Louis Kahn. Architectural historian William Jordy says that although Kahn was "[o]pposed to what he regarded as the muscular posturing of most Brutalism", some of his work "was surely informed by some of the same ideas that came to momentary focus in the brutalist position." In Australia, examples of the brutalist style are Robin Gibson's Queensland Art Gallery, Ken Woolley's Fisher Library at the University of Sydney (his State Office Block is another), the High Court of Australia by Colin Madigan in Canberra, the MUSE building (also referred to as C7A MUSE) which was the original Library at Macquarie University before the new library replaced it, and WTC Wharf (World Trade Centre in Melbourne). John Andrews's government and institutional structures in Australia also exhibit the style. Canada possesses numerous examples of brutalist architecture. In the years leading to the 100th anniversary of the Confederation in 1967, the Federal Government financed the construction of many public buildings. Major brutalist examples, not all built as part of the Canadian Centennial, include the Grand Théâtre de Québec, the Édifice Marie-Guyart (formerly Complex-G), Hôtel Le Concorde, and much of the Laval University campus in Quebec City; Habitat 67, Place Bonaventure, the Maison de Radio-Canada, and several metro stations on the Montreal Metro's Green Line; the Confederation Centre of the Arts in Charlottetown; the National Arts Centre in Ottawa; the Hotel Dieu Hospital in Kingston; the Ontario Science Centre, Robarts Library, Rochdale College in Toronto; Royal Manitoba Theatre Centre and Canadian Grain Commission building in Winnipeg; and the church of the Westminster Abbey in British Columbia. In the United Kingdom, architects associated with the brutalist style include Ernő Goldfinger, wife-and-husband pairing Alison and Peter Smithson, some of the work of Sir Basil Spence, the London County Council/Greater London Council Architects Department, Owen Luder, John Bancroft, and, arguably perhaps, Sir Denys Lasdun, Sir Leslie Martin, Sir James Stirling and James Gowan with their early works. Some well-known examples of brutalist-influenced architecture in the British capital include the Barbican Centre (Chamberlin, Powell and Bon) and the National Theatre (Denys Lasdun). In the United States, Paul Rudolph and Ralph Rapson were both noted brutalists. Evans Woollen III, a pacesetter among architects in the Midwest, is credited for introducing the Brutalist and Modernist architecture styles to Indianapolis, Indiana. Walter Netsch is known for his brutalist academic buildings. Marcel Breuer was known for his "soft" approach to the style, often using curves rather than corners. In Atlanta, Georgia, the architectural style was introduced to Buckhead's affluent Peachtree Road with the Ted Levy-designed Plaza Towers and Park Place on Peachtree condominiums. Many of the stations of the Washington Metro, particularly older stations, were constructed in the brutalist style. In Serbia, Božidar Janković was a representative of the so-called "Belgrade School of residence", identifiable by its functionalist relations on the basis of the flat and elaborated in detail the architecture. Known example, Western City Gate also known as the Genex Tower is a 36-storey skyscraper in Belgrade, Serbia, which was designed in 1977 by Mihajlo Mitrović. It is formed by two towers connected with a two-storey bridge and revolving restaurant at the top. It is tall (with restaurant ) and is the second-tallest high-rise in Belgrade after Ušće Tower. The building was designed in the brutalist style with some elements of structuralism and constructivism. It is considered a prime representative of the brutalist architecture in Serbia and one of the best of its style built in the 1960s and the 1970s in the world. The treatment of the form and details is slightly associating the building with postmodernism and is today one of the rare surviving representatives of this style's early period in Serbia. The artistic expression of the gate marked an entire era in Serbian architecture. In Vietnam, brutalist architecture is particularly popular among old public buildings and has been associated with the bao cấp era (lit: subsidizing), the period during which the country followed Soviet-type economic planning. Many Soviet architects, most notably Garol Isakovich, were sent to Vietnam during that time to help train new architects and played an influential role in shaping the country's architectural styles for decades. Isakovich himself also designed some of the most notable brutalist buildings in Vietnam, including the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum (1975), the Ho Chi Minh Museum (1990), and the Vietnam-Soviet Friendship Palace of Culture and Labour (1985). In his later years, Isakovich, who was awarded the Hero of Labor by the Vietnamese government in 1976, is said to have deviated from the brutalist style and adopted Vietnamese traditional styles in his design, which has been referred to by some Vietnamese architects as Chủ nghĩa hiện đại địa phương (lit: local modernism) and hậu hiện đại (postmodernism). In the former South Vietnam, notable buildings that are said to carry brutalist elements include the Independence Palace (1966) designed by Ngô Viết Thụ, the first Asian architect to become an Honorary Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. However, whether South Vietnamese architecture prior to 1975 was brutalism or not remains a matter of dispute, with some architects argued it was actually modernism. In recent years, public sentiments in Vietnam towards brutalist architecture has shifted negatively, but the style is said to have made a comeback recently. On university campuses An early example of brutalist architecture in British universities was the extension to the department of architecture at the University of Cambridge in 1959 under the influenced of Leslie Martin, the head of the department, and designed by Colin St John Wilson and Alex Hardy, with participation by students at the university. This inspired further brutalist buildings in Cambridge, including the grade II listed University Centre (Howell, Killick, Partridge and Amis Architects; 1963–67) and the grade II listed Churchill College (Sheppard Robson and Partners; 1961–68). Possibly the most important brutalist building at Cambridge is the grade II* listed History Faculty Building (1964–68), the second building in architect James Stirling's Red Trilogy (along with the University of Leicester Engineering Building and the Florey Building at Queen's College, Oxford, both also grade II*), described in its listing as "a distinctive example of a new approach to education buildings, from a period when the universities were at the forefront of architectural patronage". The building of new universities in the UK in the 1960s led to opportunities for brutalist architects. The first to be built was the University of Sussex, designed by Basil Spence, with the grade I listed Falmer House (1960–62) as its centerpiece. The building has been described as a "meeting of Arts and Crafts with modernism", with features such as hand-made bricks that contrast with the pre-fabricated construction of other 1960s campuses, and colonnades of bare, board-marked concrete arches on brick piers inspired by the Colosseum, but is also considered one of the "key Brutalist buildings" by the Royal Institute of British Architects. One of the finest examples of a 1960s brutalist university campus is Denys Lasdun's work at the University of East Anglia, including six linked halls of residence commonly referred to as 'ziggurats', built over 1964–68 and listed as grade II*. Other notable examples include the grade II listed lecture block at Brunel University, designed by John Heywood of Richard Sheppard, Robson and Partners and built 1965–67, used as a location in Stanley Kubrick's 1971 film A Clockwork Orange, and the central hall of the University of York with its surrounding colleges (all grade II listed), designed by Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners who would go on to build the universities of Bath, Stirling and Ulster. A notable pairing of brutalist campus buildings is found at Durham University, with Ove Arup's grade I listed Kingsgate Bridge (1963), one of only six post-1961 buildings to have been listed as grade I by 2017, and the grade II listed Dunelm House (Richard Raines of the Architects' Co-Partnership; 1964–66), described in its listing as "the foremost students' union building of the post-war era in England" but only saved from demolition in 2021 following a five-year campaign by the Twentieth Century Society. Other particularly important (grade II*) brutalist buildings are Denys Lasdun's pair of commissions from the University of London – the School of Oriental and African Studies Philips Building (1973) and the Institute of Education building (1976) – and the Roger Stevens Building at the University of Leeds (Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, 1970), the centrepiece of a group of university buildings in Leeds. Prominent but unlisted are the campus buildings of the University of Essex, also by the Architects' Co-Partnership. Notable examples in Scotland include the grade A listed Main Library at the University of Edinburgh, designed by J M Marshall and Andrew Merrylees of Spence, Glover and Ferguson (1965–67) and the University of St Andrews's grade A listed Andrew Melville Hall by James Stirling (1963–68). One of the earliest brutalist buildings in the US was Paul Rudolph's 1963 Art and Architecture Building at Yale University where, as department chair, he was both client and architect, giving him a unique freedom to explore new directions. Rudolph's 1964 design for the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth is a rare example of an entire campus designed in the brutalist style, and was considered by him to be "the most complete realisation of his experiments with urbanism and monumentality". Walter Netsch similarly designed the entire University of Illinois-Chicago Circle Campus (now the East Campus of the University of Illinois at Chicago) under a single, unified brutalist design, built 1963–68. Netsch also designed the brutalist Joseph Regenstein Library for the University of Chicago and the Northwestern University Library. Crafton Hills College in California was designed by desert modern architect E. Stewart Williams in 1965 and built between 1966 and 1976. Williams' brutalist design contrasts with the steep terrain of the area and was chosen in part because it provided a firebreak from the surrounding environment. One of the most famous brutalist buildings in America is the Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego. Designed by William Pereira and built 1969–70, it is said to "occup[y] a fascinating nexus between brutalism and futurism", but was originally intended as a modernist building in steel and glass before cost considerations meant the structural elements were redesigned in concrete and moved to the outside of the building. Evans Woollen III's brutalist Clowes Memorial Hall, a performing arts facility that opened in 1963 on the campus of Butler University in Indianapolis, was praised for its bold and dramatic design. Brigham Young University's brutalist Franklin S. Harris Fine Arts Center, built in 1964 and opened in 1965, is due to be demolished in 2023. The University of Minnesota's West Bank campus features the Rarig Center, a performing arts venue by Ralph Rapson from 1971 that has been called "the best example in the Twin Cities of the style called Brutalism". Additionally, the university's East Bank campus features the Malcolm Moos Health Sciences Tower, the tallest building on the campus. It was designed by The Architects Collaborative, as well as Cerny and Associates, HGA, and Setter Leach and Lindstrom, and was completed in 1974. Litchfield Towers at the University of Pittsburgh was completed in 1963 and is composed of three cylindrical brutalist towers. The university's largest academic building, Wesley W. Posvar Hall, is a brutalist structure completed in 1978. The Joseph Mark Lauinger Library, the main library of the Georgetown University Library System, was designed by John Carl Warnecke and opened in 1970. Originally conceived with a traditional design similar to other buildings at Georgetown University, the final design of the Lauinger Library embraces brutalism and was intended as a modern interpretation of the nearby Healy Hall, a Flemish Romanesque building, with its iconic spire echoing the clock tower of Healy. Commonly referred to as "Lau", the building once received the Award of Merit by the American Institute of Architects in 1976 for distinguished accomplishment in library architecture. However, in recent years, as public attitudes towards brutalism shifted, the library has been referred to as one of the "ugliest" building in Georgetown and Washington, D.C. The Robarts Library at the University of Toronto was designed by Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde and built between 1968 and 1973. Although it has been called "a crowning achievement of the brutalist movement", its opening in 1974 came after public sentiment had turned against brutalism, leading to it being condemned as "a blunder on the grandest scale". Examples of brutalist university campuses can be found in other countries as well. At Rand Afrikaans University in Johannesburg, South Africa (now Kingsway Campus Auckland Park, University of Johannesburg), Willie Meyer and Francois Pienaar designed the university campus, which opened in 1979, as an expression of Afrikaans identity. Several universities in Southeast Asia are also said to feature brutalist designs, including those at the Ho Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmaceutical University, the Royal University of Phnom Penh, and the Industrial College of Hue. Criticism and reception A 2014 article in The Economist noted its unpopularity with the public, observing that a campaign to demolish a building will usually be directed against a Brutalist one. In 2005, the British TV programme Demolition ran a public vote to select twelve buildings that ought to be demolished, and eight of those selected were brutalist buildings. One argument is that this criticism exists in part because concrete façades do not age well in damp, cloudy maritime climates such as those of northwestern Europe and New England. In these climates, the concrete becomes streaked with water stains and sometimes with moss and lichen, and rust stains from the steel reinforcing bars. Critics of the style find the style unappealing due to its "cold" appearance, projecting an atmosphere of totalitarianism, as well as the association of the buildings with urban decay due to materials weathering poorly in certain climates and the surfaces being prone to vandalism by graffiti. Despite this, the style is appreciated by others, and preservation efforts are taking place in the United Kingdom. Brutalism now Although the Brutalist movement was largely over by the late 1970s and early 1980s, having largely given way to Structural Expressionism and Deconstructivism, it has experienced a resurgence of interest since 2015 with the publication of a variety of guides and books, including Brutal London (Zupagrafika, 2015), Brutalist London Map (2015), This Brutal World (2016), SOS Brutalism: A Global Survey (2017) as well as the lavish Atlas of Brutalist Architecture (Phaidon, 2018). Many of the defining aspects of the style have been softened in newer buildings, with concrete façades often being sandblasted to create a stone-like surface, covered in stucco, or composed of patterned, pre-cast elements. These elements are also found in renovations of older Brutalist buildings, such as the redevelopment of Sheffield's Park Hill. Villa Göth was listed as historically significant by the Uppsala county administrative board on 3 March 1995. Several Brutalist buildings in the United Kingdom have been granted listed status as historic and others, such as Gillespie, Kidd & Coia's St. Peter's Seminary, named by Prospect magazine's survey of architects as Scotland's greatest post-war building, have been the subject of conservation campaigns. Similar buildings in the United States have been recognized, such as the Pirelli Building in New Haven's Long Wharf. The Twentieth Century Society has unsuccessfully campaigned against the demolition of British buildings such as the Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square multi-storey car park, but successfully in the case of Preston bus station garage, London's Hayward Gallery and others. Notable buildings that have been demolished include the Smithson's Robin Hood Gardens (2017) in East London, John Madin's Birmingham Central Library (2016), Marcel Breuer's American Press Institute Building in Reston, Virginia, Araldo Cossutta's Third Church of Christ, Scientist in Washington, D.C. (2014), and the Welbeck Street car park in London (2019). See also Utopian architecture List of Brutalist structures References Further reading Monzo, Luigi: Plädoyer für herbe Schönheiten. Gastbeitrag im Rahmen der Austellung "SOS Brutalismus – Rettet die Betonmonster". Pforzheimer Zeitung, 27. February 2018, p. 6. Anna Rita Emili, Pure and simple, the architecture of New Brutalism, Ed.Kappa Rome 2008 Anna Rita Emili, Architettura estrema, il Neobrutalismo alla prova della contemporaneità, Quodlibet, Macerata 2011 Anna Rita Emili, Il Brutalismo paulista, L'architettura brasiliana tra teoria e progetto, Manifesto Libri, Roma ISBN 978872859759, pp. 335 External links "The incredible hulks: Jonathan Meades' A-Z of Brutalism" "Research of American Brutalism" 20th-century architectural styles American architectural styles British architectural styles Architecture in England by period or style 1950s architecture 1960s architecture 1970s architecture

424956

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfume%20%28novel%29

Perfume (novel)

Perfume: The Story of a Murderer ( ) is a 1985 literary historical fantasy novel by German writer Patrick Süskind. The novel explores the sense of smell and its relationship with the emotional meanings that scents may have. The story follows Jean-Baptiste Grenouille, an unloved orphan in 18th-century France who is born with an exceptional sense of smell, capable of distinguishing a vast range of scents in the world around him. Grenouille becomes a perfumer but later becomes involved in murder when he encounters a young girl with an unsurpassed wondrous scent. With translations into 49 languages and more than 20 million copies sold worldwide to date, Perfume is one of the best-selling German novels of the 20th century. The title remained in bestseller lists for about nine years and received almost unanimously positive national and international critical acclaim. It was translated into English by John E. Woods and won both the World Fantasy Award and the PEN Translation Prize in 1987. Some editions of the novel, including the first, have as their cover image Antoine Watteau's painting, Jupiter and Antiope, which depicts a sleeping woman. Plot Part One A boy is born in Paris, France in the year 1738, and subsequently abandoned. His mother is tried almost immediately for previous infanticide and subsequently executed, leaving him an orphan. He is named "Jean-Baptiste Grenouille" (French for "frog") and is fostered but is a difficult, solitary child and is eventually apprenticed to a local tanner. Unknown to other people, Grenouille has a remarkable sense of smell, giving him an extraordinary ability to discern subtlest odors from complex mixtures of scent and across great distances. One day, long after having memorized nearly all the smells of the city, Grenouille is surprised by a unique smell. He finds the source of the scent: a young virgin girl. Entranced by her scent and believing that he alone must possess it, he strangles her and stays with her body until the scent has left it. In his quest to learn more about the art of perfume-making, he becomes apprenticed to one of the city's finest perfumers, Giuseppe Baldini, an aging, once-great master of the trade who finds himself increasingly outperformed by rival perfumers. Grenouille proves himself a prodigy by copying and improving a rival's perfume in Baldini's laboratory, after which Baldini offers him an apprenticeship. Baldini teaches Grenouille the basic techniques of perfumery while selling Grenouille's masterful new formulas as his own, restoring his flagging reputation. Baldini eventually reveals to Grenouille that there are techniques other than distillation that can be used to preserve a wider range of odours, which can only be learned in the heartland of the perfumer's craft, in the region of Grasse in the French Riviera. Shortly after, Grenouille elects to leave Paris, and Baldini dies when his shop collapses into the river Seine. Part Two On his way to Grasse, Grenouille travels the countryside and is increasingly disgusted by the scent of humanity. Avoiding civilization, he comes instead to live in a cave inside the Plomb du Cantal, surviving off the mountain's sparse vegetation and wildlife. However, his peace is ended when he realizes after seven years that he himself does not possess any scent: he cannot smell himself and neither, he finally understands, can other people. Traveling to Montpellier with a fabricated story about being kidnapped and kept in a cave for seven years to account for his haggard appearance, he creates a body odour for himself from everyday materials and finds that his new "disguise" tricks people into thinking that it is the scent of a human; he is now accepted by society instead of shunned. In Montpellier, he gains the patronage of the Marquis de La Taillade-Espinasse, who uses Grenouille to publicize his pseudoscientific theory about the influence of "fluidal" energies on human vitality. Grenouille manufactures perfumes which successfully distort the public perception of him from a wretched "caveman" into a clean and cultivated patrician, helping to win enormous popularity for the Marquis' theory. Seeing how easily humanity can be fooled by a simple scent, Grenouille's hatred becomes contempt. He realizes that it is within his ability to develop scents described as "superhuman" and "angelic" that will affect in unprecedented ways how other people perceive him. Part Three In Grasse, Grenouille likes the scent of a woman called Laure, who is the daughter of a very wealthy man, who tries to save his daughter from being killed, but fails. Grenouille kills 24 women before killing Laure in a form of preparation. Despite his careful attention to detail, the police trace Laure's murder to him, and the hair and clothing of his previous victims are all discovered at his cabin near Grasse. He is caught soon afterwards and sentenced to death. However, on the way to his execution in the town square, Grenouille wears a new perfume he has created from his victims, this one of overwhelming power. The scent immediately causes the crowd of spectators to fawn in awe and adoration of him, and although the evidence of his guilt is absolute, the townspeople become so fond of him, so convinced of the innocence he now exudes, that the magistrate reverses the court's verdict and he is freed; even Laure's father is enthralled by the new scent and asks if he would consider being adopted as his son. Soon the crowd is so overcome with lust and emotion that the entire town participates in a mass orgy of which no one speaks afterwards and which few can clearly remember. The magistrate reopens the investigation into the murders and they are eventually attributed to Grenouille's employer Dominique Druot, who is tortured into making a false confession and later hanged without ceremony. Afterwards life returns to normal in Grasse. Part Four The effect his scent has had now confirms to Grenouille how much he hates people, especially as he realizes that they worship him now and that even this degree of control does not give him satisfaction. He decides to return to Paris, intending to die there, and after a long journey ends up at the fish market where he was born. The people are so drawn to him that they are compelled to obtain parts of his body, eventually tearing him to pieces and eating them. The story ends with the crowd, now embarrassed by their actions, agreeing that they did it out of "love". Characters In order of appearance: Grenouille's mother – Jean-Baptiste Grenouille was her fifth baby. She had claimed her first four were stillbirths or "semi-stillbirths". In her mid-twenties, with most of her teeth left, "some hair on her head", and a touch of gout, syphilis, and consumption, she was still quite pretty. Jean-Baptiste Grenouille – The novel's protagonist, born 17 July 1738 with an innate prodigious sense of smell (and also for unexplained reasons no personal scent of his own). His awareness of scent eventually causes him to conceive of capturing human scents, specifically those able to inspire love, which he lacks in his life. When he does succeed in this goal, he discovers it gives him no pleasure, and causes him only to despise others for being so easily fooled. Unable to find happiness, he is killed by a crowd after he pours his final perfume over himself. Grenouille's motivation for killing is described in the novel as purely the result of his desire to possess those rare scents capable of inspiring love towards their possessor: Jeanne Bussie – One of Grenouille's many wet-nurses. She is the first person to realise he does not have a scent and claims he is sucking all the life out of her. Father Terrier – A clergyman in charge of the church's charities and the distribution of its money to the poor and needy. He first thinks Grenouille is a cute baby, but once Grenouille begins to sniff Terrier, the priest becomes worried and sends the baby to a boarding house. Madame Gaillard – She does not have a sense of smell, due to being hit across the face with a poker during her younger years, so she does not know that Grenouille is scentless. In charge of a boarding house, her goal in life is to save enough money to have a proper death and funeral. Madame's poor sense of smell and ignorance about Grenouille's gifts, coupled with his assistance in finding her hidden money through his olfactory ability, cause Madame to believe he is psychic. Believing that psychic people bring bad luck and death, Madame sells Grenouille to the tanner Grimal. She loses all her money in old age, dies a miserable death in the Hôtel Dieu, and is not even buried individually after her death, but rather thrown into a mass grave. Children at the Boarding House – They are repulsed by Grenouille and even try, in vain, to suffocate him with rags and blankets while Grenouille is asleep. Grimal – A tanner who lives near the river in the rue de la Mortellerie. Grenouille works for him from age eight into his early youth until Baldini pays for him to be released. Grimal wastes this immense new income on an alcoholic binge; his drunkenness causes him to fall into a river and drown. The Plum Girl – Her natural scent is that of sea breeze, water lilies, and apricot blossoms; it is a rich, perfectly balanced, and magical scent. She has red hair and wears a gray, sleeveless dress. She is halving plums when Grenouille kills her as his first victim. Unable to retain her scent, her death motivates his quest to learn how human scent may be preserved. Giuseppe Baldini – An old traditional perfumer who sees his once-great reputation now fading away. He yearns for the old days when tastes in perfume did not change so quickly, and is angry at what he feels are upstarts in the now fast-moving perfume trade. He knows secretly that he never had a particular gift for creating and analyzing new scents; rather he had obtained the recipes which made his reputation from other sources. Lacking natural talent, he merely knows the art and business of perfumery and maintains a strict mystique to conceal the truth. His shop, located in the middle of the bridge Pont-au-Change, is filled with a mixture of scents so intoxicating that it scares away most potential customers. Baldini reluctantly permits Grenouille to demonstrate the copying of a competitor's perfume and is about to send Grenouille away when he realizes the copy is a faithful one; Grenouille then creates on the spot an exceptionally improved version of the original. Recognizing Grenouille's genius, Baldini buys him from Grimal as his apprentice and starts to rebuild his declining business. He becomes rich and famous once again from the new perfumes that Grenouille creates for him, though does not credit Grenouille for his contributions. He eventually gives Grenouille his journeyman papers. The very same night that Grenouille leaves Paris, Baldini's house and shop plunge into the river Seine when the bridge collapses, and the recipes for hundreds of Grenouille's perfumes are lost. Chénier – Baldini's assistant and apprentice for more than 30 years. He is somewhat younger than Baldini. He knows Baldini is talentless, but still boasts Baldini's skills in the hope that one day he will inherit Baldini's perfume shop. Pélissier – Baldini's chief rival, considered the most innovative perfumer in Paris despite not having any formal training. He is only mentioned and never appears in the novel. Marquis de La Taillade-Espinasse – Liege lord of the town of Pierrefort and a member of parliament. He is an amateur scientist who develops indulgent and ridiculous theses (his "fluidal theory"), which he attempts to demonstrate on Grenouille — also feeding him, providing him with new clothes, and giving him the opportunity to create a perfume. The Marquis dies soon after Grenouille's "disappearance", while pursuing his fluidal theory by attempting to live alone on the Pic du Canigou, a secluded mountain. Madame Arnulfi – A lively, black-haired woman of about thirty years of age. She has been widowed for almost a year. She owns the perfume business of her dead husband and has a journeyman named Druot, who is also her paramour. She hires Grenouille as her second journeyman. Dominique Druot – Madame Arnulfi's journeyman and paramour. He is the size of a Hun and is of average intelligence. Grenouille works for him as second journeyman. Druot is later hanged for Grenouille's crimes. Antoine Richis – Second consul and the richest man in Grasse, and Laure's father. Laure Richis – A beautiful red-headed girl, daughter of Antoine Richis, and the second girl whose scent is perceived as demanding capture by Grenouille. She is the inspiration for his lengthy killing spree as well as his final victim. Possible inspiration The real-life story of Spanish serial killer, Manuel Blanco Romasanta (1809-1863), also known as the "Tallow-Man", who killed several women and children, sold their clothes, and extracted their body-fat to make soap, resembles Grenouille's methods in some ways. The name of Jean-Baptiste Grenouille might be inspired by the French perfumer Paul Grenouille, who changed his name into Grenoville when he opened his luxury perfume house in 1879. Style The style of the novel can be characterized by the way it blends fantasy and fiction with factual information. That combination creates two distinguishable narrative lines - the fantastic one, which is conveyed in Grenouille's supernatural sense of smell, his odorlessness, and fairy-tale tones in the story, as well as the realistic one, composed of the socio-historical circumstances of the plot and naturalistic descriptions of i.e. the environment, the perfume production and murders. The novel’s realism is also visible in thorough descriptions of historical perfumery practices. According to Rindisbacher, the work "gathered together and phrased in popular terms the state of the art of olfactory and perfumistic knowledge and spun it into the realm of fantasy and imagination". The diction of the novel evokes vivid sensory images. It links typically visual cognitive activities with the sense of smell, which is represented by the way Grenouille perceives the world. He understands more through olfaction, rather than vision, and that is reflected in the language of the novel, as the verbs in the literature normally associated with visual perception relate, in Grenouille’s case, to the process of smelling. Another conspicuous stylistic feature of the work is an extensive use of intertextuality, which has been met with both positive and negative critical response. Literary allusions identified by the critics include references to works by Flaubert, Balzac, Baudelaire, E.T.A. Hoffmann, Thomas Mann, and Goethe. In the literature, for instance, there were observed some resemblances to the story of Faust. While Perfume received much praise for being original and imaginative, its citational structure has been either received enthusiastically for speaking to the literary acumen of the reader, or recognized as problematic, due to the overload of constant allusion and pastiche, or being considered a “parody” of other works. Adaptations Film Perfume: The Story of a Murderer, co-written and directed by Tom Tykwer (who also composed the score), premiered in Germany on 14 September 2006. The Perfumier, was released for streaming on Netflix on 21 October 2022. Television The episode "Sense Memory" (2011) of the American television show Criminal Minds bears many similarities to the novel. A six-part 2018 German television series, Perfume (Parfum), inspired by the novel and the film but set in the present day, stars Friederike Becht, Juergen Maurer, Wotan Wilke Möhring, and Christian Friedel. Music A Russian musical adaptation of the novel, Perfumer, premiered on 5 December 2010 in Moscow. Composer and singer Igor Demarin received Süskind's approval after communicating with a representative of Süskind for two years. The song "Scentless Apprentice" by the American grunge band Nirvana, from their 1993 album In Utero, was inspired by the novel Perfume. In an interview, lead singer and guitarist Kurt Cobain described the novel as one of his favourite books, which he re-read ten times and kept near him. The song "Herr Spiegelmann" from the Portuguese gothic-doom metal band Moonspell at Napalm records contains an excerpt from the book. The song "Red Head Girl" by French downtempo duo Air is inspired by Perfume. The song "Du riechst so gut" (German for "You smell so good") by Rammstein was inspired by the novel, which is one of lead singer Till Lindemann's favourite books. Marilyn Manson credits the novel as one of the inspirations behind the title of his second album, Smells Like Children. The song "Nearly Witches (Ever Since We Met)" by Panic! at the Disco is inspired by Perfume. The song "향 (Scentist)" by K-pop boy group VIXX and its music video are based on the novel. Sport Russian figure skater Anna Shcherbakova performs her season short program to excerpts from the film's score while portraying the 'leitmotiv' from the book: "defenselessness, the doom of beauty in the face of senseless cruelty". Her routine was staged by noted choreographer Daniil Gleikhengauz. References Süskind, Patrick. Perfume. Translator: John E. Woods. New York: Vintage International, 1986. 1985 fantasy novels 1985 German novels German-language novels German historical novels German horror novels German novels adapted into films Novels by Patrick Süskind German magic realism novels Novels set in France Novels set in Paris Novels set in the 18th century World Fantasy Award for Best Novel-winning works Postmodern novels Grasse Novels about serial killers Novels published posthumously

424964

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water%20clock

Water clock

A water clock or clepsydra (; ; ) is a timepiece by which time is measured by the regulated flow of liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type) a vessel, and where the amount is then measured. Water clocks are one of the oldest time-measuring instruments. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Water clocks were also used in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, described by technical writers such as Ctesibius and Vitruvius. Designs A water clock uses the flow of water to measure time. If viscosity is neglected, the physical principle required to study such clocks is Torricelli's law. There are two types of water clocks: inflow and outflow. In an outflow water clock, a container is filled with water, and the water is drained slowly and evenly out of the container. This container has markings that are used to show the passage of time. As the water leaves the container, an observer can see where the water is level with the lines and tell how much time has passed. An inflow water clock works in basically the same way, except instead of flowing out of the container, the water is filling up the marked container. As the container fills, the observer can see where the water meets the lines and tell how much time has passed. Some modern timepieces are called "water clocks" but work differently from the ancient ones. Their timekeeping is governed by a pendulum, but they use water for other purposes, such as providing the power needed to drive the clock by using a water wheel or something similar, or by having water in their displays. A water clock is one of the oldest and most important instruments. The Greeks and Romans advanced water clock design to include the inflow clepsydra with an early feedback system, gearing, and escapement mechanism, which were connected to fanciful automata and resulted in improved accuracy. Further advances were made in Byzantium, Syria, and Mesopotamia, where increasingly accurate water clocks incorporated complex segmental and epicyclic gearing, water wheels, and programmability, advances which eventually made their way to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks, incorporating gears, escapement mechanisms, and water wheels, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan. Some water clock designs were developed independently, and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching a level of accuracy comparable to today's standards of timekeeping, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia, until it was replaced by more accurate pendulum clocks in 17th-century Europe. Regional development Egypt The oldest water clock of which there is physical evidence dates to c. 1417–1379 BC, during the reign of Amenhotep III where it was used in the Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak. The oldest documentation of the water clock is the tomb inscription of the 16th century BC Egyptian court official Amenemhet, which identifies him as its inventor. These simple water clocks, which were of the outflow type, were stone vessels with sloping sides that allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near the bottom. There were twelve separate columns with consistently spaced markings on the inside to measure the passage of "hours" as the water level reached them. The columns were for each of the twelve months to allow for the variations of the seasonal hours. These clocks were used by priests to determine the time at night so that the temple rites and sacrifices could be performed at the correct hour. These clocks may have been used in daylight as well. Babylon In Babylon, water clocks were of the outflow type and were cylindrical in shape. Use of the water clock as an aid to astronomical calculations dates back to the Old Babylonian period (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC). While there are no surviving water clocks from the Mesopotamian region, most evidence of their existence comes from writings on clay tablets. Two collections of tablets, for example, are the Enuma-Anu-Enlil (1600–1200 BC) and the MUL.APIN (7th century BC). In these tablets, water clocks are used in reference to payment of the night and day watches (guards). These clocks were unique, as they did not have an indicator such as hands (as are typically used today) or grooved notches (as were used in Egypt). Instead, these clocks measured time "by the weight of water flowing from" it. The volume was measured in capacity units called qa. The weight, mana or mina (the Greek unit for about one pound), is the weight of water in a water clock. In Babylonian times, time was measured with temporal hours. So, as seasons changed, so did the length of a day. "To define the length of a 'night watch' at the summer solstice, one had to pour two mana of water into a cylindrical clepsydra; its emptying indicated the end of the watch. One-sixth of mana had to be added each succeeding half-month. At the equinox, three mana had to be emptied in order to correspond to one watch, and four mana was emptied for each watch of the winter solstitial night." India N. Narahari Achar and Subhash Kak suggest that water clocks were used in ancient India as early as the 2nd millennium BC, based on their appearance in Atharvaveda'. According to N. Kameswara Rao, pots excavated from the Indus Valley Pakistan site of Mohenjo-daro may have been used as water clocks. They are tapered at the bottom, have a hole on the side, and are similar to the utensil used to perform abhiṣeka (ritual water pouring) on lingams. The Jyotisha school, one of the six Vedanga disciplines, describes water clocks called ghati or kapala that measure time in units of nadika (around 24 minutes). A clepsydra in the form of a floating and sinking copper vessel is mentioned in the Sürya Siddhānta (5th century AD). At Nalanda, a Buddhist university, four hour intervals were measured by a water clock, which consisted of a similar copper bowl holding two large floats in a larger bowl filled with water. The bowl was filled with water from a small hole at its bottom; it sank when completely filled and was marked by the beating of a drum at daytime. The amount of water added varied with the seasons, and the clock was operated by students at the university. Descriptions of similar water clocks are also given in the Pañca Siddhāntikā by the polymath Varāhamihira (6th century AD), which adds further detail to the account given in the Sürya Siddhānta. Further descriptions are recorded in the Brāhmasphuṭa Siddhānta, by the mathematician Brahmagupta (7th century AD). A detailed description with measurements is also recorded by the astronomer Lalla (8th century AD), who describes the ghati as a hemispherical copper vessel with a hole that is fully filled after one nadika. China In ancient China, as well as throughout East Asia, water clocks were very important in the study of astronomy and astrology. The oldest written reference dates the use of the water clock in China to the 6th century BC. From about 200 BC onwards, the outflow clepsydra was replaced almost everywhere in China by the inflow type with an indicator-rod borne on a float(called fou chien lou,浮箭漏). The Han dynasty philosopher and politician Huan Tan (40 BC – AD 30), a Secretary at the Court in charge of clepsydrae, wrote that he had to compare clepsydrae with sundials because of how temperature and humidity affected their accuracy, demonstrating that the effects of evaporation, as well as of temperature on the speed at which water flows, were known at this time. The liquid in water clocks was liable to freezing, and had to be kept warm with torches, a problem that was solved in 976 by the Chinese astronomer and engineer Zhang Sixun. His invention—a considerable improvement on Yi Xing's clock—used mercury instead of water. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, and freezes at , lower than any air temperature normally found on Earth. Again, instead of using water, the early Ming Dynasty engineer Zhan Xiyuan (c. 1360–1380) created a sand-driven wheel clock, improved upon by Zhou Shuxue (c. 1530–1558). The use of clepsydrae to drive mechanisms illustrating astronomical phenomena began with the Han Dynasty polymath Zhang Heng (78–139) in 117, who also employed a waterwheel. Zhang Heng was the first in China to add an extra compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel, which solved the problem of the falling pressure head in the reservoir tank. Zhang's ingenuity led to the creation by the Tang dynasty mathematician and engineer Yi Xing (683–727) and Liang Lingzan in 725 of a clock driven by a waterwheel linkwork escapement mechanism. The same mechanism would be used by the Song dynasty polymath Su Song (1020–1101) in 1088 to power his astronomical clock tower, as well as a chain drive. Su Song's clock tower, over tall, possessed a bronze power-driven armillary sphere for observations, an automatically rotating celestial globe, and five front panels with doors that permitted the viewing of changing mannequins which rang bells or gongs, and held tablets indicating the hour or other special times of the day. In the 2000s, in Beijing's Drum Tower an outflow clepsydra is operational and displayed for tourists. It is connected to automata so that every quarter-hour a small brass statue of a man claps his cymbals. Persia The use of water clocks in Persia or Greater Iran, especially in desert area of Iran such as Yazd, Isfahan, Zibad, and Gonabad, dates back to 500 BC. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions such as Nowruz (March equinox), Chelleh Night (September equinox), Tirgan (summer solstice) and Yaldā Night (winter solstice) – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar. The water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks. Persian water clocks were a practical and useful and necessary tool for the qanat's shareholders to calculate the length of time they could divert water to their farms or Gardens. The qanat was the only water source for agriculture and irrigation in arid area so a just and fair water distribution was very important. Therefore, a very fair and clever old person was elected to be the manager of the water clock (called Mir Aab), and at least two full-time managers were needed to control and observe the number of Fenjans or Pengan (hours) and announce the exact time of the days and nights from sunrise to sunset because share holder usually were divided to the days owners and night owners. The Fenjaan consisted of a large pot full of water and a bowl with a small hole in the center. When the bowl became full of water, it would sink into the pot, and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of the water in the pot. He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar. The place where the clock was situated, and its managers, were collectively known as khaneh Fenjaan (times house). Usually this would be the top floor of a public-house, with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of Sunset and Sunrise. The Zibad Gonabad water clock was in use until 1965 when it was substituted by modern clocks. Greco-Roman world The word "clepsydra" comes from the Greek meaning "water thief". The Greeks considerably advanced the water clock by tackling the problem of the diminishing flow. They introduced several types of the inflow clepsydra, one of which included the earliest feedback control system. Ctesibius invented an indicator system typical for later clocks such as the dial and pointer. The Roman engineer Vitruvius described early alarm clocks, working with gongs or trumpets. A commonly used water clock was the simple outflow clepsydra. This small earthenware vessel had a hole in its side near the base. In both Greek and Roman times, this type of clepsydra was used in courts for allocating periods of time to speakers. In important cases, such as when a person's life was at stake, it was filled completely, but for more minor cases, only partially. If proceedings were interrupted for any reason, such as to examine documents, the hole in the clepsydra was stopped with wax until the speaker was able to resume his pleading. Clepsydrae for keeping time Some scholars suspect that the clepsydra may have been used as a stop-watch for imposing a time limit on clients' visits in Athenian brothels. Slightly later, in the early 3rd century BC, the Hellenistic physician Herophilos employed a portable clepsydra on his house visits in Alexandria for measuring his patients' pulse-beats. By comparing the rate by age group with empirically obtained data sets, he was able to determine the intensity of the disorder. Between 270 BC and AD 500, Hellenistic (Ctesibius, Hero of Alexandria, Archimedes) and Roman horologists and astronomers were developing more elaborate mechanized water clocks. The added complexity was aimed at regulating the flow and at providing fancier displays of the passage of time. For example, some water clocks rang bells and gongs, while others opened doors and windows to show figurines of people, or moved pointers, and dials. Some even displayed astrological models of the universe. The 3rd century BC engineer Philo of Byzantium referred in his works to water clocks already fitted with an escapement mechanism, the earliest known of its kind. The biggest achievement of the invention of clepsydrae during this time, however, was by Ctesibius with his incorporation of gears and a dial indicator to automatically show the time as the lengths of the days changed throughout the year, because of the temporal timekeeping used during his day. Also, a Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of his Horologion, known today as the Tower of the Winds, in the Athens marketplace (or agora) in the first half of the 1st century BC. This octagonal clocktower showed scholars and shoppers both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. It featured a 24-hour mechanized clepsydra and indicators for the eight winds from which the tower got its name, and it displayed the seasons of the year and astrological dates and periods. Medieval Islamic world In the medieval Islamic world (632-1280), the use of water clocks has its roots from Archimedes during the rise of Alexandria in Egypt and continues on through Byzantium. The water clocks by the Arabic engineer Al-Jazari, however, are credited for going "well beyond anything" that had preceded them. In al-Jazari's 1206 treatise, he describes one of his water clocks, the elephant clock. The clock recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year. To accomplish this, the clock had two tanks, the top tank was connected to the time indicating mechanisms and the bottom was connected to the flow control regulator. Basically, at daybreak, the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank. The most sophisticated water-powered astronomical clock was Al-Jazari's castle clock, considered by some to be an early example of a programmable analog computer, in 1206. It was a complex device that was about high, and had multiple functions alongside timekeeping. It included a display of the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits, and a pointer in the shape of the crescent moon which traveled across the top of a gateway, moved by a hidden cart and causing automatic doors to open, each revealing a mannequin, every hour. It was possible to re-program the length of day and night in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year, and it also featured five musician automata who automatically play music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaft attached to a water wheel. Other components of the castle clock included a main reservoir with a float, a float chamber and flow regulator, plate and valve trough, two pulleys, crescent disc displaying the zodiac, and two falcon automata dropping balls into vases. The first water clocks to employ complex segmental and epicyclic gearing was invented earlier by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Iberia c. 1000. His water clocks were driven by water wheels, as was also the case for several Chinese water clocks in the 11th century. Comparable water clocks were built in Damascus and Fez. The latter (Dar al-Magana) remains until today and its mechanism has been reconstructed. The first European clock to employ these complex gears was the astronomical clock created by Giovanni de Dondi in c. 1365. Like the Chinese, Arab engineers at the time also developed an escapement mechanism which they employed in some of their water clocks. The escapement mechanism was in the form of a constant-head system, while heavy floats were used as weights. Korea In 1434, during Joseon rule, Jang Yeong-sil (), Palace Guard and later Chief Court Engineer, constructed the Jagyeongnu (self-striking water clock or striking clepsydra) for King Sejong. What made the Jagyeongnu self-striking (or automatic) was the use of jack-work mechanisms, by which three wooden figures (jacks) struck objects to signal the time. This innovation no longer required the reliance of human workers, known as "rooster men", to constantly replenish it. The uniqueness of the clock was its capability to announce dual-times automatically with both visual and audible signals. Jang developed a signal conversion technique that made it possible to measure analog time and announce digital time simultaneously as well as to separate the water mechanisms from the ball-operated striking mechanisms. The conversion device was called pangmok, and was placed above the inflow vessel that measured the time, the first device of its kind in the world. Thus, the Striking Palace Clepsydra is the first hydro-mechanically engineered dual-time clock in the history of horology. Japan Emperor Tenji made Japan's first water clock called a . They were highly socially significant and run by Temperature, water viscosity, and clock accuracy When viscosity can be neglected, the outflow rate of the water is governed by Torricelli's law, or more generally, by Bernoulli's principle. Viscosity will dominate the outflow rate if the water flows out through a nozzle that is sufficiently long and thin, as given by the Hagen–Poiseuille equation. Approximately, the flow rate is for such design inversely proportional to the viscosity, which depends on the temperature. Liquids generally become less viscous as the temperature increases. In the case of water, the viscosity varies by a factor of about seven between zero and 100 degrees Celsius. Thus, a water clock with such a nozzle would run about seven times faster at 100 °C than at 0 °C. Water is about 25 percent more viscous at 20 °C than at 30 °C, and a variation in temperature of one degree Celsius, in this "room temperature" range, produces a change of viscosity of about two percent. Therefore, a water clock with such a nozzle that keeps good time at some given temperature would gain or lose about half an hour per day if it were one degree Celsius warmer or cooler. To make it keep time within one minute per day would require its temperature to be controlled within °C (about °F). There is no evidence that this was done in antiquity, so ancient water clocks with sufficiently thin and long nozzles (unlike the modern pendulum-controlled one described above) cannot have been reliably accurate by modern standards. However, while modern timepieces may not be reset for long periods, water clocks were likely reset every day, when refilled, based on a sundial, so the cumulative error would not have been great. See also Bernard Gitton History of timekeeping devices Notes Sources used (Reprinted in ) Bibliography External links The Clock of Flowing Time in Berlin NIST: A Walk Through Time – Early Clocks Bernard Gitton's Time-Flow Clocks Qanat is cultural,social and scientific heritage in Iran Egypt's Water Clock A Brief History of Clocks: From Thales to Ptolemy The Indianapolis Children's Museum Water Clock Nanaimo, BC Water Clock Animation: Ctesibius Water Clock Rees's Universal Dictionary article on Clepsydra, 1819 The Royal Gorge Bridge Water Clock The Mechanical Water Clock Of Ibn Al-Haytham computer servies on site on clocks Egyptian inventions Time measurement systems Clock Timekeeping

425061

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Francis%20Dam

St. Francis Dam

The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity dam located in San Francisquito Canyon in northern Los Angeles County, California that was built between 1924 and 1926 to serve the city of Los Angeles's growing water needs. It failed catastrophically in 1928 due to a defective soil foundation and design flaws, unleashing a flood that claimed the lives of at least 431 people. The collapse of the dam is considered to have been one of the worst American civil engineering disasters of the 20th century, and remains the 3rd-greatest loss of life in California's history, exceeded only by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire and the Great Flood of 1862. The St. Francis Dam was built to create a large regulating and storage reservoir that was an integral part of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. It was located in San Francisquito Canyon of the Sierra Pelona Mountains, about northwest of downtown Los Angeles, and approximately north of the present day city of Santa Clarita, California. The dam was designed and built by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, then named the Bureau of Water Works and Supply. The department was under the direction of its general manager and chief engineer, William Mulholland. The disaster ended Mulholland's career. Background In the early years of Los Angeles, the city's water supply was obtained from the Los Angeles River. This was accomplished by diverting water from the river through a series of ditches called zanjas. At that time, a private water company, the Los Angeles City Water Company, leased the city's waterworks and provided water to the city. Hired in 1878 as a zanjero (ditch tender), William Mulholland proved to be a brilliant employee who, after doing his day's work, would study textbooks on mathematics, hydraulics and geology, thereby teaching himself geology and engineering. Mulholland quickly moved up the ranks of the Water Company and was promoted to superintendent in 1886. In 1902, the City of Los Angeles ended its lease with the Water Company and took control over the city's water supply. The Los Angeles City Council established the Water Department renamed the Bureau of Water Works and Supply in 1911 with Mulholland as its superintendent. Mulholland was concurrently named as the Bureau's chief engineer following the organization's name change. Mulholland achieved great recognition among members of the engineering community when he supervised the design and construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, which at the time was the longest aqueduct in the world. It used gravity alone to bring the water from the Owens Valley to Los Angeles. The project was completed in 1913, on time and under budget, despite several setbacks. Excluding incidents of sabotage by Owens Valley residents in the early years, the aqueduct has continued to operate well throughout its history and remains in operation today. Planning and design It was during the process of building the aqueduct that Mulholland first considered sections of San Francisquito Canyon as a potential dam site. He felt that there should be a reservoir of sufficient size to provide water for Los Angeles for an extended period in the event of a drought or if the aqueduct were damaged by an earthquake. In particular, he favored the area between where the hydroelectric power plants Powerhouses and were to be built, with what he perceived as favorable topography, a natural narrowing of the canyon downstream of a wide, upstream platform which would allow the creation of a large reservoir area with a minimum possible dam. A large camp had been set up to house the workers near this area, and Mulholland used his spare time becoming familiar with the area's geological features. In the area where the dam would later be situated, Mulholland found the mid- and upper portion of the western hillside consisted mainly of a reddish-colored conglomerate and sandstone formation that had small veins of gypsum interspersed within it. Below the red conglomerate, down the remaining portion of the western hillside, crossing the canyon floor and up the eastern wall, a drastically different rock composition prevailed. These areas were made up of mica schist that was severely laminated, cross-faulted in many areas, and interspersed with talc. Later, although many geologists disagreed on the exact location of the area of contact between the two formations, a majority opinion placed it at the inactive San Francisquito Fault line. Mulholland ordered exploratory tunnels and shafts excavated into the red conglomerate hillside to determine its characteristics, and had water percolation tests performed. The results convinced him that the hill would make a satisfactory abutment for a dam should the need ever arise. A surprising aspect of the early geologic exploration came later, when the need for a dam arose. Although Mulholland wrote of the unstable nature of the face of schist on the eastern side of the canyon in his annual report to the Board of Public Works in 1911, this fact was either misjudged or ignored by the construction supervisor of the St. Francis Dam, Stanley Dunham. Dunham testified, at the coroner's inquest, that tests which he had ordered yielded results which showed the rock to be hard and of the same nature throughout the entire area which became the eastern abutment. His opinion was that this area was more than suitable for construction of the dam. The population of Los Angeles was increasing rapidly. In 1900 the population was slightly over 100,000. By 1910, it had become more than three times that number at 320,000, and by 1920 the figure reached 576,673. This unexpectedly rapid growth brought a demand for a larger water supply. Between 1920 and 1926, seven smaller reservoirs were built and modifications were made to raise the height of the water bureau's largest of the time, the Lower San Fernando reservoir, by seven feet, but the need for a still-larger reservoir was clear. Originally, the planned site of this new large reservoir was to be in Big Tujunga Canyon, above the community now known as Sunland, in the northeast portion of the San Fernando Valley, but the high asking prices of the ranches and private land which had to be acquired were, in Mulholland's view, an attempted hold-up of the city. He ceased attempts at purchasing those lands and, either forgetful of or disregarding his earlier acknowledgement of geological problems at the site, renewed his interest in the area he had explored twelve years earlier, the federally owned and far less expensive private land in San Francisquito Canyon. Construction and modification The process of surveying the area and determining the location for the St. Francis Dam began in December 1922. Clearing of the site and construction began without any of the usual fanfare for a municipal project of this nature. The Los Angeles Aqueduct had become the target of frequent sabotage by angry farmers and landowners in the Owens Valley and the city was eager to avoid any repeat of these expensive and time-consuming repairs. The St. Francis Dam, sometimes referred to as the San Francisquito Dam, was only the second concrete dam to be designed and built by the Bureau of Water Works and Supply. The first was the nearly dimensionally-identical Mulholland Dam, on which construction had begun one year earlier. The design of the St. Francis was in fact an adaptation of the Mulholland Dam, with modifications made so as to suit the site. Most of the design profiles and computation figures of stress factors for the St. Francis came from this adaptation of the plans and formulas which had been used in the constructing of the Mulholland Dam. This work was done by the engineering department within the Bureau of Water Works and Supply. In describing the shape and type of the St. Francis Dam, the word curved is used although, by today's standards, due to the amount of curve in its radius, the dam would be considered arched, therefore making it of the arch-gravity design. It was not so called because the science of arch-gravity dams was still in its infancy. Little was known in the engineering community about the arch effect, how it worked and how loads were transmitted, other than that it did help with stability and support. As such, the dam was designed without any of the additional benefits given by the arch action, which led to its profile being considered conservative, given its size. Annually, as did most other city entities, the Bureau of Water Works and Supply and the ancillary departments reported to the Board of Public Service Commissioners on the prior fiscal year's activities. From these we know that the preliminary studies of the area which became the site of the dam, and topographical surveys for the St. Francis, were completed by June 1923. They called for a dam built to the elevation of above sea level, which is above the stream bed base. These early calculations for a reservoir created by the dam revealed it would have a capacity of approximately . On July 1, 1924, the same day Mulholland was to submit his annual report to the Board of Public Service Commissioners, Office Engineer W. W. Hurlbut informed him that all of the preliminary work on the dam had been completed. In his report presented to the Board, Mulholland wrote that the capacity of the reservoir would be (). Hurlbut, who also presented the Board with his annual report, Report of the Office Engineer, gave a clarification for this change from the prior year's estimate. In his report he wrote that: ...at the St. Francis Reservoir the dam site has been cleared and the foundation trench started. All concrete placing equipment has been contracted for and it is expected actual work of pouring the concrete will start in approximately ninety days. Additional topographic surveys have been completed and disclose a storage capacity of 32,000 acre feet at elevation 1825 feet above sea level. Construction of the dam itself began five weeks later, in early August, when the first concrete was poured. In March 1925, prior to Mulholland's report to the Board of Public Service Commissioners, Hurlbut again reported to Mulholland on the progress of the St. Francis project. He stated the reservoir would now have a capacity of () and that the dam's height would be above stream bed level. Hurlbut wrote, in an explanation of these changes that was presented to the Board of Public Service Commissioners, that: Additional surveys and changes in the plans for this reservoir have disclosed the fact that at crest elevation of 1835 feet above sea level the reservoir will have a capacity of 38,000 acre-feet. This increase in the dam's height over the original plan of 1923 necessitated the construction of a long wing dike along the top of the ridge adjacent to the western abutment in order to contain the enlarged reservoir. A distinctive aspect of the St. Francis Dam was its stepped downstream face. While the height of each step was a constant , the width of each step was unique to its respective elevation above sea level. This width varied between near the stream bed base at and decreased to at an elevation of , the base of the spillways and upright panels. When completed on May 4, 1926, the stairstep-faced dam rose to a height of 185 feet above the canyon floor. Both faces leading up to the crest were vertical for the final . On the downstream face, this vertical section was fashioned into wide sections. A portion of these made up the spillway, which consisted of eleven panels in total divided into two groups. Each spillway section had an open area that was high and wide for the overflow to pass. The dam also had five diameter outlet pipes through the center section which were controlled by slide gates attached to the upstream face. Dam instability Water began to fill the reservoir on March 12, 1926. It rose steadily and rather uneventfully, although several temperature and contraction cracks did appear in the dam, and a minor amount of seepage began to flow from under the abutments. In accord with the protocol for design, which had been established by the Engineering department during construction of the Mulholland Dam, no contraction joints were incorporated. The most notable incidents were two vertical cracks that ran down through the dam from the top; one was approximately west of the outlet gates and another about the same distance to the east. Mulholland, along with his Assistant Chief Engineer and General Manager Harvey Van Norman, inspected the cracks and judged them to be within expectation for a concrete dam the size of the St. Francis. At the beginning of April, the water level reached the area of the inactive San Francisquito Fault line in the western abutment. Some seepage began almost immediately as the water covered this area. Workers were ordered to seal off the leak, but they were not entirely successful, and water continued to permeate through the face of the dam. A two-inch pipe was used to collect this seepage and was laid from the fault line down to the home of the dam keeper, Tony Harnischfeger, which he used for domestic purposes. Water that collected in the drainage pipes under the dam to relieve the hydrostatic uplift pressure was carried off in this manner as well. In April 1927 the reservoir level was brought to within of the spillway, and during most of May the water level was within of overflowing. There were no large changes in the amount of the seepage that was collected and, month after month, the pipe flowed about one-third full. This was an insignificant amount for a dam the size of the St. Francis, and on this subject Mulholland said, "Of all the dams I have built and of all the dams I have ever seen, it was the driest dam of its size I ever saw." The seepage data recorded during the 1926–1927 period shows that the dam was an exceptionally dry structure. On May 27, 1927, the problems in the Owens Valley escalated once again with the dynamiting of a large section of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, part of the California Water Wars. A second incident took place a few days later, destroying another large section. In the days that followed, several more sections of the aqueduct were dynamited which caused a complete disruption of the flow. The near-full reservoir behind the St. Francis Dam was the only source of water from the north and withdrawals began immediately. During this time, the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department received an anonymous phone call that a carload of men were on their way from Inyo County with the intention of dynamiting the St. Francis Dam and "to get some officers on the way as quick as possible." Within minutes, all personnel of the Bureau of Power and Light and the Bureau of Water Works and Supply either working or residing within the canyon had been notified. Cars carrying dozens of officers from both the Los Angeles Police and Sheriff's Departments rushed to the area. Although no sign of the threat that brought all this about materialized, for many days after, the canyon resembled an armed encampment. The Daily Record of High Water Elevations of the St. Francis Dam shows that between May 27 and June 30 alone, 7000 to 8000 acre-feet of water was withdrawn. Through June and July the Owens Valley fight continued, as did interruptions in the flow from the aqueduct. This in turn caused continued withdrawals from the reservoir. In early August, opposition to Los Angeles's water projects collapsed after the indictment of its leaders for embezzlement. The city subsequently sponsored a series of repair and maintenance programs for aqueduct facilities that stimulated local employment. The St. Francis reservoir level rose once again, although not without incident. Late in 1927, a fracture was noticed which began at the western abutment and ran diagonally upwards and toward the center section for a distance. As with others, Mulholland inspected the fracture, judged it to be another contraction crack and ordered it filled with oakum and grouted to seal off any seepage. At the same time, another fracture appeared in a corresponding position on the eastern portion of the dam, starting at the crest near the last spillway section and running downward at an angle for sixty-five feet before ending at the hillside. It too was sealed in the same manner. Both of these fractures were noted to be wider at their junction with the hillside abutments and narrowed as they angled toward the top of the dam. The reservoir continued to rise steadily until early February 1928, when the water level was brought to within one foot of the spillway. During this time though, several new cracks appeared in the wing dike, and new areas of seepage began from under both abutments. Near the end of February, a notable leak began at the base of the wing dike approximately west of the main dam, discharging about 0.60 cubic feet per second (4.5 U.S. gallons, or 17 liters, per second). The fracture was inspected by Mulholland, who judged it to be another contraction or temperature crack and left it open to drain. During the first week of March, it was noticed that the leak had approximately doubled. Due in part to some erosion taking place, Mulholland ordered an eight-inch (20.3 cm) concrete drain pipe to be installed. The pipe led the water along the dike wall, discharging it at the west abutment contact with the main dam. This gave the hillside a very saturated appearance, and the water flowing down the steps of the dam where it abutted the hill caused alarm among the canyon residents and others traveling on the road to the east, as at that distance it appeared the water was coming from the abutment. On March 7, 1928, the reservoir was three inches below the spillway crest and Mulholland ordered that no more water be turned into the St. Francis. Five days later March 12, while conducting his morning rounds, Tony Harnischfeger, the dam keeper, discovered a new leak in the west abutment. Concerned not only because other leaks had appeared in this same area in the past but more so that the muddy color of the runoff he observed could indicate the water was eroding the foundation of the dam, he immediately alerted Mulholland. After arriving, both Mulholland and Van Norman began inspecting the area of the leak. Van Norman found the source and by following the runoff, determined that the muddy appearance of the water was not from the leak itself but came from where the water contacted loose soil from a newly cut access road. The leak was discharging per second of water by their approximation. Mulholland and Van Norman's concern was heightened not only by the leak's location but by the inconsistent volume of the discharge, according to their testimony at the coroner's inquest. On two occasions as they watched, an acceleration or surging of the flow was noticed by both men. Mulholland felt that some corrective measures were needed, although this could be done at some time in the future. For the next two hours Mulholland, Van Norman, and Harnischfeger inspected the dam and various leaks and seepages, finding nothing out of the ordinary or of concern for a large dam. With both Mulholland and Van Norman convinced that the new leak was not dangerous and that the dam was safe, they returned to Los Angeles. Collapse and flood wave Two and a half minutes before midnight on March 12, 1928, the St. Francis Dam catastrophically failed. There were no surviving eyewitnesses to the collapse, but at least five people passed the dam less than an hour before without noticing anything unusual. The last, Ace Hopewell, a carpenter at Powerhouse , rode his motorcycle past the dam about ten minutes before midnight. At the coroner's inquest, Hopewell testified he had passed Powerhouse without seeing anything there or at the dam that caused him concern. He stated at approximately one and one-half miles (2.4 km) upstream he heard, above his motorcycle's engine noise, a rumbling much like the sound of "rocks rolling on the hill." Hopewell stopped, got off his motorcycle, and smoked a cigarette while checking the hillsides. The rumbling had begun to fade, and Hopewell assumed the sound was a landslide common to the area. Hopewell finished his cigarette, got back on his motorcycle, and left. He was the last person to see the St. Francis Dam intact and survive. At the Bureau of Power and Light at both Receiving Stations in Los Angeles and the Water Works and Supply at Powerhouse , there was a sharp voltage drop at Simultaneously, a transformer at Southern California Edison's Saugus substation exploded, a situation investigators later determined was caused by wires up the western hillside of San Francisquito Canyon about ninety feet above the dam's east abutment shorting. Given the known height of the flood wave, and the fact that within seventy minutes or less after the collapse the reservoir was virtually empty, the failure must have been sudden and complete. Seconds after it began, little of the dam remained standing, other than the center section and wing wall. The main dam, from west of the center section to the wing wall abutment atop the hillside, broke into several large pieces and numerous smaller pieces. All of these were washed downstream as 12.4 billion gallons (47 million m³) of water began surging down San Francisquito Canyon. The largest piece, weighing approximately 10,000 tons (9,000 metric tons) was found about three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) below the dam site. Somewhat similarly, the dam portion east of the center section had also broken into several larger and smaller pieces. Unlike the western side, most of these came to rest near the base of the standing section. The largest fragments fell across the lower portion of the standing section, coming to rest partially on its upstream face. Initially, the two remaining sections of the dam remained upright. As the reservoir lowered, water undercut the already undermined eastern portion, which twisted and fell backwards toward the eastern hillside, breaking into three sections. Harnischfeger and his family were most likely among the first casualties caught in the initially high flood wave, which swept over their cottage about a downstream from the dam. The body of a woman who lived with the family was found fully clothed and wedged between two blocks of concrete near the base of the dam. This led to the suggestion she and Harnischfeger may have been inspecting the structure immediately before its failure. Neither the bodies of Harnischfeger nor his six-year-old son were found. Five minutes after the collapse, the then flood wave had traveled one and one-half miles () at an average speed of , destroying Powerhouse and taking the lives of 64 of the 67 workmen and their families who lived nearby. This cut power to much of Los Angeles and the San Fernando Valley. Power was quickly restored via tie-lines with Southern California Edison Company, but as the floodwater entered the Santa Clara riverbed it overflowed the river's banks, flooding parts of present-day Valencia and Newhall. At about 12:40 a.m. Southern California Edison's two main lines into the city were destroyed by the flooding, re-darkening the areas that had earlier lost power, and spreading the outage to other areas served by Southern California Edison. Nonetheless, power to most of the areas not flooded was restored with power from Edison's Long Beach steam electric generating plant. Near the mass of water, then high, followed the river bed west and demolished Edison's Saugus substation, cutting power to the entire Santa Clara River Valley and parts of Ventura and Oxnard. At least four miles of the state's main north–south highway was under water and the town of Castaic Junction was being washed away. The flood entered the Santa Clarita River Valley at . Approximately five miles downstream, near the Ventura–Los Angeles county line, a temporary construction camp the Edison Company had set up for its 150-man crew on the flats of the river bank was hit. In the confusion, Edison personnel had been unable to issue a warning and 84 workers perished. Shortly before , a Santa Clara River Valley telephone operator learned from the Pacific Long Distance Telephone Company that the dam had failed. She called a Motorcycle Officer with the State Motor Division, then began calling the homes of those in danger. The officer went from door to door warning residents about the imminent flood. At the same time, a deputy sheriff drove up the river valley, toward the flood, with his siren blaring, until he had to stop at Fillmore. The flood heavily damaged the towns of Fillmore, Bardsdale, and Santa Paula before emptying both victims and debris into the Pacific Ocean downstream south of Ventura, at what is now the West Montalvo Oil Field around , at which point the wave was almost two miles () wide and still traveling at . Newspapers across the country carried accounts of the disaster. The front page of the Los Angeles Times ran four stories, including aerial photos of the collapsed dam and the ruins of Santa Paula. In a statement, Mulholland said, "I would not venture at this time to express a positive opinion as to the cause of the St. Francis Dam disaster... Mr. Van Norman and I arrived at the scene of the break around 2:30a.m. this morning. We saw at once that the dam was completely out and that the torrential flood of water from the reservoir had left an appalling record of death and destruction in the valley below." Mulholland stated that it appeared that there had been major movement in the hills forming the western buttress of the dam, adding that three eminent geologists, Robert T. Hill, C. F. Tolman and D.W. Murphy, had been hired by the Board of Water and Power commissioners to determine if this was the cause. Investigation There were at least a dozen investigations into the disaster. With unprecedented speed, eight of these had begun by the weekend following the collapse. Almost all of these involved investigative panels of prominent engineers and geologists. The more notable of these groups and committees were those sponsored by Governor C. C. Young, headed by A. J. Wiley, the renowned dam engineer and consultant to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation's Boulder (Hoover) Dam Board; the Los Angeles City Council, which was chaired by the Chief of the Reclamation Service, Elwood Mead; the Los Angeles County coroner, Frank Nance, and Los Angeles County District Attorney Asa Keyes. Others were convened: the Water and Power Commissioners started their own inquiry, as did the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors, who hired J. B. Lippincott. The Santa Clara River Protective Association employed the geologist and Stanford University professor emeritus, Dr. Bailey Willis, and eminent San Francisco Civil Engineer and past president of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Carl E. Grunsky. There were still others, such as the state railroad commission and several political entities who only sent investigators or representatives. Although they were not unanimous on all points, most commissions quickly reached their respective conclusions. The governor's commission met on March 19 and submitted their 79-page report to the governor on March 24, five days later, and only eleven days after the collapse. Although this may have been sufficient time to answer what they had been directed to determine, they had been deprived of the sworn testimony at the coroner's inquest, which was scheduled to be convened March 21, the only inquiry that took into consideration factors other than geology and engineering. The need for immediate answers was understandable, having its roots in the Swing–Johnson Bill in Congress. This bill, which had first been filed in 1922, and failed to be voted on in three successive Congresses, was again before Congress at the time. This bill ultimately provided the funding for constructing the Hoover Dam. Supporters and responsible leaders alike realized the jeopardy in which the bill stood. Although the water and electricity from the project were needed, the idea of the construction of such a massive dam of similar design, which would create a reservoir seven hundred times larger than the St. Francis, did not sit well with many in light of the recent disaster and the devastation. The bill was passed by Congress, and signed into law by President Coolidge on December 21, 1928. The governor's commission was the first to release its findings, titled Report of the Commission appointed by Governor C. C. Young to investigate the causes leading to the failure of the St. Francis dam near Saugus, California. The report became the most widely distributed analysis. Along with most of the other investigators, they perceived the new leak as the key to understanding the collapse, although the commission believed that "the foundation under the entire dam left very much to be desired." The report stated, "With such a formation, the ultimate failure of this dam was inevitable, unless water could have been kept from reaching the foundation. Inspection galleries, pressure grouting, drainage wells and deep cut-off walls are commonly used to prevent or remove percolation, but it is improbable that any or all of these devices would have been adequately effective, though they would have ameliorated the conditions and postponed the final failure." They placed the cause of the failure on the western hillside. "The west end," the commission stated, "was founded upon a reddish conglomerate which, even when dry, was of decidedly inferior strength and which, when wet, became so soft that most of it lost almost all rock characteristics." The softening of the "reddish conglomerate" undermined the west side. "The rush of water released by failure of the west end caused a heavy scour against the easterly canyon wall ... and caused the failure of that part of the structure." There then "quickly followed ... the collapse of large sections of the dam." The committee appointed by the Los Angeles City Council, for the most part concurred in attributing the collapse to "defective foundations", and wrote, "The manner of failure was that the first leak, however started, began under the concrete at that part of the dam which stood on the red conglomerate; this leak increased in volume as it scoured away the foundation material already greatly softened by infiltrated water from the reservoir which removed the support of the dam at this point and since no arch action could occur by reason of the yielding conglomerate abutment, made failure of the dam inevitable." Likewise, they concluded the failure most likely followed a pattern similar to that which was proposed by the governor's commission, although they did acknowledge that "the sequence of failure is uncertain." The committee ended their report with, "...having examined all the evidence which it has been able to obtain to date reports its conclusions as follows: The type and dimensions of the dam were amply sufficient if based on suitable foundation. The concrete of which the dam was built was of ample strength to resist the stresses to which it would normally be subjected. The failure cannot be laid to movement of the earth's crust. The dam failed as a result of defective foundations. This failure reflects in no way the stability of a well designed gravity dam properly founded on suitable bedrock." The consensus of most of the investigating commissions was that the initial break had taken place at or near the fault line on the western abutment, which had been a problem area since water first covered the area. The prevailing thought was that increasing water percolation through the fault line had either undermined or weakened the foundation to a point that a portion of the structure blew out or the dam collapsed from its own immense weight. This was supported by a chart made by the automatic water level recorder located on the dam's center section. This chart clearly showed that there had been no significant change in the reservoir level until forty minutes before the dam's failure, at which time a small though gradually increasing loss was recorded. The only theory to vary greatly from the others was that of Bailey Willis, Carl E. Grunsky and his son. They believed that the portion of the east abutment below the dam was the first to give way, clearing the way for the collapse to take place. Their investigations, while somewhat collaborative, culminated in two separate reports (one by the Grunskys and the other by Dr. Willis) which were completed in April 1928. These reports, according to Carl Grunsky, "were reached independently" and "are in substantial agreement." Dr. Willis and the Grunskys agreed with the other engineers and investigators about the poor quality and deteriorating conditions of the entire foundation, although they maintained that a critical situation developed on the east abutment. Dr. Willis, the geologist of the investigative team, was most likely the first to discover the "old landslide" within the mountains which had made the eastern abutment for the dam. In his report, he discussed it at great length and the Grunskys drew substantially on it, as they did his analysis of the schist, for their own report. The Grunskys, as civil engineers, took the lead in that area of the investigation, and in describing the role played by "hydrostatic uplift". Uplift takes its name from its tendency to lift a dam upward. Although many designers and builders of dams had become aware of this phenomenon by the late 1890s to early 1900s, it was still not generally well understood or appreciated. Nevertheless, it was becoming a matter of debate and a concern to dam builders of this era that water from a reservoir could seep under a dam and exert pressure upward. Due for the most part to inadequate drainage of the base and side abutments, the phenomenon of uplift destabilizes gravity dams by reducing the structure's "effective weight", making it less able to resist horizontal water pressure. Uplift can act through the bedrock foundation: the condition most commonly develops where the bedrock foundation is strong enough to bear the weight of the dam, but is fractured or fissured and therefore susceptible to seepage and water saturation. According to their theories, water from the reservoir had permeated far back into the schist formation of the eastern abutment. This lubricated the rock and it slowly began to move, exerting a tremendous amount of weight against the dam, which according to the Grunskys was already becoming less stable due to "uplift". Making the situation worse, Dr. Willis established, was that the conglomerate, on which the western abutment of the dam rested, reacted upon becoming wet by swelling. In fact, the amount of swelling was such that it would raise any structure built upon it. This hypothesis was reinforced when surveys taken of the wing wall after the failure were compared with those taken at the time it was built. They reveal that in some areas the wall was 2 to 6 inches higher than when built. Therefore, the dam was caught between forces that were acting on it much like a vise, as the red conglomerate swelled on one side, and the moving mountain pressed in on it from the other. In his report, Grunsky concluded: As soon as the dam was loosened on its base the toe of the structure spalled off. This was probably the beginning of its breaking up, and probably occurred sometime after 11:30 PM during the 23 minutes in which the water in the reservoir apparently fell 3/10 of a foot. Thereupon, quite likely, a part of the east end of the dam, meanwhile undermined, went out and the dam at this end lost its hillside support. Hydrostatic uplift at the already loose west and the weight of the remaining portion of the undermined east end caused a temporary tilting of the dam towards the east, accompanied by a rapid washing away of the hillside under the dam at its west end which then also began to break up. The reservoir water was now rushing with tremendous force against both ends and against the upstream face of all that was standing of the dam. This rush of water carried away huge blocks of concrete from both ends of the dam... There was and remains a difference of professional opinions on the amount of time that elapsed, shown by the chart made by the Stevens automatic water level recorder, from when the line indicating the reservoir level broke sharply downward until it became perpendicular. Most investigating engineers feel the amount of time indicated on the chart is thirty to forty minutes, not the twenty-three minutes that Grunsky stated. In support of his theory of the dam tilting, Grunsky pointed to an odd clue near the western lower edge of the standing section. Here a ladder had become wedged in a crack that had opened apparently during this rocking or tilting process and then had become tightly pinched in place as the section settled back on its foundation. Measurements taken proved the crack must have been much wider at the time that the ladder entered it. Further, surveys indeed showed the center section had been subjected to severe tilting or twisting. These surveys established that the center section had moved downstream and toward the eastern abutment. Although this investigation was insightful and informative, the theory, along with others which hypothesized an appreciably increasing amount of seepage just prior to the failure, becomes less likely when it is compared against the eyewitness accounts of the conditions in the canyon and near the dam during the last thirty minutes before its collapse. Grunsky hypothesized, though failed to explain, the action of the dam tilting as he described. This action would have the dam in motion as a single unit while conversely, testimony given at the Coroner's Inquest indicates that the dam was fractured transversely in at least four places. Furthermore, the two cracks, which bordered each side of the standing center section, would have served as hinges to prevent this. Aftermath The center section, which had become known as "The Tombstone" due to a newspaper reporter's description of it as such, became an attraction for tourists and souvenir hunters. In May 1929, the upright section was toppled with dynamite, and the remaining blocks were demolished with bulldozers and jackhammers to discourage the sightseers and souvenir hunters from exploring the ruins. The wing dike was used by Los Angeles firemen to gain experience in using explosives on building structures. The St. Francis Dam was not rebuilt, though Bouquet Reservoir in nearby Bouquet Canyon was built in 1934 as an early replacement, with additional capacity added with the completion of the Castaic Dam decades later in 1973. The exact number of victims remains unknown. The official death toll in August 1928 was 385, but the remains of victims continued to be discovered every few years until the mid-1950s. Many victims were swept out to sea when the flood reached the Pacific Ocean and were never recovered, while others were washed ashore, some as far south as the Mexican border. The remains of one victim were found deep underground near Newhall in 1992, and other bodies, believed to be victims of the disaster, were found in the late 1970s and 1994. The death toll is currently estimated to be at least 431. At the Coroner's Inquest, the leak that Tony Harnischfeger had spotted was cited as evidence that the dam was leaking on the day of the break, and that both the Bureau of Water Works and Supply and Mulholland were aware of it. Mulholland told the jury he had been at the dam the day of the break, due to the dam keeper's call, but neither he nor Van Norman had observed anything of concern, nor found any dangerous conditions. Mulholland further testified that leaks in dams, especially of the type and size of the St. Francis, were common. During the inquest Mulholland said, "This inquest is a very painful thing for me to have to attend but it is the occasion of it that is painful. The only ones I envy about this thing are the ones who are dead." In subsequent testimony, after answering a question he added, "Whether it is good or bad, don't blame anyone else, you just fasten it on me. If there was an error in human judgment, I was the human, I won't try to fasten it on anyone else." The Coroner's Inquest jury determined that one of the causative factors for the disaster lay in what they had termed as "an error in engineering judgment in determining the foundation at the St. Francis Dam site and deciding on the best type of dam to build there" and that "the responsibility for the error in engineering judgment rests upon the Bureau of Water Works and Supply, and the Chief Engineer thereof." They cleared Mulholland as well as others of the Bureau of Water Works and Supply of any criminal culpability, since neither he nor anyone else at the time could have known of the instability of the rock formations on which the dam was built. The hearings also recommended that "the construction and operation of a great dam should never be left to the sole judgment of one man, no matter how eminent." Mulholland retired from the Bureau of Water Works and Supply December 1, 1928. His assistant, Harvey Van Norman, succeeded him as chief engineer and general manager. Mulholland was retained as Chief Consulting Engineer, with an office, and received a salary of $500 a month. In later years, he retreated into a life of semi-isolation. He died in 1935, at the age of 79. Dam safety legislation In response to the St. Francis Dam disaster, the California legislature created an updated dam safety program and eliminated the municipal exemption. Before this was added, a municipality having its own engineering department was completely exempt from regulation. On August 14, 1929, the Department of Public Works, under the administrative oversight of the State Engineer, which was later assumed by the Division of Safety of Dams, was given authority to review all non-federal dams over 25 feet high or which could hold more than 50 acre-feet of water. The new legislation also allowed the state to employ consultants, as they deemed necessary. Additionally, the state was given full authority to supervise the maintenance and operation of all non-federal dams. Licensing of civil engineers Having determined that the unregulated design of construction projects constituted a hazard to the public, the California legislature passed laws to regulate civil engineering and, in 1929, created the state Board of Registration for Civil Engineers (now the Board for Professional Engineers, Land Surveyors, and Geologists). Analysis At present, the popular hypothesis is that collapse may have begun with the eastern abutment of the dam giving way, possibly due to a landslide. This scenario, having its roots in the works of Willis and Grunsky, was expanded upon by the author Charles Outland in his 1963 book Man‑Made Disaster : The Story of St. Francis Dam. The material on which the eastern abutment of the dam had been built may itself have been part of an ancient landslide, but this would have been impossible for almost any geologists of the 1920s to detect. Indeed, the site had been inspected twice, at different times, by two of the leading geologists and civil engineers of the day, John C. Branner of Stanford University and Carl E. Grunsky; neither found fault with the San Francisquito rock. J. David Rogers, inspired by the work of Outland, investigated the failure and published an extensive scenario, albeit somewhat controversial, of the possible geological and rock mechanic actions which may have led to the dam's failure. He attributed the failure to three major factors: the instability of the ancient landslide material on which the dam was built, the failure to compensate for the additional height added to the dam's design, and the design and construction being overseen by only one person. A critique of Rogers's historical analysis of the dam's collapse was published in the journal California History in 2004 by historians Norris Hundley Jr. (Professor Emeritus, UCLA) and Donald C. Jackson (Professor, Lafayette College). While accepting most of his geological analysis of the failure, the article makes clearer the differences and deficiencies of the structure built in San Francisquito Canyon and how it fell short of the standards for large-scale concrete gravity dams as practiced by other prominent dam engineers in the 1920s. Mulholland Dam reinforcement Shortly after the disaster, many living below Mulholland Dam, which creates the Hollywood Reservoir, feared a similar disaster and began to protest, and petitioned the City of Los Angeles to drain the reservoir and remove the dam. A Committee of Engineers & Geologists to Assess Mulholland Dam was appointed to evaluate the dam's safety. An External Review Panel to evaluate the structure, convened by the State of California, followed in 1930. The same year, the City of Los Angeles Board of Water & Power Commissioners appointed their own Board of Review for the dam. Although the state's panel did not recommend modification of the dam, both panels came to similar conclusions: that the dam lacked what was then considered sufficient uplift relief, which could lead to destabilization, and was unacceptable. Again in 1931, a fourth panel, the Board of Engineers to Evaluate Mulholland Dam, was appointed to assess the structure. As well, an external study group appointed by the Board of Water & Power Commissioners produced a "Geological Report of the Suitability of Foundations". Certain design deficiencies were uncovered in the plans made by the engineering department during the planning phase of the dam. These had to do with the dam's base width in conjunction to its ability to resist uplift and sliding and to withstand earthquake loading. The decision was made to permanently keep the Hollywood Reservoir drawn down. It was also decided to keep the amount stored in the reservoir to no more than and to place an enormous amount of earth, , on the dam's downstream face to increase its resistance against hydraulic uplift and earthquake forces, and to screen it from public view. This work was carried out in 1933–34. Legacy The only visible remains of the St. Francis Dam are weathered, broken chunks of gray concrete and the rusted remnants of the handrails that lined the top of the dam and the wing dike. The ruins and the scar from the ancient landslide can be seen from San Francisquito Canyon Road. Large chunks of debris can still be found scattered about the creek bed south of the dam's original site. The site of the disaster is registered as California Historical Landmark #919. The landmark is located on the grounds of Powerhouse and is near San Francisquito Canyon Road. The marker reads: NO. 919 ST. FRANCIS DAM DISASTER SITE – The 185-foot concrete St. Francis Dam, part of the Los Angeles aqueduct system, stood a mile and a half north of this spot. On March 12, 1928, just before midnight, it collapsed and sent over twelve billion gallons of water roaring down the valley of the Santa Clara River. Over 450 lives were lost in this, one of California's greatest disasters. San Francisquito Canyon Road sustained heavy storm damage in 2005, and when rebuilt in 2009, it was re-routed away from the original road bed and the remains of the main section of the dam. The new road is routed through a cut which was made in the hillside on the western edge of the wing dike. National Monument and National Memorial The John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, signed March 12, 2019, established the Saint Francis Dam Disaster National Monument and authorized the establishment of the Saint Francis Dam Disaster National Memorial. The sites will be administered by the United States Forest Service within Angeles National Forest to commemorate the collapse of the dam and preserve of land for recreation and protection of resources. Access to the Monument will be by foot via Old San Francisquito Canyon Road. The St. Francis Dam National Memorial Foundation is a non-profit organization, established in 2019, with the goal of raising funds to support the United States Forest Service in building and maintaining the St. Francis Dam Disaster National Memorial and Monument, including the construction of a visitor center and a memorial wall with the names of all the identified victims. A winning memorial design was announced in April 2023. Documentaries The rise of William Mulholland, Los Angeles' water issues, and the collapse of the dam are dealt with in the 2018 documentary film, Forgotten Tragedy: The Story of The St Francis Dam, by Jesse Cash. The story of the dam's construction and catastrophic failure is also the subject of the documentary Flood in the Desert, which was first broadcast in May 2022 as part of the American Experience series on PBS. In popular culture Numerous fictionalized references are made to Mulholland, the California Water Wars, the aqueduct, and the St. Francis Dam disaster in the 1974 movie Chinatown. Rock musician Frank Black makes several references to the St. Francis Dam disaster in his songs "St. Francis Dam Disaster" and "Olé Mulholland." The 2014 young adult novel 100 Sideways Miles by Andrew A. Smith features the current site of the dam disaster as well as some discussion of the historical event. See also List of national memorials of the United States List of national monuments of the United States List of dams and reservoirs in California Baldwin Hills Reservoir Malpasset Dam Johnstown Flood References Notes Bibliography Further reading Horton, Pony R. "A Test of Integrity: The Original Story Upon Which The Docu-Drama is Based". A popular article detailing the St. Francis Dam disaster. Based on Horton's 25 years of research into the story. Informational sources include Horton's interviews with Catherine Mulholland, Dr. J. David Rogers, and Robert V. Phillips, former Chief Engineer & General Manager, LADWP. A slightly lengthened version of the article was published in 2009 in The Raven and The Writing Desk; The 6th Antelope Valley Anthology by MousePrints Publishing, Lancaster, California. Wilkman, John (2016) Floodpath: The Deadliest Man-Made Disaster of 20th-Century America and the Making of Modern Los Angeles, New York: Bloomsbury. . External links Several photographs of the dam under construction, completed, its ruins, and a list of the victims. St. Francis Dam Disaster 30-minute television program available online. PBS American Experience: Flood in the Desert Remembering the St. Francis Dam Disaster, by Michele E. Buttelman, The Signal March 11, 2001. Google Earth image of the St. Francis Dam ruins "Application of the Method of Characteristics to the Dam Break Wave Problem", Journal of Hydraulic Research, 47 (1), pp. 41–49. St Francis Dam Flood, image gallery at USGS 1928 Newspaper accounts of st Francis dam Complete List of St. Francis Dam Disaster Victims, compiled by Ann C. Stansell, California State University–Northridge. Image of the remaining center portion of the St. Francis Dam visible after its collapse, San Francisquito Canyon, California, 1928. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. The St. Francis Dam National Memorial Foundation List of St. Francis Dam Historical Markers 1928 disasters in the United States 1928 industrial disasters 1928 in California 2019 establishments in California Burials at Ivy Lawn Cemetery Burials in Ventura County, California California Historical Landmarks Dam failures in the United States Dams in Los Angeles County, California Dams completed in 1926 Disasters in Los Angeles Floods in the United States History of Los Angeles History of Los Angeles County, California History of Ventura County, California Los Angeles Aqueduct March 1928 events National Memorials of the United States Protected areas established in 2019 Reservoirs in California Santa Clarita, California Santa Clara River (California) Santa Paula, California Sierra Pelona Ridge United States Forest Service National Monuments

425087

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncle%20Tupelo

Uncle Tupelo

Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville, Illinois, active between 1987 and 1994. Jay Farrar, Jeff Tweedy, and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band, The Primitives, left to attend college. The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records, before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five-piece. Shortly after the release of the band's major label debut album Anodyne, Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co-songwriter Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo split on May 1, 1994, after completing a farewell tour. Following the breakup, Farrar formed Son Volt with Heidorn, while the remaining members continued as Wilco. Although Uncle Tupelo broke up before it achieved commercial success, the band is renowned for its impact on the alternative country music scene. The group's first album, No Depression, became a byword for the genre and was widely influential. Uncle Tupelo's sound was unlike popular country music of the time, drawing inspiration from styles as diverse as the hardcore punk of The Minutemen and the country instrumentation and harmony of the Carter Family and Hank Williams. Farrar and Tweedy's lyrics frequently referred to Middle America and the working class of Belleville. History The Plebes and The Primitives Jay Farrar, along with his brothers Wade and Dade, played in an early 1980s garage band named The Plebes. Hailing from Belleville, Illinois, The Plebes sought to enter a battle-of-the-bands competition but needed another high school student as a member to perform. They invited Jeff Tweedy, a high school friend of Jay Farrar, to join the band and play with them for the show. Despite a lack of skill with his instrument, Tweedy played an important role in the band by booking early gigs. While The Plebes had been playing music in a rockabilly style, Tweedy wanted to play punk rock like the music that he originally heard the group perform. This caused tensions between Tweedy and Dade Farrar, who left the band two months after Tweedy joined. Before leaving the band in 1984, Dade Farrar introduced its members to Mike Heidorn, the younger brother of his girlfriend; Heidorn then joined the group as their drummer. The Plebes then decided to change its name to The Primitives, a reference to a 1965 song by psychedelic rock group The Groupies. Due to the unpopularity of punk rock in the St. Louis area, The Primitives began to play blues-oriented garage rock at fast tempos. They performed regularly at a wedding hall in Millstadt, Illinois, where Tweedy's mother Jo Ann would collect the cover fee. They also performed regularly at B St Bar in Belleville with bands such as The Newsboys (later Sammy and the Snowmonkeys), Charlie Langrehr, and The Symptoms. Wade Farrar was the lead singer of the band, but his commitment to Southern Illinois University and an attempted enlistment in the United States Army meant he was only able to dedicate a small amount of time to the group. Additionally, Heidorn broke his collarbone during a concert in 1986, which caused the band to go on hiatus. Jay Farrar and Tweedy continued to write songs and perform at Heidorn's house while he recovered, and by 1987 they had restarted the group. The Primitives temporarily added Tony Mayr as a bassist so that Tweedy could play guitar, but a month later the band decided to keep Tweedy on bass and remain a three-piece. To avoid confusion with a successful British band also named The Primitives, they decided to change their name once again, to Uncle Tupelo. Although they performed only 1960s cover songs as The Primitives, the trio decided to take a new approach and write their own music under their new name. Early career The Primitives renamed itself Uncle Tupelo after a character in a cartoon drawn by Chuck Wagner, a friend of the band's members. The name was created by combining two randomly chosen words from the dictionary; inspired by the name, Wagner drew a picture of an old, fat Elvis. The trio recorded a four-song demo tape, which won them supporting roles at the concerts of artists such as Johnny Thunders and Warren Zevon. Tweedy met Tony Margherita while moonlighting as a record clerk in St. Louis. After attending a pair of the band's concerts, Margherita offered to become its manager. Uncle Tupelo began to play regular shows at Cicero's Basement—a bar close to the campus of Washington University in St. Louis. Bands playing in a similar style, including Brian Henneman's Chicken Truck, often played at the venue, which by late 1988 was considered to have been the origin of a new music scene. The band temporarily expanded to a four-piece with the addition of the guitarist Alex Mutrux, but soon reverted to a trio. Uncle Tupelo recorded its first tracks in the attic studio of future Chicago punk producer Matt Allison in Champaign, Illinois. The demo Not Forever, Just for Now includes the songs "I Got Drunk" and "Screen Door", as well as early versions of several songs that would appear on their first studio album. The CMJ New Music Report gave the tape a rave review, and called Uncle Tupelo the best unsigned band of the year. The accolade attracted the attention of independent labels, and the band decided to sign with Jay Fialkov and Debbie Southwood-Smith of Giant Records (who offered to book them at CBGB in New York City). Explaining the decision, the band said that "[our] original goals don't get distorted with an independent label." Recordings on Rockville Records Shortly after Uncle Tupelo's signing, Giant Records changed its name to Rockville Records. The band's first album for Rockville, No Depression, was recorded over ten days in January 1990, at Fort Apache South recording studio in Boston, Massachusetts. The album's thematic structure revolved around their lives as adolescents in Belleville; examples are songs about wanting to avoid factory work and songs about fearing a potential Persian Gulf War military draft. Impressed by their previous work on Dinosaur Jr.'s Bug, the band wanted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade to produce the album. Slade let Farrar play on the same 1961 Gibson Les Paul SG Junior that J. Mascis originally played on Bug. The album was released on June 21, 1990, and the band celebrated by playing at Cicero's for two nights. In between tours, Farrar, Tweedy and Heidorn formed a country cover band named Coffee Creek, along with Brian Henneman (later a member of The Bottle Rockets). Henneman impressed Uncle Tupelo, and he was invited to be a guitar technician and occasional multi-instrumentalist for the band. While Farrar and Heidorn would avoid drinking too much after shows, Tweedy would continue drinking throughout the night. Although Tweedy stopped after he began dating Sue Miller in 1991, a significant communication gap had already been opened between Tweedy and Farrar. By March 1991, No Depression had sold an estimated 15,000 copies, and was featured in a Rolling Stone article about rising stars. However, Rockville Records refused to pay the band any royalties for the album, a theme that would continue for the remainder of the band's contract. Over seventeen days the band recorded a second album at Long View Farm in rural North Brookfield, Massachusetts. Still Feel Gone, with a more layered sound, was also produced by Kolderie and Slade, with contributions by Slade, Henneman, Rich Gilbert, Chris Bess of Enormous Richard, and Gary Louris of The Jayhawks. The band was disappointed with the production of the album and decided to discontinue working with Kolderie and Slade. Soon afterward, Uncle Tupelo recorded "Shaking Hands (Soldier's Joy)" on Michelle Shocked's album Arkansas Traveler and joined her on the accompanying tour with Taj Mahal and The Band. However, the tour only lasted for a few shows because of managerial problems between Shocked and The Band. Alternative rock had broken into the mainstream by 1992, and an album released in that style was expected to earn the group a major-label record deal. However, Uncle Tupelo did not want to follow in the footsteps of groups such as Nirvana, and decided to play country and folk songs "as a big 'fuck you' to the rock scene". Peter Buck, guitarist for R.E.M., saw the trio perform at the 40 Watt Club in Athens, Georgia and sought them out after the show. Buck was impressed with a version of "Atomic Power" that the band played, and offered his services for their next album. Over a span of five days, Buck produced the group's next album, March 16–20, 1992. Buck allowed them to stay in his house during the sessions, and charged no money for his services. Henneman's role was increased for this album, and he taught himself how to play mandolin and bouzouki. Despite turning away from the style of popular alternative rock, major labels began to show significant interest in Uncle Tupelo after March 16–20, 1992 was released. The album sold more than their two previous recordings combined, although Rockville was displeased that it did not conform to the style of popular alternative rock. Major label contract In 1992, Joe McEwen of Sire Records began to pursue the band. McEwen, who brought notable acts such as Dinosaur Jr. and Shawn Colvin to Sire, had been interested in them since hearing the Not Forever, Just for Now demo tape. At the urging of Gary Louris, McEwen offered Uncle Tupelo a contract. Band manager Tony Margherita invoked the $50,000 escape clause he had put in their Rockville contract, freeing the band to sign a seven-year deal with Sire. The deal required two albums and specified a budget of $150,000 for the first. Around the time of the recording of March 16–20, 1992, Mike Heidorn had secured a steady job at a Belleville newspaper company and was dating a woman who had two children from a previous marriage. Uncle Tupelo had planned a tour of Europe, but Heidorn wanted to stay in Belleville with his girlfriend, whom he married in August 1992. The band held auditions prior to the promotional tour for March 16–20, 1992, and two candidates stood out: Bill Belzer and Ken Coomer. Although Farrar and Tweedy agreed that Coomer was the better drummer, they were intimidated by his six-foot-four stature and long dreadlocks. The band instead selected Belzer as Heidorn's replacement, but he only stayed with the band for six months. Tweedy explained Belzer's departure: I want to believe it was purely musical, and I honestly believe that it wasn't working musically. I also believe that we weren't emotionally mature enough to be close friends with a gay person at that point in our lives ... And Bill was and is a very proud and righteous gay person, very open about his homosexuality. After touring Europe opening for Sugar, the band replaced Belzer with Coomer. The band also experimented with new members: John Stirratt replaced Brian Henneman (who left to form The Bottle Rockets) while Max Johnston, the brother of Michelle Shocked, joined as a live mandolin and violin performer. Stirratt became the full-time bassist, allowing Tweedy to perform more songs with the guitar. Now a five-piece, Uncle Tupelo recorded their major label debut at Cedar Creek studio in Austin, Texas in early 1993. Anodyne consisted of live-in-the-studio recordings and included a duet with Farrar and Doug Sahm of the Sir Douglas Quintet. The album sold 150,000 copies, and was their only entry on the Billboard Heatseekers chart. The group toured until the end of the year, finishing with a sold-out concert at Tramps in New York City. Because of their concert draw, major executives at Sire began to see the band as a potential hit. In 1993, the band contributed a cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival's track "Effigy" to the AIDS-Benefit album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization. Breakup With the addition of Stirratt, Coomer, and Johnston just prior to the recording of Anodyne, Farrar and Tweedy's relationship became more tumultuous, leading to verbal altercations after concerts. In one account, Tweedy recalled: Around this time, I would say something into a microphone onstage, and afterward [Farrar would] pull me aside and say, "Don't you ever fucking talk into that microphone again." He would misconstrue me talking into the microphone as more evidence of my out-of-control, rampant ego, more evidence of me feeling like I didn't have to be so fucking afraid anymore. Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band, but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy's new carefree attitude. Years later, Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar's girlfriend, an act which he believed to have been a proposition. In January 1994, Farrar called manager Tony Margherita to inform him of his decision to leave the band. Farrar told Margherita that he was no longer having fun, and did not want to work with Tweedy anymore. Soon after the breakup, Farrar explained his departure: "It just seemed like it reached a point where Jeff and I really weren't compatible. It had ceased to be a symbiotic songwriting relationship, probably after the first record." Tweedy was enraged that he heard the news secondhand from Margherita, rather than directly from Farrar. The following day, the two engaged in a verbal confrontation. As a favor to Margherita, who had spent a substantial amount of money to keep the band running, Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America. Tweedy and Farrar again engaged in a shouting match two weeks into the tour, due to Farrar's refusal to sing harmony on any of Tweedy's songs. The band made its first appearance on national television during the tour when they were featured on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. Sire had requested that the band perform "The Long Cut" on the show, which further irked Farrar since the song was written and sung by Tweedy. Uncle Tupelo's last concerts, two shows at The Blue Note in Columbia, Missouri and two shows at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis, took place from April 28 to May 1, 1994. A special "last leg" poster was created for the occasion which facetiously promoted the band as "St. Louis's 4th best country band", based on a readers' poll in the Riverfront Times. On the last night, Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert, and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore. Post-breakup Following Uncle Tupelo's final tour, Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group, while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own. Tweedy was able to retain the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup, and created Wilco. They began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert, and by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album, A.M.. Farrar asked Jim Boquist to join his new band, Son Volt; Boquist was a multi-instrumentalist who had performed with Joe Henry as the opening act on Uncle Tupelo's last tour. Boquist also recruited his brother Dave, and Farrar convinced Mike Heidorn to leave Belleville to join the group. Farrar's new four-piece began recording their debut album Trace in November 1994. Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records. Son Volt had an early college rock hit with "Drown" from the album Trace, but Wilco maintained a more commercially successful career in the years to follow. Regarding the possibility of a reunion, Mike Heidorn reported in a PopMatters interview that "nothing's ever for sure, but I would have to say, 'No such thing'." Farrar said that he does not want the band to get back together, while Tweedy said that he believes that a reunion would not be productive musically. Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum in 2000 over royalties that the label allegedly owed them, winning restitution from Tenenbaum and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo's first three albums. After securing the rights, the band released a compilation entitled 89/93: An Anthology. In 2003, Uncle Tupelo re-issued their first three albums, which before the lawsuit had cumulatively sold over 200,000 copies. Influences As The Primitives, Tweedy and Farrar were highly influenced by punk bands such as The Ramones and The Sex Pistols. However, they began to listen to country music because punk rock was not well received in the Belleville and St. Louis music scenes. While they originally were introduced to country by their parents, it was not until this time that they began to listen to it for leisure. Farrar typically wrote songs about Middle America, while Tweedy wrote about more mainstream topics such as relationships. Farrar took influence from authors such as Kurt Vonnegut and Jack Kerouac, whom he read while working at his mother's bookstore. As a singer, Farrar's lyrics would be front-and-center during performances, but the band's musical style was mostly driven by Tweedy and Heidorn. Jeff Tweedy said in an interview with the St. Louis Post-Dispatch: We probably have more influences than we know what to do with. We have two main styles that have been influences. For instance, we like Black Flag as much as early Bob Dylan and Dinosaur Jr. as much as Hank Williams... To us, hard-core punk is also folk music. We draw a close parallel between the two. We'll play both in the same set if we get a chance. We don't have any biases as far as music is concerned. Tweedy in particular was inspired by the Minutemen, and wrote a song about D. Boon following Boon's death in a van accident. The band has released songs originally performed by Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Carter Family, Lead Belly, Gram Parsons, The Soft Boys, The Louvin Brothers, Texas Tornados, and The Stooges. Releasing March 16–20, 1992 when alternative music was breaking through was a move inspired by Neil Young's decision to release the challenging albums On the Beach and Tonight's the Night immediately after the commercially successful Harvest. Critic Michael Corcoran likened the band's musical style to "Bob Mould fronting Soul Asylum on a speeded-up version of a Gram Parsons song." Legacy Uncle Tupelo is credited as one of the founders of the alternative country genre, a blend of alternative rock and traditional country music. While the genre eventually became associated with solo artists such as Gram Parsons and Lyle Lovett, Uncle Tupelo is considered the first alternative country band. Some media outlets like the BBC have even suggested that they were the genre's sole creator. However, Tweedy and Heidorn dispute this claim, and Farrar says that there is no difference between alternative country and other genres such as roots rock. Heidorn commented in a Country Standard Time interview: It's strange to hear Uncle Tupelo mentioned because what we were doing was in such a long line of musical history. People are wrong in starting with us and saying we started anything because we were just picking up the ball, starting with Woody Guthrie and on to the early '60s and the Flying Burrito Brothers that we were influenced by. We didn't start a genre. We contributed to a long line of fairly good music. That's the way we looked at it at the time—doing what was right for the song. The band's first three albums influenced contemporary roots rock artists such as Richmond Fontaine and Whiskeytown. Uncle Tupelo's usage of distorted guitars to play a style of music that was known for its earnestness became a lasting trend in 1990s modern rock. Jason Ankeny wrote in AllMusic that: With the release of their 1990 debut LP, No Depression, the Belleville, IL, trio Uncle Tupelo launched more than simply their own career—by fusing the simplicity and honesty of country music with the bracing fury of punk, they kick-started a revolution which reverberated throughout the American underground. Their 1990 album No Depression lent its name to an influential alternative country periodical. Due to the influence of the album and periodical, the term "No Depression" became a byword for alternative country—particularly for bands with punk rock influence. The alternative country movement played an important role in the success of future traditionalist country acts such as Robbie Fulks and Shelby Lynne. Members Jay Farrar – vocals, guitar (1987–1994) Mike Heidorn – drums (1987–1992) Jeff Tweedy – vocals, bass, guitar (1987–1994) Bill Belzer – drums (1992) Ken Coomer – drums (1992–1994) Max Johnston – violin, mandolin (1992–1994) John Stirratt – bass, guitar (1992–1994) Timeline Discography Studio albums Compilations Demo tapes All demo tapes are self-released on cassette. Singles Contributions Uncle Tupelo also recorded a one-hour radio special that was released by Legacy Records in 2003. Legacy only distributed the CD, entitled The Long Cut: A One Hour Radio Special, to non-commercial radio stations as a way to promote the re-issues of the band's studio albums. The special is hosted by Lauren Frey and features interviews by Farrar, Tweedy, and Heidorn. Notes References External links Factory Belt: The Unofficial Uncle Tupelo Archives Postcard From Hell Mailing List American alternative country groups American country rock groups Musical groups from St. Louis Musical groups disestablished in 1994 Musical groups established in 1987 Musical groups from Illinois Wilco 1987 establishments in Illinois Sire Records artists Dutch East India Trading artists Giant Records (independent) artists

425107

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merengue%20music

Merengue music

Merengue is a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic, which has become a very popular genre throughout Latin America, and also in several major cities in the United States with Latino communities. Merengue was inscribed on November 30, 2016 in the representative list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity of UNESCO. Merengue was developed in the middle of the 1800s, originally played with European stringed instruments (bandurria and guitar). Years later, the stringed instruments were replaced by the accordion, thus conforming, together with the güira and the tambora, the instrumental structure of the typical merengue ensemble. This set, with its three instruments, represents the synthesis of the three cultures that made up the idiosyncrasy of Dominican culture. The European influence is represented by the accordion, the African by the Tambora, which is a two-head drum, and the Taino or aboriginal by the güira. The genre was later promoted by Rafael Trujillo, the dictator from 1930 to 1961, who turned it into the national music and dance style of the Dominican Republic. In the United States it was first popularized by New York–based groups and bandleaders like Rafael Petiton Guzman, beginning in the 1930s, and Angel Viloria y su Conjunto Típico Cibaeño in the 1950s. It was during the Trujillo era that the merengue "Compadre Pedro Juan", by Luis Alberti, became an international hit and standardized the 2-part form of the merengue. Famous merengue artists and groups include Juan Luis Guerra, Wilfrido Vargas, Milly Quezada, Toño Rosario, Fernando Villalona, Los Hermanos Rosario, Bonny Cepeda, Johnny Ventura, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Grupo Rana, Miriam Cruz, Las Chicas Del Can, Kinito Mendez, Jossie Esteban y la Patrulla 15, Pochy y su Cocoband, Cuco Valoy, Ramón Orlando, Alex Bueno, The New York Band, Elvis Crespo, Olga Tañón, Gisselle, and Grupomanía. The popularity of merengue has been increasing in Venezuela. Venezuelan Merengueros include Roberto Antonio, Miguel Moly, Natusha, Porfi Jiménez, Billo's Caracas Boys, and Los Melodicos. Merengue is also popular in the coastal city of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The new line of merengue created in New York City has become very popular amongst younger listeners. Known as "Merengue de Mambo," its proponents include Omega, Oro 24, Los Ficos, Los Gambinos, Alberto Flash, Mala Fe, Henry Jimenez, and Aybar. Although the etymology of merengue can be disputed, there are a few theories about where the word might have derived from. One suggestion is that the term derives from meringue, a dish made from egg whites that is popular in Latin-American countries. The sound made by the whipping of eggs supposedly resembles the guiro used in merengue. History The origins of the music are traced to the land of El Cibao, where merengue cibaeño and merengue típico are the terms most musicians use to refer to classical merengue. The word Cibao was a native name for the island, although the Spanish used it in their conquest to refer to a specific part of the island, the highest mountainous range. The term merengue cibaeño is therefore partially native and so merengue might also be a derivation of a native word related to song, music, dance, or festival. An early genre with similarities to merengue is the carabiné originating in the southern region of the territory of what is now the Dominican Republic, during the time of the French occupation. The name "carabiné" derives from the weapons called carbines (in French carabinier) that the soldiers did not dare to leave when a dance arrived, proceeding to dance with them on their shoulders. From the French word, the Spanish name of the new rhythm was derived, accentuating its pronunciation sharply on the "e". Merengue was first mentioned in the mid 19th century with the earliest documented evidence being newspaper articles. Some of the articles inform about a "lascivious" dance, and also highlight merengue displacing the Tumba. The genre had originated within the rural, northern valley region around the city of Santiago called the Cibao. It later spread throughout the country and became popular among the urban population. The oldest form of merengue was typically played on string instruments. When the accordion came to the island in the 1880s, introduced by German traders, it quickly became the primary instrument, and to this day is still the instrument of choice in merengue típico. Later, the piano and brass instruments were introduced to the genre. Musical style Three main types of merengue are played in the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico today. Merengue típico, which is usually called perico ripiao, is the oldest style commonly played. The other two types are merengue de orquesta (big-band merengue) and merengue de guitarra (guitar merengue). Rhythm Merengues are fast arrangements with a beat. The traditional instrumentation for a conjunto típico (traditional band), the usual performing group of folk merengue, is a diatonic accordion, a two–sided drum, called a tambora, held on the lap, and a güira. A güira is a percussion instrument that sounds like a maraca. It is a sheet of metal with small bumps on it (created with hammer and nail), shaped into a cylinder, and played with a stiff brush. The güira is brushed steadily on the downbeat with an "and-a" thrown in at certain points, or played in more complex patterns that generally mark the time. Caballito rhythm, or a quarter and two eighths, is also common. The double-headed drum is played on one side with a stick syncopation and on the other side with the palm of the hand. The traditional (some say fundamental) signature rhythm figure of merengue is the quintillo, which is essentially a syncopated motif whose pattern is broken by five successive drumhead hits at the transition between every second and third beat, alternating between the hand and the stick. To purists, a merengue without quintillo is not truly a merengue, a viewpoint that has gradually disappeared as other alternate figures are used more frequently (as the one traditionally called jaleo, also known as merengue bomba, wrongly identified as a mixture of merengue and Puerto Rican bomba music, and which actually also has its roots in traditional merengue). Three main types of merengue are played in the Dominican Republic today. Merengue típico, which is usually called perico ripiao, is the oldest style commonly played. In English perico ripiao means "ripped parrot", which suggests controversy but which is said to be the name of a brothel where the music was originally played. The other two types are merengue de orquesta (big-band merengue) and merengue de guitarra (guitar merengue). Stylistic changes At first, merengue típico was played on stringed instruments like the tres and cuatro, but when Germans came to the island in the late 19th century trading their instruments for tobacco, the accordion quickly replaced the strings as lead instrument. Típico groups play a variety of rhythms, but most common are the merengue and the pambiche. In the 1930s–50s a bass instrument was also often used. Called marimba, it resembles the Cuban marímbula, and is a large box-shaped thumb piano with 3-6 metal keys. The main percussion instruments, güira and tambora, have been a part of the ensemble since the music's inception, and are so important that they are often considered symbolic of the whole country. The güira is a metal scraper believed to be of native Taíno origin, while the tambora is a two-headed drum of African origin. Together with the European accordion, the típico group symbolizes the three cultures that combined to make today's Dominican Republic. One important figure in early merengue was Francisco "Ñico" Lora (1880–1971), who is often credited for quickly popularizing the accordion at the turn of the 20th century. Lora was once asked how many merengues he had composed in his lifetime and he answered "thousands", probably without much exaggeration, and many of these compositions are still a standard part of the típico repertoire. He was a skilled improviser who could compose songs on the spot, by request. But he has also been likened to a journalist, since in his precomposed songs "he commented on everything with his accordion" (Pichardo, in Austerlitz 1997:35). His compositions discussed current events such as Cuban independence, World War I, the arrival of the airplane, and US occupation of the Dominican Republic. Among Lora's contemporaries are Toño Abreu and Hipólito Martínez, best remembered for their merengue "Caña Brava". This popular song was composed in 1928 or 1929 as an advertisement for the Brugal rum company, who were then selling a rum of the same name. Brugal paid Martínez $5 for his efforts. Típico musicians continued to innovate within their style during the latter half of the twentieth century. Tatico Henríquez (d.1976), considered the godfather of modern merengue típico, replaced the marimba with electric bass and added a saxophone (it was used before, but infrequently) to harmonize with the accordion. A prolific composer, Tatico's influence cannot be overestimated: nationally broadcast radio and television appearances brought his music to all parts of the country, leading to widespread imitation of his style and dissemination of his compositions. Today, these works form the core of any típico musician's repertoire. Other innovations from this period include the addition of the bass drum now played by the güirero with a foot pedal, a development credited to Rafael Solano. Many of today's top accordionists also began their careers during this period, including El Ciego de Nagua, Rafaelito Román, and Francisco Ulloa. Arrangements In the 1990s, most groups maintained the five-man lineup of accordion, sax, tambora, güira, and bass guitar, though a few new innovations have been made. Some modern band leaders have also added congas, timbales (played by the tamborero), and keyboards to their groups in an attempt to reach a wider audience and narrow the gap between the típico and orquesta styles. The most popular artist at present is El Prodigio, a young accordionist who is respected among típico musicians of all ages. Though he has become famous for recording his own compositions in a modern style, he is also able to perform all the "standards" of the traditional típico repertoire and is a talented, jazzy improviser. New York–based groups like Fulanito have experimented with the fusion of típico accordion with rap vocals. Young artists such as these have been able to bring merengue típico to new audiences. Merengue típico songs are generally composed in two parts. The first section is rhythmically straightforward and is used to introduce the song's melodic and lyrical material; here, verses are sung and the only improvisation occurs at the end of song lines, when the accordion or saxophone fills in. The second section is dominated by improvisation, more complex rhythms, and hard-driving mambo, or the part of the song where melody instruments (sax and accordion) unite to play catchy, syncopated riffs or jaleos which help motivate and stimulate dancers. Típico rhythms include merengue derecho, or straight-ahead merengue, which is the kind of fast-paced time merengue most of us are used to hearing, usually used in the first section. Pambiche or merengue apambichao is similar but usually slower, and can be recognized by the double slap rhythm on the tambora. Guinchao is a third rhythm combining the first two that is commonly heard in the second section of a merengue. Típico groups do not have to limit themselves to merengue as they can also play other traditional rhythms from the Dominican Republic and elsewhere, though this was more common in the past than at present. Mangulina and guaracha are now seldom heard; the latter is a clave-based style in originally from Cuba, while the former is a dance native to the Dominican Republic. Paseo was a slow introduction to a merengue song during which couples would promenade around the dance floor in stately fashion. Orquesta or big-band merengue became the merengue of choice for the urban Dominican middle and upper classes in the twentieth century. Although merengue had been played in upper-class salons as early as the 1850s, moralists like then-president Ulises Espaillat succeeded in banning the dance from such locations only two decades later, causing the merengue to effectively die out in the cities. Still, it was kept alive by rural musicians such as accordionist/composer Nico Lora, and it began to reappear in towns of the Cibao during the 1910s. During that decade, several composers, including Julio Alberto Hernández, Juan Espínola of La Vega and Juan Francisco García of Santiago, tried to resuscitate the dance by creating orchestrated, written scores based on folk merengue melodies. One of these was García's 1918 work titled "Ecos del Cibao." Composer Luis Alberti later reported that such pieces, especially the famous tune known as the Juangomero, were frequently played at the end of an evening's program that otherwise featured imported styles like waltzes, mazurkas, polkas, danzas, danzones, and one- and two-steps. While these early efforts in orchestrated merengue generally succeeded only in scandalizing their audiences, the political changes that occurred in the Dominican Republic over the next few years made a resurgence of the merengue possible. The resented North American invasion of 1916 seems to have made the general public more disposed to support autochthonous rhythms over imported ones, though the raucous rural accordion sound was still unacceptable to high-society tastes. Nevertheless, when Rafael Leonidas Trujillo took power in 1930, he imposed the merengue upon all levels of society, some say as a form of punishment for the elites that had previously refused to accept him. The soon-to-be dictator must also have realized the symbolic power of the rural folk music and its potential for creating support among the masses, since he took accordionists with him around the Republic during his campaign tours from the very beginning. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Until the 1930s, the music was considered "immoral" by the general population. Its more descriptive and colorful name, perico ripiao (literally "ripped parrot" in Spanish), was said to have been the name of a brothel in Santiago where the music was played. Moralists tried to ban merengue music and the provocative dance that accompanied it, but with little success. Merengue experienced a sudden elevation of status during dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo's reign from 1930 to 1961. Although he was from the south rather than the Cibao, he did come from a rural area and from a lower-class family, so he decided that the rural style of perico ripiao should be the Dominican national symbol. He ordered numerous merengues to be composed in his honor. With titles like "Literacy", "Trujillo is great and immortal", and "Trujillo the great architect", these songs describe his virtues and extol his contributions to the country. Trujillo's interest in and encouragement of merengue helped create a place for the music on the radio and in respectable ballrooms. Luis Alberti and other musicians began to play with "big band" or orquesta instrumentation, replacing the accordion with a horn section and initiating a split between this new, mostly urban style and mostly rural perico ripiao. New York City Latino radio is still dominated by orquesta merengue. Following his election, Trujillo ordered musicians to compose and perform numerous merengues extolling his supposed virtues and attractiveness to women. Luis Alberti and other popular bandleaders created a style of merengue more acceptable to the urban middle class by making its instrumentation more similar to the big bands then popular in the United States, replacing the accordion with a large brass section but maintaining the tambora and güira as a rhythmic base. They also composed lyrics free of the rough language and double-entendres characterizing the folk style. The first merengue to attain success at all levels of society was Alberti's famous 1936 work, "Compadre Pedro Juan." This was actually a resetting of García's "Ecos," itself based on earlier folk melodies, and thus it upheld a long-standing tradition in merengue típico of creating songs by applying new words to recycled melodies. The new, popular-style merengue began to grow in quite different directions from its predecessor, merengue típico. It became ever more popular throughout the country through its promotion by Petán Trujillo, the dictator's brother, on his state-sponsored radio station, La Voz Dominicana. Musicians like Luis Senior and Pedro Pérez kept listeners interested by inventing new variations like the "bolemengue" and "jalemengue." Merengue does not have as plainly strong African origins as other forms of Dominican music, and therefore did not conflict with Trujillo's racist ideology. Trujillo promoted the music for political gain as a focus of national solidarity and political propaganda. It helped his efforts to unify a Dominican identity. After Trujillo's assassination in 1961, the merengue orquesta underwent great change. During that decade, Johnny Ventura's Combo Show drove crowds wild with their showy choreography, slimmed-down brass section, and salsa influences. In the 1970s, Wilfrido Vargas sped up the tempo and incorporated influences from disco and rock. (The term "orquesta," simply meaning a large musical ensemble, is now used to describe the pop merengue groups based on Ventura's and Vargas's models as well as the older Alberti style.) In addition, a new rhythm called "merengue a lo maco" appeared and was popularized by groups including Los Hermanos Rosario and Cheche Abreu. Far less complicated than other merengue rhythms, it was particularly useful for adapting songs from other styles like bachata, Colombian vallenato, Mexican rancheras, and North American pop. This process of remaking is called fusilamiento and continues to be a source for many merengue hits to this day. Merengue around the world Merengue has been heard in New York since the 1930s, when Eduardo Brito became the first to sing the Dominican national music there before going on to tour Spain. Salcedo-born, Juilliard-educated Rafael Petitón Guzmán formed the first Dominican-led band in the city with his Orquesta Lira Dominicana, which played in all the popular ballrooms in the 1930s and 1940s, while at the same time Angel Viloria played popular tunes on accordion with his "conjunto típico cibaeño" for Big Apple fans. However, it wasn't until the massive migration of Dominicans in the 1960s and 1970s that the music reached a mass audience. In 1967, Joseíto Mateo, Alberto Beltrán, and Primitivo Santos took merengue to Madison Square Garden for the first time. Later, New York–based groups like La Gran Manzana and Milly, Jocelyn y los Vecinos, a group unusual for being fronted by women, gained a following in the diaspora as well as back on the island. By the 1980s merengue was so big it was even beating out salsa on the airwaves. That decade was also notable for a boom in all-female orchestras, and Las Chicas del Can became particularly popular. Since then, musicians like Juan Luis Guerra, trained at Boston's Berklee school, Toño Rosario and former rocker Luis Díaz have brought merengue even further abroad, truly internationalizing the music. Guerra collaborated with African guitarists, experimented with indigenous Caribbean sounds, and explored Dominican roots music with típico accordionist Francisco Ulloa, while Díaz (an innovator since his work with 1970s folklore group Convite) fused merengue, rock, merengue típico, and bachata in his productions. In the 21st century, orquesta musicians began to voice concern that their style would be eclipsed in popularity by bachata and merengue típico. Perhaps for this reason, some pop merengue singers have gone to extreme lengths to attract attention, such as Tulile and Mala Fe's excursions into women's wear. But even without such antics, recordings by groups like Los Toros Band, Rubby Pérez, Alex Bueno, Sergio Vargas, and the ever-popular Los Hermanos Rosario continue to sell well. Pop merengue also has a remarkably strong following on the neighboring island of Puerto Rico, which has produced its own stars, like Olga Tañón and Elvis Crespo. In more urban settings, merengue is played with all manner of instrumentation, but the tambora and the güira are signatures. Today, merengue de orquesta is most popular. It uses a large horn section with paired saxophones, piano, timbales, hi-hat, backup singers, and conga, in addition to tambora, güira, and bass. In modern merengue típico a saxophone is an addition to the accordion, along with electric bass guitar. A proof of the great adaptability of the music can be found in the Dominican National Symphony's presentation in 2003 of a concert series entitled "Symphonic Merengue", in which the Symphonic Orchestra consisting of woodwinds, brass, strings, and the like played popular tunes. Distribution Merengue music found mainstream exposure in other areas of Latin America in the 1970s and '80s, with its peak in the 1990s. In the Andean countries like Peru and Chile, merengue dance lost the characteristic of being danced close together, instead being danced separately while moving the arms. Women in merengue Merengue, from its conception and through time, has classically been a male-dominated genre. In recent times, however, the genre has experienced a change in this situation. Several female artists and all-female bands have risen to relative stardom. This upheaval was influenced by the contributions of singer/bandleader Johnny Ventura’s modernization of the sound of merengue in 1960, modernizing the sound from its “big-band”-esque setup with a quickening of tempo and inclusion of a visually-appealing element, with glitzy costumes and choreography. In the early 1970s, trumpeter and singer Wilfrido Vargas furthered the modernization of merengue by including electronic elements and strengthening the focus of a visual stage presence. These two men modernized the merengue stage, thereby increasing the palatability of a female merengue presence. One of the most influential women in merengue is Fefita La Grande. Her birth name was Manuela Josefa Cabrera Taveras. She performed for Petán Trujillo, the brother of the Dominican Republic's president, convincing him to give her father a home and a job she could earn money from. Her rise to fame led to a great demand for her performances in New York, the Dominican Republic, and even Europe. Fefita's efforts forced men to work alongside women in merengue and accept that there is a place for them. Female merengue bands began to emerge in the 1970s, with examples such as Gladys Quero's "Orquesta Unisex", but started gaining popularity in the early 1980s with Aris García's "La Media Naranja", "Las Chicas del País" and, principally, pianist Belkis Concepcion's band, Las Chicas del Can. They are known by their fans as Las Reinas del Merengue, or in English, The Queens of Merengue. The band currently consists of eleven members, including horns, rhythm, dancers, and singers. After Belkis Concepcion left the band in 1985, Miriam Cruz took over as lead vocalist and led the band on tours through Europe. Soon after Concepcion followed the “mother figure” of merengue—Milly Quesada. She led the group Los Vecinos, which includes her sister Jocelyn and cousins Rafael and Martin, based in New York City. In reference to this female-merengue phenomena, Jocelyn Quesada states, Yet another notable all-female merengue group is the trio Chantelle. The women are Puerto Rican, not Dominican, and both this and their gender testify to merengue's growing popularity. Las Chicas del Can was the first all-female band from the Dominican Republic, formed in 1981, which paved the road for other Latina artists. Known as “Las Reinas de Merengue”, which means “The Queens of Merengue”, they not only sang and danced, but also played a variety of instruments such as the trumpet, conga drums and the guitar. Las Chicas del Can were extremely successful, earning several platinum and gold records. Their hit single “El Negro No Puede” was later remade by Shakira, in her song “Waka Waka”. Milly Quezada was born as Milagros Quezada Borbon on May 21, 1955. She is a singer in Latin America. Her hometown is Dominican Republic. She graduated from New York City College with a communications degree. Then she was known as the Queen of Merengue, or La Reina de Merengue. She had a group with her two brothers and sister called Milly, Y Los Vecinos. The band would write songs about women's independence and freedom of choice. See also Latin Grammy Award for Best Merengue/Bachata Album Music of the Dominican Republic Latin American music Méringue (Haitian version) Soraya Aracena References Works cited Austerlitz, Paul. 1997. Merengue: Dominican music and Dominican identity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Díaz Díaz, Edgardo. 2008. “Danza antillana, conjuntos militares, nacionalismo musical e identidad dominicana: retomando los pasos perdidos del merengue.” Latin American Music Review 29(2): 229–259. Hutchinson, Sydney. 2016. Tigers of a different stripe: Performing gender in Dominican music. University of Chicago Press. Films 1984 - Caribbean Crucible. From Repercussions: A Celebration of African-American Music series, program 6. Directed by Dennis Marks and Geoffrey Haydon. 1990 - My Blue Heaven, starring Steve Martin, features extended episodes of merengue music and dancing. External links A History Of Merengue - perico ripiao, merengue típico, merengue de orchesta with music and video clips Dominican Republic music Tropical music 1980s in Latin music 1990s in Latin music 2000s in Latin music Dominican styles of music Dominican Republic culture

425134

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Clay%20Frick

Henry Clay Frick

Henry Clay Frick (December 19, 1849 – December 2, 1919) was an American industrialist, financier, and art patron. He founded the H. C. Frick & Company coke manufacturing company, was chairman of the Carnegie Steel Company and played a major role in the formation of the giant U.S. Steel manufacturing concern. He had extensive real estate holdings in Pittsburgh and throughout the state of Pennsylvania. He later built the historic Neoclassical Frick Mansion (now a landmark building in Manhattan), and upon his death donated his extensive collection of old master paintings and fine furniture to create the celebrated Frick Collection and art museum. However, as a founding member of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, he was also in large part responsible for the alterations to the South Fork Dam that caused its failure, leading to the catastrophic Johnstown Flood. His vehement opposition to unions also caused violent conflict, most notably in the Homestead Strike. Early life Frick was born in West Overton, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, in the United States, a grandson of Abraham Overholt (Oberholzer), the owner of the prosperous Overholt Whiskey distillery (see Old Overholt). His father was of Swiss ancestry; his mother was of German ancestry. Frick's father, John W. Frick, was unsuccessful in business pursuits. Henry Clay Frick attended Otterbein College for one year, but did not graduate. In 1871, at 21 years old, Frick joined two cousins and a friend in a small partnership, using a beehive oven to turn coal into coke for use in steel manufacturing, and vowed to be a millionaire by the age of thirty. The company was called Frick Coke Company. Thanks to loans from the family of lifelong friend Andrew Mellon, by 1880, Frick bought out the partnership. The company was renamed H. C. Frick & Company, employed 1,000 workers and controlled 80 percent of the coal output in Pennsylvania, operating coal mines in Westmoreland and Fayette counties, where he also operated banks of beehive coke ovens. Some of the brick and stone structures are still visible in both Fayette and Westmoreland Counties. H. C. Frick and Andrew Carnegie Shortly after marrying Adelaide Howard Childs, in 1881, Frick met Andrew Carnegie in New York City while the Fricks were on their honeymoon. This introduction would lead to an eventual partnership between H. C. Frick & Company and Carnegie Steel Company and, eventually, to United States Steel. This partnership ensured that Carnegie's steel mills had adequate supplies of coke. Frick became chairman of the company. Carnegie made multiple attempts to force Frick out of the company they had created by making it appear that the company had nowhere left to go and that it was time for Frick to retire. Despite the contributions Frick had made towards Andrew Carnegie's fortune, Carnegie disregarded him in many executive decisions including finances. The Johnstown Flood At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Frick helped to found the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The charter members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club were Benjamin Ruff; T. H. Sweat, Charles J. Clarke, Thomas Clark, Walter F. Fundenberg, Howard Hartley, Henry C. Yeager, J. B. White, Henry Clay Frick, E. A. Meyers, C. C. Hussey, D. R. Ewer, C. A. Carpenter, W. L. Dunn, W. L. McClintock, and A. V. Holmes. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania, and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's occasional business partner Andrew Carnegie. The club members made inadequate repairs to what was at that time the world's largest earthen dam, behind which formed a private lake called Lake Conemaugh. Less than downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown. Cambria Iron Company operated a large iron and steel work in Johnstown and its owner, Daniel J. Morrell, was concerned about the safety of the dam and the thoroughness of repairs made to it. The Club fatally lowered the dam by more than 3 feet. Poor repairs and maintenance, unusually high snow melt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in the Johnstown Flood. A screen placed across the spillway by the club to prevent fish from escaping also partly blocked the main spillway. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims, as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members. With a volumetric flow rate that temporarily equalled that of the Mississippi River, the flood killed 2,209 people and caused US$17 million of damage (about $450 million in 2015 dollars). The American Society of Civil Engineers launched an investigation of the South Fork Dam breach immediately after the flood. However, the report was delayed, subverted, and whitewashed, before being released two years after the disaster. A detailed discussion of what happened during the ASCE investigation, its participating engineers, and the science behind the 1889 flood was published in 2018. Old Overholt whiskey In 1881, Frick, already wealthy, took control of his grandfather's whiskey company, Old Overholt. Frick split ownership with Andrew Mellon and Charles W. Mauck; each owned one-third of the company. The family's whiskey company was a sentimental side business for Frick, and was headquartered in Pittsburgh's Frick Building. In 1907, as prohibition became more popular across the country, Frick and Mellon removed their names from the distilling license, although they retained ownership in the company. Upon Frick's death in 1919, he left his share of the company to Mellon. Homestead strike Frick and Carnegie's partnership was strained over actions taken in response to the Homestead Steel Strike, an 1892 labor strike at the Homestead Works of the Carnegie Steel Company, called by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. At Homestead, striking workers, some of whom were armed, had locked the company staff out of the factory and surrounded it with pickets. Frick was known for his anti-union policy and as negotiations were still taking place, he ordered the construction of a solid board fence topped with barbed wire around mill property. The workers dubbed the newly fortified mill "Fort Frick." With the mill ringed by striking workers, Pinkerton agents planned to access the plant grounds from the river. Three hundred Pinkerton detectives assembled on the Davis Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles (8 km) below Pittsburgh at 10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges and towed upriver with the object of removing the workers by force. Upon their landing, a large mêlée between workers and Pinkerton detectives ensued. Ten men were killed, nine of them workers, and there were seventy injuries. The Pinkerton agents were thrown back, and the riot was ultimately quelled only by the intervention of 8,000 armed state militia under the command of Major General George R. Snowden. During the confrontation Frick issued an ultimatum to Homestead workers, which restated his refusal to speak with union representatives and threatened to have striking workers evicted from their homes. Among working-class Americans, Frick's actions against the strikers were condemned as excessive, and he soon became a target of even more union organizers. Because of this strike, people like Alan Petrucelli had thought that he is depicted as the "rich man" in Maxo Vanka's murals in St. Nicholas Croatian Church, but the Society to Preserve the Millvale Murals of Maxo Vanka (which works to preserve the artwork) says it depicts Andrew Mellon. Assassination attempt In 1892, during the Homestead strike, anarchist Alexander Berkman attempted to assassinate Frick. On July 23, Berkman, armed with a revolver and a sharpened steel file, entered Frick's office in downtown Pittsburgh. Frick, realizing what was happening, attempted to rise from his chair while Berkman pulled a revolver and fired at nearly point-blank range. The bullet hit Frick in the left earlobe, penetrated his neck near the base of the skull, and lodged in his back. The impact knocked Frick down, and Berkman fired again, striking Frick for a second time in the neck and causing him to bleed extensively. Carnegie Steel vice president (later, president) John George Alexander Leishman, who was with Frick, was then able to grab Berkman's arm and prevented a third shot, possibly saving Frick's life. Frick was seriously wounded but rose and (with the assistance of Leishman) tackled his assailant. All three men crashed to the floor, where Berkman managed to stab Frick four times in the leg with the pointed steel file before finally being subdued by other employees and a carpenter, who had rushed into the office. Frick was back at work within a week; Berkman was charged and found guilty of attempted murder. Berkman's actions in planning the assassination clearly indicated a premeditated intent to kill, and he was sentenced to 22 years in prison. Negative publicity from the attempted assassination resulted in the collapse of the strike. Private life Frick married Adelaide Howard Childs of Pittsburgh on December 15, 1881. They had four children: Childs Frick (born March 12, 1883), Martha Howard Frick (born August 9, 1885), Helen Clay Frick (born September 3, 1888) and Henry Clay Frick, Jr. (born July 8, 1892). In 1882, after the formation of the partnership with Andrew Carnegie, Frick and his wife bought a home they eventually called Clayton, an estate in Pittsburgh's East End. They moved into the home in early 1883. The Frick children were born in Pittsburgh and were raised at Clayton. Two of them, Henry, Jr. and Martha, died in infancy or childhood. In 1904, he built Eagle Rock, a summer estate at Prides Crossing in Beverly, Massachusetts on Boston's fashionable North Shore. The 104-room mansion designed by Little & Browne was razed in 1969. Frick was a fervent art collector whose wealth allowed him to accumulate a large collection. By 1905, Frick's business, social and artistic interests had shifted from Pittsburgh to New York. He took his art collection with him to New York, rented out the William H. Vanderbilt House, and served on many corporate boards. For example, as a board member of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, Frick attempted the removal of James Hazen Hyde (the founder's only son and heir) from the United States to France by seeking an appointment for him to become United States Ambassador to France. Frick had engaged a similar stratagem when orchestrating the ouster of the man who had saved his life, John George Alexander Leishman, from the presidency of Carnegie Steel a decade beforehand. In that instance, Leishman had chosen to accept the post as ambassador to Switzerland. Hyde, however, rebuffed Frick's plan. He did, however, move to France, where he served as an ambulance driver during World War I and lived until the outbreak of World War II. The Frick Collection is home to one of the finest collections of European paintings in the United States. It contains many works of art dating from the pre-Renaissance up to the post-Impressionist eras, but in no logical or chronological order. It includes several very large paintings by J. M. W. Turner and John Constable. In addition to paintings, it also contains an exhibition of carpets, porcelain, sculptures, and period furniture. Frick purchased the Westmoreland, a private railroad car, from the Pullman Company in 1910. The car cost nearly $40,000, and featured a kitchen, pantry, dining room, servant's quarters, two staterooms, and a lavatory. Frick frequently used the car for travel between his residences in New York City, Pittsburgh, and Prides Crossing, Massachusetts, as well for trips to places such as Palm Beach, Florida, and Aiken, South Carolina. The car remained in the Frick family until it was scrapped by Helen Clay Frick in 1965. Photographs of family and friends travelling on the Westmoreland form part of the Frick archive, as do the original construction plans and upholstery fabric samples. Frick and his wife Adelaide had booked tickets to travel back to New York on the inaugural trip of the RMS Titanic in 1912, along with J.P. Morgan. The couple canceled their trip after Adelaide sprained her ankle in Italy and missed the disastrous voyage. Frick died of a heart attack on December 2, 1919, weeks before his 70th birthday. He was buried in Pittsburgh's Homewood Cemetery. Legacy Frick left a will in which he bequeathed of undeveloped land to the City of Pittsburgh for use as a public park, together with a $2 million trust fund to assist with the maintenance of the park. Frick Park opened in 1927. Between 1919 and 1942, money from the trust fund was used to enlarge the park, increasing its size to almost . Many years after her father's death, Helen Clay Frick returned to Clayton in 1981, and lived there until her death in 1984. Frick was elected an honorary member of the Alpha chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia music fraternity at the New England Conservatory of Music on October 19, 1917. Henry Clay Frick Business Records (Archives) The Henry Clay Frick archive of business records consisted of the documents regarding the business and financial dealings from 1849 to 1919. These original documents record the evolution of the period of American steel and coal industrial growth. Documentation includes first business activities, first coal firm, H.C. Frick & Company, to the formation of United States Steel Corporation on March 2, 1901. Correspondence sent and received from prominent businessmen such as Andrew Carnegie, Charles Schwab, Andrew Mellon, Henry Oliver, H. H. Rogers, Henry Phipps, and J. P. Morgan are part of the collection. Much of the collection is available as digitized and openly accessible. Most of the collection is from 1881 to 1914, and is relevant to the history of the Pittsburgh region. The archive of Frick's great-grandfather, Henry Overholt (1739–1813), is also housed at the Archives Service Center, University of Pittsburgh Library System, University of Pittsburgh. See also "Bloody Battles" episode of The Men Who Built America References Bibliography Falk, Candace; Pateman, Barry; and Moran, Jessica M. Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2003. "Founded His Fortune in the Panic of 1873". The New York Times, December 3, 1919. "Henry C. Frick Dies". The New York Times, December 3, 1919. Krause, Paul. The Battle for Homestead, 1890–1892: Politics, Culture, and Steel. Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992. Petrucelli, Alan W. "A Fresh Look: Viewing Vanka Murals a Religious Experience." Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. July 14, 2008. Skrabec, Quentin R. Henry Clay Frick: The Life of the Perfect Capitalist. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 2010. Further reading Apfelt, Brian. The Corporation: 100 Years of the United States Steel Corp. , an authorized biography by a close friend Hessen, Robert. Steel Titan: The Life of Charles M. Schwab. (1975) Sanger, Martha Frick Symington. Henry Clay Frick: An Intimate Portrait. New York: Abbeville Press, 1998. Sanger, Martha Frick Symington. The Henry Clay Frick Houses: Architecture, Interiors, Landscapes in the Golden Era. New York: Monacelli Press, 2001. Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. Henry Clay Frick: The life of the perfect capitalist (McFarland, 2010). online Skrabec Jr, Quentin R. The Carnegie Boys: The Lieutenants of Andrew Carnegie that Changed America (McFarland, 2012) online. Smith, Roberta. "Change Arrives on Tiptoes at the Frick Mansion". The New York Times, August 28, 2008. Standiford, Les. Meet You in Hell: Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick, and the Bitter Partnership That Transformed America. New York: Crown Publishers, 2005. Warren, Kenneth. Triumphant Capitalism: Henry Clay Frick and the Industrial Transformation of America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996; the standard scholarly biography. Warren, Kenneth. "The Business Career of Henry Clay Frick". Pittsburgh History vol. 73, no. 1 (Spring 1990): 3–15. External links Official Frick Collection Website The Frick Art & Historical Center and Clayton Helen Clay Frick Foundation Archives Finding Aid for the Adelaide H.C. Frick Papers, 1874-1951 Documenting the Gilded Age: New York City Exhibitions at the Turn of the 20th Century A New York Art Resources Consortium project. 1849 births 1919 deaths American people of German descent American people of Swiss descent American manufacturing businesspeople American shooting survivors American steel industry businesspeople People associated with the Frick Collection Museum founders Frick Art Reference Library Andrew Carnegie Burials at Homewood Cemetery People from Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania Gilded Age Pittsburgh Labor History Stabbing survivors

425140

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da%20Nang

Da Nang

Da Nang or Danang ( ; , ) is a class-1 municipality and the fifth-largest city in Vietnam by municipal population. It lies on the coast of the East Sea of Vietnam at the mouth of the Hàn River, and is one of Vietnam's most important port cities. As one of the country's five direct-controlled municipalities, it falls under the administration of the central government. The city was known as Cửa Hàn during early Đại Việt settlement, and as Tourane (or Turon) during French colonial rule. Before 1997, the city was part of Quang Nam - Da Nang Province. On 1 January 1997, Da Nang was separated from Quảng Nam Province to become one of four centrally controlled municipalities in Vietnam. Da Nang is designated as a first class city, and has a higher urbanization ratio than any of Vietnam's other provinces or centrally governed cities. Da Nang is the commercial and educational center of Central Vietnam and is the largest city in the region. It has a well-sheltered, easily accessible port, and its location on National Route 1 and the North–South Railway makes it a transport hub. It is within of several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Imperial City of Huế, the Old Town of Hội An, and the Mỹ Sơn ruins. Da Nang has a Human Development Index of 0.779 (high), ranking fifth among all municipalities and provinces of Vietnam. Names and etymology Most of the names by which Da Nang has been known make reference to its position at the Hàn River estuary. The city's present name is generally agreed to be a Vietnamese adaptation of the Cham word da nak, which is translated as "opening of a large river". Other Chamic sources, with similar definitions, have been proposed. Inrasara (aka Phú Trạm), a researcher specializing in Champa, suggests Da Nang is a variation of the Cham word daknan (lit. "the large water"); Sakaya (aka Văn Món), another Champa researcher, claims a connection with the Raglai word danang, meaning "river source". Another name given to Da Nang was Cửa Hàn (lit. "mouth of the Han [river]"). The name used by the French, Tourane, is said to derive from this name, by way of a rough transliteration. Notably, this name (spelled "Cua han") appears on maps of the area drafted by Alexandre de Rhodes in 1650. The name Kean (cf. Kẻ Hàn, roughly "Han market") was another name purportedly used during the 17th century to refer to the land at the foot of the Hải Vân Pass. Other names referring to Da Nang include: Vũng Thùng, a colloquial name which survives in folklore. Trà Úc, Trà Áo, Trà Sơn and Đồng Long Loan, literary names used by Confucian scholars. In Chinese, Danang is known as Xiangang (), this is derived from the old name 蜆港 ("Clam Harbor"). In chữ Nôm, used until 1945, "Đà Nẵng" is written as . Thái Phiên, a name used briefly after the 1945 August Revolution, commemorating Thái Phiên, the leader of popular revolts during the 1916 Duy Tân Resistance. History Ancient Vietnam The city's origins date back to the ancient kingdom of Champa, established in 192 AD. At its peak, the Chams' sphere of influence stretched from Huế to Vũng Tàu. The city of Indrapura, at the site of the modern village of Dong Duong in Quảng Nam Province (about from Da Nang), was the capital of Champa from about 875 to about 1000 AD. Also in the region of Da Nang were the ancient Cham city of Singhapura ("City of the Lion"), the location of which has been identified with an archeological site in the modern village of Trà Kiệu, and the valley of Mỹ Sơn, where a number of ruined temples and towers can still be viewed. In the latter half of the 10th century, the kings of Indrapura came into conflict with the Đại Việt, who were then based at Hoa Lư near modern Hanoi. Champa had been independent, it found itself in need to defend its territory to contain the threat posed by the Khmer Empire in the west, and expand its territory to the north, hoping to conquer the Vietnamese nation. There, with the Vietnamese Kingdom in turmoil following the assassination of Đinh Tiên Hoàng, Champa made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Đại Việt in 979 with support of China, but failed due to the strong defence of Vietnamese territory under the command of Lê Hoàn. In 982, three ambassadors sent to Champa by Emperor Lê Hoàn of the Đại Việt (founder of the Early Lê dynasty) were detained in Indrapura. Lê Hoàn decided to go on the offensive, sacking Indrapura and killing the Cham King Parameshvaravarman I. As a result of these setbacks, the Cham eventually abandoned Indrapura around 1000 AD. The Đại Việt campaign against Champa continued into the late 11th century, when the Cham were forced to cede their three northern provinces to the rulers of the Lý dynasty. Soon afterward, Vietnamese farmers began moving into the untilled former Cham lands, turning them into rice fields and moving relentlessly southward, delta by delta, along the narrow coastal plain. The southward expansion of Đại Việt (known as Nam Tiến) continued for several centuries, culminating in the annexation of most of the Cham territories by the end of the 15th century. Western contact One of the first Europeans to visit Da Nang was Portuguese explorer António de Faria, who anchored in Da Nang in 1535. Faria was one of the first Westerners to write about the area and, through his influence, Portuguese ships began to call regularly at Hội An, which was then a much more important port than Da Nang. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, French and Spanish traders and missionaries regularly made landfall at Hội An, just south of Đà Nẵng. An American, John White, arrived at Da Nang (then called Turon) on 18 June 1819 in the brig Franklin of Salem, Massachusetts, and was advised that the country was recovering from devastating wars, and that what little goods had been produced in the area was already allocated. Other American ships arriving shortly after were the Marmion of Boston, and the Aurora and Beverly of Salem. Conditions were such due to the wars that they were unable to conduct trade, and the subsequent missions of East India Company agent John Crawfurd in 1823 and the two missions of Andrew Jackson's agent, American diplomat Edmund Roberts, in 1833 and 1836 were unable to secure trade agreements due to the exceptionally poor quality of the port. Following the edict of Emperor Minh Mạng in 1835, prohibiting European vessels from making landfall or pursuing trade except at Đà Nẵng, its port quickly superseded Hội An as the largest commercial port in the central region. French Indochina In 1847, French vessels dispatched by Admiral Cécille bombarded Đà Nẵng, ostensibly on the grounds of alleged persecution of Roman Catholic missionaries. In August 1858, once again ostensibly on the grounds of religious persecution, French troops, led by Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly, and under the orders of Napoleon III, landed in Đà Nẵng as part of the punitive Cochinchina Campaign. The French overpowered the Vietnamese stationed in Da Nang, swiftly occupying the city and Tiên Sa peninsula (present-day Sơn Trà peninsula). The occupying forces were quickly placed under siege by the Vietnamese army under the command of Nguyễn Tri Phương, and were eventually forced to retreat in March 1860. The French were able to invade the southern stronghold of Saigon and, in June 1862, several provinces of southern Vietnam were ceded to the French as Cochinchina with the signing of the Treaty of Saigon. Through two more decades of conflict, the French gradually strengthened their hold on Vietnam, culminating in the establishment of French Indochina () in October 1887. Two years later, in 1889, the French colonists renamed the city Tourane, placing it under the control of the governor general of French Indochina. It came to be considered one of Indochina's five major cities, among Hanoi, Saigon–Cholon, Haiphong, and Huế. Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) During the Vietnam War, what is now the Da Nang International Airport was a major air base used by the South Vietnamese and United States Air Forces. The base became one of the world's busiest aircraft hubs during the war, reaching an average of 2,595 aircraft traffic operations daily, more than any other airport and airbase in the world at that time. The final U.S. ground combat operations in Vietnam ceased on 13 August 1972, when a residual force of the 196th Light Infantry Brigade stood down in Đà Nẵng. B Battery 3rd Battalion, 82nd Field Artillery Regiment fired the final U.S. artillery round and the 3rd Battalion, 21st Infantry Regiment finished their final patrols. This residual force was known as "Operation Gimlet". After the US withdrawal from the conflict, in the final stage of the conquest of South Vietnam by North Vietnam, Da Nang fell to the communist forces March 29–30, 1975. Vietnam issued two special postage stamps to commemorate this event, within its "total liberation" stamp set issued 14 December 1976. After 1975 Since the era of the construction of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, Danang has become essentially the third city after Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi to be an important urban centre of the central region of Vietnam. Danang boasts numerous educational institutes as well as important sites of economy. Geography Da Nang is the largest city in central Vietnam and one of the country's most important ports. The city is surrounded by mountains to the west, and the South China Sea to the east. Da Nang borders Thừa Thiên-Huế Province across the Hải Vân Pass to the north, along with the Quảng Nam Province to the south and west. It is south of Hanoi, and north of Ho Chi Minh City. The city has a total land area of , of which are urban districts and are rural districts. Geology and topography Geologically, Da Nang is at the edge of a Paleozoic fold belt known as the Truong Son Orogenic Zone, whose main deformation occurred during the early Carboniferous period. Da Nang's topography is dominated by the steep Annamite mountain range to the north and north-west, which features peaks ranging from in height, and low-lying coastal plains with some salting to the south and east, with several white sand beaches along the coast. Climate Da Nang has a tropical monsoon climate with two seasons: a typhoon and wet season from September to December and a dry season from January to August. Temperatures have an annual average of around . Cold waves can occasionally occur, although they are of short duration. Temperatures are highest between June and August with mean temperatures of ), and lowest between December and February (mean temperature of ). In Ba Na Hills, the temperatures are lower with an annual average of . The annual average for humidity is 81%, with highs between October and January (reaching 84–86%) and lows between June and August (reaching 75–77%). On average, Da Nang receives of rainfall. Rainfall is typically highest between September and November (ranging from ) and lowest between February and April (ranging from ). Da Nang receives an average of 2162 hours of sunlight annually, with highs between 234 and 277 hours per month in May and June and lows between 69 and 165 hours per month in November and December. Demographics Da Nang is the fifth-most populated city in Vietnam, with an area of and a population of 1,064,100 as the latest update in 2017. Women make up 50.7% of Da Nang's population. Population growth Da Nang's population has been growing at rates of between 2.5% and 3% during most of the years between 2005 and 2011, significantly exceeding the national average of 1% to 1.2%. The growth rate briefly rose to 3.6% in 2010 before returning to its long-term trend with 2.68% in 2011. This is the third fastest growth rate in the country after the two southern manufacturing centers Bình Dương Province (4.41%) and Đồng Nai Province (3.5%). Đà Nẵng's population is estimated to reach one million inhabitants by 2014. Migration has been the dominant factor in the city's population growth at least since 2009, contributing 1.6% to 2.7% (2010) between 2009 and 2011. Out-migration has been relatively high in 2011 at 0.79% compared to 0.34% and 0.55% in previous years, while the in-migration rate has been exceeding 2% since 2009 and was at 2.28% in 2011. Đà Nẵng's natural population growth is only slightly higher than the national average. Its crude birth rate was recorded at 18 live births per 1000 persons. The crude death rate was measured at 6.7 per 1000 persons in 2011. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 77.4 years for women and 72.4 years for men, or 74.8 years overall in the 2009 population census. The infant mortality rate was measured at 9.9 infant deaths per 1000 live births, less than two points above the nation's average for urban areas. Urbanization The city has the highest urbanization ratio among provinces and municipalities in Vietnam, containing only 11 rural communes, the fewest of any province-level unit in Vietnam. As of 2009, 86.9% of Đà Nẵng's population lived in urban areas; average annual urban population growth was 3.5%. Politics The leading organ of the Communist Party in Da Nang City is the Executive Committee of the Communist Party. The current Secretary is Nguyen Van Quang. The legislative branch of the city is the People's Council of Da Nang City. The current chairman is Luong Nguyen Minh Triet. The executive branch of the city is the People's Committee of Da Nang City. The current chairman is Le Trung Chinh. Administrative divisions The city of Da Nang is officially divided into eight district-level sub-divisions, including six urban districts (Hải Châu, Thanh Khê, Cẩm Lệ, Sơn Trà, Ngũ Hành Sơn and Liên Chiểu) and two rural districts (Hòa Vang and Hoàng Sa (Paracel Islands)). They are further subdivided into 45 wards and 11 communes. The city center of Da Nang is Hải Châu district. Before 1997, the city was part of Quang Nam–Da Nang Province. On 1 January 1997, Da Nang was separated from Quang Nam Province to become one of five independent (centrally-controlled) municipalities in Vietnam. Economy Da Nang is the leading industrial center of central Vietnam. Its GDP per capita was 19 million VND in 2007, one of the highest in Vietnam (after Hồ Chí Minh City, Hanoi, Bình Dương Province, and Đồng Nai Province). By 2009, this had increased to 27.3 million VND. Da Nang led the Provincial Competitiveness Index rankings in 2008, 2009, and 2010 (and was second after Bình Dương Province in the three years before that), benefiting mostly from good infrastructure, good performance in labour training, transparency, proactive provincial leadership and low entry costs. Exports increased to US$575 million in 2008, but fell back to US$475 million in 2009. Agriculture, forestry, fishing Despite its status as a city, 37,800 people in Da Nang were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing as of 2007, producing 45,000t of rice and 41,000t of fish. However, employment in these sectors had a clear negative trend in the first decade of the 21st century. Gross output has also been decreasing during the second half of the decade. Given Da Nang's lack of agricultural land (9200ha as of 2007) and its location at the coast, fishing has been contributing more to the economy than agriculture, with a gross output more than twice that of agriculture. Industry Da Nang is a diversified industrial center, including industries such as machinery, electrics, chemicals, shipbuilding, and textiles. Specific industrial products include aquatic products, fabric, clothes, bricks, fertilizer, cement, soap, paper, and medical tablets. The city's industry may diversify further. EADS is planning to set up an industrial park focused on the aviation industry in Da Nang. As of 2007, Da Nang industry was dominated by the state sector, which made up 57% of gross output. This is about the same as its share in 2000. Over 80% of the state industry is centrally managed (in other words: belongs to state corporations headquartered in Hanoi). Almost half of the rest is contributed by the foreign-invested sector, while the private domestic sector is still relatively small and has not been able to significantly increase its share compared to the state sector. Industry grew by an average of 14.8% per year from 2000 to 2007, making it the main engine of economic growth. However, it has the second lowest industrial growth rate in the South Central Coast (behind only Khanh Hoa Province). Employment has grown at an average of 5.75%, reaching 118,900 in 2007. Trade Historically, Da Nang's main marketplace has been the Hàn Market (), which is downtown near the west bank of the Hàn River, between Tran Phu and Bach Dang Streets. This market, much like Ben Thanh Market in Saigon, offers a wide variety of goods sold by many different vendors, such as clothing, silk, jewelry, flowers, foodstuffs such as dried fruit and fish, as well as coffee, tea and wine (including Vietnamese snake wine). Property Many new construction projects are underway in Da Nang, including several beachfront resorts such as the US$130 million Hyatt Regency Danang Resort & Spa, and the Beach Resort complex (including Ocean Villas and Marriott Hotel) in Ngu Hanh Son. Another ambitious project, the US$250 million Da Phuoc International New Town aims to construct an entirely new urban area on reclaimed land on the city's north sea coast, making it the first major land reclamation project in Central Vietnam. Plans for the Đa Phước project include the erection of a hotel and several smaller resorts, a 33-story apartment block and 60-story office block, an 18-hole golf course, a marina, as well as villas and international schools. Culture Tourism The tourism sector is a vital component of Da Nang's economy. Its status as a transportation hub for central Vietnam and its proximity to several UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Imperial City of Hue, the Old Town of Hoi An, and the My Son ruins fuels much of its tourist activity. Mỹ Sơn is an archaeological site dating back more than a thousand years, in Quang Nam. Located in a remote forested valley some 70 km west of Da Nang, this former capital and religious center of the Champa kingdom once contained in excess of 70 style temples and stupas. Although badly damaged by bombing raids in the 1960s, the site still has more than 20 structures and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. Many statues, sculptures and reliefs recovered from Mỹ Sơn are kept in the Museum of Cham Sculpture, near the Hàn River in the heart of Da Nang. Dating from the fourth to the 14th centuries, the sensual artwork on these works depicts daily activities as well as Hindu and Buddhist religious themes. The Marble Mountains are rocky limestone outcrops jutting out of the beach just south of Da Nang. Paths lead to the top of the forested cliffs, providing views of Non Nuoc Beach and the South China Sea. The caves in the cliffs were originally inhabited by the Cham people. Later, the Nguyen dynasty built numerous pagodas among the caves. The Marble Mountains are home to various artisans producing sculpture and artwork at its base at Non Nuoc Village. Non Nuoc Beach is a white sandy beach on the outskirts of Đà Nẵng that is renowned for its history as an R&R destination for American troops during the Vietnam War. Today, the beach, along with Mỹ Khê beach to the north, are home to expensive resorts, surfing, and entertainment facilities. Ba Na Hills is a mountain resort with a 5 km-long cable car system which carries guests up to Ba Na's peak at 1487m above sea level. Son Tra Mountain, just some miles away from the city centre with some wild streams and resorts along the seaside. The central coastal city of Da Nang saw a significant growth in international tourist arrivals in 2017, according to the city's Department of Tourism. In 2017, about 6.6 million visitors came to Da Nang, up 19% over the previous year and 4.8% higher than its yearly target. The figure included 4.3 million domestic tourists, up 11.3% year-on-year. The central city earned over VND19.4 trillion (US$853.96 million) in revenue, an increase of 20.6% from 2016. Statistics also show that the city witnessed an impressive increase in the number of visitors by air which stood at over 1.58 million, up 74.4% while by-car visitors via Thailand and Laos was estimated at 14,120. Cuisine Central Vietnamese cuisine, particularly the cuisine of Da Nang, is well known through Vietnam, and growing in popularity internationally. Da Nang is famous for its flavorful dishes, such as Mì Quảng, Bún chả cá (fish ball noodle soup),Bánh tráng cuốn thịt heo( Dry pancake roll with pork), Banh xeo (Crispy pancake), Nem lui (Lemongrass Pork Skewers). Sport Da Nang's football club, SHB Da Nang F.C., play in the V-League, Vietnam's top professional football league. They are currently one of the most highly ranked teams in that league, having emerged from competition as champions of the 2009 V-League. In the same year, they also completed the double by winning the Vietnamese Cup. They also qualified for the 2010 AFC Champions League and the 2010 AFC Cup; although they did not advance past the qualifying play-off in the Champions League, they advanced to the quarter-finals of the AFC Cup after defeating Becamex Bình Dương in extra time. Several Da Nang F.C. players also play for the Vietnam national team, including defender Võ Hoàng Quảng and midfielder Phan Thanh Hưng. SHB Da Nang F.C. play their home games at the Chi Lăng Stadium, a 30,000-seat stadium in Hải Châu District. Education There are several universities located in Da Nang, with campuses in many locations throughout the city, as well as satellite campuses in surrounding regions. University of Da Nang, with a number of member colleges: Technology Technology and Education Economics Pedagogy Foreign Languages Information Technology Kon Tum campus English Language Institute Da Nang University of Medical Technology, Medicine and Pharmacy Da Nang University of Sport Duy Tan University, private university Dong A University, private university Da Nang University of Architecture The American University of Vietnam (AUV), private university The city has 17 high schools, of which Le Quy Don High School for the Gifted is among the leading high schools in Vietnam. There is also a sizable presence of overseas education representatives in Da Nang. Campus France is a French-government agency in Da Nang, which promotes the learning of the French language and supports students in the location of study opportunities in France. English Language Institute is a learning center built by the University of Queensland, Australia, targeting English teaching in addition to serving as an IELTS testing provider. Singapore International School is an international school in Da Nang. Infrastructure Health Da Nang has a number of hospitals, including: Da Nang Hospital C Hospital Da Nang Oncology Hospital Da Nang Hospital for Women and Children. Da Nang Hospital for Traumatology and Orthopaedics. Women's Hospital Dermatology and Venereology Traditional medicine Vinmec Da Nang International Hospital Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) is also known as "Da Nang lung" as many cases occurring during the Vietnam War were treated at a medical centre in Da Nang. Transportation Đà Nẵng is at the end of the East–West Economic Corridor (EWEC), which stretches over Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, and Burma (Myanmar). By air Da Nang International Airport, located at the centre of the city, is the third largest international airport in Vietnam. It is an important gateway to access central Vietnam. The airport was known as Da Nang Air Base during the Vietnam War, during which time it was described as the world's busiest airport. During the month of May 1968, the base reached an average of 2,595 air traffic operations daily, more than any airport in the world. As of June 2011, the airport has domestic connections to Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Haiphong, Vinh, Buon Ma Thuot, Da Lat, Nha Trang, and Can Tho, as well as international connections to Seoul (South Korea), Tokyo (Japan), Singapore, and Taipei (Taiwan). Beginning 16 December 2011, Air Asia, a Malaysian low-cost carrier, began offering four flights a week between Đà Nẵng and Kuala Lumpur. A new international terminal opened in December 2011 allowing further connections to destinations such as Phnom Penh (Cambodia), Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, and Australia. As of November 2015, Da Nang International airport has been undergoing extensive renovations. By land Da Nang is a major station along the North–South Railway, also known as the Reunification Express. National Highways 1 and 14B run through the city, providing road connections to Hanoi in the north and Ho Chi Minh City in the south, as well as the Central Highlands and Laos to the west. The Hai Pass is a mountain pass separating Da Nang and Thừa Thiên Huế Province, where Highway 1A passes through. To cut down on transit time and the danger to motorists from navigating the twisting mountain road, the Hải Vân Tunnel was built, opening in 2005. It is the longest tunnel in south-east Asia at 6.28 km, and allows motorists to save between 30 minutes and an hour on traveling times over the old Hải Vân Pass route. An expressway between Da Nang and nearby Quang Ngai is also in the planning stages. Several bridges cross the Han River and its tributaries in Da Nang, including the iconic Han River Bridge, Tran Thi Ly Bridge, Nguyen Van Troi Bridge, Tuyen Son Bridge and the recently completed Thuan Phuoc Bridge, which is the longest suspension bridge in Vietnam. The Dragon River Bridge will cross the Han River at the Le Dinh Duong/Bach Dang roundabout, offering tourists coming from Đà Nẵng International Airport a more direct route to My Khe and Non Nuoc beaches, along the city's eastern edge. By sea Da Nang's port system is the third largest in Vietnam after Ho Chi Minh City and Haiphong. In 2008, Da Nang's port handled 2.7 million tons of cargo, of which 1.2 million tons were exports, 525,900 tons were imports, and 985,600 tons were domestic cargo. Over 29,600 passengers passed through the port in 2008, a significant increase over previous years. The port system consists of two areas: Tiên Sa Seaport, and Song Hàn Terminal. Tien Sa Seaport has a navigation depth of , and is able to receive medium range tankers of up to 45,000 DWT, as well as container ships and large cruise ships. The approach to Song Hàn Terminal is long with a navigation depth of , and can accommodate vessels of up to 5,000 DWT. Vietnam National Shipping Lines (Vinalines) is the port authority for Đà Nẵng's port system. Despite the fact that the port's infrastructure is not specifically designed to accommodate cruise ships, the number of large cruise ships docking at Da Nang Port has increased in recent years. In the first two months of 2010 alone, 12 cruise ships docked in Da Nang, carrying 6,477 passengers. In recent years, cruise ships tend to dock at Chân Mây Port, which is located 50 km from Da Nang through the Hải Vân Tunnel. International relations Twin towns - sister cities Da Nang is twinned with: Battambang, Cambodia Champasak, Laos Changwon, South Korea Daegu, South Korea Haiphong, Vietnam Khon Kaen, Thailand Kunming, China Mukdahan, Thailand Oakland, United States Pittsburgh, United States Savannakhet, Laos Tangier, Morocco Timișoara, Romania Toluca, Mexico Cooperation and friendship In addition to its twin towns, Da Nang cooperates with: Attapeu, Laos Borås, Sweden Grodno Region, Belarus Hwaseong, South Korea Houston, United States Kolkata, India Košice, Slovakia Macau, China Nantes, France Newcastle, Australia Nord Pas de Calais, France Queensland, Australia Rotterdam, Netherlands Sakai, Japan Salavan, Laos Salo, Finland Sekong, Laos Shandong Province, China South Australia, Australia Stuttgart, Germany Surat, India Walloon Region, Belgium Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia Friendship port Kawasaki, Japan Notes References External links Đà Nẵng government portal 190s establishments Cities in Vietnam Populated places in Da Nang Port cities in Vietnam South Central Coast Populated places established in the 1st century

425158

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbicides%20for%20sexually%20transmitted%20diseases

Microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases

Microbicides for sexually transmitted diseases are pharmacologic agents and chemical substances that are capable of killing or destroying certain microorganisms that commonly cause human infection (for example, the human immunodeficiency virus). Microbicides are a diverse group of chemical compounds that exert their activity by a variety of different mechanisms of action. Multiple compounds are being developed and tested for their microbicidal activity in clinical trials. Microbicides can be formulated in various delivery systems including gels, creams, lotions, aerosol sprays, tablets or films (which must be used near the time of sexual intercourse) and sponges and vaginal rings (or other devices that release the active ingredient(s) over a longer period). Some of these agents are being developed for vaginal application, and for rectal use by those engaging in anal sex. Although there are many approaches to preventing sexually transmitted diseases in general (and HIV in particular), current methods have not been sufficient to halt the spread of these diseases (particularly among women and people in less-developed nations). Sexual abstinence is not a realistic option for women who want to bear children, or who are at risk of sexual violence. In such situations, the use of microbicides could offer both primary protection (in the absence of condoms) and secondary protection (if a condom breaks or slips off during intercourse). It is hoped that microbicides may be safe and effective in reducing the risk of HIV transmission during sexual activity with an infected partner. Mechanisms of action Detergents Detergent and surfactant microbicides such as nonoxynol-9, sodium dodecyl sulfate and Savvy (1.0% C31G), act by disrupting the viral envelope, capsid or lipid membrane of microorganisms. Since detergent microbicides also kill host cells and impair the barrier function of healthy mucosal surfaces, they are less desirable than other agents. Additionally, clinical trials have not demonstrated these agents to be effective at preventing HIV transmission. Consequently, laboratory and clinical trials testing this class of products as microbicides have largely been discontinued. Vaginal defense enhancers Healthy vaginal pH is typically quite acidic, with a pH value of around 4. However, the alkaline pH of semen can neutralize vaginal pH. One potential class of microbicides acts by reducing the pH of vaginal secretions, which may kill (or otherwise inactivate) pathogenic microorganisms. One such agent is BufferGel, a spermicidal and microbicidal gel formulated to maintain the natural protective acidity of the vagina. Candidates in this category (including BufferGel) have proven to be ineffective in preventing HIV infection. Polyanions The polyanion category of microbicides includes the carrageenans. Carrageenans are a family of linear sulfated polysaccharides chemically related to heparan sulfate, which many microbes utilize as a biochemical receptor for initial attachment to the cell membrane. Thus, carrageenan and other microbicides of its class act as decoy receptors for viral binding. Carrageenan preparations (such as 0.5% PRO 2000 and 3% Carraguard vaginal microbicide gels) have failed to demonstrate efficacy in preventing HIV transmission in phase III clinical multicenter trials. PRO 2000 was demonstrated to be safe, but it did not reduce the risk of HIV infection in women (as explained in the MDP 301 trial results, released in December 2009). Similarly, the phase III efficacy trial of Carraguard showed that the drug was safe for use but ineffective in preventing HIV transmission in women. Cellulose sulfate is another microbicide found ineffective in preventing the transmission of HIV. On February 1, 2007, the International AIDS Society announced that two phase III trials of cellulose sulfate had been stopped because preliminary results suggested a potential increased risk of HIV in women who used the compound. There is no satisfactory explanation as to why application of cellulose sulfate was associated with a higher risk of HIV infection than placebo. According to a review of microbicide drug candidates by the World Health Organization on March 16, 2007, a large number of compounds (more than 60 in early 2007) are under development; at the beginning of that year, five phase III trials testing different formulations were underway. Nanoscale dendrimers VivaGel is a sexual lubricant with antiviral properties manufactured by Australian pharmaceutical company Starpharma. The active ingredient is a nanoscale dendrimeric molecule (which binds to viruses and prevents them from affecting an organism's cells). Experimental results with VivaGel indicate 85–100% effectiveness at blocking transmission of both HIV and genital herpes in macaque monkeys. It has passed the animal-testing phases of the drug-approval process in Australia and the United States, which will be followed by initial human safety tests. The National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases have awarded grants totaling $25.7 million for VivaGel's development and testing. VivaGel is being developed as a standalone microbicide gel and an intra-vaginal microbicide. It is also being evaluated for use in condoms. It is hoped that VivaGel will provide an extra resource to mitigate the sub-Saharan AIDS pandemic. It is also hoped that microbicides will block the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, such as those caused by certain human papillomaviruses (HPV) and herpes simplex viruses (HSV). In 2009, Starpharma released its results for a study investigating VivaGel’s antiviral activity against HIV and HSV in humans by testing cervico-vaginal samples in vitro (in a test tube). The compound displayed a high level of efficacy against HIV and HSV. While the results are encouraging, the study did not evaluate VivaGel’s effect in the body. It is still unknown what the results mean for women who would use the product in real-life settings; for example, the effect of sexual intercourse (or semen) on the gel (which often affects the protective properties of a drug) is unknown. The CAPRISA 004 trial demonstrated that topical tenofovir gel provided 51% protection against HSV-2. Antiretrovirals Researchers have begun to focus on another class of microbicides, the antiretroviral (ARV) agents. ARVs work either by preventing the HIV virus from entering a human host cell, or by preventing its replication after it has already entered. Examples of ARV drugs being tested for prevention include tenofovir, dapivirine (a diarylpyrimidine inhibitor of HIV reverse transcriptase) and UC-781. These next-generation microbicides have received attention and support because they are based on the same ARV drugs currently used to extend the survival (and improve the quality of life) of HIV-positive people. ARVs are also used to prevent vertical transmission of HIV from mother to child during childbirth, and are used to prevent HIV infection from developing immediately after exposure to the virus. Such ARV-based compounds could be formulated into topical microbicides to be administered locally in the rectum or vagina or systemically through oral or injectable formulations (pre-exposure prophylaxis). ARV-based microbicides may be formulated as long-acting vaginal rings, gels and films. The results of the first efficacy trial of an ARV-based microbicide, CAPRISA 004, tested 1% tenofovir in gel form to prevent male-to-female HIV transmission. The trial showed that the gel (which was applied topically to the vagina), was 39% effective at preventing HIV transmission. CAPRISA 004 was the 12th microbicide-efficacy study to be completed, and the first to demonstrate a significant reduction in HIV transmission. The results of this trial are statistically significant and offer proof of concept that ARVs, topically applied to the vaginal mucosa, can offer protection against HIV (and other) pathogens. Formulations Most of the first generation microbicides were formulated as semi-solid systems, such as gels, tablets, films, or creams, and were designed to be applied to the vagina before every act of intercourse. However, vaginal rings have the potential to provide long-term controlled release of microbicide drugs. Long-acting formulations, like vaginal rings, are potentially advantageous since they could be easy to use, requiring replacement only once a month. This ease of use could prove very important to make sure that products are used properly. In 2010, the International Partnership for Microbicides began the first study in Africa to test the safety and acceptability of a vaginal ring containing dapivirine. Drugs might also be administered systemically through injectable or oral formulations known as PrEP. Injectable formulations may be desirable since they could be administered infrequently, possibly once a month. It is likely, however, that such products would need to be monitored closely and would be available only through prescription. This approach also carries the risk of emergence of ARV-resistant strains of HIV. Substantial numbers of men who have sex with men in developed countries use lubricants containing nonoxynol-9. This suggests that they might be receptive to the concept of using topical rectal microbicides if such products were to become commercially available. However, the development of rectal microbicides is not as advanced as that of vaginal microbicides. One reason for this is that the rectum has a thinner epithelium, greater surface area and lower degree of elasticity than that of the vagina. Due to these factors, a microbicidal preparation that is effective when applied vaginally might have a different degree of effectiveness when applied rectally. In January 2010, the National Institutes of Health awarded two grants totaling $17.5 million to the University of Pittsburgh to fund research into rectal microbicides. That research will include investigations into product acceptability of rectal microbicides with homosexual men ages 18 to 30 years old. Ultimately, successful topical microbicides might simultaneously employ multiple modes of action. In fact, long-acting formulations such as vaginal rings could provide the technology needed to deliver multiple active ingredients with different mechanisms of action. Completed clinical trials A major breakthrough in microbicide research, announced in July 2010, reported that an ARV-based microbicide gel could partially prevent HIV. A trial led by the Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), conducted in South Africa, demonstrated that the ARV tenofovir, when used in a vaginal gel, was 39% effective at preventing HIV transmission from men to women during sex. Tenofovir gel In July 2010 the Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) released results of a study establishing proof of concept that an ARV-based, topical microbicide can reduce the likelihood of HIV transmission. The trial, CAPRISA 004, was conducted among 889 women to evaluate the ability of 1% tenofovir gel to prevent male-to-female HIV transmission. The study found a 39% lower HIV infection rate in women using 1% tenofovir gel compared with women using a placebo gel. In addition, tenofovir gel was shown to be safe as tested. The results of the CAPRISA 004 trial provide statistically significant evidence that ARVs, topically applied to the vaginal mucosa, can offer protection against HIV and (potentially) other pathogens. During the study, 38 of the women who used the tenofovir gel acquired HIV and 60 women who used a placebo gel became HIV-infected. No tenofovir-resistant virus was detected in the women who acquired HIV infection during the study. In addition to demonstrating efficacy against HIV, CAPRISA 004 found evidence that tenofovir gel also prevents the transmission of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). HSV-2 is a lifelong, incurable infection which can make those infected with the virus two-to-three times more likely to acquire HIV. Data collected during the CAPRISA 004 study indicate that tenofovir gel provided 51% protection against HSV-2. Tenofovir, developed by Gilead Sciences, is a nucleotide reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) which interferes with the replication of HIV and is approved in tablet form for use in combination with other ARVs to treat HIV. CAPRISA 004 was a collaboration among CAPRISA, Family Health International and CONRAD. It was funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the South African Department of Science and Technology's Technology Innovation Agency. PRO 2000 Results released in February 2009 from a clinical trial of PRO 2000 (Indevus Pharmaceuticals), a vaginal-microbicide gel (0.5%), sparked hope that it might provide modest protection against HIV. The results of a larger trial released in December 2009 showed that PRO 2000 was safe as administered, but was ineffective in reducing the risk of HIV infection. That trial (MDP 301) was sponsored by the Microbicides Development Programme. MDP 301 was conducted in South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia with more than 9,300 women volunteers. No significant difference was found in the number of women who contracted HIV in the group given PRO 2000 compared to the group given a placebo. While this trial did not result in an effective product, it served as a model for future HIV-prevention trials; it provided scientific information and lessons from its social-science component, community engagement and preparation undertaken by the trial staff. Carrageenan Carrageenan may prevent HPV and HSV transmission, but not HIV. See Carrageenan#Medical Uses The phase III clinical trial for carrageenan-based Carraguard showed that it had no statistical effect on HIV infection, according to results released in 2008. The study showed that the gel was safe, with no side effects or increased risks. The trial also provided information about usage patterns in trial participants. Nonoxynol-9 Nonoxynol-9, a spermicide, is ineffective as a topical microbicide in preventing HIV infection. Although nonoxynol-9 has been shown to increase the risk of HIV infection when used frequently by women at high risk of infection, it remains a contraceptive option for women at low risk. Current research Efforts are underway to develop safe and effective topical microbicides. Several different gel formulations are currently undergoing testing in phase III clinical efficacy trials, and about two dozen other products are in various phases of development. Results from CAPRISA 004, while promising, may need to be confirmed by other clinical trials before the microbicide tenofovir gel is made available to the public. This decision rests with regulators, particularly in South Africa. In 2013, the VOICE study (MTN 003), another large-scale trial, is scheduled to release results. VOICE is evaluating three different strategies to prevent HIV in women: one ARV-based microbicide and two regimens consisting of oral ARVs on a daily basis. The VOICE trial is testing 1% tenofovir vaginal gel in a once-daily formulation. It is not known at this time if VOICE will be considered a confirmatory trial for CAPRISA 004, which used a different dosing strategy. Products known as Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis, or PrEP, are also being tested at various stages of the development process. These products, administered orally or via injection, would contain ARVs to protect HIV-negative people from becoming infected. Individuals would receive ARVs before they were exposed to HIV, with the goal of lowering their risk or preventing infection. One of the potential advantages of PrEP is that an individual could use it autonomously (without the need to negotiate with a partner), and it is not dependent on the time of sex. It is hoped that those unable to negotiate condom use with their sexual partners would be able to reduce their risk of HIV infection with the use of an oral (or injectable) prophylactic drug. Current PrEP candidates in development include tenofovir and Truvada (a combination of two ARV compounds, tenofovir and emtricitabine). One potential risk of the PrEP approach is that drugs present in systemic circulation might, over time, create ARV-resistant HIV strains. Social factors Condoms are an effective method for blocking the transmission of most sexually transmitted diseases (with HPV a notable exception). However, a variety of social factors (including, but not limited to, the sexual disempowerment of women in many cultures) limit the feasibility of condom use. Thus, topical microbicides might provide a useful woman-initiated alternative to condoms. Some sub-Saharan African cultures view vaginal lubrication as undesirable. Since some topical microbicide formulations currently under development function as lubricants, such "dry sex" traditions may pose a barrier to the implementation of topical microbicidal programs. Recent data on product acceptability, however, show that many men and women enjoy using gels during sex that would contain a microbicidal drug. See also Rectal microbicide Sexually transmitted disease Tenofovir Cellulose sulfate Antiseptics Supramolecular chemistry References External links AVAC Antiseptics Prevention of HIV/AIDS Microbicides Sexually transmitted diseases and infections de:Mikrobizid it:Microbicidi

425212

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Mulholland

William Mulholland

William Mulholland (September 11, 1855 – July 22, 1935) was an Irish American self-taught civil engineer who was responsible for building the infrastructure to provide a water supply that allowed Los Angeles to grow into the largest city in California. As the head of a predecessor to the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, Mulholland designed and supervised the building of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, a system to move water from Owens Valley to the San Fernando Valley. The creation and operation of the aqueduct led to the disputes known as the California Water Wars. In March 1928, Mulholland's career came to an end when the St. Francis Dam failed just over 12 hours after he and his assistant gave it a safety inspection. Early life William Mulholland was born in Belfast, Ireland, part of the United Kingdom. His parents Hugh and Ellen Mulholland were Dubliners and they returned to the city a few years after William's birth. His younger brother, Hugh Jr., was born in 1856. At the time of Mulholland's birth, his father was working as a guard for the Royal Mail. In 1862, when William was seven years old, his mother died. Three years later his father remarried. William was educated at O'Connell School by the Christian Brothers in Dublin. After having been beaten by his father for receiving bad marks in school, Mulholland ran off to sea. At 15, Mulholland was a member of the British Merchant Navy. He spent the next four years as a seaman on Gleniffer, making at least 19 Atlantic crossings to ports in North America and the Caribbean. In 1874 he disembarked in New York and headed west to Michigan where he worked a summer on a Great Lakes freighter and the winter in a lumber camp. After nearly losing a leg in a logging accident, he moved to Ohio where he worked as a handyman. Mulholland reconnected with his brother Hugh, and in December 1876 they stowed away on a ship in New York bound for California. They were discovered in Panama and were forced to leave the ship. They then walked over 47 miles through jungle to Balboa. Mulholland arrived in Los Angeles in 1877. Initial career in Los Angeles After arriving in Los Angeles, which at the time had a population of about 9,000, Mulholland quickly decided to return to life at sea, as work was hard to find. On his way to the port at San Pedro to find a ship, he accepted a job digging a well. After a brief stint in Arizona where he prospected for gold and worked on the Colorado River, he obtained a job from Frederick Eaton as Deputy Zanjero (water distributor) with the newly formed Los Angeles City Water Company (LACWC). In Alta California during the Spanish and Mexican administrations, water was delivered to Pueblo de Los Angeles in a large open ditch, the Zanja Madre. The man who tended the ditch was known as a zanjero. In 1880, Mulholland oversaw the laying of the first iron water pipeline in Los Angeles. Mulholland left the employment of the LACWC briefly in 1884, but returned in mid-December. He left again in 1885 and worked for the Sespe Land and Water Company. As part of his compensation he was granted twenty acres on Sespe Creek. In 1886 he returned to the LACWC, and in October became a naturalized American citizen. At the end of the year he was made the superintendent of the LACWC. In 1898, the Los Angeles city government decided not to renew the contract with the LACWC. Four years later, the Los Angeles Water Department was established with Mulholland as its superintendent. In 1911, the Water Department was renamed the Bureau of Water Works and Supply with Mulholland named as its chief engineer. In 1937, two years after Mulholland's death, the Bureau of Water Works and Supply merged with the Bureau of Power and Light to form the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP); the agency continues to control, supply and maintain all the city's domestic services. Los Angeles Aqueduct Mulholland envisioned Los Angeles growing much larger. The limiting factor to the growth of Los Angeles was its water supply, because it has a semi-arid climate with unreliable rainfall. "If you don't get the water, you won't need it," Mulholland famously remarked. Mulholland shared the vision of a much larger Los Angeles with Frederick Eaton, the mayor of Los Angeles from 1898 through 1900. They both worked together in the private Los Angeles Water Company in the 1880s. In 1886, Eaton became City Engineer and Mulholland became superintendent of the Water Company. When Eaton was elected mayor of Los Angeles, he was instrumental in converting the Water Company to city control in 1902. When the company became the Los Angeles Water Department, Mulholland continued to be superintendent, due to his vast knowledge of the water system. Expansion rapidly followed as Mulholland's public works program began to irrigate large areas of previously arid land. Within a decade, the city's population had doubled from just 50,000 in 1890 to more than 100,000 in 1900. Ten years later it had tripled to almost 320,000. To create this expansion, Eaton and Mulholland realized that the large amount of runoff from the Sierra Nevada in Owens Valley could be delivered to Los Angeles through a gravity-fed aqueduct. From 1902 to 1905, Eaton, Mulholland, and others engaged in underhanded methods to ensure that Los Angeles would gain the water rights in the Owens Valley, blocking the Bureau of Reclamation from building water infrastructure for the residents in Owens Valley. While Eaton engaged in most of the political maneuvrings and chicanery, Mulholland misled Los Angeles public opinion by dramatically understating the amount of water then available for Los Angeles' growth. Mulholland also misled residents of the Owens Valley; he indicated that Los Angeles would only use unused flows in the Owens Valley, while planning on using the full water rights to fill the aquifer of the San Fernando Valley. In 1906, the Los Angeles Board of Water Commissioners appointed Mulholland the Chief Engineer of the Bureau of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. From 1907 to 1913, Mulholland directed the building of the aqueduct. The Los Angeles Aqueduct, inaugurated in November 1913. The project required 3900 workers at its peak, and involved the digging of 164 tunnels. Construction began in 1908. The complexity of the project has been compared to the building of the Panama Canal. Water from the Owens River reached a reservoir in the San Fernando Valley on November 5, 1913. At a ceremony that day, Mulholland spoke his famous words about this engineering feat: "There it is. Take it." The aqueduct carries water from the Owens Valley in the Eastern Sierra to irrigate and store water in the San Fernando Valley. When the aqueduct was built, the San Fernando Valley was not part of the city. From a hydrological point of view, the San Fernando Valley was ideal: its aquifer could serve as free water storage without evaporation. One obstacle to the irrigation was the Los Angeles City Charter, which prohibited the sale, lease, or other use of the city's water without a two-thirds approval by the voters. This charter limitation would be avoided through the annexation of a large portion of the San Fernando Valley to the city. Mulholland realised that the annexation would raise the debt limit of Los Angeles, which allowed the financing of the aqueduct. By 1915, the initial annexations were completed, and by 1926 the land area of Los Angeles had doubled, making it the largest city in the United States by area. Areas that opted to join the municipal water network were Owensmouth (Canoga Park) (1917), Laurel Canyon (1923), Lankershim (1923), Sunland (1926), La Tuna Canyon (1926), and the incorporated city of Tujunga (1932). The historical relationship between water and the rapid urbanisation and growth of Los Angeles is the basis for the fictional plot of the 1974 film Chinatown. The water from Mulholland's aqueduct also shifted farming from wheat to irrigated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and cotton; orchards of apricots, persimmons, and walnuts; and major citrus groves of oranges and lemons. These continued within the city environs until the next increment of development converted land use into suburbanization. A few enclaves remain, such as the groves at the Orcutt Ranch Park and CSUN campus. Professional recognition Mulholland, who was self-taught, became the first American civil engineer to use hydraulic sluicing to build a dam while constructing the Silver Lake Reservoir in 1906. This new method attracted nationwide attention of engineers and dam builders. Government engineers adopted the method when building Gatun Dam, on which Mulholland was a consultant, in the Panama Canal Zone. In 1914, the University of California, Berkeley awarded Mulholland an honorary doctorate degree. The inscription on the diploma read, "Percussit saxa et duxit flumina ad terram sitientum" (He broke the rocks and brought the river to the thirsty land). Mulholland's public profile continued to grow. His offices were, at one point, on the top floor of Sid Grauman's Million Dollar Theater. He was even a favorite to become mayor of Los Angeles. When asked if he was considering running for office he replied, "I'd rather give birth to a porcupine backward". Calaveras Dam In May 1913, the Spring Valley Water Company (SVWC), which owned the water supply of San Francisco, authorized an executive committee to approve plans and direct construction of the original dam to create Calaveras Reservoir; the committee was also authorized to hire Mulholland as a consultant. That October, with construction of the dam underway, San Francisco's City Engineer, Michael O'Shaughnessy, wrote negatively of Mulholland in a letter to John R. Freeman, an engineer who had assisted the city in its pursuit of permission to construct the Hetch Hetchy reservoir and water system in Yosemite National Park. O'Shaughnessy expressed the view that Mulholland and F. C. Hermann, chief engineer for the SVWC, were "so intensely conceited that they imagine all they might do should be immune from criticism." Indicating construction details or practices that he thought incorrect, O'Shaughnessy wrote of what was, in his view, sloppiness and recklessness at Calaveras dam site; he said "another feature which made objectionable impressions" on him was "the flippant manner in which the young college boys in charge of the work and Mulholland, with his swollen ideas of accomplishment, have undertaken this very serious engineering project." On March 24, 1918, the dam suffered a partial collapse of the upstream slope. At the time, the water in the reservoir was fifty-five feet deep; no water was released. Owens Valley conflict After the Los Angeles Aqueduct was completed, the San Fernando investors demanded so much water from the Owens Valley that it started to transform from "The Switzerland of California" into a desert. Mulholland was blocked from obtaining additional water from the Colorado River, so decided to take all available water from the Owens Valley. By exploiting personal bitterness of some of the Owens Valley farmers, Los Angeles managed to acquire some key water rights. After these water rights were secured, inflows to Owens Lake were heavily diverted, which caused the lake to dry up by 1924. By 1924, farmers and ranchers rebelled. A series of provocations by Mulholland were, in turn, followed by corresponding threats from local farmers, and the destruction of Los Angeles property. Finally, a group of armed ranchers seized the Alabama Gates and dynamited the aqueduct at Jawbone Canyon, letting water return to the Owens River. Additional acts of violence against the aqueduct continued through the year, culminating in a major showdown when opponents seized a key part of the aqueduct and, for four days, completely shut off the water to Los Angeles. The State and local authorities declined to take any action and the press portrayed the Owens Valley farmers and ranchers as underdogs. Eventually, Mulholland and the city administration were forced to negotiate. Mulholland was quoted as saying, in anger, he "half-regretted the demise of so many of the valley's orchard trees, because now there were no longer enough trees to hang all the troublemakers who live there". In 1927, when the conflict over the water was at its height, the Inyo County Bank collapsed, due to embezzlement. The economy of Owens Valley collapsed, and the attacks ceased. The city of Los Angeles sponsored a series of repair and maintenance programs for aqueduct facilities, that stimulated some local employment and the Los Angeles water employees were paid a month in advance to bring some relief. St. Francis Dam collapse Mulholland's career effectively ended on March 12, 1928, when the St. Francis Dam failed twelve hours after he and his assistant, Assistant Chief Engineer and general manager Harvey Van Norman, had personally inspected the site. Within seconds after the collapse, only what had been a large section of the central part of the dam remained standing and the reservoir's 12.4 billion gallons (47 million m3) of water began moving down San Francisquito Canyon in a torrent at 18 miles per hour (29 km/h). In the canyon, it demolished the heavy concrete Powerhouse Number Two (a hydroelectric power plant) and took the lives of 64 of the 67 workmen and their families living there. The waters traveled south and emptied into the Santa Clara riverbed flooding parts of present-day Valencia and Newhall. Following the river bed, the water continued west, flooding the towns of Castaic Junction, Piru, Fillmore, Bardsdale and Santa Paula in Ventura County. It was almost two miles (3 km) wide, and still traveling at 5 miles (8 km) per hour when it reached the ocean at 5:30 am; emptying its victims and debris into the Pacific Ocean near Montalvo, 54 miles (87 km) from the reservoir and dam site. Many of the bodies that had been washed out to sea were recovered from the sea, some as far south as the Mexican border; others were never found. Santa Paula received some of the worst damage, especially the low-land areas nearer the riverbed. Here, in many areas, only foundations or rubble marked where many homes had been. Rescue efforts were hampered and walking was made hazardous by a thick layer of mud which carpeted the area.<ref>{{cite book|last=Outland|first=Charles F.|title=Man-Made Disaster: The Story of St Francis Dam|publisher=A.H. Clark Co.|year=1977|pages=154–158|isbn=0-87062-322-2}}</ref> Recovery crews worked for days to dig out bodies and clear away the mud from the flood's path. The final death toll is estimated to be at least 431, of whom at least 108 were minors. Mulholland took full responsibility for what has been called the worst US man-made disaster of the 20th century and retired in November 1928. During the Los Angeles Coroner's Inquest, Mulholland said, "this inquest is very painful for me to have to attend but it is the occasion of what is painful. The only ones I envy about this whole thing are the ones who are dead." In later testimony, after responding to a question he added, "Whether it is good or bad, don't blame anyone else, you just fasten it on me. If there was an error in human judgment, I was the human, I won't try to fasten it on anyone else." The inquest jury concluded that responsibility for the disaster lay in an error in engineering judgment about the suitability of the area's geology as a stable foundation for the dam, and in errors in public policy. They recommended that Mulholland not be held criminally responsible as they stated in their verdict, "We, the Jury, find no evidence of act of criminal act or intent on the part of the Board of Water Works and Supply of the City of Los Angeles, or any engineer or employee in the construction or operation of the St. Francis Dam..." Nonetheless, his critics pointed out that another dam on which Mulholland had acted as a consultant collapsed, and the city abandoned a dam project in San Gabriel before completion. Mulholland had increased the height of the dam by after construction had started, without specifying a corresponding increase in the width of the base. Later life and death Mulholland spent the rest of his life in relative seclusion, devastated by the tragedy. In retirement, he began writing an autobiography but never completed it. Shortly before his death, he was consulted on the Hoover Dam and Colorado River Aqueduct projects. He died in 1935 from a stroke, and is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. Legacy In his book Water and Power, historian William L. Kahrl summed up Mulholland's public legacy to the principle of public water development in writing: The harshest judgement of Mulholland's actions lay in the damage he had done to the principle of public water development. More than any other individual, William Mulholland, through the building of the aqueduct and the formation of the Metropolitan Water District, established the principle of public ownership of water indelibly on California's history. But the furor that followed upon the mistakes made in the last seven years of his public service discredited the man and thereby gave aid to the enemies of the ideal he had labored all his life to establish. In Los Angeles, Mulholland Dam in the Hollywood Hills, Mulholland Drive, Mulholland Highway and Mullholland Middle School are named for Mulholland. In popular culture Singer/songwriter Frank Black recorded two songs about the life and works of William Mulholland: "Ole Mulholland", from Teenager of the Year (1994), and "St. Francis Dam Disaster", from Dog in the Sand (2001). William Mullholland and the California Water Wars are the subject of the BBC Northern Ireland television documentary Patrick Kielty's Mulholland Drive. The program was broadcast in the UK in February 2016 and presented by Irish comedian and television personality Patrick Kielty. In the 1974 film Chinatown, the character of Hollis Mulwray is based loosely on Mulholland. Mulholland was portrayed by Jack Black in an episode of Comedy Central's Drunk History'' that parodied his legacy. See also History of Los Angeles History of the San Fernando Valley to 1915 References Notes Bibliography External links "William Mulholland" on the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power website 1855 births 1935 deaths 19th-century American engineers 20th-century American engineers Los Angeles Aqueduct History of Los Angeles History of Los Angeles County, California History of Inyo County, California American miners Irish miners Irish civil engineers Irish emigrants to the United States Engineers from Belfast Engineers from Los Angeles British Merchant Navy personnel Water in California Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale) People from Portobello, Dublin People educated at O'Connell School. Naturalized citizens of the United States British civil engineers

425220

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickie%20Lee%20Jones

Rickie Lee Jones

Rickie Lee Jones (born November 8, 1954) is an American singer, songwriter, musician, and author. Over the course of a career that spans five decades, she has recorded in various musical styles including rock, R&B, pop, soul, and jazz. A two-time Grammy Award winner (from seven nominations), Jones was listed at No. 30 on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Rock & Roll in 1999. She released her self-titled debut album in 1979, to critical and commercial success. It peaked at No. 3 on the U.S. Billboard 200, and spawned the hit single "Chuck E.'s in Love", which peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album went platinum later that year, and earned Jones four Grammy Award nominations in 1980, including Best New Artist, which she won. Her second album, Pirates, followed in 1981 to further critical and commercial success; it peaked at No. 5 on the Billboard 200, went gold, and ranked No. 49 on NPR's list of the 150 Greatest Albums Made by Women in 2017. Her third album, The Magazine, appeared in 1984 before Jones took a brief hiatus from recording. Her fourth album, Flying Cowboys, was released in 1989 and later went gold. Jones won her second Grammy Award in 1990 for "Makin' Whoopee", a duet with Dr. John, this time in the category of Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Duo or Group. Jones' seventh Grammy Award nomination followed in 2001 in the category of Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album for her album It's Like This (2000). In 2021, Jones released her memoir Last Chance Texaco: Chronicles of an American Troubadour. Early life Jones was born the third of four children to Richard and Bettye Jones, on the north side of Chicago, Illinois, on November 8, 1954. She was named after her father, who was a singer, songwriter, painter, and trumpet player. Her mother, Bettye, was raised in orphanages around Mansfield, Ohio. She has a brother, Daniel, and two sisters, Janet Adele and Pamela Jo. Her paternal grandfather, Frank "Peg Leg" Jones, and her grandmother, Myrtle Lee, were vaudevillians based in Chicago. A singer, dancer and comedian, Peg Leg Jones' routine consisted of singing and accompanying himself on ukulele, soft shoe dance, acrobatics, and comedy. Jones lived in Phoenix, Arizona from age 4 to 14. Career Early years: 1975–1982 At age 21, Jones began singing traditional jazz and original compositions in bars and coffee houses in Venice, California. There she met Alfred Johnson, a piano player and songwriter, with whom she wrote "Weasel and the White Boys Cool", and "Company", which would later appear on Jones's debut album. In 1977, Jones met Tom Waits at The Troubadour. They dated for about two years, before splitting in 1979. Rickie Lee Jones was released in March 1979 and became a critical and commercial hit, buoyed by the success of the jazz-flavored single "Chuck E.'s in Love", which hit  4 on the Billboard Hot 100, and featured an accompanying music video. The song was occasioned by her friend, Chuck E. Weiss, telephoning her and Tom Waits, all three of them close friends at the time, in the Fall of 1977 to tell them that he had fallen in love. The album, which included guest appearances by Dr. John, Randy Newman, and Michael McDonald, reached No. 3 on the Billboard 200, went Platinum, and produced another Top 40 hit with "Young Blood" (No. 40) in late 1979. Her appearance – as an unknown (one month after her debut record had been released) – on Saturday Night Live on April 7, 1979, sparked an overnight sensation. She performed "Chuck E.'s in Love" and "Coolsville". Jones was covered by Time magazine on her very first professional show, in Boston, and they dubbed her "The Duchess of Coolsville". Touring after the album's release, she played Carnegie Hall on July 22, 1979. Members of her group included native New York guitarist Buzz Feiten, who was featured on the album and would appear in her recorded works for over a decade. Following her first-ever performances in the spring/summer of 1979, Jones appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone magazine. Photographed by Annie Leibovitz, the cover image showed Jones posing in a crouched stance, wearing a black bra and a white beret. Jones secured four nominations at the 22nd Annual Grammy Awards: Song of the Year and Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female for "Chuck E.'s in Love"; Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female for "The Last Chance Texaco"; and Best New Artist, which she won. The album also earned a nomination for Best Engineered Recording - Non-Classical, credited to Tom Knox. In 1980, Francis Ford Coppola asked Jones to collaborate with Waits on his upcoming film One from the Heart, but she balked, citing their recent breakup in late 1979. Coppola argued that the duet would be perfect for the film, since the two main characters in the film are separated, and he asked her to reconsider. Waits ultimately sang with country pop star Crystal Gayle. In 1981, Jones released her second album, Pirates, which received high marks from critics and was a commercial success. The album reached No. 5 on the Billboard 200, and soon achieved Gold certification. Rolling Stone remained a fervent supporter of Jones, with a second cover feature in 1981; the magazine also included a glowing five-star review of Pirates. The single "A Lucky Guy" became the only Billboard Hot 100 hit from the album, peaking at No. 64, but "Pirates (So Long Lonely Avenue)" and "Woody and Dutch on the Slow Train to Peking" became minor Top 40 hits on the Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. Jones left New York for San Francisco where she befriended Robin Williams. In Los Angeles, she recorded the EP Girl at Her Volcano, producing the record herself and drawing the cover art. It was released as a 10" record in 1983, featuring a mix of live and studio cover versions of jazz and pop standards, as well as one Jones original, "Hey, Bub", which was originally written for Pirates. Jones then relocated to Paris. Period of transition: 1983–1989 In 1983, Jones lived in Paris for four months, writing new material for her third full-length solo album, The Magazine, released in September 1984. The Magazine was produced by Jones and James Newton Howard and included a three-song suite, subtitled "Rorschachs", which featured multi-tracked vocals and minimalist synth patterns. The lead single, "The Real End", reached No. 82 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1984. Jones took a four-year break from her recording schedule, largely attributed to the deaths of her mentor Bob Regher as well as her father, Richard Loris Jones, that same year. During this period, she replaced Shirley Jones for the role of the Fairy Godmother in Filmation's 1987 film, Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night, including a performance of the original song "Love is the Light Inside Your Heart". After a successful tour of Norway and Sweden, and then opening for Ray Charles in Israel with Michael Lang managing her, she returned to the US, signed to Geffen Records by Gary Gersh who teamed her with Steely Dan's Walter Becker for her long-awaited fourth album. In September 1988 the two of them began work on Flying Cowboys. The album was released in September 1989, and produced two hits: "Satellites", which hit No. 1 on the new Adult radio format; and "The Horses", co-written with Becker. The latter song was covered by Kenny Loggins, and also featured in the movie Jerry Maguire (1996). "The Horses" also became an Australian No. 1 hit single for Daryl Braithwaite when he covered it in 1991. Flying Cowboys made the US Top 40, reaching No. 39 on the Billboard 200, with the college radio hit "Satellites" making it to No. 23 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The album was certified Gold in 1997. Her 1988 collaboration with Rob Wasserman, "Autumn Leaves" on his album Duets, earned Jones a Grammy Award nomination for Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female in 1989. Her duet with Dr. John, a cover of "Makin' Whoopee", won her second Grammy Award in 1990, this time in the category of Best Jazz Vocal Collaboration. Experimentation and change: 1990–2001 Following a tour with Lyle Lovett, Jones enlisted David Was to produce her first album of jazz covers. Her producer chose an innovative approach and she agreed, thus the Argentinian flavored Pop Pop, set the pace for what would become a habit with Jones - mixing styles of jazz and pop and not staying in one genre for a whole recording: Tin Pan Alley to Jimi Hendrix. The album, released in September 1991, was a hit on the Billboard Contemporary Jazz Albums, peaking at No. 8, but became her least commercially successful record yet, reaching No. 121 on the Billboard 200. Soon after, The Orb issued "Little Fluffy Clouds", featuring a sampled Jones interview. However, Jones' record company objected to the unauthorized use of her voice and pursued the issue in the court system. In 1992 she toured extensively with Rob Wasserman, with whom she had collaborated in the mid-1980s. Her swan song for Geffen Records was Traffic from Paradise, released in September 1993. The album was slightly more successful than its predecessor, reaching No. 111 on the Billboard 200, and was notable for its collaboration with Leo Kottke, its musical diversity, and a cover of David Bowie's "Rebel Rebel", which was originally planned to be the title track for the Oscar-winning film Boys Don't Cry. Before his death, Bowie was quoted as saying that this version was his favorite cover of his work. Throughout this period, her songs were featured in a number of films and television series, including House M.D., Thirtysomething, Frankie and Johnny, When a Man Loves a Woman, Jerry Maguire, Friends with Money and the French film Subway. Jones sang a duet with Lyle Lovett on "North Dakota" for his 1992 album Joshua Judges Ruth and has also sung on albums by Leo Kottke and Arlo Guthrie. Jones' first solo shows in 1994 paved the way for her acoustic album Naked Songs, released in September 1995 through a one-off deal with Reprise Records. The album, which reached No. 121 on the Billboard 200, featured acoustic re-workings of Jones classics and album material, but no new songs. Emphasizing her experimentation and change, Jones embraced electronic music for Ghostyhead, released on Reprise Records in June 1997. The album, a collaboration with Rick Boston (both are credited with production and with twenty-one instruments in common), found Jones employing beats, loops, and electronic rhythms, and also showcased Jones' connection with the trip hop movement of the mid-to-late 1990s. Despite critical acclaim, it did not meet with commercial success, peaking at No. 159 on the Billboard 200. Jones' second album of cover versions, It's Like This, was released on the independent record label Artemis Records in September 2000. The album included cover versions of material by artists including The Beatles, Steely Dan, Marvin Gaye, and the Gershwin brothers. It made it onto three Billboard charts – No.148 on the Billboard 200, No. 10 on Top Internet Albums, and No. 42 on Top Independent Albums. The album also secured Jones another Grammy Award nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album. Her cover art design (shared with a staff artist but never credited to Jones) won numerous awards and is in the book Best Album Covers. In November 2001, Artemis issued a release of archival material titled Live at Red Rocks with cover art by a young fan who had recently died in a swimming accident. Her parents brought her drawing of flying horses to one of Jones' shows in Oregon, and Jones used it for this live release. Artistic renaissance: 2002–present After Ghostyhead, Jones largely retired from public view, tending her garden and bringing up her teenage daughter Charlotte. Released on the independent label V2 in October 2003, The Evening of My Best Day featured influences from jazz, Celtic folk, blues, R&B, rock, and gospel, and spawned a successful and lengthy spurt of touring. The album peaked at No. 189 on the Billboard 200. She invited punk bass icon Mike Watt (the Minutemen, Iggy Pop) to perform on "It Takes You There", while "Ugly Man" was a direct aim at the George Bush 'regime' evoking, with an anthem-like Hugh Masekela arrangement, what she termed "the Black Panther horns", and calling for "revolution, everywhere that you're not looking, revolution." Renewed interest in Jones led to the three-disc anthology Duchess of Coolsville: An Anthology, released through reissue specialists Rhino in June 2005. A lavish package designed by Lee Cantelon, the alphabetically arranged release featured album songs, live material, covers, and demos, and featured essays by Jones as well as various collaborators, as well as tributes from artists including Randy Newman, Walter Becker, Quincy Jones, and Tori Amos. Also in 2005, Jones was invited to take part in her boyfriend and collaborator Lee Cantelon's music version of his book The Words, a book of the words of Christ, set into simple chapters and themes. Cantelon's idea was to have various artists recite the text over primal rock music, but Jones elected to try something that had never been done, to improvise her own impression of the texts, melody and lyric, in stream of consciousness sessions, rather than read Jesus' words. The sessions were recorded at an artist's loft on Exposition Boulevard in Culver City. When Cantelon could no longer finish the project, Jones picked it up as her own record and hired Rob Schnaf to finish the production at Sunset Sound in 2007, and the result was The Sermon on Exposition Boulevard, released on the independent New West Records in February 2007. It included "Circle in the Sand", recorded for the soundtrack to the film Friends with Money (2006), for which Jones also cut "Hillbilly Song". The Sermon on Exposition Boulevard debuted at No. 158 on the Billboard 200 and No. 12 on the Top Independent Albums tally. Writer Ann Powers included this on her list of Grammy-worthy CDs for 2007. For her next project, Balm in Gilead (2009), Jones opted to finish half-written songs dating back as far as 1986 ("Wild Girl") as well as include new ones (the 2008-penned "The Gospel of Carlos, Norman and Smith", "Bonfires"). The album also included a new recording of "The Moon Is Made of Gold", a song written by her father Richard Loris Jones in 1954. Ben Harper, Victoria Williams, Jon Brion, Alison Krauss and the late Vic Chesnutt all made contributions to the album. In May 2010, Jones performed at the Sydney Opera House as part of the Vivid Live festival. On September 18, 2012, Jones released The Devil You Know on Fantasy/Concord Records. The Devil You Know includes a collection of covers produced by Ben Harper, including a solo version of "Sympathy for the Devil". Shortly afterward she left Los Angeles and moved to New Orleans. In 2015, Jones released her album The Other Side of Desire, and the single "Jimmy Choos" which references the shoe brand. A documentary film, Rickie Lee Jones: The Other Side of Desire, on the making of the album, was also released. It was her first album of all new original material since Balm in Gilead six years earlier. In 2019, Jones released a single of the Paul Rodgers/Simon Kirke song, "Bad Company", followed by her album Kicks which included "Bad Company" and cover versions of many other songs. In June of that year, she played at the Glastonbury Festival. In 2021, Jones's memoir Last Chance Texaco: Chronicles of an American Troubadour was released by Grove Press. Simon and Schuster bought the audio book rights. Other work In 2001, Jones was the organizer of the web community "Furniture for the People", which is involved in gardening, social activism, bootleg exchange and left-wing politics. She has produced records (including Leo Kottke's Peculiaroso), and provided a voiceover for Pinocchio and the Emperor of the Night, in which she played the Blue Fairy (known as the Good Fairy or Fairy Godmother in the film). Jones also enjoys gardening. Jones served as the narrator of Cam Archer's 2010 film Shit Year. Awards Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by The Recording Academy of the United States for outstanding achievements in the music industry. Often considered the highest music honour, the awards were established in 1958. Jones has won two awards, from seven nominations. {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan="6" align="center"| Grammy Awards |- ! Year ! style="width:375px;" | Work ! style="width:525px;" | Award ! width="65" | Result ! width="20" | Ref |- | rowspan="4"| 1980 | Rickie Lee Jones | Best New Artist | | rowspan="7" align="center"| |- | rowspan="2"| "Chuck E.'s in Love" | Song of the Year | |- | Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female | |- | "The Last Chance Texaco" | Best Rock Vocal Performance, Female | |- | 1989 | "Autumn Leaves" | Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Female | |- | 1990 | "Makin' Whoopee" (with Dr. John) | Best Jazz Vocal Performance, Duo or Group | |- | 2001 | It's Like This | Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album | |- Rickie Lee Jones also received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording - Non-Classical in 1980. The nomination is credited to Tom Knox. Other honors and recognitions 1999 – Ranked No. 30 on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Rock & Roll. 2017 – Pirates ranked No. 49 on NPR's list of the 150 Greatest Albums Made by Women. Discography Rickie Lee Jones (1979) Pirates (1981) The Magazine (1984) Flying Cowboys (1989) Pop Pop (1991) Traffic from Paradise (1993) Naked Songs (1995) Ghostyhead (1997) It's Like This (2000) Live at Red Rocks (2001) The Evening of My Best Day (2003) The Sermon on Exposition Boulevard (2007) Balm in Gilead (2009) The Devil You Know (2012) The Other Side of Desire (2015) Kicks (2019) Pieces of Treasure (2023) References External links 1954 births Living people 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American women guitarists 20th-century American women singers 20th-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century American singer-songwriters 21st-century American women guitarists 21st-century American women singers American expatriates in France American folk singers American rhythm and blues singers American rock songwriters American women rock singers American women singer-songwriters Fantasy Records artists Geffen Records artists Grammy Award winners Lyle Lovett and His Large Band members New West Records artists Reprise Records artists Singers from Chicago Singer-songwriters from Illinois V2 Records artists Warner Records artists

425221

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20Department%20of%20Water%20and%20Power

Los Angeles Department of Water and Power

The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) is the largest municipal utility in the United States with 8,100 megawatts of electric generating capacity (2021-2022) and delivering an average of 435 million gallons of water per day (487,000 acre-ft per year) to more than four million residents and local businesses in the City of Los Angeles. It was founded in 1902 to supply water to residents and businesses in the Los Angeles and surrounding communities. In 1917, it began to deliver electricity to portions of the city. It has been involved in a number of controversies and media portrayals over the years, including the 1928 St. Francis Dam failure and the books Water and Power and Cadillac Desert. History Private operators By the middle of the 19th century, Los Angeles's rapid population growth magnified problems with the city's water distribution system. At that time, a system of open, often polluted ditches, was reasonably effective at supplying water for agricultural production but was not suited to provide water to homes. In 1853, the city council rejected as "excessive" a closed-pipe system that would serve homes directly. As a solution, the city allowed "water carriers with jugs and horse-drawn wagons…to serve the city's domestic [water] needs." By 1857 the council came to the conclusion that the system needed to be updated, which led them to grant William G. Dryden franchise rights to provide homes with water through a system of underground water mains. The initial system served only a few homes using an unreliable network of wooden pipes. In December 1861, heavy rains destroyed the system and Dryden gave up his franchise. The city attempted contracting out water distribution rights to others, but none of the systems that resulted from these contracts were successful. The city's previous unsuccessful attempts to allow others to develop a water system on its behalf prompted the city council to relinquish its rights to the water in the Los Angeles River in 1868, which benefited John S. Griffen, Solomon Lazard, and Prudent Beaudry, three already successful businessmen. This change was at the expense of Los Angeles, which could no longer benefit from their municipal water distribution business. The three men created the Los Angeles City Water Company, which violated many of the provisions of its lease on the Los Angeles River, including secretly tunneling under the river to extract 150 times as much water as the lease allowed. As the end of the lease drew near in the mid-1890s, popular support began to build for a return to complete municipal control of the local water supply. Public control The leader in the fight to end private control of the water supply was Fred Eaton. Eaton proposed that tax revenues would enable Los Angeles to provide water to its residents without charging them for the use of water directly. Eaton's views were especially powerful because of his distinguished record of achievement in both the private and public sector. During Eaton's nine-year term as the superintending engineer of the Los Angeles City Water Company, he headed a large expansion of the company's water system. Eaton left his position in 1886 when he was elected City Engineer. In his new public position, Eaton devoted his time to updating and expanding the sewer system. Eaton felt that the Los Angeles City Water Company was not serving the citizens of Los Angeles well because of high rates, and because the company frequently paid dividends to its stockholders instead of improving the water system. In early 1897, city engineers began creating plans for an updated water system while the city council informed the Los Angeles City Water Company that its lease would not be renewed beyond its expiration date, July 21, 1898. In early 1898, the city began talks with the Los Angeles City Water Company about taking over the company's current water system. Throughout the negotiations, it became clear that it was necessary for the current senior employees of the Los Angeles City Water Company to keep their jobs in order to ensure that the water system could continue to operate. It was not guaranteed, however, that William Mulholland, Eaton's protégé and the man who took over the job of superintending engineer when Eaton was elected city engineer, would have a position working with the city-owned water system. Mulholland was not popular with city officials because he did not produce records that they requested during negotiations. Near the end of the talks between the city and the water company, it was discovered that neither the requested records nor a map of the water system existed. Mulholland, who was supposed to be in charge of the non-existent records, was never a fan of paperwork and claimed that he had memorized all of the necessary information, including the size of every inch of pipe and the age and location of every valve. Mulholland secured a job with the city when he successfully demonstrated his ability to recall the information. After Mulholland was assured a job with the city, he intervened with the company's principal stockholder, advising him to accept the city's offer of two million dollars for the system. Power delivery The Los Angeles Bureau of Power and Light was formed in 1911 to administer the electrical system in the city that supplied power generated by private companies. In 1922, it purchased Southern California Edison's distribution system within the city limits. In 1937, when the Bureau purchased the power system of the Los Angeles Gas and Electric Corporation, it became the dominant power supplier in the city. That year, the bureau merged with the Bureau of Water Works and Supply to become the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP). In 1939, LADWP became the sole electrical service provider for the city of Los Angeles. The Bureau first offered municipal electricity in 1917 when their Power Plant No. 1, a hydroelectric power plant located in San Francisquito Canyon powered by the Los Angeles Aqueduct, began generating electricity. It ultimately produced 70.5 megawatts and is still in operation, producing enough electricity for 37,500 Los Angeles homes. Three years later, in 1920, Power Plant No. 2 was added, but destroyed when the St. Francis Dam failed. However, the plant was completely rebuilt and back in service by November 1928. It remains in operation today, having the capacity to generate 18 megawatts. On January 17, 1994, the city of Los Angeles experienced its one and only total system black-out as a result of the Northridge earthquake. Much of the power was restored within a few hours. In September 2005, a DWP worker accidentally cut power lines that caused over half of Los Angeles to be without power for one and one-half hours. Notable events and controversies On March 12, 1928, the St. Francis Dam, built and operated by the LADWP, collapsed catastrophically. The disaster, considered to be one of the worst American civil engineering disasters of the 20th century, was the second-greatest loss of life in California's history, after only the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. The ensuing flood caused devastation to present-day Valencia, Newhall and the cities in the Santa Clara River Valley, taking the lives of some 425 people. The high death toll was due, in part, to confusion and mis-communication by and between employees of both the LADWP and Southern California Edison, who also had facilities and operations in the area, which led to the lack of prompt warnings being sent to the downriver communities. Those cities included Piru, Fillmore, Santa Paula, and San Buenaventura. Mulholland assumed full responsibility for the disaster and retired the next year. The pall of the disaster hung over him until his death in 1935. The LADWP has been a leading actor in the struggle over access to water from the Owens Valley, starting with its initial acquisition of water rights, as well as acquiring farms and governance of Mono Lake and Owens Lake. The LADWP played a key role in the development of Hoover Dam and bringing its energy to Los Angeles. The LADWP continued to operate the Hoover Dam electrical facility alongside Southern California Edison until 1987. On October 10, 2011, the LADWP, along with the Community Redevelopment Agency of Los Angeles and the Los Angeles Cleantech Alliance, founded the LA Cleantech Incubator. In October 2022, LADWP lost a lawsuit against the Great Basin Unified Air Pollution Control District for failure to control dust on Owens Lake near sensitive sacred tribal land claiming that they were not responsible for the pollution. Criticism over excessive overtime and payroll cost The LADWP has been criticised for allowing excessive overtime. In 2018, 306 of its workers took home more than $100,000 in overtime pay, while the agency paid $250 million for overtime, a new high for the agency. The most egregious example of this is a security worker who was paid $314,000 in overtime, on a listed base pay of $25,000, along with three peers who were paid more than $200,000 overtime each. (The nationwide median wage for security officers was $28,500 in 2018.) One policy which enables these large overtime payouts is a provision in the union contracts which requires a normal shift worked after more than one hour of overtime to be paid at double time, as well as that overtime is not based on working more than 40 hours in a week, but on working time beyond a "normal" shift. A separate study found that LADWP's yearly payroll expense per customer was $490, significantly higher than the nationwide median for large utilities of $280 per customer. Power system In 2019–20, LADWP supplied more than 21,130 gigawatt hours (GWH) to more than 1.5 million residential and business customers, as well as about 5,200 in the Owens Valley. The LADWP operates four natural gas-fired generating stations within city boundaries, which combined with other natural gas sources, account for 24% of capacity. It receives 21% of its electricity from coal-fired plants in Utah and Arizona, but plans to transition away from coal by 2025. A further 14% is generated using nuclear power, which is from the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station in Arizona. It receives about 2% of its electricity from hydropower, most coming from Hoover Dam and the rest coming from the Los Angeles Aqueduct system itself as the water descends from its mountain sources. The LADWP, along with raw water deliveries and lake level management from the California Department of Water Resources, also operates the Castaic Power Plant as a pumped storage facility. Water flows from the upper reservoir to the lower during the day, generating power when demand is highest, and is pumped back up at night when excess capacity is available. About 1,600 megawatts, or 22% of the total capacity, is generated at this facility. LADWP maintains a diverse and vertically integrated power generation, transmission and distribution system that spans five Western states, and delivers electricity to more than 4 million people in Los Angeles. Electricity mix The Los Angeles City Council voted in 2004 to direct the LADWP to generate 20% of its energy (excluding Hoover Dam) from clean sources by 2010, a goal which was met and exceeded. The LADWP expected to achieve 25 percent renewables by 2016 and 33 percent by 2020, both which have been met and exceeded. As of 2020, "green power" renewable energy sources accounted for 37% of the LADWP's capacity, including the 120 MW Pine Tree Wind Farm, the largest municipally-owned wind farm in the United States. LADWP is also investing in photovoltaic solar throughout the Southwest and geothermal sources in the Salton Sea area. In March 2021, LADWP joined with Mayor Eric Garcetti, United States Secretary of Energy Jennifer Granholm, leading energy scientists, and local elected officials to announce the results of the Los Angeles 100% Renewable Energy Study ("LA100"). The study, which was conducted by renewable energy experts at the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory, laid out a pathway for LADWP to achieve a 100% renewable energy grid as early as 2035 and by 2045 at the latest. The pathway includes significant deployment of renewable and zero-carbon energy by 2035, including wind and solar resources accounting for 69% to 87% of generated power. As of 2020, the largest component of the power supply was renewable energy at about 37%. The second-largest component was natural gas, at about 24%. Coal-fired power made up a further 21%. By contrast, the California investor-owned utilities SCE, PG&E, and SDG&E, had all eliminated their use of coal. In 2013, LADWP announced it would become coal-free by 2025 by divesting its 21% stake in Navajo Generating Station in 2016 and converting the Intermountain Power Plant to run on natural gas. Undergrounding Most of the power lines in Los Angeles were built above-ground before it became customary to run power lines below-ground. Starting in 2007, LADWP has a long-term project to upgrade the overhead power lines and convert them to underground. This difficult conversion has been slowed by budget constraints, the impact on traffic, the pursuit of other modernization projects, and the lingering effects of a workforce reduction over the last decade. Budget issues are particularly acute in the department's transmission system, where underground transmission costs about 10 to 14 times the cost of overhead transmission, per unit length, and the technical and environmental challenges which confront such installations. Additionally, undergrounding of the three 500 kV transmission lines (five lines, if the Pacific AC Intertie's two 500 kV lines terminating in Los Angeles are included) is presently technically infeasible. Upgrading the overhead lines is expected to take 10 to 15 years. The upgrading of LADWP's overhead power lines consists of eliminating the V-shape brackets on the power poles that are holding up the crossarm and replacing them with cross-brackets that are put on the crossarm. Some of the wooden power poles are being replaced with metal poles. Also included in the upgrade of overhead power lines, are the upgrades of the insulators for the lower voltage distribution power lines, which are more modern than the old-fashioned ceramic insulators. The new modern insulators for lower voltage distribution lines look identical to Southern California Edison's distribution insulators. The department recently completed two 230 kV underground projects using an innovative cable technology which does not utilize oil as an insulator. The oilless cable mitigates the environmental issues associated with oil-type cable. The 315 megawatt capacity Scattergood Steam Plant (Unit 3) to West Los Angeles (Receiving Station K, "Olympic") 230 kV line is having to be replaced after only 45 years of operations, due to multiple failures within this rather long single-circuit, oil-filled, "pipe type" cable. Water system The LADWP provided about 159 billion gallons (602 million cubic meters) of water in 2019, to 735,600 water service connections, pumping it through of pipe. In fiscal years 2016–2020: 48% of the water came from the Sierra Nevada via the Los Angeles Aqueduct, which is transported by gravity, and consequently utilizes no electric power; 41% came from the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, which transports water from the California Aqueduct and Colorado River Aqueduct, which utilizes significant electric power, much of which originates at Hoover Dam, which LADWP operated for nearly 50 years; 9% was from local groundwater, a resource that is actively managed and allocated, but is continually being threatened by chemical pollutants, such as MTBE and perchlorates; 2% came from recycled water and was used for irrigation, recreation, and industrial purposes. The use of water from specific sources can vary greatly from year to year. The prospect of increased demand coupled with reduced supply from the Mono and Owens basins is causing the LADWP to look into a number of new water sources, including a new direct connection to the California Aqueduct, increased use of recycled water, use of stormwater capture and reuse, and increased conservation. Many of the old pipelines are beginning to wear out, or are at capacity and insufficient to handle future demand. LADWP has undertaken pipeline replacement projects on many L.A. boulevards like Exposition and Olympic. Service territory In addition to Los Angeles, LADWP provides services to parts of: Bishop, California Culver City, California South Pasadena, California West Hollywood, California Over its service territory, LADWP serves four million residents and businesses. Governance Board of Water and Power Commissioners LADWP is overseen by the five-member Los Angeles Board of Water and Power Commissioners, who are appointed by the Mayor of Los Angeles and confirmed by the Los Angeles City Council for five-year terms. The board sets policy for the Department of Water and Power and votes on utility rates, renewable energy projects, and pension tiers for LADWP employees. The Board meets regularly on the second and fourth Tuesday of each month at 10:00 a.m. Currently, the Board is observing physical distancing measures in accordance with California Governor Gavin Newsom's order for COVID-19 prevention. Regular meeting agendas are available to the public at least 72 hours before the Board meets. The agenda for meetings contains a brief general description of the items to be considered. The Board may consider an item not on the agenda only in limited circumstances consistent with the Brown Act. On May 26, 2023, Cynthia Ruiz, the first Native American to serve on the Los Angeles Board of Water and Power Commissioners was informed by the deputy mayor that she was being removed as a commissioner less than one year into her four-year term, which was confirmed that day by an email from Mayor Karen Bass, whose decision it was. George McGraw was sworn in as a commissioner on June 20, replacing Ruiz. Current Board of Water and Power Commissioners Cynthia McClain-Hill, President Term: until June 27, 2027. George McGraw, Commissioner Term: until June 20, 2027. Mia Lehrer, Commissioner Term: until June 30, 2024. Jill Banks Barad-Hopkins, Commissioner Term: until June 30, 2023. Nicole Neeman Brady, Commissioner Term: until June 30, 2021. Executive management The general manager, senior assistant general managers, chief financial officer, and managing senior assistant city attorney (under the Los Angeles City Attorney) manage operations. On January 31, 2014, Ron Nichols resigned as chief of the LADWP amid ongoing controversies regarding the LADWP. On February 21, 2014, Marcie L. Edwards was unanimously confirmed by the Los Angeles City Council on February 21, 2014. She is the first woman to lead the LADWP. At the time of her nomination, Edwards was Anaheim's City Manager. Prior to her appointment as Anaheim's City Manager, Edwards served as chief of Anaheim Public Utilities for 13 years. Edwards previously worked at the LADWP for 24 years, starting at the age of 19 as a clerk typist. In August 2016, Marcie L. Edwards announced her retirement. On August 16, 2016, the Los Angeles Board of Water and Power Commissioners appointed David H. Wright Interim General Manager, and requested the CIty Council to confirm his appointment as permanent General Manager. Wright remained General Manager until 2019, when he resigned following a raid by the Federal Bureau of Investigation of LADWP Headquarters. Wright was then investigated and sentenced to 72 months in federal prison for accepting bribes from a lawyer to ensure the approval of a three-year $30 million no-bid contract. LADWP veteran Martin L. Adams was confirmed by City Council as General Manager on September 13, 2019. Current executive management General Manager and Chief Engineer: Martin L. Adams General Counsel: Julie Riley Senior Assistant General Manager of the Water System: Anselmo Collins Senior Assistant General Manager of the Power System, Power Construction, Maintenance and Construction: Brian Wilbur Senior Assistant General Manager and Chief Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Officer: Robert J. Meteau Jr. Senior Assistant General Manager, Corporate Services: Andrew Kendall Chief Information Technology Officer: Mark Northrup Senior Assistant General Manager, Corporate Strategy and Communications: Joseph Ramallo Senior Assistant General Manager of External and Regulatory Affairs and Chief Sustainability Officer: Nancy Sutley Chief Safety Officer: Nazir Fazli Inspector General: Sergio Perez Chief Financial Officer: Ann M. Santilli Headquarters LADWP is headquartered in a Corporate-International Style building designed by A.C. Martin & Associates and completed in May 1965. The 17-story building was constructed on Bunker Hill with the purpose of consolidating 11 building offices scattered across Downtown Los Angeles and housing LADWP's 3,200 employees. On September 21, 2012, it was designated as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument. The General Office Building of the Los Angeles Department of Water & Power was renamed the John Ferraro Building on November 16, 2000, after the late Los Angeles City Councilman John Ferraro. The building was featured extensively in the 2010 science fiction thriller film Inception. In popular culture Unusually for a municipal public utility, LADWP has been mentioned several times in popular culture, both fiction and nonfiction: The 1974 Roman Polanski film Chinatown, a fictionalized story based on the California Water Wars, was inspired by LADWP's efforts to acquire land and water rights. In 1982 the University of California Press published William L. Kahrl's book Water and Power: The Conflict over Los Angeles' Water Supply in the Owen (). The book examined the development of water policy in the American West, particularly concentrating on the role of William Mulholland and the LADWP. The 1986 book Cadillac Desert: The American West and its Disappearing Water by Marc Reisner () is about land development and water policy in the western United States. The subsequent television documentary of the same name devotes an entire episode to Mulholland's Dream to provide plentiful water for Los Angeles. The 1997 film Volcano, about a volcano under Los Angeles, mentions the LADWP. The 2022 TV series The Lincoln Lawyer, based on the bestselling novels by Michael Connelly, is about an iconoclastic idealist criminal defense attorney in Los Angeles who runs his practice out of the back seat of his Lincoln. This TV series includes many scenes at the John Ferraro Building, headquarters for LADWP. See also Intermountain Power Agency Metropolitan Water District of Southern California Hyperion sewage treatment plant Cristobal Aguilar, Los Angeles mayor who in 1868 vetoed an ordinance that would have sold Los Angeles's water rights References Notes External links Los Angeles Department of Water and Power website Mono Lake Committee (won Mono Lake protection from excessive LADWP water diversions) Owens Valley Committee (sued LADWP over water) Department of Water and Power Municipal electric utilities of the United States Public utilities of the United States Water companies of the United States Water management authorities in California Energy in California Water in California Department of Water and Power Los Angeles Aqueduct Non-renewable resource companies established in 1906 Renewable resource companies established in 1906 Public utilities established in 1906 1902 establishments in California 1906 establishments in California 20th century in Los Angeles 21st century in Los Angeles

425225

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los%20Angeles%20Aqueduct

Los Angeles Aqueduct

The Los Angeles Aqueduct system, comprising the Los Angeles Aqueduct (Owens Valley aqueduct) and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct, is a water conveyance system, built and operated by the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power. The Owens Valley aqueduct was designed and built by the city's water department, at the time named The Bureau of Los Angeles Aqueduct, under the supervision of the department's Chief Engineer William Mulholland. The system delivers water from the Owens River in the eastern Sierra Nevada mountains to Los Angeles. The aqueduct's construction was controversial from the start, as water diversions to Los Angeles eliminated the Owens Valley as a viable farming community. Clauses in the city's charter originally stated that the city could not sell or provide surplus water to any area outside the city, forcing adjacent communities to annex themselves into Los Angeles. The aqueduct's infrastructure also included the completion of the St. Francis Dam in 1926 to provide storage in case of disruption to the system. The dam's collapse two years later killed at least 431 people, halted the rapid pace of annexation, and eventually led to the formation of the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California to build and operate the Colorado River Aqueduct to bring water from the Colorado River to Los Angeles County. The continued operation of the Los Angeles Aqueduct has led to public debate, legislation, and court battles over its environmental impacts on Mono Lake and other ecosystems. First Los Angeles Aqueduct Construction The aqueduct project began in 1905 when the voters of Los Angeles approved a bond for the 'purchase of lands and water and the inauguration of work on the aqueduct'. On June 12, 1907, a second bond was passed with a budget of to fund construction. Construction began in 1908 and was divided into eleven divisions. The city acquired three limestone quarries, two Tufa quarries and it constructed and operated a cement plant in Monolith, California, which could produce 1,200 barrels of Portland cement per day. Regrinding mills were also built and operated by the city at the tufa quarries. To move 14 million ton-miles of freight, the city contracted with Southern Pacific to build a 118 mile long rail system from the Monolith mills to Olancha. The number of men who were on the payroll the first year was 2,629 and this number peaked at 6,060 in May 1909. In 1910, employment dropped to 1,150 due to financial reasons but rebounded later in the year. In 1911 and 1912, employment ranged from 2,800 to 3,800 workers. The number of laborers working on the aqueduct at its peak was 3,900. In 1913, the City of Los Angeles completed construction of the first Los Angeles Aqueduct. Route The aqueduct as originally constructed consisted of six storage reservoirs and of conduit. Beginning north of Blackrock (Inyo county), the aqueduct diverts the Owens River into an unlined canal to begin its journey south to the Lower San Fernando Reservoir. This reservoir was later renamed the Lower Van Norman Reservoir. The original project consisted of of open unlined canal, of lined open canal, of covered concrete conduit, of concrete tunnels, steel siphons, of railroad track, two hydroelectric plants, three cement plants, of power lines, of telephone line, of roads and was later expanded with the construction of the Mono Extension and the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct. The aqueduct uses gravity alone to move the water and also uses the water to generate electricity, which makes it cost-efficient to operate. Reactions by impacted communities The construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct effectively eliminated the Owens Valley as a viable farming community and eventually devastated the Owens Lake ecosystem. A group labeled the "San Fernando Syndicate" – including Fred Eaton, Mulholland, Harrison Otis (the publisher of The Los Angeles Times), Henry Huntington (an executive of the Pacific Electric Railroad), and other wealthy individuals – were a group of investors who bought land in the San Fernando Valley allegedly based on inside knowledge that the Los Angeles aqueduct would soon irrigate it and encourage development. Although there is disagreement over the actions of the "syndicate" as to whether they were a "diabolical" cabal or only a group that united the Los Angeles business community behind supporting the aqueduct, Eaton, Mulholland and others connected with the project have long been accused of using deceptive tactics and underhanded methods to obtain water rights and block the Bureau of Reclamation from building water infrastructure for the residents in Owens Valley, and creating a false sense of urgency around the completion of the aqueduct for Los Angeles residents. By the 1920s, the aggressive pursuit of water rights and the diversion of the Owens River precipitated the outbreak of violence known as the California water wars. Farmers in Owens Valley, following a series of unmet deadlines from LADWP, attacked infrastructure, dynamiting the aqueduct numerous times, and opened sluice gates to divert the flow of water back into Owens Lake. The lake has never been refilled, and is now maintained with a minimum level of surface water to prevent the introduction of dangerous, toxic lake-floor dust into the local community. St. Francis Dam failure In 1917, The Bureau of Los Angeles Aqueduct sought to build a holding reservoir to regulate flow and provide hydroelectric power and storage in case of disruption to the aqueduct system. The initial site chosen was in Long Valley along the Owens River, but Eaton, who had bought up much of the valley in anticipation of the need for a reservoir, refused to sell the land at the price offered by Los Angeles. Mulholland then made the decision to move the reservoir to San Francisquito Canyon above what is now Santa Clarita, California. The resulting St. Francis Dam was completed in 1926 and created a reservoir capacity of 38,000 acre-feet (47,000,000 m3). On March 12, 1928, the dam catastrophically failed, sending a wall of water down the canyon, ultimately reaching the Pacific Ocean near Ventura and Oxnard, and killing at least 431 people. The resulting investigation and trial led to the retirement of William Mulholland as the head of the Los Angeles Bureau of Water Works and Supply in 1929. The dam failure is the worst man-made flood disaster in the US in the 20th century and the second largest single-event loss of life in California history after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Mono Basin Extension In an effort to find more water, the city of Los Angeles reached farther north. In 1930, Los Angeles voters passed a third bond to buy land in the Mono Basin and fund the Mono Basin extension. The extension diverted flows from Rush Creek, Lee Vining Creek, Walker Creek, and Parker Creek that would have flowed into Mono Lake. The construction of the Mono extension consisted of an intake at Lee Vining Creek, the Lee Vining conduit to the Grant Reservoir on Rush Creek, which would have a capacity of , the Mono Craters Tunnel to the Owens River, and a second reservoir, later named Crowley Lake with a capacity of in Long Valley at the head of the Owens River Gorge. Completed in 1940, diversions began in 1941. The Mono Extension has a design capacity of of flow to the aqueduct. However, the flow was limited to due to the limited downstream capacity of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. Full appropriation of the water could not be met until the second aqueduct was completed in 1970. The Mono Extension's impact on Mono Basin and litigation From 1940 to 1970, water exports through the Mono Extension averaged per year and peaked at in 1974. Export licenses granted by the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) in 1974 increased exports to per year. These export levels severely impacted the region's fish habitat, lake level, and air quality, which led to a series of lawsuits. The results of the litigation culminated with a SWRCB decision to restore fishery protection (stream) flows to specified minimums, and raise Mono Lake to above sea level. The agreement limited further exports from the Mono Basin to per year. Second Los Angeles Aqueduct In 1956, the State Department of Water Resources reported that Los Angeles was exporting only of water of the available in the Owens Valley and Mono Basin. Three years later, the State Water Rights Board warned Los Angeles that they could lose rights to the water they were permitted for but not appropriating. Faced with the possible loss of future water supply, Los Angeles began the five-year construction of the aqueduct in 1965 at a cost US$89 million. Once the city received diversion permits, water exports jumped in 1970, adding 110,000 AF that year into the aqueduct system. By 1974, exports climbed to per year. Unlike the First Aqueduct which was built entirely by Public Works, the Second Los Angeles Aqueduct was primarily built on contract by various private construction firms including R.A. Wattson Co., Winston Bros., and the Griffith Co. The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power managed the project and performed some finishing construction on the Mojave conduit and Jawbone & Dove Spring pipelines. Route The aqueduct was designed to flow and begins at the Merritt Diversion Structure at the junction of the North and South Haiwee Reservoirs, south of Owens Lake, and runs roughly parallel to the first aqueduct. Water flows entirely by gravity from an elevation of at the Haiwee Reservoir through two power drops to an elevation of at the Upper Van Norman Reservoir. The Second Aqueduct was not built as a single contiguous conduit. For design and construction purposes the aqueduct was divided into Northern and Southern sections and the two are connected by the San Francisquito Tunnels, which are part of the First Aqueduct. The Northern Section carries water starting at the North Haiwee Reservoir through the Haiwee Bypass passing around the South Haiwee Reservoir. The flow then continues south through a series of pressure pipelines and concrete conduits where it connects with the First Aqueduct at the North Portal of the Elizabeth Tunnel near the Fairmont Reservoir. The San Francisquito Tunnels (which include the Elizabeth Tunnel) have a flow capacity of and are large enough to handle the flow of both aqueducts. Once the combined flow reaches the penstocks above Power Plant #2, water is diverted into the Southern Section of the second aqueduct through the Drinkwater Tunnel to the Drinkwater Reservoir. The last segment of pipe, known as the Saugus Pipeline, carries water south past Bouquet Canyon, Soledad Canyon and Placerita Canyon in the city of Santa Clarita. From there it roughly parallels Sierra Highway before it enters Magazine Canyon near the Terminal structure and Cascades. Water from the Terminal structure can then flow to either the Cascade or penstock to the Foothill Power Plant and into the Upper Van Norman Reservoir. In addition to the construction in the Northern and Southern sections, improvements were also made to the lined canal between the Alabama Gates and the North Haiwee Reservoir in the Northern Section that consisted of adding sidewalls to both sides of the canal and the raising of overcrossings. This work increased the capacity of the lined canal from to cfs. Second aqueduct's impact on the water system The increased flows provided by the second aqueduct lasted only from 1971 through 1988. In 1974 the environmental consequences of the higher exports were first being recognized in the Mono Basin and Owens Valley. This was followed by a series of court ordered restrictions imposed on water exports, which resulted in Los Angeles losing water. In 2005, the Los Angeles Urban Water Management Report reported that 40–50% of the aqueduct's historical supply is now devoted to ecological resources in Mono and Inyo counties. Influence on Los Angeles and the county From 1909 to 1928, the city of Los Angeles grew from 61 square miles to 440 square miles. This was due largely to the aqueduct, and the city's charter which stated that the City of Los Angeles could not sell or provide surplus water to any area outside the city. Outlying areas relied on wells and creeks for water and, as they dried up, the people in those areas realized that if they were going to be able to continue irrigating their farms and provide themselves domestic water, they would have to annex themselves to the City of Los Angeles. Growth was so rapid that it appeared as if the city of Los Angeles would eventually assume the size of the entire county. William Mulholland continued adding capacity to the aqueduct, building the St. Francis Dam that would impound water creating the San Francisquito Reservoir, filed for additional water from the Colorado River, and began sending engineers and miners to clear the heading at the San Jacinto Tunnel that he knew was key to the construction of the Colorado River Aqueduct. The aqueduct's water provided developers with the resources to quickly develop the San Fernando Valley and Los Angeles through World War II. Mulholland's role in the vision and completion of the aqueduct and the growth of Los Angeles into a large metropolis is recognized with the William Mulholland Memorial Fountain, built in 1940 at Riverside Drive and Los Feliz Boulevard in Los Feliz. Mulholland Drive and Mulholland Dam are both named after him. Many more cities and unincorporated areas would likely have annexed into the city of Los Angeles if the St. Francis Dam had not collapsed. The catastrophic failure of the St. Francis Dam in 1928 killed an estimated 431 people, flooded parts of Santa Clarita, and devastated much of the Santa Clara River Valley in Ventura County. The failure of the dam raised the question in a number of people's minds whether the city had engineering competence and capability to manage such a large project as the Colorado River Aqueduct despite the fact that they had built the Los Angeles Aqueduct. After the collapse, the pace of annexation came to a rapid halt when eleven nearby cities including Burbank, Glendale, Pasadena, Beverly Hills, San Marino, Santa Monica, Anaheim, Colton, Santa Ana, and San Bernardino decided to form the Metropolitan Water District with Los Angeles. The city's growth following the formation of the MWD would be limited to 27.65 square miles. In popular culture Saugus High School derives the name of its daily newsletter, The Pipeline, from an exposed portion of the first aqueduct that passes southwest of the school's property. San Francisquito Canyon and DWP Power House #1 are featured in Visiting... with Huell Howser Episode 424. California Historical Landmark – Cascades The Cascades, which was completed on November 5, 1913, is located near the intersection of Foothill Boulevard and Balboa Boulevard, four miles northwest of San Fernando. It was designated as a California Historical Landmark on July 28, 1958. Gallery See also American Water Landmark California Aqueduct Colorado River Aqueduct State Water Project Owensmouth References Notes Further reading External links LADWP: official Los Angeles Aqueduct website UCLA: Los Angeles Aqueduct Digital Platform Los Angeles Aqueduct Landscape Atlas Mono Lake Committee Website LADWP: History page on William Mulholland Los Angeles Aqueduct Slideshow The William Mulholland Memorial Fountain Image of workers making repairs on a damaged section of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in No-Name Canyon, Inyo County vicinity, [about 1927]. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. Aqueducts in California Interbasin transfer Water in California Aqueduct Aqueduct History of the San Fernando Valley History of Inyo County, California History of Mono County, California Owens Valley Sierra Nevada (United States) Transportation buildings and structures in Inyo County, California Transportation buildings and structures in Kern County, California Transportation buildings and structures in Los Angeles County, California Transportation buildings and structures in Mono County, California Buildings and structures in the San Fernando Valley Historic American Buildings Survey in California Historic American Engineering Record in California Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments 1913 establishments in California Hydroelectric power plants in California

425260

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Take%20the%20High%20Road

Take the High Road

Take the High Road (renamed High Road from 1994 to 2003) was a Scottish soap opera produced by Scottish Television, which started in February 1980 as an ITV daytime programme, and was broadcast until 2003. It was set in the fictional village of Glendarroch, and exteriors were filmed in the real-life village of Luss on the banks of Loch Lomond. The series was dropped by most ITV stations in the 1990s – the Scottish, Grampian, Border and Ulster stations continued to screen it until the last episode. From April 2020, the entire series is being made available free to view on the STV Player app. History Origins In 1979, the ITV network decided that its daytime schedule would be improved by the inclusion of a soap opera set in Scotland. At the time the only soap opera being made by any of the three Scottish regional companies was Scottish Television's Garnock Way, set in a Central Belt mining community not far from Glasgow. It had been running in Scotland for three years and was very popular there, but the network rejected it because they wanted, in their words, "lots of Scotch Lochs and Hills". It was decided that a new programme would be made which had its central core in a rural, lochside setting where the community were all part of an estate, comprising a village and several farms. As Michael Elder puts it, the series would have a romantic background against which a practical story of everyday events would be set. The original name for the fictitious estate and village was Glendhu and the proposed title for the programme was The Glendhu Factor. The network did not like this, because viewers in other ITV regions may have had difficulty with both the placename and the role of factor. As a result, the village was renamed Glendarroch. In Scotland, a factor is a person responsible for managing an estate, but the word has other connotations elsewhere. Location filming for a pilot had been done in and around the village of Luss on the western shore of Loch Lomond, overlooked by Ben Lomond. The popular song "The Bonnie Banks o' Loch Lomond" contains the line, "O ye'll tak' the high road, and I'll tak' the low road" and so the title High Road, Low Road was suggested, but this was also dropped after someone pointed out that, said quickly, "it sounds like a Chinese takeaway". After some debate it was decided that the series would be called Take the High Road. In late 1979, partly because of an ITV strike at the time, Garnock Way was axed, and production began on the new programme. Links to Garnock Way Take the High Road was introduced as a replacement for Garnock Way, which contained very similar characters and actors to the original characters of Take the High Road. Some viewers were rather displeased about Garnock Way being axed; to help defuse some of the anger, Todd the garage mechanic, played by Bill Henderson, would suffer a nervous breakdown, and would move north to set up business on his own to help resolve his alcohol problems. Because of shortage of time and the wish to keep most of the existing actors, it did not follow this plan. The appointed producer Clarke Tait decided to have a scenario where Henderson's character, Todd, had his name changed to Ken Calder who happened to be a garage mechanic with a drink problem. Production and changes The main writer was series creator Don Houghton. Many of the early scripts were written by Michael Elder, who also played Dr Wallace in the show. Books by the same name as the show were also produced by him. Until 1986, the series only broadcast 40 weeks of the year, with a break usually from January to the spring. During the course of its existence, Take the High Road went through some major changes and face lifts. Perhaps the most noticeable was the renovation of Blair's store: at first, everything was kept behind the counter as was once common practice; in series two, soon after Brian Blair was released from prison, it was transformed into a walk-around store. A few themes in Take the High Road were broadly in line with Scottish culture – for example, the relationships between crofters like Dougal Lachlan, villagers like storekeeper Isabel Blair, the "lady laird" Elizabeth Cunningham and the estate factor, originally Alan McIntyre. The Protestant religion was a recurring traditional theme and the series highlighted the remoteness of the village and estate. Several storylines focused on the difficulties of access faced by agencies such as the health service and the police, as when an RAF helicopter had to be summoned to Ardvain for Grace Lachlan following her near-fatal heart attack. Elizabeth's family had historically (but no longer) owned the estate, the village and the neighbouring crofts and farms. Though still resident in the "Big House", Elizabeth protected the interests of her people but lack of revenue had forced her to sell the estate to Max Langemann's multinational business consortium. As the series began, Elizabeth was battling to resist Langemann's ruthless plan to convert Glendarroch into a leisure resort for his rich clientele. In 2005, this scenario was echoed in real life when American businessman Donald Trump bought an Aberdeenshire estate to build a controversial golf resort. Despite her resistance to Langemann, Elizabeth understood that modernity was coming and was willing to accept it on terms favourable to the estate and its people. Her traditional mindset, however, contrasted sharply with those of her successors. In the first series, realising the need for new ideas to raise revenue, Elizabeth encouraged her daughter Fiona to join forces with Isabel's son Jimmy in launching a water-skiing enterprise on the loch. In March 1990, the series was revamped in a bid to attract a younger audience, which resulted in some outcry about the changes and a belief that new sets had taken away the authenticity of a Scottish village. However, within six months, the changes were hailed as a success and enabled stronger story lines, and the introduction of five new male characters. During its run, Take the High Road was always one of the highest-rated television programmes in Scotland, and had an extremely loyal following throughout the rest of the UK. Indeed, when the series was cancelled by the ITV Network, so many protests were received from viewers in England that some ITV regions reinstated the programme. Starting from 22 July 1994, the series' name was changed to just High Road, until it was cancelled in April 2003. Outcome Take the High Road was the only soap for the ITV network which was not made by one of the "Big Five" companies. This helped to give Scotland a place on the network and also provide sufficient revenue to help STV to produce more programmes for ITV and Channel 4. Cast and characters Series 1 episodes Broadcasting STV series Dates are for Scottish Television, which on some occasions was ahead of the ITV network daytime showing. Series 1: 19 February 1980 – 28 May 1980: episodes 1–30 Series 2: 14 October 1980 – 7 January 1981: episodes 31–56 Series 3: 7 April 1981 – 2 July 1981: episodes 57–82 Series 4: 6 October 1981 – 18 March 1982: episodes 83–126 Series 5: 24 August 1982 – 23 December 1982: episodes 127–162 Series 6: 5 July 1983 – 20 March 1984: episodes 163–234 Series 7: 4 September 1984 – 7 February 1985: episodes 235–276 Series 8: 14 May 1985 – 28 November 1985: episodes 277–334 Series 9: 18 March 1986 – 18 December 1986 to episodes 335–415 3 March 1987 – 27 April 2003: episodes 416–1517. From February 1987 onward, the series was broadcast all year round twice a week. In May 1993 the series become weekly. Later during the run, however, there were several gaps during which the series was not shown, although the storylines continued uninterrupted each time the series resumed. First major gap was from 12 September to 22 October 2000; from 16 April to 12 May 2001; from June to August 2001; from 24 September to 27 October 2001; from 18 February to 6 April 2002; from June to September 2002; and in February 2003. Regional scheduling Take the High Road was broadcast by all ITV companies when it started in 1980. Nearly all regions broadcast Take the High Road during the daytime, except for Scottish Television who broadcast the soap in the early evenings around 7.00pm, instead of Emmerdale. From 1984 Border Television moved the series to a peak-time slot. Grampian Television did the same too in September 1987. Dropped by the ITV network During 1993, the new ITV network centre was reviewing all long-standing series made by ITV companies, the issues of the series being dropped becoming even more apparent as the regions south of the border were months behind in their transmissions in Scotland. On 2 June 1993, Marcus Plantin, ITV's network director, announced the termination of Take The High Road from September 1993, as 'ITV's statisticians believed English audiences have had enough'. This resulted in public protest, as many believed that without ITV companies south of the border, the series had no chance. The issue was raised in parliament under early day motions, and the Daily Record newspaper held a protest as well. By the end of June, Scottish Television decided to continue producing the series mainly for the Scottish market, on a weekly basis. Shortly afterwards nearly all the ITV companies decided to keep the series going except for Carlton, Central, Tyne Tees and Yorkshire, who all dropped the series from 7 September 1993. Carlton reinstated the series from 16 October 1993, and Central did the same on 5 November 1993 after viewers complained about the show being dropped in the first place. Only two companies refused to reinstate the series: Tyne Tees Television and Yorkshire Television, although both finally brought the series back in early 1996, starting from where they left off. From 1995 onwards the number of ITV areas broadcasting the soap gradually reduced, however some did complete the series: Anglia Television and Meridian television until Christmas 1995 Yorkshire, Tyne Tess, HTV and Granada Television until Christmas 1997. Carlton Television until Christmas 1998 Central and Westcountry until Friday 24 May 2002. Border Television completed the series in 2003. UTV completed the series in 2004. International Take the High Road was broadcast in a number of countries around the world, including, Canada, United States, New Zealand. In Australia, it was broadcast on ABC1, In Ireland, the series was broadcast during the daytime five days a week from the beginning on RTÉ One. As episodes caught up with the UK transmissions, the number of episodes broadcast per week was reduced. Repeats Take the High Road was repeated on Sky Soap; the episodes shown in early 1997 were from the beginning, and 1989 episodes were being shown when the channel ended in April 1999. Early episodes from about 1994–95 were shown on Sky Scottish in 1997/98. It was repeated briefly on Life One from February 2008. This channel began with episode 1000 from 1992 but it ceased broadcasting after only six weeks having shown only four episodes. In the autumn of 2010, nearly every episode (except for 23) were added to YouTube by Scottish Television, making the series accessible to viewers across the world. The series was removed from YouTube when it began repeating on STV new local channel called STV Glasgow from 3 June 2014 broadcasting one episode each weekday, with omnibus at the weekends, The series was also shown on STV Edinburgh from its launch in January 2015. When STV Glasgow & STV Edinburgh were renamed STV2, the series was moved to a Saturday morning between 9am and 11am until June 2018, when the STV2 channel closed down. STV continued to make the series available online via the STV Player, from the same point where STV2 left off. Five episodes were uploaded every week from 8 July 2018 on Sundays. From 14 September 2019 this increased to five episodes each Saturday and five episodes each Sunday. This run ended after the final episodes were uploaded on 18 April 2020. Current availability Starting on 26 April 2020, STV began a complete rerun of the programme by loading five episodes per week onto their STV Player app. They are free to view. Each block of five episodes remains available for six months, with the first five removed on 23 October 2020 and so on. Viewers can access the available episodes on mobile media by registering with STV Player and can watch them on television by linking their membership to the STV Freeview function. As of 15 July 2021, a few selected episodes from the series are available on BritBox, a subscription only service curated by the BBC and ITV. Sponsorship Take the High Road was sponsored by Brooke Bond Scottish Blend tea from the beginning of 1992 until 1995 or 1996. Mother's Pride sponsored it from August 1999 to September 2001 on Scottish and Grampian TV. The sponsorship credits revealed the adventures of one man and his dog, Doug, as they searched for the village of Glendarroch. The STV Player rerun is being sponsored by Tunnock's bakery. Books These books were all written by Michael Elder, except for Summers Gloaming, which was written by Don Houghton: Summer's Gloaming (November 1982) Danger in the Glen (January 1984) Mist on the Moorland (1985) The Man From France (1986) The Last of the Lairds (May 1987) 10 Years of Take the High Road (1990) Theme tune The theme tune was written by composer Arthur Blake, who was STV's Musical Director at the time, and there were four versions of it over the 23-year run. The first version was performed by Silly Wizard and was used until 1982. This version was quite "Scottish folk band" in style and pretty lively. Instruments featured included the accordion, banjo, drum kit, and synthesiser. The music for the closing credits featured a drum roll introduction. Silly Wizard performed another version which was released on record in 1980. The "Silly Wizard" theme tune was replaced by an orchestral version from Esp 127 on 24 August 1982. The orchestral version was used from 1982 until episode 334 in 1985. Instruments featured included the oboe, clarinet, violin, and drum kit. While this version was in use, the music for the break strings tended to vary from episode to episode. Like the Silly Wizard version, the music for the closing credits also featured a drum roll introduction. The third version was a different orchestral arrangement and was used from episode 335 in 1986 until episode 727 at the beginning of 1990. This new orchestral version was more violin led than the former, which had made more use of wind instruments, and featured no percussion. From episode 728 in 1990, the fourth, rock-style, version made its debut and continued to be used until the end of the series. This version was electric guitar led (played by session guitarist Duncan Finlay) and featured percussion during the "middle" section. From 1994 when the programme name was shortened to High Road, the length of the closing credits was cut, so the closing theme was faded in just before the middle eight. DVD releases Take the High Road became available for the first time ever when distribution company Go Entertain commenced releasing the series in 2012 on DVD. Rights to the series were later acquired by Alba Home Entertainment in 2013, with sets released in the same format, with the exception of each set now available with one disc. The series ceased releasing in 2014 after 16 volumes and 96 episodes, possibly due to poor sales. It is currently unknown if any future sets will become available. In an unusual occurrence, the series was not rated by the BBFC for home video release, which is normally the case for all television series and films. It received an 'E' (Exempt from classification) rating, an unofficial rating only applied to documentaries or sports events released on home video. Notes References Bibliography External links 1980 Scottish television series debuts 1980s British television soap operas 1980s Scottish television series 1990s British television soap operas 1990s Scottish television series 2000s British television soap operas 2000s Scottish television series 2003 Scottish television series endings British television soap operas English-language television shows ITV soap operas Scottish television soap operas Television shows produced by Scottish Television Television shows set in Scotland

425279

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containment

Containment

Containment was a geopolitical strategic foreign policy pursued by the United States during the Cold War to prevent the spread of communism after the end of World War II. The name was loosely related to the term cordon sanitaire, which was containment of the Soviet Union in the interwar period. As a component of the Cold War, this policy caused a response from the Soviet Union to increase communist influence in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Containment represented a middle-ground position between détente (relaxation of relations) and rollback (actively replacing a regime). The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan during the post-World War II term of U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As a description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report Kennan submitted to US Defense Secretary James Forrestal in 1947, which was later used in a Foreign Affairs article. Earlier uses of term Both Americans and Europeans were aware with significant historical antecedents. In the 1850s, anti-slavery forces in the United States developed a free soil strategy of containment to stop the expansion of slavery until it later collapsed. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy: Between 1873 and 1877, Germany repeatedly intervened in the internal affairs of France's neighbors. In Belgium, Spain, and Italy, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck exerted strong and sustained political pressure to support the election or appointment of liberal, anticlerical governments. That was part of an integrated strategy to promote republicanism in France by strategically and ideologically isolating the clerical-monarchist regime of President Patrice de MacMahon. It was hoped that by surrounding France with a number of liberal states, French Republicans could defeat MacMahon and his reactionary supporters. The modern concept of containment provides a useful model for understanding the dynamics of this policy. After the 1917 October Revolution in Russia, there were calls by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919, French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire, a ring of non-communist states, to isolate Soviet Russia. Translating that phrase, US President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine." The World War I allies launched an incursion into Russia, as after the Bolshevik Revolution, Vladimir Lenin withdrew the country from the First World War, allowing Germany to reallocate troops to face the Allied forces on the Western Front. Concurrently, President Wilson became increasingly aware of the human rights violations perpetuated by the new Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and opposed the new regime's militant atheism and advocacy of a command economy. He also was concerned that Marxism–Leninism would spread to the remainder of the Western world, and intended his landmark Fourteen Points partially to provide liberal democracy as an alternative worldwide ideology to Communism. Despite reservations, the United States, as a result of the fear of Japanese expansion into Russian-held territory and their support for the Allied-aligned Czech Legion, sent a small number of troops to Northern Russia and Siberia. The United States also provided indirect aid such as food and supplies to the White Army. The incursion was unpopular at home and lacked a cohesive strategy, leading the allies to ultimately withdraw from Russia. The U.S. initially refused to recognize the Soviet Union, but President Franklin D. Roosevelt reversed the policy in 1933 in the hope to expand American export markets. The Munich Agreement of 1938 was a failed attempt to contain Nazi expansion in Europe. The U.S. tried to contain Japanese expansion in Asia from 1937 to 1941, and Japan reacted with its attack on Pearl Harbor. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet Union found themselves allied against Germany and used rollback to defeat the Axis powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan. Origin (1944–1947) Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell Harriman, U.S. Ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed optimist" regarding U.S.–Soviet relations, was disillusioned by what he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning Poland. Harriman would later have a significant influence in forming Truman's views on the Soviet Union. In February 1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the Long Telegram: Kennan's cable was hailed in the State Department as "the appreciation of the situation that had long been needed." Kennan himself attributed the enthusiastic reception to timing: "Six months earlier the message would probably have been received in the State Department with raised eyebrows and lips pursed in disapproval. Six months later, it would probably have sounded redundant." Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on the Long Telegram and proposing concrete policy recommendations based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on September 24, 1946. In January 1947, Kennan drafted an essay entitled "The Sources of Soviet Conduct." Navy Secretary James Forrestal gave permission for the report to be published in the journal Foreign Affairs under the pseudonym "X." Biographer Douglas Brinkley has dubbed Forrestal "godfather of containment" on account of his work in distributing Kennan's writing. The use of the word "containment" originates from this so-called "X Article": "In these circumstances, it is clear that the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies." Kennan later turned against the containment policy and noted several deficiencies in his X Article. He later said that by containment he meant not the containment of Soviet Power "by military means of a military threat, but the political containment of a political threat." Second, Kennan admitted a failure in the article to specify the geographical scope of "containment", and that containment was not something he believed the United States could necessarily achieve everywhere successfully. Harry S. Truman After Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1946 elections, President Truman, a Democrat, made a dramatic speech that is often considered to mark the beginning of the Cold War. In March 1947, he requested that Congress appropriate $400 million in aid to the Greek and Turkish governments, which were fighting communist subversion. Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine. Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian regimes" and "free peoples", the speech marks the adoption of containment as official US policy. Congress appropriated the money. Truman's motives on that occasion have been the subject of considerable scholarship and several schools of interpretation. In the orthodox explanation of Herbert Feis, a series of aggressive Soviet actions in 1945–1947 in Poland, Iran, Turkey, and elsewhere awakened the American public to the new danger to freedom to which Truman responded. In the revisionist view of William Appleman Williams, Truman's speech was an expression of longstanding American expansionism. In the realpolitik view of Lynn E. Davis, Truman was a naive idealist who unnecessarily provoked the Soviets by couching disputes in terms like democracy and freedom that were alien to the communist vision. According to a psychological analysis by Deborah Larson, Truman felt a need to prove his decisiveness and feared that aides would make unfavorable comparisons between him and his predecessor, Roosevelt. "I am here to make decisions, and whether they prove right or wrong I am going to take them", he once said. The drama surrounding the announcement of the Truman Doctrine catered to the president's self-image of a strong and decisive leader, but his real decision-making process was more complex and gradual. The timing of the speech was not a response to any particular Soviet action but to the fact that the Republican Party had just gained control of Congress. Truman was little involved in drafting the speech and did not himself adopt the hard-line attitude that it suggested until several months later. The British, with their own position weakened by economic distress, urgently called on the U.S. to take over the traditional British role in Greece. Undersecretary of State Dean Acheson took the lead in Washington, warning congressional leaders in late February 1947 that if the United States did not take over from the British, the result most probably would be a "Soviet breakthrough" that "might open three continents to Soviet penetration." Truman was explicit about the challenge of communism taking control of Greece. He won wide support from both parties as well as experts in foreign policy inside and outside the government. It was strongly opposed by the left, notably by former Vice President Henry A. Wallace, who ran against Truman in the 1948 presidential campaign. Truman, under the guidance of Acheson, followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, and NATO, a 1949 military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations. Because containment required detailed information about communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands, some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November 1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever created by the United States. The Soviet Union's first nuclear test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as NSC 68. It concluded that a massive military buildup was necessary to deal with the Soviet threat. According to the report, drafted by Paul Nitze and others: Alternative strategies There were three alternative policies to containment under discussion in the late 1940s. The first was a return to isolationism, minimizing American involvement with the rest of the world, a policy that was supported by conservative Republicans, especially from the Midwest, including former President Herbert Hoover and Senator Robert A. Taft. However, many other Republicans, led by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg, said that policy had helped cause World War II and so was too dangerous to revive. The second policy was a continuation of the détente policies that aimed at friendly relationships with the Soviet Union, especially trade. Roosevelt had been the champion of détente, but he was dead, and most of his inner circle had left the government by 1946. The chief proponent of détente was Henry Wallace, a former vice president and the Secretary of Commerce under Truman. Wallace's position was supported by far-left elements of the CIO, but they were purged in 1947 and 1948. Wallace ran against Truman on the Progressive Party ticket in 1948, but his campaign was increasingly dominated by Communists, which helped to discredit détente. The third policy was rollback, an aggressive effort to undercut or destroy the Soviet Union itself. Military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by James Burnham and other conservative strategists in the late 1940s. After 1954, Burnham and like-minded strategists became editors and regular contributors to William F. Buckley Jr.'s National Review magazine. Truman himself adopted a rollback strategy in the Korean War after the success of the Inchon landings in September 1950, only to reverse himself after the Chinese counterattack two months later and revert to containment. General Douglas MacArthur called on Congress to continue the rollback policy, but Truman fired him for insubordination. Under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a rollback strategy was considered against communism in Eastern Europe from 1953 to 1956. Eisenhower agreed to a propaganda campaign to roll back the influence of communism psychologically, but he refused to intervene in the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, mainly for fear that it would cause World War III. Since late 1949, when the Soviets had successfully tested an atomic bomb, they had been known to possess nuclear weapons. Korea The U.S. followed containment when it first entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a communist invasion by North Korea. Initially, this directed the action of the U.S. to only push back North Korea across the 38th Parallel and restore South Korea's sovereignty, thereby allowing North Korea's survival as a state. However, the success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the United Nations to adopt a rollback strategy instead and to overthrow communist North Korea, thus allowing nationwide elections under UN auspices. General Douglas MacArthur then advanced across the 38th Parallel into North Korea. The Chinese, fearful of a possible U.S. presence on their border or even an invasion by them, then sent in a large army and defeated the UN forces, pushing them back below the 38th parallel. Truman publicly hinted that he might use his "ace in the hole" of the atomic bomb, but Mao was unmoved. The episode was used to support the wisdom of the containment doctrine as opposed to rollback. The Communists were later pushed back to roughly around the original border, with minimal changes. Truman criticized MacArthur's focus on absolute victory and adopted a "limited war" policy. His focus shifted to negotiating a settlement, which was finally reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-win policy." Dulles Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, were concerned that Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and the eventual liberation of Eastern Europe. Dulles was named secretary of state by incoming President Eisenhower, but Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, which was put down by the Soviet Army, made containment a bipartisan doctrine. Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile governments and used economic and military foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American position in the Cold War. Cuba In the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, the top officials in Washington debated using rollback to get rid of Soviet nuclear missiles, which were threatening the United States. There was fear of a nuclear war until a deal was reached in which the Soviets would publicly remove their nuclear weapons, the United States would secretly remove its missiles from Turkey and to avoid invading Cuba. The policy of containing Cuba was put into effect by President John F. Kennedy and continued until 2015. Vietnam Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in 1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?" President Lyndon Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that rollback risked nuclear war. Johnson explained containment doctrine by quoting the Bible: "Hitherto shalt thou come, but not further." Goldwater lost to Johnson in the 1964 election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam War. Rejecting proposals by General William Westmoreland for U.S. ground forces to advance into Laos and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder statesmen called The Wise Men. The group included Kennan, Acheson and other former Truman advisors. Rallies in support of the troops were discouraged for fear that a patriotic response would lead to demands for victory and rollback. Military responsibility was divided among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman. Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as détente, a relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, thinking in terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union concerning nuclear weapons called the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum required to contain communist advances, in a policy called Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon the policy in 1973 by enacting the Case–Church Amendment, which ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to successful communist invasions of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Afghanistan President Jimmy Carter came to office in 1977 and was committed to a foreign policy that emphasized human rights. However, in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, containment was again made a priority. The wording of the Carter Doctrine (1980) intentionally echoed that of the Truman Doctrine. Reagan Doctrine Following the communist victory in Vietnam, Democrats began to view further communist advances as inevitable, but Republicans returned to the rollback doctrine. Ronald Reagan, a long-time advocate of rollback, was elected U.S. president in 1980. He took a more aggressive approach to dealings with the Soviets and believed that détente was misguided and peaceful coexistence was tantamount to surrender. When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, American policymakers worried that the Soviets were making a run for control of the Persian Gulf. Throughout the 1980s, under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided technical and economic assistance to the Afghan guerrillas (mujahideen) fighting against the Soviet army. After the Cold War The conclusion of the Cold War in 1992 marked the official end of the containment policy, but the U.S. kept its bases in the areas around Russia, such as those in Iceland, Germany, and Turkey. Much of the policy later helped influence U.S. foreign policy towards China in the 21st century. See also Appeasement Cordon sanitaire (international relations) Domino theory Détente Isolationism Marshall Plan Rollback Truman Doctrine Dual containment (Iran-Iraq containment) United States foreign policy toward the People's Republic of China References Further reading Borhi, László. "Rollback, liberation, containment, or inaction? US policy and eastern Europe in the 1950s." Journal of Cold War Studies 1.3 (1999): 67–110. Duiker, William. US containment policy and the conflict in Indochina (Stanford University Press, 1994). Gaddis, John Lewis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War. 2004, a standard scholarly history Gaddis, John Lewis. George F. Kennan: An American Life (Penguin, 2012). Garthoff, Raymond L. Détente and Confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan (1985) Garthoff, Raymond L. The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (1994) Hopkins, Michael F. "Continuing Debate And New Approaches In Cold War History," Historical Journal (2007), 50: 913–934 Iatrides, John O. "George F. Kennan and the birth of containment: the Greek test case." World Policy Journal 22.3 (2005): 126–145. online Inboden III, William. Religion and American Foreign Policy, 1945–1960: The Soul of Containment (2008) Kennan, George F., American Diplomacy, (University of Chicago Press. 1984). Logevall, Fredrik. "A Critique of Containment." Diplomatic History 28.4 (2004): 473–499. McConachie, Bruce. American Theatre and the Culture of the Cold War: Producing and Contesting Containment, 1947–1962 (University of Iowa Press, 2003). Nadel, Alan. Containment culture: American narratives, postmodernism, and the atomic age (Duke University Press, 1995). Ngoei, Wen-Qing. Arc of Containment: Britain, the United States, and Anticommunism in Southeast Asia. (Cornell University Press 2019) Ostermann, Christian F. Between containment and rollback: the United States and the Cold War in Germany (Stanford UP, 2021). Soddu, Marco. "Truman Administration's Containment Policy in Light of the French Return to Indochina." Foreign Policy Journal (2012): 1–7. online Spalding, Elizabeth. The first cold warrior: Harry Truman, containment, and the remaking of liberal internationalism (UP of Kentucky, 2006). Historiography and memory Anderson, Sheldon R. "Condemned to Repeat it:" lessons of History" and the Making of US Cold War Containment Policy (Lexington Books, 2008). Corke, Sarah-Jane. "History, historians and the Naming of Foreign Policy: A Postmodern Reflection on American Strategic thinking during the Truman Administration," Intelligence and National Security, Autumn 2001, Vol. 16 Issue 3, pp. 146–63. Drew, S. Nelson, and Paul H. Nitze. NSC-68 forging the strategy of containment (iane Publishing, 1994). Garthoff, Raymond L. A journey through the Cold War: a memoir of containment and coexistence (Brookings Institution Press, 2004). Kort, Michael. The Columbia Guide to the Cold War (1998) External links EDSITEment's Lesson Strategy of Containment 1947–1948 Article on Containment. . Anti-communism in the United States Cold War policies Geopolitics Presidency of Harry S. Truman Soviet Union–United States relations

425280

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downtown%20Los%20Angeles

Downtown Los Angeles

Downtown Los Angeles (DTLA) contains the central business district of Los Angeles. In addition, it contains a diverse residential area of some 85,000 people, and covers . A 2013 study found that the district is home to over 500,000 jobs. It is also part of Central Los Angeles. Downtown Los Angeles is divided into neighborhoods and districts, some overlapping. Most districts are named for the activities concentrated there now or historically, e.g. the Arts, Civic Center, Fashion, Banking, Theater, Toy, and Jewelry districts. It is the hub for the city's urban rail transit system plus the Pacific Surfliner and Metrolink commuter rail system for Southern California. Banks, department stores, and movie palaces at one time drew residents and visitors of all socioeconomic classes downtown, but the area declined economically, especially after the 1950s. It remained an important center—in the Civic Center, of government business; on Bunker Hill, of banking, and along Broadway, of retail and entertainment for Hispanic Angelenos, especially immigrants. Now Downtown has been experiencing a renaissance that started in the early 2000s. The Crypto.com Arena anchors downtown's south end, and along Broadway, pre-war buildings are being restored for new uses, such as luxury condos, co-working spaces, and high-end retail. History The Tongva village of Yaanga was located in what is now downtown Los Angeles, possibly near or underneath where the Bella Union Hotel was located (now Fletcher Bowron Square). Spanish and Mexican era Father Juan Crespí, a Spanish Franciscan missionary charged with exploring sites for Catholic missions in California, noted in 1769 that the region had "all the requisites for a large settlement". On September 4, 1781, Los Angeles was founded by a group of settlers who trekked north from present-day Mexico. Like most urban centers in the Spanish Empire, the town grew in a grid-like street pattern around a central plaza which faced the first church. The area passed to American control in 1847, and the small town grew to 11,000 by 1880, The business district was centered along Main Street between the Plaza and First Street. Victorian-era Downtown Land speculation increased in the 1880s, which saw the population of the city explode from 11,000 in 1880 to nearly 100,000 by 1896. Infrastructure enhancements and the laying of a street grid eventually brought development south of the Plaza: Victorian Downtown Los Angeles in the 1800s and 1890s along Main, Spring and Broadway south to Third Street – all of which were razed to make way for today's Civic Center. After 1900, larger buildings were constructed along Broadway and Spring from Third to Ninth streets in what is now called the Historic Core. Downtown's golden age By 1920, the city's private and municipal rail lines were the most far-flung and most comprehensive in the world in mileage, even besting that of New York City. By this time, a steady influx of residents and aggressive land developers had transformed the city into a large metropolitan area, with DTLA at its center. Rail lines connected four counties with over of track. During the early part of the 20th century, banking institutions clustered around South Spring Street, forming the Spring Street Financial District. Sometimes referred to as the "Wall Street of the West," the district held corporate headquarters for financial institutions including Bank of America, Farmers and Merchants Bank, the Crocker National Bank, California Bank & Trust, and International Savings & Exchange Bank. The Los Angeles Stock Exchange was also located on the corridor from 1929 until 1986 before moving into a new building across the Harbor (110) Freeway. Commercial growth brought with it hotel construction—during this time period several grand hotels, the Alexandria (1906), the Rosslyn (1911), and the Biltmore (1923), were erected—and also the need for venues to entertain the growing population of Los Angeles. Broadway became the nightlife, shopping and entertainment district of the city, with over a dozen theater and movie palaces built before 1932. Department stores, most that had grown from local dry goods businesses, moved from Spring and Main streets around Temple and 1st, to much larger stores along Broadway, including The Broadway, Hamburger's, which became May Co., Robinson's, Bullock's, Coulter's, Desmond's, Silverwoods, Harris & Frank, and the Fifth Street Store/Walker's, serving a variety of socioeconomic groups from across the city and suburbs. All but Coulter's would, in the 1920s–1950s, launch branches dotting shopping centers across a growing Southern California. Numerous specialty stores also flourished including those in the jewelry business which gave rise to the Downtown Jewelry District. Among these early jewelers included the Laykin Diamond Company (later becoming Laykin et Cie ) and Harry Winston & Co., both of which found their beginnings in the Hotel Alexandria at Fifth and Spring streets. The Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal (Union Station) opened in May 1939, unifying passenger service among various local, regional, and long-distance passenger trains. It was built on a grand scale and would be one of the "last of the great railway stations" built in the United States. Decline and redevelopment Following World War II, suburbanization, the development of the Los Angeles freeway network, and increased automobile ownership led to decreased investment downtown. Many corporate headquarters slowly dispersed to new suburbs or fell to mergers and acquisitions. As early as the 1920s once-stately Victorian mansions on Bunker Hill were dilapidated, serving as rooming houses for 20,000 working-class Angelenos. From about 1930 onward, numerous more-than-100-year-old buildings in the Plaza area were demolished to make way for street-level parking lots, the high demand for parking making this more profitable than any other options allowing preservation. The drastic loss of local downtown residents further reduced the viability of streetfront, pedestrian-oriented businesses. For middle- and upper-income Angelenos, downtown became a drive-in, drive-out destination. In an effort to combat blight and lure businesses back downtown, the city's Community Redevelopment Agency undertook the Bunker Hill Redevelopment Project in 1955, a massive clearance project that leveled homes and cleared land for future commercial skyscraper development. This period saw the clearing and upzoning of the entire neighborhood, as well as the shuttering of the Angels Flight funicular railway in 1969. Angels Flight resumed operation in 1996 for a period of five years, shutting down once again after a fatal accident in 2001. On March 15, 2010, the railway once again opened for passenger service following extensive upgrades to brake and safety systems. With Class A office space becoming available on Bunker Hill, many of DTLA's remaining financial corporations moved to the newer buildings, leaving the former Spring Street Financial District devoid of tenants above ground floor. Following the corporate headquarters' moving six blocks west, the large department stores on Broadway shuttered, culminating in the 1980s. The Broadway theaters saw much use as Spanish-language movie houses during this time, beginning with the conversion of the Million Dollar Theater in the 1950s to a Spanish-language theater. Recent years In the early 2000s, the neighborhood became popular with Artists and Creatives due to low rent, open loft space, and many vacancies. In mid-2013, downtown was noted as "a neighborhood with an increasingly hip and well-heeled residential population". Because of the downtown area's office market's migration west to Bunker Hill and the Financial District, many historic office buildings have been left intact, which is simply used for storage or remaining empty during recent decades. In 1999, the Los Angeles City Council passed an adaptive reuse ordinance, making it easier for developers to convert outmoded, vacant office and commercial buildings into renovated lofts and luxury apartment and condo complexes. As of early 2009, 14,561 residential units have been created under the adaptive reuse ordinance, leading to an increase in the residential population. With 28,878 residents in 2006, 39,537 in 2008, and over 60,000 in 2017, Downtown Los Angeles is seeing new life and investment. Crypto.com Arena, which opened in 1999, has contributed immensely to the revitalization plans, adding 250 events and nearly 4 million visitors per year to the neighborhood. Since the opening of the Staples Center, the adjacent L.A. Live complex was completed, which includes the Microsoft Theatre and the Grammy Museum. Los Angeles Metro Rail, a rail transit network centered on the downtown area, facilitates access to the city center, especially from the congested West Side. Real estate developers and investors planned a $1.8 billion revitalization project along Grand Avenue, which included the development of Grand Park, a large city park, and the construction of major city landmarks, including the Frank Gehry-designed Walt Disney Concert Hall and contemporary art museum The Broad, which opened in 2015. On August 7, 2007, the Los Angeles City Council approved sweeping changes in zoning and development rules for the downtown area. Strongly advocated by Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa, the changes allow larger and denser developments downtown; developers who reserve 15% of their units for low-income residents are now exempt from some open-space requirements and can make their buildings 35% larger than current zoning codes allow. In 2009 Bottega Louie opened on the first floor of the historic Brockman Building on Grand Avenue and Seventh Street. It contributed to the revitalization of DTLA by creating Restaurant Row, which has since brought numerous new restaurants and retail shops to the area. In 2012, the upper 11 floors of the Brockman Building were bought with the intention of being sold as luxury lofts. In October 2015, an outdoor lifestyle center, The Bloc Los Angeles, replaced the old enclosed Macy's Plaza. Several labels of Warner Music moved into the Los Angeles Arts District in 2019 where the company had purchased a former Ford Motor Company assembly plant. Broadway retail is transitioning from a broad mix of stores catering mostly to Hispanic immigrants and a burgeoning sneaker and streetwear retail cluster has emerged from 4th to 9th streets: Sneaker Row. Oceanside Plaza has planned to open in 2020, but this was later changed to unknown date due to financial problems and costs. This building includes a shopping mall, office, and a hotel and it is located in Staples Center. Multiple Olympic and Paralympic events will be held in DTLA during the 2028 Summer Olympics and Paralympics. After six years of construction, the new Sixth Street Viaduct opened on July 9, 2022 at a cost of $588-million. This new bridge replaced a 1932 viaduct of the same name which was demolished in 2016 due to a fact that it would collapse if there were a major earthquake, and alkali-silica reaction – colloquially known as “concrete cancer.” Pedestrian and bicycle access points link to other projects such as 12 acres of new park space below the viaduct. In September 2022, it is announced that Oceanwide Plaza will restart work on stalled DTLA mega-project in 2023 following months of rumors of a shortfall in financing and halt on construction on three years. Shopping Malls Shopping centers include FIGat7th, and The Bloc Los Angeles, an open-air shopping area. Others include Japanese Village Plaza in Little Tokyo, City National Plaza, the Homer Laughlin Building, and the Los Angeles Mall. Geography Downtown Los Angeles is flanked by Echo Park to the north and northwest, Chinatown to the northeast, Boyle Heights to the east, Vernon to the south, Historic South Central and University Park to the southwest, and Pico-Union and Westlake to the west. Downtown is bounded on the northeast by Cesar Chavez Avenue, on the east by the Los Angeles River, on the south by the Los Angeles city line with Vernon, on the southwest by East Washington Boulevard and on the west by the 110 Freeway or Beaudry Avenue, including the entire Four Level Interchange with the 101 Freeway. Districts The neighborhood includes these districts: Arts District Bunker Hill Civic Center (built on the razed site of the Central Business District during the 1880s–1890s) Fashion District Financial District Flower District Gallery Row Historic Core (contains the Broadway Theater District, Spring Street Financial District and Old Bank District) Industrial District Jewelry District Little Tokyo Skid Row South Park Toy District Wholesale District or Warehouse District Climate Population The 2000 U.S. census found that just 27,849 residents lived in the 5.84 square miles of downtown—or 4,770 people per square mile, among the lowest densities for the city of Los Angeles but about average for the county. The Southern California Association of Governments estimates that downtown's daytime population is 207,440. The population increased to 34,811 by 2008, according to city estimates. By the end of 2019, the population of the district had grown to 85,000 residents, and 7,956 residential units were under construction. The median age for residents was 39, considered old for the city and the county. Downtown Los Angeles is almost evenly balanced among the four major racial and ethnic groups—Asian Americans (23%), African Americans (22%), Latinos (25%) and non-Hispanic whites (26%)—according to an analysis of 2010 census data made by Loyola Marymount University researchers. A study of the 2000 census showed that downtown was the second–most diverse neighborhood in Los Angeles, its diversity index being 0.743, outrated only by Mid-Wilshire. The ethnic breakdown in 2000 was Latinos, 36.7%; blacks, 22.3%; Asians, 21.3%; whites, 16.2%, and others, 3.5%. Mexico (44.7%) and Korea (17%) were the most common places of birth for the 41.9% of the residents who were born abroad, about the same ratio as in the city as a whole. The median household income in 2008 dollars was $15,003, considered low for both the city and the county. The percentage of households earning $20,000 or less (57.4%) was the highest in Los Angeles County, followed by University Park (56.6%) and Chinatown (53.6%). The average household size of 1.6 people was relatively low. Renters occupied 93.4% of the housing units, and home or apartment owners the rest. In 2000, there were 2,400 military veterans living downtown, or 9.7% of the population, considered a high rate for the city but average for the county overall. In 2010, census data concluded that 40,227 people lived in Downtown Los Angeles. In 2013, a study by Downtown Center Business Improvement District showed that of the 52,400 people resided in Downtown Los Angeles. The demographic breakdown was 52.7% Caucasian, 20.1% Asian, 17.0% Latino, and 6.2% African-American; 52.9% female, 47.1% male; and 74.8% of residents were between the ages of 23–44. The median age for residents was 34. The median household income was $98,700. The median household size was 1.8. In terms of educational attainment, 80.1% of residents had completed at least 4 years of college. The study was a self-selecting sample of 8,841 respondents across the DTLA area. It was not a "census" but rather a comprehensive survey of Downtown LA consumers. An additional study by the Downtown Center Business Improvement District showed that by 2017 the population has reached 67,324. In early 2020 the population was estimated to have exceeded 80,000 at the end of 2019. Public transportation Local and regional service Downtown Los Angeles is the center of the region's growing rail transit system, with six commuter lines operated by Metrolink, as well as six urban rail transit lines and local and regional bus service operated by Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro). Major Metro stations in the district include Union Station, Civic Center/Grand Park station, Pershing Square station, 7th Street/Metro Center station, Pico station, Little Tokyo/Arts District station, Historic Broadway station, and Grand Avenue Arts/Bunker Hill station. The Los Angeles Metro Rail system has four rail lines that serve Downtown Los Angeles: the A Line, B Line, D Line, and E Line. In late 2009, the Metro J Line bus rapid transit project opened, replacing two unconnected bus rapid transit lines with through service at street level through the downtown area. In 2006, a portion of the Metro Red Line (now the B Line) was rebranded by Metro as the Metro Purple Line (now the D Line), a heavy-rail subway line which runs from Union Station to Wilshire/Western station in Koreatown. A westward extension of the line to Westwood is currently under construction. Metro operates an extensive bus network, including Metro Local, Metro Express commuter lines, and Metro Rapid buses with signal priority and limited stops. Los Angeles Department of Transportation operates seven local DASH shuttle lines downtown on weekdays: Lines A, B, C, D, E and F. Weekend service is operated on lines DD (Downtown Discovery), E and F. The Regional Connector Transit Corridor connected the A, E, and L Lines between the Little Tokyo/Arts District and 7th Street/Metro Center stations which opened on June 16, 2023. This had the A and E Lines take over different parts of the L Line, which was promptly discontinued. Amtrak Amtrak operates intercity passenger train service on five routes through Los Angeles Union Station: the Coast Starlight, Pacific Surfliner, Southwest Chief, Sunset Limited, and Texas Eagle. Greyhound Greyhound Lines operates a major bus terminal in Downtown Los Angeles at the intersection of Seventh and Alameda streets. Service to Los Angeles International Airport Los Angeles World Airports operates a direct shuttle, LAX FlyAway Bus, every 30–60 minutes between Union Station and Los Angeles International Airport. Transit expansion The Metro E Line was built in two phases and completed in 2016. The first phase of the project connected 7th Street/Metro Center Station downtown with Culver City via the former Pacific Electric Railway Santa Monica Air Line right-of-way. The second phase extended the line to Santa Monica. The E Line shares tracks with the Metro A Line north of Washington Boulevard, and shares the Pico Station, 7th Street/Metro Center Station, Grand Avenue Arts/Bunker Hill station, Historic Broadway station, and Little Tokyo/Arts District station with the A Line. Los Angeles Union Station is set to be a major stop on the under-construction California High-Speed Rail system, though it will not be a part of the project's Initial Operating Segment. The project would connect Northern and Southern California via the San Joaquin Valley, with service averaging . Work is planned to bring streetcar-style trolley service to Downtown Los Angeles via Broadway, connecting the L.A. Live development with the Grand Avenue cultural corridor and Bunker Hill. Parks and open space Downtown Los Angeles is home to several public parks, plazas, gardens and other open space: Los Angeles Plaza Olvera Street El Pueblo de Los Ángeles Historical Monument Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels meditation garden and olive garden (park) Biddy Mason Park Grand Park Maguire Gardens Pershing Square Los Angeles City Hall South Lawn Los Angeles Police Department's Police Administration Building South Lawn Los Angeles State Historic Park Los Angeles Union Station gardens Walt Disney Concert Hall Community Park The Water Court at California Plaza, an outdoor performance and dining space with water features, fountains, shaded seating areas and an amphitheater. Japanese Garden and plaza at the Little Tokyo Cultural and Community Center Plaza Japanese Garden at the Kyoto Grand Hotel and Gardens Garden at Bank of America Plaza Several future park proposals for the district make use of public-private partnerships between developers and the city of Los Angeles, including a public park at the proposed Nikkei Center development in Little Tokyo; a park at the Medallion development in the Historic Core; and a pocket park at the Wilshire Grand Hotel replacement project, currently under construction. Additionally, the city recently completed a new park located on the 400 block of South Spring Street in the Historic Core neighborhood. Skyline Despite its relative decentralization and comparatively new high-rises (until 1958, the city did not permit any structures taller than the 27-story City Hall building), Los Angeles has one of the largest skylines in the United States, and its development has continued in recent years. The skyline has seen rapid growth due to improvements in seismic design standards, which has made certain building types highly earthquake-resistant. Many of the new skyscrapers contain a housing or hotel component. Some current and upcoming examples of skyscraper construction include: 705 Ninth Street, a 35-story residential tower, was completed in 2009. 717 Olympic, a 26-story residential tower, was completed in mid-2008. 888 Olive, a 32-story apartment tower by Vancouver-based Omni Group, opened in 2015. Concerto, a 28-story residential tower, was completed in early 2009. A second phase (Tower II) is currently under construction. The Grand Avenue Project, designed by architect Frank Gehry, is a multi-phase project on four parcels and will include a 39-story hotel tower at the corner of First Street and Grand Avenue and a civic park. The project has been delayed due to funding issues but is now back on track and progressing. L.A. Live, a multi-phased dining, entertainment and hotel development that includes a Ritz-Carlton and JW Marriott Hotel hybrid as well as Ritz-Carlton-branded condominiums, was completed in February 2010. Marriott International completed a 24-story Courtyard and Residence Inn tower near L.A. Live, which opened in July 2014, and plans to build a 20+ story Renaissance hotel to open in 2016. Metropolis, a mixed-use four-tower project (60, 50, 38, and 19 stories) at Francisco and Ninth streets, is currently under construction. South, a three-tower complex called Elleven, Luma, and Evo, spans the block from 11th Street and Grand Avenue to 12th Street and Grand Avenue, and was completed in phases ending in early 2009. The Wilshire Grand Tower redevelopment, a 900-room hotel and office project built in 2017, is the tallest tower west of the Mississippi River, at . Figueroa Centre, a 975-foot residential and hotel tower proposed across from The Original Pantry restaurant on the Figueroa Corridor. The tower proposed will become the third tallest building in Los Angeles when completed. Angels Landing, a proposed super tall tower at 1020 ft. Currently in the funding stage. Approved by the city council in 2017. Building height limits: 1904–1957 The first height limit ordinance in Los Angeles was enacted following the completion of the 13-story Continental Building, located at the southeast corner of Fourth and Spring streets. The purpose of the height limit was to limit the density of the city. There was great hostility to skyscrapers in many cities in these years, mainly due to the congestion they could bring to the streets, and height limit ordinances were a common way of dealing with the problem. In 1911, the city passed an updated height limit ordinance, establishing a specific limit of . Exceptions were granted for decorative towers such as those later built on the Eastern Columbia Building and United Artists Theatre, as well as the now-demolished Richfield Tower. The 1911 ordinance was repealed in 1957. The first private building to exceed the old limit was the 18-story United California Bank Building, located at the southeast corner of Sixth and Spring streets. Flat Roof Ordinance The pattern of buildings in Los Angeles to feature these "flat roofs" was the result of a 1974 fire ordinance which required all tall buildings in the city to include rooftop helipads in response to the devastating 1974 Joelma Fire in Sao Paulo, Brazil, in which helicopters were used to effect rescues from the flat rooftop of the building. The Wilshire Grand Center was the first building granted an exception by the Los Angeles City Fire Department in 2014. However, as the building was under construction, L.A. City Council removed the flat roof ordinance as of 2015. Government and infrastructure The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Central Health Center in Downtown Los Angeles. The Southern California Liaison of the California Department of Education has its office in the Ronald Reagan State Building in Downtown Los Angeles. The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, Los Angeles Branch is located in Downtown Los Angeles. Economy DTLA is a node in the tech economy that extends beyond Silicon Beach. A venture capital firm counted 78 tech-oriented firms in DTLA in 2015. This included mobile apps, hardware, digital media and clean-tech companies plus co-working spaces, start-up incubators, and other related businesses. The Arts District has become a popular spot for companies seeking out something different from typical modern offices. The central location is accessible from various parts of the Los Angeles Basin. The cultural life has also made the area attractive to young tech employees. Anschutz Entertainment Group has its corporate headquarters in Downtown Los Angeles. BYD Company, a Chinese technology firm, has its North American headquarters in Downtown Los Angeles. The Last Bookstore is an independent bookstore that was called California’s largest new and used bookstore by Conde Nast Traveler in 2019. Cathay Bank has its headquarters in the Los Angeles Chinatown. Education Downtown residents aged 25 and older holding a four-year degree amounted to 17.9% of the population in 2000, about average in the city and the county, but there was a high percentage of residents with less than a high school diploma. These are the elementary or secondary schools within the neighborhood's boundaries: Ramon C. Cortines School of Visual and Performing Arts, LAUSD high school, 450 N. Grand Ave. Downtown Business High School, LAUSD alternative, 1081 W. Temple St. California Academy for Liberal Studies Early College High School, LAUSD charter, 700 Wilshire Blvd. Alliance Dr. Olga Mohan High School, LAUSD charter, 644 W. 17th St. Abram Friedman Occupational School, LAUSD adult education, 1646 S. Olive St. Metropolitan Continuation School, LAUSD, 727 S. Wilson St. Para Los Ninos Middle School, LAUSD charter, 1617 E. Seventh St. Jardin de la Infancia, LAUSD charter elementary, 307 E. Seventh St. Saint Malachy Catholic Elementary School, private, 1200 E. 81st St. Tri-C Community Day School, LAUSD, 716 E. 14th St. City of Angels School, LAUSD alternative school, 1449 S. San Pedro St. (formerly Central High School) San Pedro Street Elementary School, LAUSD, 1635 S. San Pedro St. Saint Turibius Elementary School, private, 1524 Essex St. American University Preparatory School, private, 345 S. Figueroa St. The Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising is at 800 S. Hope St., and the Colburn School for music and the performing arts is at 200 S. Grand Ave. Emergency services Hospitals Dignity Health-California Hospital Medical Center is located in the South Park district of Downtown LA at 1401 S. Grand Ave. Dignity Health-California Hospital Medical Center is known for its wide range of medical services, from women's health and maternal child to orthopedics and cardiology. The hospital also operates the only Level II Trauma Center in Downtown Los Angeles, and its emergency room treats over 70,000 patients each year. The hospital's neighbors include Staples Center, L.A. Live, Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising and the Fashion District. Fire services The Los Angeles Fire Department operates the following fire stations in Downtown Los Angeles: Station 3 (Civic Center/Bunker Hill) Station 4 (Little Tokyo/Chinatown/Union Station/Olvera Street) Station 9 (Central City/Skid Row) Station 10 (Convention Center area) Police services The Los Angeles Police Department operates the Central Area Community Police Station in Downtown Los Angeles. See also Central Business District, Los Angeles (1880–1899) LAMP Community List of tallest buildings in Los Angeles Los Angeles Downtown News References External links Central City Association of Los Angeles Blogdowntown community site Downtown Los Angeles Art Walk, a California public benefit company Downtown Los Angeles neighborhood guide Downtown Los Angeles crime map and statistics USC Dornslife Downtown Walking Tour Image of Downtown Los Angeles and Glendale Freeway seen from Eagle Rock, California, 1984. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. DowntownLA, Downtown Center Business Improvement District Videos Los Angeles Central Los Angeles Economy of Los Angeles Neighborhoods in Los Angeles

425305

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Monica%20Mountains

Santa Monica Mountains

The Santa Monica Mountains is a coastal mountain range in Southern California, next to the Pacific Ocean. It is part of the Transverse Ranges. The Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area encompasses this mountain range. Because of its proximity to densely populated regions, it is one of the most visited natural areas in California. Geography The range extends approximately east-west from the Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles to Point Mugu in Ventura County. The western mountains, separating the Conejo Valley from Malibu, suddenly end at Mugu Peak as the rugged, nearly impassible shoreline gives way to tidal lagoons and coastal sand dunes of the alluvial Oxnard Plain. The mountain range contributed to the isolation of this vast coastal plain before regular transportation routes reached western Ventura County. The eastern mountains form a barrier between the San Fernando Valley and the Los Angeles Basin, separating "the Valley" on the north and west-central Los Angeles on the south. The Santa Monica Mountains are parallel to the Santa Susana Mountains, which are located directly north of the mountains across the San Fernando Valley. The range is of moderate height, with no particularly craggy or prominent peaks outside the Sandstone Peak and Boney Mountains area. While often rugged and wild, the range hosts a substantial amount of human activity and development. Houses, roads, businesses, and recreational centers are dotted throughout the Santa Monica Mountains. A number of creeks in the Santa Monica Mountains are part of the Los Angeles River watershed. Beginning at the western end of the San Fernando Valley, the river runs to the north of the mountains. After passing between the range and the Verdugo Mountains it flows south around Elysian Park, defining the easternmost extent of the mountains. Archeology The Santa Monica Mountains have more than 1,000 archeology sites of significance, primarily from the Californian Native American cultures of the Tongva and Chumash people. The mountains were part of their regional homelands for over eight thousand years before the arrival of the Spanish. The Spanish mission system had a dramatic impact on their culture, and by 1831 their population had dropped from over 22,000 to under 3,000. Geology Geologists consider the northern Channel Islands to be a westward extension of the Santa Monicas into the Pacific Ocean. The range was created by repeated episodes of uplifting and submergence by the Raymond Fault, which created complex layers of sedimentary rock, some containing fossils of invertebrates and fish. Volcanic intrusions have been exposed, including the poorly named andesitic "Sandstone Peak", which is the highest point in the range at . Malibu Creek, which eroded its own channel while the mountains were slowly uplifted, bisects the mountain range. Climate The Santa Monica Mountains have dry summers with frequent coastal fog on the ocean (south) side of the range and rainy, cooler winters. In the summer, the climate is quite dry (except for the coastal fog), which makes the range prone to wildfires, especially during dry "Santa Ana" wind events. Snow is unusual in the Santa Monica Mountains, since they are not as high as the nearby San Gabriel Mountains. The lower slopes of the range average between of rain per year, while the higher slopes of the central and western Santa Monica Mountains average of rain per year. The bulk of the rain falls between November and March. The higher rainfall in the central and western parts of the range results in more widespread woodlands (with oak, sycamore, walnut, bay laurel, alder and other trees) than the eastern part of the range, where trees are usually restricted to the stream courses. On January 17, 2007, an unusually cold storm brought snow in the Santa Monica Mountains. The hills above Malibu picked up three inches (eight centimeters) of snow - the first measurable snow in fifty years. Snow was reported on Boney Peak in the winter of 2005; and in March 2006, snow also fell on the summit of the mountain. Snow also fell on the peak of Boney Peak in late December 2008. The latest recorded snowfall in the area was in February 2019, when an unusual amount of snowfall accumulated in low passes in the mountains. That storm system also brought rare snowfall to the Los Angeles area. Heavy graupel was recorded in Malibu Canyon on January 23, 2021. It accumulated as low as 400 feet in elevation. Wildfire In the Santa Monica Mountains, when the fuels, seasonal drought, wind, and terrain combine with an ignition, a major wildfire occurs. These fires are large, wind-driven canopy fires that consume the above ground vegetation and often cause major property damage and home losses. In 2018, the Woolsey Fire burned through 88% of the federal parkland resulting in trails being closed for months. The fire, which was three times larger than the biggest fire ever before in the mountains, burned over 40% of the natural area in the Santa Monicas. A restoration plan was developed to plant 100,000 trees, shrubs and grasses of 25 different species. Protected areas Much of the mountains are located within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. Preservation of lands within the region are managed by the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, the National Park Service, the California State Parks, and County and Municipal agencies. The Santa Monica Mountains face pressure from local populations as a desirable residential area, and in the parks as a recreational retreat and wild place that's increasingly rare in urban Los Angeles. In 2014 the California Coastal Commission and the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors approved the Santa Monica Mountains Local Coastal Program, a land-use plan that will distinguish between the private lands that need strict protection and property that could be developed in strict conformance with this detailed plan. Regional parks Over twenty individual state and municipal parks are in the Santa Monica Mountains, including: Topanga State Park, Leo Carrillo State Park, Malibu Creek State Park, Point Mugu State Park, Will Rogers State Historic Park, Point Dume State Beach, Griffith Park, Marvin Braude Mulholland Gateway Park, Charmlee Wilderness Park, Franklin Canyon Park, Runyon Canyon Park, King Gillette Ranch Park, and Paramount Ranch Park. Satwiwa The Satwiwa Native American Indian Culture Center in Newbury Park, California is located within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. The area was purchased by the U.S. National Park Service in 1980. The Rosewood Trail near Stagecoach Inn, which leads to Angel Vista is an access point in Newbury Park. Griffith Park At the eastern end of the Santa Monica Mountains are Griffith Park and Elysian Park. Griffith Park is separated from the rest of the Santa Monica Mountains to the west by the Cahuenga Pass, over which the 101 Freeway (also called the Hollywood Freeway) passes from the San Fernando Valley into Hollywood. Elysian Park is in the easternmost part of the mountains and is bordered by the Los Angeles River to the east and Downtown Los Angeles nearby to the south. Rim of the Valley Trail The Rim of the Valley Trail is a plan in progress for accessing and connecting the parkland and recreational areas of the mountains surrounding the Conejo, San Fernando, Simi, and Crescenta Valleys. With trailheads in the mountains and valleys, it would link them through existing and new: walking, hiking, equestrian, and mountain biking trails; parklands; and conservation easements. The Rim of the Valley project also has the goal to protect flora and fauna habitats and wildlife corridors between the Santa Monica Mountains and the inland ranges. Flora and fauna Fauna The range is host to a variety of wildlife. Common mammals in the range include mule deer, coyotes, bobcats, striped skunks, raccoons, several native bat species, brush rabbits, and many rodents including California voles, western gray squirrels, dusky-footed and desert woodrats, western harvest and California pocket mice, Botta’s pocket gophers, and pacific kangaroo rats. The mountain lions population is challenged because the Santa Monica Mountains are isolated and not big enough for weaned cubs to find their own territory. The primary cause of the decline is due to a combination of traffic-related mortality, anti-coagulants ingested from human poisoned prey, and attacks by other, more dominant mountain lions. The Wallis Annenberg Wildlife Crossing will bridge the Ventura Freeway which acts as a barrier in the wildlife corridor between the Simi Hills to the north and the Santa Monica Mountains to the south. The National Park Service has recorded a dozen mountain lions struck and killed by motorists on this section of freeway since 2002 when they began a study. Mountain lions approach this particular area and turn back without attempting the hazardous crossing of the freeway as shown by GPS tracking collars fitted to them by the researchers. In 2020, wildlife biologists found the first evidence of physical abnormalities in the isolated population. Newcomers would bring new genetic material into the mountains where the lack of genetic diversity is a serious threat to their long-term survival. It would allow young mountain lions, born in the Santa Monicas, a chance to find a new territory before possibly being killed by one of the more dominant, older males. P-22 was a wild mountain lion residing in Griffith Park in the eastern end of the range, until his death in 2022. A three to four year old black bear was captured, examined, and collared in 2023. Designated BB-12, he is probably the only bear in the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area and it is estimated that he has been living there for two years. However, in July 2023, BB-12 was killed while crossing the 101 Freeway. This is not uncommon for animals living in and around the Santa Monica Mountains; a common cause of bobcat and mountain lion fatalities is being struck by vehicles. Over 380 native bird species call the Santa Monica Mountains home. Abundant native song birds species include the Bushtit, California Scrub Jay, House Finch, Lesser Goldfinch, Cliff Swallow, Red-winged Blackbird, Oak Titmouse, Song Sparrow, California Towhee, Spotted Towhee, House Wren, and Black Phoebe. Red-Tailed Hawks, Sharp-shinned Hawks, Red-shouldered Hawks, Northern Harriers, American Kestrels, Great Horned Owls, and Western Screech-Owls are among common raptors in the area. White-tailed kites, Bald Eagles, Golden Eagles, and Burrowing Owls have also been sighted. In addition to these residential species, many bird species pass through the Santa Monica Mountains as they travel along the Pacific Flyway including Brown Pelicans, Rufous Hummingbirds, Canada Geese, Bonaparte’s Gulls, and Elegant Terns. Native fish found in the Santa Monica Mountains include tidewater gobies, arroyo chub, and pacific lamprey. Additionally, Malibu creek is home to the southern steelhead trout, which is an endangered species. Snakes are common but only occasionally seen: the Southern Pacific rattlesnake (the only venomous species), mountain kingsnake, California kingsnake, gopher snake, and garter snake. The mountains are also home to the western fence lizard and the coastal whiptail. The population of red-legged frogs is small and isolated, and was impacted by the Woolsey Fire that swept through the area in November 2018. Flora The Santa Monica Mountains are in the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, and includes the California oak woodland and southern coastal sage scrub plant community, and are covered by hundreds of local plant species, some of which are very rare or endemic, and others which are widespread and have become popular horticultural ornamentals. Dudleya verityi is a rare species of succulent plant known by the common name "Verity's liveforever". This species is endemic to Ventura County and is found only on one edge of the Santa Monica Mountains, where it occurs in coastal sage scrub habitat. The most common trees in the mountains are oak and sycamore. The California black walnut, endemic to California, grows on the northern side of the mountains in the Valley and Griffith Park. Other species include willow and alder (along stream courses) and bay laurel. Several species of ferns (including large sword ferns) are found in wetter, shady areas throughout the range, especially near streams. Invasive species Many invasive weeds have colonized the mountain habitats which can bring about significant changes in the ecosystems by altering the native plant communities and the processes that support them. These non-native plants include annual Mediterranean grasses, Spanish broom (Genista juncea), and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis). In creekside riparian habitats are found plants such as giant cane (Arundo donax), German ivy (Delairea odorata), blue periwinkle (Vinca major), and ivy (Hedera spp.). More frequent fires have created conditions favorable to invasive plants. The 2018 Woolsey Fire burned through 88% of the federal parkland. The fire, which was three times larger than the biggest fire ever before in the mountains, burned over 40% of the natural area in the Santa Monicas. The fire created a challenge to native plants as black mustard with bright yellow flowers quickly established itself as a wet winter followed the fire. The mustard plants will also provide fuel for the next fires. The New Zealand mud snail is an invasive species found in the Santa Monica Mountains, that pose a serious threat to native species, complicating efforts to improve stream-water quality for the endangered steelhead. Within a period of four years, the snails expanded from their first known population in Medea Creek in Agoura Hills to nearly 30 other stream sites. Researchers at the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission believe the snails' expansion may have been expedited after the mollusks traveled from stream to stream on the gear of contractors and volunteers. Roads and access Cahuenga Pass, present-day site of U.S. Route 101, is the easiest pass through the range connecting the Los Angeles Basin to the San Fernando Valley. In the 1800s, two battles were fought there, and the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed nearby. In Hollywood's heyday, movie studios were found clustered on both sides of the highway. Sepulveda Pass is the main north–south pass to the west, connecting the Westside to Sherman Oaks via the San Diego Freeway (I-405) and Sepulveda Boulevard. Minor passes between the Sepulveda and Cahuenga passes include: Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Coldwater Canyon Avenue, and Beverly Glen Boulevard. Further west of the Sepulveda Pass are Topanga Canyon Boulevard (SR 27), Malibu Canyon Road and Kanan Dume Road. Mulholland Drive runs much of the length of the Santa Monica Mountains, from Cahuenga Pass to Woodland Hills, although it is not open to motor vehicles west of Encino. The Mulholland Highway runs from Woodland Hills to Sequit Point at the Pacific Ocean. Area communities The eastern end of the range, located in the City of Los Angeles, is more intensively developed than the western end. The city of Malibu runs between the coast and the leading mountain ridge, from Topanga Canyon in the east to Leo Carrillo State Park in the west. Communities along the north slope of the mountains include (from east to west): the Los Angeles communities of: the unincorporated area of Universal City Studio City Sherman Oaks Encino Tarzana Woodland Hills West Hills Calabasas Bell Canyon Agoura Hills Westlake Village Thousand Oaks Newbury Park Communities along the south slope of the mountains include (from east to west): the Los Angeles communities of: Los Feliz Hollywood Hills Bel-Air Benedict Canyon Brentwood Pacific Palisades Beverly Hills Santa Monica the unincorporated community of Topanga Malibu Solromar Named peaks Adjacent ranges Chalk Hills (in Woodland Hills) San Gabriel Mountains Santa Susana Mountains Simi Hills Verdugo Mountains See also 1978 Agoura-Malibu firestorm Canyon Fire, in October 2007 Chumash people Mulholland Highway Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area Parks in the Santa Monica Mountains Index: Natural history of the Santa Monica Mountains References External links (Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area) Wildflowers of the Santa Monica Mountains Outdoor LA Hiking Trails Trails and trailheads with maps and directions. Ventura County Trails in SMMNRA Maps and trails descriptions. Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy Santa Monica Mountains Mountain Bike Trailmap Santa Monica Mountains Institute Santa Monica Mountains Local Coastal Program Los Angeles County Department of Regional Planning Mountain ranges of Southern California Transverse Ranges Mountain ranges of Los Angeles County, California Mountain ranges of Ventura County, California Geography of the San Fernando Valley Malibu, California Archaeological sites in California

425329

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algiers%20Motel%20incident

Algiers Motel incident

The Algiers Motel incident (also called the Algiers Motel Murders) occurred in Detroit, Michigan, United States, throughout the night of July 25–26, 1967, during the racially charged 12th Street Riot. At the Algiers Motel, approximately one mile east of where the riot began, three civilians were killed and nine others abused by a riot task force composed of the Detroit Police Department, the Michigan State Police, and the Michigan Army National Guard. Among the casualties were three black teenage boys killed, and two white women and seven black men wounded as a result. The task force was searching the area after reports were received that a gunman or group of gunmen, possibly snipers, had been seen at or near the motel. One death has never been explained as the body was allegedly found by responding officers. Two deaths have been attributed to "justifiable homicide" or "self-defense". Charges of felonious assault, conspiracy, murder, and conspiracy to commit civil rights abuse were filed against three officers. Charges of assault and conspiracy were also filed on a private security guard. All were found not guilty. Background Riot The 12th Street Riot began in the early morning hours of Sunday, July 23, 1967. The Detroit Police Department at the time was 93% white, of whom 45% working in black neighborhoods were considered to be "extremely anti-Negro" and an additional 34% were "prejudiced". The riot began after police raided a black-owned business that hosted a "blind pig" (illegal bar), during a party to celebrate the safe return of two black Vietnam War veterans. Police had expected a small number of patrons; however, there were 85 or more patrons inside. As the dozens of partygoers were being loaded into police vans, a mob of people formed around the scene. One of the sons of the blind pig's owner jumped on the roof of a car and threw a bottle at the police, and the mob followed suit. In the ensuing violence, numerous businesses were looted or burnt down as the riot spread to other districts of Detroit. At first, police officers were ordered to hold back from responding to the rioting, to prevent an escalation in violence. A curfew was imposed and many people in Detroit stayed home or took shelter. Detroit Fire Department (DFD) personnel were held back from the fires by looters throwing objects at them or by snipers. Michigan Army National Guardsmen were activated by the Michigan government and were patrolling the streets and guarding several large businesses. Michigan State Troopers and United States Army paratroopers were also deployed to patrol the streets. Algiers Motel The Algiers Motel at 8301 Woodward Avenue near the Virginia Park district was a black-owned business, owned by Sam Gant and McUrant Pye. It was one of three motels in Detroit owned by Gant and Pye, the others being the Alamo, at Alfred and Woodward, and the Rio Grande, on West Grand near Grand River. Prior to Gant and Pye's purchase in 1965, the motel's white owner had barred black people from staying at the motel. The Algiers was considered by the police to be a center of illegal drugs and prostitution and was raided regularly by the vice squad. It was located close to the then-headquarters of General Motors (GM) and executives of the firm were regular customers. To the rear of the motel, a three-story detached home, known as the Manor House or Annex, was also rented to clients. Its street address was 50 Virginia Park Street, and it was accessible from Virginia Park and through a driveway from Woodward. The motel itself was laid out in the shape of a "U", with its office, pool and cabana rooms to the left and a two-story wing of rooms to the right around its parking lot. The Manor House could be seen from Woodward Avenue. Motel guests After the riot started, the Dramatics singing group left a concert on Saturday, July 22 and they all checked in at the Algiers. Three of the members—Ron Banks, Larry Demps and Michael Calhoun—left before the 25th, leaving Roderick Davis, Larry Reed and the band's valet Fred Temple at the motel. On the evening of July 25, the Motel Annex was occupied by several people who had taken refuge from the rioting: Michael Clark, 21, black male, a survivor Carl Cooper, 17, black male, killed by gunshot Roderick Davis, 21, black male, member of The Dramatics, a survivor Lee Forsythe, 20, black male, a survivor Robert Lee Greene, 26, black male, Vietnam War veteran, a survivor Juli Ann Hysell, 18, white female, a survivor Karen Malloy, 18, white female, a survivor Charles Moore, early 40s, black male, a survivor Auburey Pollard, 19, black male, killed by gunshot Larry Reed, 19, black male, singer and member of The Dramatics, a survivor James Sortor, 18, black male, a survivor Fred Temple, 18, black male, valet to The Dramatics, killed by gunshot Incident Shooting of the motel On July 25, 1967, police and National Guardsmen were protecting the Great Lakes Mutual Life Insurance building one block north. Security guard Melvin Dismukes was guarding a store across the street from the Algiers. After midnight, shots were heard and Guardsman Ted Thomas reported gunfire in the vicinity of the Algiers Motel. A large contingent of Detroit police officers, State Troopers, and Guardsmen were ordered to investigate. They observed people in the windows of the Algiers' annex building, and consequently shot out those windows and stormed the building through its three entrances. According to testimony, three of the black youths—Cooper, Clark, and Forsythe—and the two white women, Hysell and Malloy, were listening to music in a third-floor room of the annex. Cooper pulled out a starter pistol and shot blanks in the air, drawing return fire from the various authorities outside. Alarmed and frightened, the occupants fled to other rooms as law enforcement personnel rushed into the annex. Death of Carl Cooper Carl Cooper was the first youth shot to death in the incident. Cooper had been in a third-floor room but his dead body was found in a first-floor room, A-2. He was killed by law enforcement personnel when they first entered the building: according to later testimony, he may have been mistaken for an armed rioter. Alternatively, several law enforcement witnesses later testified that Cooper was already dead when they entered the building. The shooting was never fully explained and no one was ever arrested for Cooper's death. His injuries were consistent with buckshot wounds from the type of shotguns the Detroit Police Department used. In their testimony about the entering of the annex, Guardsmen, State Troopers and Detroit police officers each testified they were not the first to enter, stating that Cooper was already dead when they arrived, leaving responsibility for the death unexplained. In the federal conspiracy trial, the defense would attempt to show that Cooper was killed by occupants of the motel before the police arrived but this was denied by those occupants. They testified that at least one policeman shot into the rooms first and checked for persons later. Abuse of motel guests The occupants of the motel annex were rounded up in the first-floor hallway and lined up against the wall. The various officers present hit each of the persons in turn, threatening to kill them unless they told the officers who had the gun and was sniping from the motel. Two 18-year-old women, Juli Hysell and Karen Malloy, were both forcibly stripped naked and harangued as "nigger lovers". Several of the men were shown a knife on the floor and told to pick it up, so they could be killed in "self-defense". In turn, each of the black youths in line were taken into rooms and intimidated with threats or gunshots and told to stay still and quiet or be killed. The policeman who had escorted the occupant then returned to the hallway, making some comment about the death of the individual. First, per conflicting reports, an officer took one of the youths into a room and fired a shot into the wall, to make the prisoners believe he was dead in a simulated execution. He then asked Guardsman Ted Thomas if he wanted to kill one. Thomas then took an occupant into a room and shot into the ceiling. Auburey Pollard was then taken to room A-3 by Officer Ronald August. August would later admit to Pollard's killing, stating it was in self-defense. A spent cartridge found next to Pollard was a .300 Savage, a type used for sporting rifles and not issued to police officers. Pollard had extensive injuries to his head. Witnesses described how he had been beaten on the head with a rifle, with force enough to break the rifle. The remaining occupants then admitted that Cooper had a starter pistol and had used it earlier. The sound of gunshots was then heard outside the motel and the police officers left. Two remaining officers escorted the remaining prisoners out of the motel annex and told them to run home or they would be killed too. The death of the third youth, Fred Temple, occurred at that time or later. Several of the prisoners who were allowed to leave recalled Temple still being alive when they left the motel. Temple's body was later found in room A-3. He had been shot by Officer Robert Paille, who later testified it was in self-defense during a struggle over his gun. Aftermath Discovery of corpses The officers did not report the deaths to the Detroit Police Homicide Bureau as required. The next day, on July 26, 1967, Charles Hendrix, whose security firm provided security for the Algiers, found the bodies in the annex and reported the deaths to the Wayne County Morgue, which then called the Detroit Police Homicide Bureau. Detectives Edward Hay, Lyle Thayer, a photographer and several patrolmen arrived around 3 a.m. The scene was examined and the bodies removed. A knife was found next to the body in A-2, but no gun was found and the cartridges and shell casings were left. The investigator's activities, including the flashes from the camera and the presence of police on the roof of the building, were noticed by Guardsmen stationed nearby and they shouted a challenge to identify themselves. The detectives left the scene to return at a later time, feeling it was not safe to stay on scene that night. Press reports The deaths were reported to the press as having happened in an exchange of gunfire with snipers. However, the Detroit Free Press interviewed the witnesses of the events, who all claimed to have been unarmed and that the dead men were not snipers. The deaths were reported to Congressman John Conyers and the NAACP and motel witnesses appeared in a press conference held by Conyers on the conduct of the military and police. The US Department of Justice began an investigation under assistant District Attorney Robert Murphy, who interviewed witnesses. The witnesses' accounts were delivered to Detroit prosecutors on July 29. The Free Press investigated the story and retained a pathologist, Dr. Robert Sillery, to examine the bodies. His conclusions were that all three had been killed inside the home and all had been shot twice, shot from slightly behind and at close range, and in defensive postures. Five days after the incident, The Detroit News reported the story of one of the survivors, Robert Lee Greene, stating that one of the National Guard warrant officers murdered the men. Charge of Melvin Dismukes Security guard Melvin Dismukes, who was black, was the first to be charged. He was arraigned for the felonious assault of James Sortor and Michael Clark in the first-floor hallway of the annex. He was freed on $1,500 bail. Dismukes's trial took place in May 1968. He was found not guilty of the charge of felonious assault. The all-white jury returned the verdict in 13 minutes. Investigations Officer Ronald August, Officer Robert Paille, and Officer David Senak, confessed to taking part in the killings of Pollard and Temple and were charged with murder. Each spent one night in jail and was released on $5,000 bail. August had given a statement to detectives that the three were dead when he arrived, but asked for that statement back and submitted a second statement asserting he had shot Pollard in self-defense. At the pretrial examination, Guard Warrant Officer Ted Thomas identified August as the shooter of Pollard and 23-year-old Vice Patrolman David Senak as the officer who did the questioning and beating. Senak had allegedly taken part in the killing of two men earlier in the riot before arriving at the Algiers Motel. Paille's initial confession was ruled inadmissible and August claimed self-defense. Senak appeared as a witness and testified that he had not seen August or Paille fire their weapons. One of the motel survivors, Michael Clark, gave conflicting evidence that August and Paille had taken him into a room and threatened him when Hersey falsely wrote Senak and Thomas had actually done so. Judge DeMascio ruled that August could be indicted for the murder of Pollard, but charges against Paille for the murder of Temple were dropped. Protest tribunal The Citywide Citizens' Action Committee, organized by Dan Aldridge, was formed by a coalition of Detroit black leaders. They held a tribunal of their own, convicting August, Paille, Dismukes and Thomas for their roles in the murders and sentencing them to death. The jury included novelist John Killens and activist Rosa Parks. Without revealing himself, Dismukes attended the tribunal. Arrest of Robert Paille and David Senak On August 23, Ronald August, Robert Paille and David Senak were arrested for conspiracy under Michigan law. The conspiracy trial began on September 27 in Recorder's Court. The trial was three days in length. Judge Frank Schemanske dismissed the conspiracy charges in December. Schemanske concluded that while there was "unfortunate violence" at the motel, it was "scarcely surprising" but also "overzealous". He also stated that "[the witnesses] in their calculated prevarication to the point of perjury was so blatant as to defeat its object." The decision was appealed to the Michigan Supreme Court but that was later dismissed. Trial of Robert Paille The dismissal of the murder charge against Paille by Judge DeMascio during the pre-trial was appealed by Prosecutor William L. Cahalan. Recorder's Court Judge Geraldine Ford ordered the case back to Judge DeMascio for further testimony. Paille's attorney Norman Lippitt then appealed to the Michigan Court of Appeals, which chose not to hear the case. Lippitt then appealed to the Michigan Supreme Court. In 1970, the Supreme Court ruled that the Wayne County Court of Appeals should determine whether the case could be reopened. In 1971, the Wayne County Court ordered the Recorder's Court to take additional testimony. The final appeal would be heard in February 1972. Judge George Ryan of Detroit Recorder's Court would dismiss the murder charge in August 1972, stating that Paille's confession was inadmissible because he had not been advised of his Constitutional rights as per the 1966 Miranda Warning law. He cited the testimony of Detroit detective Charles Schlacter, who stated that he "viewed both August and Paille" as suspects when he took the statements. Schlacter stated that if he had informed them of their rights, they would not have confessed. In Ryan's judgment, the law meant that persons must be advised of their right to remain silent in what was an "atmosphere of coercion." Trial of Ronald August The first-degree murder trial of Ronald August was held in May and June 1969 in Mason, Michigan. It had been moved from Detroit to escape publicity, partly because of a 1968 book on the incident. In opening statements, defense attorney Norman Lippitt described Pollard as "an antisocial personality" and "potential killer" and the killing by August as "justifiable homicide" while prosecutor Avery Weiswasser described the killing as "murder with malice aforethought and with full premeditation." August admitted killing Pollard, describing it as "justifiable homicide" because Pollard had attempted to grab his shotgun. According to Detroit Free Press reporter Walker Lundy, there were as many descriptions of the shooting as there were witnesses. Two State's witnesses, Greene and Hysell, who had been at the motel, failed to appear to testify. Guardsman Thomas took one of the youths into a room and fired a shot into the ceiling. Senak then gave August a shotgun and told August to "shoot one". Thomas stated that he heard no sounds of struggle or words between August and Pollard before he saw "a flash of clothing, heard a shotgun blast and saw Pollard's body fall". Thomas then told an officer either "this was police business" or "this was bad business" and "he was leaving". According to Thomas, August said no words throughout the incident. Karen Malloy, one of the two women in the motel, testified that she saw Cooper shoot a starter's pistol at another black youth in a room on the third floor of the motel. The police then shot out the window of the room and the occupants fled. She ran to the room of Robert Greene and hid there until a police officer with a rifle arrived. The officer fired into the closet and a bathroom. Then, he asked if there was anyone in either place. They were all herded into the first floor hallway, where she said several of the black youths were beaten and taken individually into motel rooms. She testified she was not beaten but she had been forcibly stripped naked. She testified that she could not identify August as one of the officers and that she had not seen any of the killings. State Troopers Philip Martin, John Fonger and Archie Davies testified at the trial. All testified to the lineup and beatings going on and officers taking individuals from the line into motel rooms and shooting their guns in a "game" to frighten the prisoners. Davies and Fonger testified that they heard shots and then a man in blue shirt and riot helmet leave room A-3, ejecting empty shells from a revolver, stating "that one tried for my gun" and "the room is secure". Martin testified that he saw no resistance, no sniper weapons and no arrests made while at the motel. After Fonger reported the events to his supervisor, the supervisor stated that it was "in the hands of the Detroit Police and he didn't like what was going on" and the Troopers left. On June 3, August testified in his own defense. He stated that he saw the bodies of Cooper and Temple when he entered the building, and saw a lineup against the wall. He testified that, when asked by Senak, he took Pollard into room A-3 and closed the door. There, Pollard asked if he was going to shoot him. August said he would not and he had never shot anyone. He asked Pollard if he knew anything about a sniper and Pollard said he did not. August testified that Pollard then pushed August's shotgun away and then grabbed the gun. August stated then he tried to fire the gun, but the safety was on. Pollard then came at him and he fired, killing Pollard. He testified: "I thought he was going to take the gun away from me. He scared me." August testified that he did not file a report immediately after the shooting, as required, on the advice of either Paille or Senak. When August arrived at the station the next day, he found out that no one else had filed a report. Paille was the only one with a radio and was supposed to have called for an ambulance and squad car. He testified that he, Senak and Paille filed a joint report. Two days later, they were summoned to the station to file individual statements. August admitted lying in his statement to his supervisor, then asking for the statement back to change it, to admit he had taken part in the shootings and had done so in self-defense. The trial concluded on June 9 with summations by prosecutor Avery Weisswasser and defense attorney Norman Lippitt. Judge William Beer instructed the all-white jury to either convict August of first-degree murder or acquit him. They could not return a verdict of the lesser charges of second-degree murder or manslaughter, as both the defense and the prosecution had requested. According to the Free Press, legal sources described Beer's instructions to the jury as a direction to find an acquittal on the other possible options. Beer's instructions to the jury were criticized by black leaders as "having all but guaranteed an acquittal" for August. After deliberating for 2 ½ hours, the jury found August not guilty. Federal conspiracy trial The earlier Schemanske decision incensed Kenneth McIntyre, the assistant U.S. District Attorney and he pushed to reopen a federal investigation of the killings. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) investigated the case. J. Edgar Hoover personally reviewed the policemen's statements, and described them as "for the most part untrue and were undoubtedly furnished in an attempt to cover their activities and the true series of events." On May 3, 1968, a federal grand jury indicted Melvin Dismukes, Ronald August, Robert Paille and David Senak on a charge of conspiring to deny civil rights to the motel occupants. An indictment was not pursued against Thomas because the government wanted his testimony against the others. The federal conspiracy trial was delayed, both by the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy, but also the publication of a book by John Hersey, The Algiers Motel Incident. U.S. Judge Stephen Roth was assigned the case. The defense asked for a change of venue. Roth closed the hearings to the press and waited a full year until September 1969 before ruling on the change of venue, ordering the trial to be moved to his hometown of Flint, Michigan. In January and February 1970, the federal conspiracy trial was held in Flint, Michigan. It, like the August murder trial, had been moved from Detroit partially because of the publication of The Algiers Motel Incident. It meant it was nearly impossible to get any black persons on the jury. Defense lawyer Lippitt represented the policemen and admitted later that he felt the book publishing had helped his case as he felt that no black person in Detroit would be impartial. "I wouldn't want a black man on the jury. I was hoping for all the prejudice I could get." The other woman held prisoner at the motel, Juli Hysell, testified at the trial. She testified about the starter pistol incident and the lineup in the hallway, but could not identify any of the defendants as being present at the motel. James Sortor, another of the black youths held at the motel, did identify the defendants August, Paille and Dismukes as being present at the motel, but he testified that he had not heard any shooting inside the motel. He stated that he "was beaten so many times he lost count." Roderick Davis testified that he had heard the shots and the sounds of people running on the stairs. Both Hysell and Sortor testified that Cooper was still alive when the police arrived. Senak's lawyer stated that Temple was shot while being handcuffed after Temple grabbed Senak's service revolver. State Trooper Hubert Rosema testified that he heard scuffling noises and gunshots coming from the room. Senak was overheard to yell "He's got my gun" multiple times. He testified that afterwards, he went into the room and saw Temple still breathing, lying against the bed. No aid was called for Temple as far as he knew. Several witnesses were called to support the charge of a cover-up by August, Paille and Senak to save face. Police Lieutenant Robert Boroni testified about the contents of the July 29 first report the three policemen filed stating that they entered the motel, saw the lineup, saw that the prisoners were already wounded and left. August's July 31 statement stated that he did not fire his gun inside the motel, and he saw no Guardsmen on the premises. Detroit homicide detective Robert Everett testified that August filed a separate statement two hours later that he had shot Pollard in self-defense and that Paille admitted shooting Temple. Police Lieutenant Gerald Hallmark provided a statement that later that day August and Paille asked to revise their statements. According to Hallmark, August said "the media have the events all wrong and that he did what he had to do." After deliberating for nine hours, an all-white jury found the four not guilty of conspiracy. In a review of the trial, the Detroit Free Press felt that prosecutors Avery Weiswasser and McIntyre were "outpointed by Lippitt." John Hersey book In 1968, writer John Hersey wrote a book about the incident. Hersey interviewed survivors, members of the victims' families and some of the law enforcement personnel who participated in the raid and also consulted forensic reports, in identifying the law enforcement personnel involved in the killings. The proceeds from royalties from the book (over 550,000 copies were printed) were turned over to a college scholarship fund for African American students by Knopf. Hersey stated in the book that he "will not take any money from any source for the publication of this story". Legacy Lives of police officers The Detroit Police Department rehired Ronald August and David Senak in 1971, after firing them in the aftermath of the Algiers Motel killings. The DPD refused to rehire Robert Paille, citing the false statements he made in his initial incident report. Paille took other jobs including crane operator, construction worker, carpenter and insurance agent. Senak opened a construction business. Dismukes became a security guard for the Detroit Pistons. He received death threats from the Black Panthers. August resigned from the Detroit Police in July 1977. He became a building tradesman. August, Paille and Senak all moved out of Detroit. Lippitt later became an Oakland County Circuit Judge in 1985, then returned to private practice in 1987 in Birmingham, Michigan. Lippitt died on July 26, 2021. Algiers Motel In 1968, Cahalan filed suit to close down the Algiers Motel but was unsuccessful. It re-opened as "The Desert Inn". The motel and manor house were demolished in 1979. This was done as part of the "New Center" urban renewal project sponsored in part by General Motors. The Motel was located at 8301 Woodward Avenue, between Woodward and Virginia Park in the geographic center of Detroit. The site where the motel and the manor house stood is now an open greenspace known as Virginia Park. Lawsuits Both the Pollard family and the Temple family filed lawsuits against the Detroit Police officers. Settlements were reached in each case. In 1976, the City of Detroit paid each family $62,500 ($ today) to settle. Life of Larry Reed Larry Reed left The Dramatics after the incident, and today sings in church choirs. In popular culture In 2013, Mercilee Jenkins' play Spirit of Detroit was performed at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History. The play is centered on the stories of Anthony, a black man, and Lucy, a white woman who were friends in childhood and reunited during the 1967 riot, at the Algiers Motel hiding out from the violence. In 2017, Annapurna Pictures released Detroit, a feature film dramatization of the 12th Street Riot and the Algiers Motel incident, directed by Kathryn Bigelow. Hysell acted as a special advisor on the film and was present every day on the set. The movie soundtrack includes a singing performance by Algee Smith of Larry Reed's song "Grow". See also List of homicides in Michigan References Notes External links 1967 in Detroit 1967 crimes in the United States 1967 in Michigan 1968 books African-American history in Detroit Algiers Motel Incident, The Riots and civil disorder in Detroit July 1967 events in the United States Police brutality in the United States Motels in the United States Anti-black racism in Michigan

425334

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon%20de%2075%20mod%C3%A8le%201897

Canon de 75 modèle 1897

The French 75 mm field gun is a quick-firing field artillery piece adopted in March 1898. Its official French designation was: Matériel de 75 mm Mle 1897. It was commonly known as the French 75, simply the 75 and Soixante-Quinze (French for "seventy-five"). The French 75 was designed as an anti-personnel weapon system for delivering large volumes of time-fused shrapnel shells on enemy troops advancing in the open. After 1915 and the onset of trench warfare, impact-detonated high-explosive shells prevailed. By 1918 the 75s became the main agents of delivery for toxic gas shells. The 75s also became widely used as truck mounted anti-aircraft artillery. They were the main armament of the Saint-Chamond tank in 1918. The French 75 is widely regarded as the first modern artillery piece. It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence. Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could reload and fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position. In typical use the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about away. Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew. At the opening of World War I, in 1914, the French Army had about 4,000 of these field guns in service. By the end of the war about 12,000 had been produced. It was also in service with the American Expeditionary Forces, which had been supplied with about 2,000 French 75 field guns. Several thousand were still in use in the French Army at the opening of World War II, updated with new wheels and tires to allow towing by trucks rather than by horses. The French 75 set the pattern for almost all early-20th century field pieces, with guns of mostly 75 mm forming the basis of many field artillery units into the early stages of World War II. Development The forerunner of the French 75 was an experimental 57 mm gun which was first assembled in September 1891 at the Bourges arsenal under the direction of Captain Sainte-Claire Deville. This 57 mm gun took advantage of a number of the most advanced artillery technologies available at the time: Vieille's smokeless powder, which was introduced in 1884. Self-contained ammunition, with the powder charge in a brass case which also held the shell. An early hydro-pneumatic short recoil mechanism that was designed by Major Louis Baquet. A rotating screw breech built under license from Thorsten Nordenfelt. The only major design difference between the 57 and 75 that would emerge was the recoil system. But even before the 57 entered testing, in 1890 General Mathieu, Director of Artillery at the Ministry of War, had been informed that Konrad Haussner, a German engineer working at the Ingolstadt arsenal, had patented an oil-and-compressed-air long-recoil system. They also learned that Krupp was considering introducing the system after testing it. Krupp would later reject Haussner's invention, due to insoluble technical problems caused by hydraulic fluid leakage. In 1891 Haussner sold his patents to a firm named Gruson, which searched for potential buyers. After reviewing the blueprints in February 1892, the French artillery engineers advised that a gun should be produced without purchasing the Haussner invention. Accordingly, General Mathieu turned to Lt. Colonel Joseph-Albert Deport, at the time the Director of the Atelier de Construction de Puteaux (APX), and asked him whether he could construct a gun on the general principle of the Haussner long-cylinder recoil without infringing the existing patents. After it was judged possible, a formal request was sent out on 13 July 1892. It took five more years under the overall leadership of Mathieu's successor, General Deloye, to perfect and finally adopt in March 1898 an improved and final version of the Deport 75 mm long-recoil field gun. Various deceptions, some of them linked to the Dreyfus Case which erupted in 1894, had been implemented by Deloye and French counter-intelligence to distract German espionage. The final experimental version of Deport's 75 mm field gun was tested during the summer of 1894 and judged very promising. Extensive trials, however, revealed that it was still prone to hydraulic fluid leakage from the long-recoil mechanism. The Deport 75 was returned to Puteaux arsenal for further improvements. Hydraulic fluid leakage was typical of this experimental phase of artillery development during the 1890s, as Haussner and Krupp had previously experienced. In December 1894, Deport was passed over for promotion, and resigned to join "Chatillon-Commentry", a private armaments firm. Two young military engineers from Ecole Polytechnique, Captains Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville and Emile Rimailho, continued development and introduced an improved version in 1896. Their contribution was a leakproof hydro-pneumatic long-recoil mechanism which they named "Frein II" (Brake # II). A major improvement was the placement of improved silver-alloy rings on the freely moving piston which separated the compressed air and the hydraulic fluid inside the main hydro-pneumatic recoil cylinder. These and other modifications achieved the desired result: the long-term retention of hydraulic fluid and compressed air inside the recoil system, even under the worst field conditions. Captain Sainte-Claire Deville also designed important additional features, such as a device for piercing the fuzes of shrapnel shells automatically during the firing sequence (an "automatic fuze-setter"), thus selecting the desired bursting distance. The independent sight had also been perfected for easy field use by the crews, and a nickel-steel shield was added to protect the gunners. The armored caissons were designed to be tilted in order to present the shells horizontally to the crews. The wheel brakes could be swung under each wheel ("abattage"), and, together with the trail spade, they immobilized the gun during firing. The gun was officially adopted on 28 March 1898 under the name "Matériel de 75 mm Mle 1897". The public saw it for the first time during the Bastille Day parade of 14 July 1899. Hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism The gun's barrel slid back on rollers, including a set at the muzzle, when the shot was fired. The barrel was attached near the breech to a piston rod extending into an oil-filled cylinder placed just underneath the gun. When the barrel recoiled, the piston was pulled back by the barrel's recoil and thus pushed the oil through a small orifice and into a second cylinder placed underneath. That second cylinder contained a freely floating piston which separated the surging oil from a confined volume of compressed air. During the barrel's recoil the floating piston was forced forward by the oil, compressing the air even further. This action absorbed the recoil progressively as the internal air pressure rose and, at the end of recoil, generated a strong but decreasing back pressure that returned the gun forward to its original position. The smoothness of this system had no equal in 1897, and for at least another ten years. Each recoil cycle on the French 75, including the return forward, lasted about two seconds, permitting a maximum theoretical firing rate of about 30 rounds per minute. Ammunition At the beginning in 1914, the French 75 fired two main types of shells, both with high muzzle velocities (535 m/s for the shrapnel shell) and a maximum range of 8,500 meters. Their relatively flat trajectories extended all the way to the designated targets. French 75 shells, at least initially in 1914, were essentially anti-personnel. They had been designed for the specific purpose of inflicting maximum casualties on enemy troops stationing or advancing in the open. A impact-detonated, thin-walled steel, high-explosive (HE) shell with a time-delay fuze. It was filled with picric acid, known in France as "Melinite", used since 1888. The delay lasted five hundredths of a second, designed to detonate the shell in the air and at a man's height after bouncing forward off the ground. These shells were particularly destructive to men's lungs when exploding in their proximity. A time-fused shrapnel shell containing 290 lead balls. The balls shot forward when the fuse's timer reached zero, ideally bursting high above the ground and enemy troops. During 1914 and 1915, the shrapnel shell was the dominant type of ammunition found in the French 75 batteries. However, by 1918, high-explosive shells had become virtually the sole type of 75 mm ammunition remaining in service. Furthermore, several new shells and fuses were introduced due to the demands of trench warfare. A boat-tailed shell (with a superior ballistic coefficient) which could reach was also used during the latter part of the war. Every shell, whether it be a high-explosive or shrapnel shell, was fixed to a brass case which was ejected when the breech was manually opened. Semi-automatic breech opening and shell ejection during recoil and return had not been developed yet. Rapid fire capability The French 75 introduced a new concept in artillery technology: rapid firing without realigning the gun after each shot. Older artillery had to be resighted after each shot in order to stay on target, and thus fired no more than two aimed shots per minute. The French 75 easily delivered fifteen aimed rounds per minute and could fire even faster for short periods of time, but the long-term sustained rate was 3-4 rounds per minute as more than this would overheat the barrel. This rate of fire, the gun's accuracy, and the lethality of the ammunition against personnel, made the French 75 superior to all other regimental field artillery at the time. When made ready for action, the first shot buried the trail spade and the two wheel anchors into the ground, following which all other shots were fired from a stable platform. Bringing down the wheel anchors tied to the braking system was called "abattage". The gun could not be elevated beyond eighteen degrees, unless the trail spade had been deeply dug into the ground; however, the 75 mm field gun was not designed for plunging fire. The gun could be traversed laterally 3 degrees to the sides by sliding the trail on the wheel's axle. Progressive traversing together with small changes in elevation could be carried out while continuously firing, called "fauchage" or "sweeping fire". A four-gun battery firing shrapnel could deliver 17,000 ball projectiles over an area 100 meters wide by 400 meters long in a single minute, with devastating results. Because of the gun's traversing ability, the greater the distance to the enemy concentration, the wider the area that could be swept. World War I service Each Mle 1897 75 mm field gun battery of 4 guns consisted of 170 men led by four officers recruited among graduates of engineering schools. Enlisted men from the countryside were given charge of the six horses that pulled each gun and its first limber. Another six horses pulled each additional limber and caisson which were assigned to each gun. A battery included 160 horses, most of them pulling ammunition as well as repair and supply caissons. The French artillery entered the war in August 1914 with more than 4,000 Mle 1897 75 mm field guns (1,000 batteries of four guns each). Over 17,500 Mle 1897 75 mm field guns were produced during World War I, over and above the 4,100 French 75s which were already deployed by the French Army in August 1914. All the essential parts, including the gun's barrel and the oleo-pneumatic recoil mechanisms were manufactured by French State arsenals: Puteaux, Bourges, Châtellerault and St Etienne. A truck-mounted anti-aircraft version of the French 75 was assembled by the automobile firm of De Dion-Bouton and adopted in 1913. The total production of 75 mm shells during World War I exceeded 200 million rounds, mostly by private industry. In order to increase shell production from 20,000 rounds per day to 100,000 in 1915, the government turned to civilian contractors, and, as a result, shell quality deteriorated. This led to an epidemic of burst barrels which afflicted 75 mm artillery during 1915. Colonel Sainte-Claire Deville corrected the problem, which was due to microfissures in the bases of the shells, due to shortcuts in manufacturing. Shell quality was restored by September 1915, but never to the full exacting standards of pre-war manufacture. The French 75 gave its best performances during the Battle of the Marne in August–September 1914 and at Verdun in 1916. At the time the contribution of 75 mm artillery to these military successes, and thus to the French victories that ensued, was seen as significant. In the case of Verdun, over 1,000 French 75s (250 batteries) were constantly in action, night and day, on the battlefield during a period of nearly nine months. The total consumption of 75 mm shells at Verdun during the period February 21 to September 30, 1916, is documented by the public record at the Service Historique de l'Armée de Terre to have been in excess of 16 million rounds, or nearly 70% of all shells fired by French artillery during that battle. The French 75 was a devastating anti-personnel weapon against waves of infantry attacking in the open, as at the Marne and Verdun. However, its shells were comparatively light and lacked the power to obliterate trench works, concrete bunkers and deeply buried shelters. Thus, with time, the French 75 batteries became routinely used to cut corridors with high-explosive shells, across the belts of German barbed wire. After 1916, the 75 batteries became the carriers of choice to deliver toxic gas shells, including mustard gas and phosgene. The French Army had to wait until early 1917 to receive in numbers fast-firing heavy artillery equipped with hydraulic recoil brakes (e.g. the 155 mm Schneider howitzer and the long-range Canon de 155 mm GPF). In the meantime it had to do with a total of about four thousand de Bange 90 mm, 120 mm and 155 mm field and converted fortress guns, all without recoil brakes, that were effective but inferior in rate of fire to the more modern German heavy artillery. Interwar service During the interwar, the French army kept the Mle 1897 in service and it continued to be the main gun of the French field artillery. The surplus guns were soon sold to allied countries. Upgrades were considered in the 1920s, such as the use of a split trail carriages. The prototypes were satisfactory but the French Army decided not to fund the improvements, choosing instead to develop a new model. That new plan was abandoned after the 1920s budget cuts. However, a few Mle 1897 guns were modernized between the wars. The Rif War showed the vulnerability of the crew against snipers during guerilla operations. The roues métalliques DAG, solid metallic wheels, were developed in the late 1920s to offer more protection to the crew, although they were very noisy during movements. They were mostly sent to units serving in the North African colonies. From 1928, the French Army also adopted bogies to enable transport by motor vehicles, such as the Citroën-Kégresse P17. Mounted on the bogies, the guns could be towed at a maximum speed of 30 km/h on the road but the removal of the bogies was complicated. A more modern version of the Mle 1897, the Canon de 75 Mle 1897/33, mounted the original barrel and recoil mechanism on a new split-trail carriage. In addition to the new carriage the Mle 1897/33 had a new gun shield, pneumatic tires, sprung suspension, and the wheels "toed in" when the trails were spread. The new carriage offered higher angles of traverse and elevation than the earlier box-trail carriage. However, the Mle 1897/33 was inferior to the new Canon de 105 C Mle 1935 B that used the same carriage, so it was only built in small numbers. A more modest upgrade to the Mle 1897 was the Canon de 75 Mle 1897/38 which was a modernized field artillery variant. The original box-trail carriage was retained but the gun had a new gun shield, sprung suspension and pneumatic tires for motor transport. The 75 Mle 1897 was also considered as a possible anti-tank gun by the French Army, who in 1936 ordered a new circular platform, the plateforme Arbel Mle 1935. Mounted on that platform, the Mle 1897 gun could now quickly traverse to engage enemy tanks. World War II service Despite obsolescence brought on by new developments in artillery design, large numbers of 75s were still in use in 1939 (4,500 in the French Army alone), and they eventually found their way into a number of unlikely places. A substantial number had been delivered to Poland in 1919–20, together with infantry ordnance, in order to fight in the Polish-Soviet War. They were known as 75 mm armata wz.1897. In 1939 the Polish army had 1,374 of these guns, making it by far the most numerous artillery piece in Polish service. Many were captured by Germany during the Fall of France in 1940, in addition to Polish guns captured in 1939. Over 3,500 were modified with a muzzle brake and mounted on a 5 cm Pak 38 carriage, now named 7.5 cm Pak 97/38 they were used by the Wehrmacht in 1942 as an emergency weapon against the Soviet Union's T-34 and KV tanks. Its relatively low velocity and a lack of modern armor-piercing ammunition limited its effectiveness as an anti-tank weapon. When the German 7.5 cm Pak 40 became available in sufficient numbers, most remaining Pak 97/38 pieces were returned to occupied France to reinforce the Atlantic Wall defenses or were supplied to Axis nations like Romania (PAK 97/38) and Hungary. Non-modified remainders were used as second-line and coastal artillery pieces under the German designation 7.5 cm FK 231(f) and 7,5 cm FK 97(p). The few 60 Mle 1897/33s captured by the Germans were given the designation 7.5 cm K232(f). British service In 1915 Britain acquired a number of "autocanon de 75 mm mle 1913" anti-aircraft guns, as a stopgap measure while it developed its own anti-aircraft alternatives. They were used in the defence of Britain, usually mounted on de Dion motor lorries using the French mounting which the British referred to as the "Breech Trunnion". Britain also purchased a number of the standard 75 mm guns and adapted them for AA use using a Coventry Ordnance Works mounting, the "Centre Trunnion". At the Armistice there were 29 guns in service in Britain. In June 1940, with many British field guns lost in the Battle of France, 895 M1897 field guns and a million rounds of ammunition were purchased from the U.S. Army. For political purposes, the sale to the British Purchasing Commission was made through the US Steel Corporation. The basic, unmodified gun was known in British service as "Ordnance, QF, 75 mm Mk 1", although many of the guns were issued to units on converted or updated mountings. They were operated by field artillery and anti-tank units. Some of the guns had their wheels and part of their carriages cut away so that they could be mounted on a pedestal called a "Mounting, 75 mm Mk 1". These weapons were employed as light coastal artillery and were not declared obsolete until March 1945. During World War II through Lend Lease, the British received 170 American half-track M3 Gun Motor Carriage which mounted a 75 mm; they used these in Italy and Northern Europe until the end of the war as fire support vehicles in Armoured Car Regiments. Romanian service Romania had a considerable number of World War I guns of 75 mm and 76.2 mm. Some models were modernized at Resita works in 1935 including French md. 1897. The upgrade was made with removable barrels. Several types of guns of close caliber were barreled to use the best ammunition available for 75 mm caliber, explosive projectile model 1917 "Schneider". The new barrel was made of steel alloy with chrome and nickel with excellent mechanical resistance to pressure which allowed, after modifying the firing brake, the recovery arch and the sighting devices an increase of the range from 8.5 km to 11.2 km and a rate of fire of 20 rounds/minute. During World War 2 these guns also used Costinescu 75 mm anti-tank round. These upgraded field guns were used in all infantry divisions in World War II. U.S. service The U.S. Army adopted the French 75 mm field gun during World War I and used it extensively in battle. The U.S. designation of the basic weapon was 75 mm Gun M1897. There were 480 American 75 mm field gun batteries (over 1,900 guns) on the battlefields of France in November 1918. Manufacture of the French 75 by American industry began in the spring of 1918 and quickly built up to an accelerated pace. Carriages were built by Willys-Overland, the hydro-pneumatic recuperators by Singer Manufacturing Company and Rock Island Arsenal, the cannon itself by Symington-Anderson and Wisconsin Gun Company. American industry built 1,050 French 75s during World War I, but only 143 had been shipped to France by 11 November 1918; most American batteries used French-built 75s in action. The first U.S. artillery shots in action in World War I were fired by Battery C, 6th Field Artillery on October 23, 1917, with a French 75 named "Bridget" which is preserved today at the United States Army Ordnance Museum. During his service with the American Expeditionary Forces, Captain (and future U.S. President) Harry S. Truman commanded a battery of French 75s. By the early 1930s, the only U.S. artillery units that remained horse-drawn were those assigned to infantry and cavalry divisions. During the 1930s, most M1897A2 and A3 (French made) and M1897A4 (American made) guns were subsequently modernized for towing behind trucks by mounting it on the modern carriage M2A3 which featured a split trail, pneumatic rubber tires allowing towing at any speed, an elevation limit increased to 45 degrees, and traverse increased to 30 degrees left and right. Along with new ammunition, these features increased the effective range and allowed the gun to be used as an anti-tank gun, in which form it equipped the first tank destroyer battalions. In 1941, these guns began to become surplus when they were gradually being replaced by the M2A1 105 mm M101 split-trail Howitzer; some were removed from their towed carriages and installed on the M3 Half-Track as the M3 Gun Motor Carriage (GMC) tank destroyers. M3 GMCs were used in the Pacific theater during the Battle for the Philippines and by Marine Regimental Weapons Companies until 1944. The M3 GMC also formed the equipment of the early American tank destroyer battalions during operations in North Africa and Italy, and continued in use with the British in Italy and in small numbers in Northern Europe until the end of the war. Many others were used for training until 1942. The 75 mm M2 and M3 tank guns of the M3 Lee and M4 Sherman Medium tanks, the 75 mm M6 tank gun of the M24 Chaffee light tank and the 75 mm gun of the -G and -H subtypes of the B-25 Mitchell bomber all used the same ammunition as the M1897. The 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 used the same projectiles fired from a smaller 75×272R case. Contemporary usage The Canon de 75 modèle 1897 is still used in France as a saluting gun. When the French Army discarded its 105 HM2 howitzers to replace them with MO-120-RT mortars, only 155 mm artillery pieces remained, for which no blank cartridges were available. The Army then recommissioned two Canon de 75 modèle 1897, then located at the Musée de l'Artillerie de Draguignan. They are used for State ceremonies. Variants and derivatives Naval and coastal artillery The French Navy adopted the 75 mm modèle 1897 for its coastal batteries and warships The 75 mm modèle 1897–1915 was placed on SMCA modèle 1925 mountings with a vertical elevation of -10 to +70° and a 360° rotation. This allowed it to be used in an anti-aircraft role. New 75 mm guns were developed specifically for anti-aircraft use. The '75 mm modèle 1922', '75 mm modèle 1924' and '75 mm modèle 1927' of 50 calibre were developed from the 62.5 calibre '75 mm Schneider modèle 1908' mounted on the Danton-class battleships. Field artillery canon de 75 mm mle 1897 à roues métalliques DAG variant with solid metallic wheels to protect the crew from small arms fire. canon de 75 mm mle 1897 modifié 1938 motorized artillery variant with wooden wheels replaced by metallic wheels with pneumatic tires, altered shield Anti-tank Canon de 75 mm mle 1897 modifié 1933 split-trail carriage allowing 58° traverse and -6° to +50° elevation. The solid wheels turn with the trails to offer more protection to the crew. Canon de 75 mm mle 1897 sur plateforme Arbel modèle 1935 version mounted on a circular platform for quick traverse 7.5 cm Pak 97/38 Several thousand captured French guns were modified by the Germans during World War II as makeshift anti-tank guns, by adding a Swiss-designed muzzle brake and mounting it on German-built carriages. Anti-aircraft autocanon de 75 mm mle 1913 self-propelled anti-aircraft variant, on De Dion-Bouton chassis using Canon de 75 antiaérien mle 1913-1917. canon de 75 mm contre-aéroplanes sur plateforme mle 1915 static anti-aircraft variant on rotating platform canon de 75 mm contre-aéroplanes mle 1917 anti-aircraft variant on 1-axle trailer with stabilizer legs. See also French 75 (cocktail) cocktail named for the gun QF 18-pounder gun British gun of similar abilities Notes References [Detailed history.] http://www.1939.pl/uzbrojenie/polskie/artyleria/a_75mm_wz97/index.html External links Manual For The Battery Commander. 75-mm Gun. FROM "L'ECOLE DU COMMANDANT DU BATTERIE, I PARTIE, CANON 75", Of THE FRENCH ARTILLERY SCHOOL, OF DECEMBER, 1916, CORRECTED TO MARCH, 1917. Translated to English and republished by US Army War College 1917 Notes on the French 75-mm Gun. US Army War College. October 1917 Range tables for French 75-/mm Gun Model 1897 Firing tables 75 Millimeter Gun Material Model of 1897 M1 (French). Pages 80–93 in "Handbook of artillery : including mobile, anti-aircraft and trench matériel (1920)" United States. Army. Ordnance Dept, May 1920 United States War Department. TM 9-305 Technical Manual 75-MM Gun Matériel, M1897 and Modifications. 31 March 1941 List and pictures of World War I surviving 75 mm Mle 1897 guns Canon de 75 Modèle 1897 Photos of a reproduction or restored US M1918 limber for the 75 mm gun M1897 with all accoutrements World War I guns World War I field artillery of France World War I artillery of the United States 75 mm artillery World War II weapons of France Articles containing video clips

425351

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan%20Edwards

Duncan Edwards

Duncan Edwards (1 October 1936 – 21 February 1958) was an English footballer who played as a left-half for Manchester United and the England national team. He was one of the Busby Babes, the young United team formed under manager Matt Busby in the mid-1950s, playing 177 matches for the club. He was noted for his physical strength, toughness, and level of authority on the pitch, and has been ranked amongst the toughest players of all time. One of eight players who died as a result of the Munich air disaster, he survived initially but succumbed to his injuries in hospital two weeks later. Many of his contemporaries have described him as one of the best, if not the best, players with whom they had played. Born in Woodside, Dudley, Edwards signed for Manchester United as a teenager and went on to become the youngest player to play in the Football League First Division and at the time the youngest England player since the Second World War, going on to play 18 times for his country at top level. In a professional career of less than five years he helped United to win two Football League championships and two FA Charity Shields, and reach the semi-finals of the European Cup. Early life Edwards was born on 1 October 1936 at 23 Malvern Crescent in the Woodside district of Dudley. He was the first child of Gladstone and Sarah Ann Edwards and their only child to survive to adulthood, his younger sister Carol Anne dying in 1947 at the age of 14 weeks. His cousin, three years his senior, was Dennis Stevens, who also went on to become a professional footballer. Soon after Edwards was born, his family moved to 31 Elm Road on the Priory Estate, also in Dudley. Edwards attended Priory Infant and Junior Schools from 1941 to 1948, and Wolverhampton Street Secondary School from 1948 to 1952. He played football for his school as well as for Dudley Schools, Worcestershire and Birmingham and District teams, and also represented his school at morris dancing. He was selected to compete in the National Morris and Sword Dancing Festival, but was also offered a trial for the English Schools Football Association's under-14 team, which fell on the same day, and opted to attend the latter. Edwards impressed the selectors and was chosen to play for the English Schools XI, making his debut against the equivalent team from Wales at Wembley Stadium on 1 April 1950. He was soon appointed captain of the team, a position he held for two seasons. By this stage, he had already attracted the attention of major clubs, with Manchester United scout Jack O'Brien reporting back to manager Matt Busby in 1948 that he had "today seen a 12-year-old schoolboy who merits special watching. His name is Duncan Edwards, of Dudley." Joe Mercer, who was then coaching the England schools team, urged Busby to sign Edwards, who was also attracting interest from Wolverhampton Wanderers and Aston Villa. Edwards signed for United as an amateur on 2 June 1952, but accounts of when he signed his first professional contract vary. Some reports state that it occurred on his 17th birthday in October 1953, but others contend that it took place a year earlier. Those accounts that favour the earlier date usually state that a club official, either Busby himself or coach Bert Whalley, arrived at the Edwards family home soon after midnight to secure the youngster's signature as early as possible, but other reports claim that this occurred when he signed his amateur contract. Wolves manager Stan Cullis was indignant at missing out on a highly touted local youngster and accused United of improperly offering financial inducements to Edwards or his family, but Edwards maintained that he had always wanted to play for the Lancashire team. To guard against the possibility that he might not make a success of his football career, he also began an apprenticeship as a carpenter. Career Edwards began his Manchester United career in the youth team and made several appearances for the team that won the first ever FA Youth Cup in 1953, but by the time of the final had already made his debut for the first team. On 4 April 1953 he played in a Football League First Division match against Cardiff City, which United lost 4–1, aged just 16 years and 185 days, making him the youngest player ever to play in the top flight of English football. Mindful of the fact that his team contained a large number of ageing players, Busby was keen to bring new young players through the ranks. Edwards, along with the likes of Dennis Viollet and Jackie Blanchflower, was among a number of youngsters introduced to the team that season, and the new group of players came to be known collectively as the Busby Babes. Reviewing his performance on his first-team debut the Manchester Guardian newspaper commented that "he showed promise of fine ability in passing and shooting, but will have to move faster as a wing half". The 1953–54 season saw Edwards emerge as a semi-regular player in the United first team. After impressing in a friendly against Kilmarnock he replaced the injured Henry Cockburn for the away match against Huddersfield Town on 31 October 1953, and went on to appear in 24 league matches as well as United's FA Cup defeat to Burnley. Nonetheless he was also still an active part of the youth squad and played in the team which won the Youth Cup for the second consecutive season. He made his first appearance for the national under-23 team on 20 January 1954 in Italy, and was considered for inclusion in the full England team, but on the day when the selection committee watched him in action, against Arsenal on 27 March, he gave a poor performance and was not called up. The following season, he established himself as United's regular left-half, making 36 first-team appearances and scoring his first goals at senior level, finishing the season with six to his name. His performances revived calls for him to be selected for the senior England team, and a member of the selection committee was despatched to watch him play against Huddersfield Town on 18 September 1954, when he was just short his 18th birthday, but nothing came of it in the short term, although he was selected for a Football League XI which played an exhibition match against a Scottish League team. In March he played for England B against an equivalent team from Germany and, despite being criticised in the press for his "poor showing", was called up for the full national team a week later. He made his debut in a match against Scotland on 2 April 1955 in the British Home Championship aged 18 years and 183 days, making him England's youngest debutant since the Second World War, a record which stood for 43 years, until Michael Owen made his England debut in February 1998. Three weeks later United took advantage of the fact that he was still eligible for the youth team to select him for the club's third consecutive FA Youth Cup final. The decision to field an England international player in the youth team was heavily criticised, and Matt Busby was forced to pen a newspaper article defending this decision, which paid off for United as the wing-half was instrumental in a third Youth Cup win. By now, the younger players were rapidly taking over the first team. In May 1955, Edwards was selected for the England squad which travelled to mainland Europe for matches against France, Portugal and Spain, starting all three matches. Upon returning from the tour, he began a two-year stint in the British Army with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Army service was compulsory at the time for all men of his age under the National Service scheme, with the exception of students and those working in certain trades. He was stationed at Nesscliffe near Shrewsbury along with teammate Bobby Charlton, 12 months his junior, but was allowed leave to play for United. He also took part in army matches, and in one season played nearly 100 matches in total. In the 1955–56 season, despite missing nearly two months of action due to a severe bout of influenza, Edwards played 33 times as United won the championship of the Football League by a margin of 11 points ahead of their nearest challengers Blackpool. The following season he made 34 league appearances, taking his total past the 100 mark, as United won a second consecutive league title, and was also in the team that contested the 1957 FA Cup Final, in which United missed out on the Double after a 2–1 defeat to Aston Villa. He also made seven appearances during United's first ever foray into the European Cup, including a 10–0 win over Anderlecht which remains the club's biggest-ever margin of victory. United reached the semi-finals of this competition, being ousted by Real Madrid. By now he was also a regular in the England team, featuring in all four of England's qualifying matches for the 1958 World Cup and scoring two goals in the 5–2 win over Denmark on 5 December 1956. He was expected to be a key player for England in the 1958 World Cup, and was seen as a likely candidate to replace the ageing Billy Wright as national team captain. Edwards began the 1957–58 season in good form and rumours abounded that top Italian clubs were seeking to sign him, as United battled with Wolverhampton Wanderers in their bid for a third successive league title, and made a strong start to their quest in the FA Cup and European Cup. His final match in England took place on 1 February 1958, when he scored the opening goal to help United defeat Arsenal 5–4 at Highbury. The press were critical of his performance, with the Sunday Pictorials correspondent writing that he did not "think [Edwards'] display in this thrilling game would impress England team manager Walter Winterbottom, who was watching. He was clearly at fault for Arsenal's fourth goal when, instead of clearing, he dallied on the ball". Five days later he played his last ever match as United drew 3–3 away to Red Star Belgrade to progress to the semi-finals of the European Cup by an aggregate score of 5–4. Death Returning home from Belgrade on 6 February 1958, the aeroplane carrying Edwards and his teammates crashed on takeoff after a refuelling stop in Munich, Germany. Seven players and 14 other passengers died at the scene, and Edwards was taken to the Rechts der Isar Hospital suffering from many serious injuries including multiple leg fractures, fractured ribs and severely damaged kidneys. The doctors treating him were confident that he could recover, but were doubtful that he would ever be able to play football again. Edwards regained consciousness soon after reaching the hospital. Over the next two weeks, his condition fluctuated. Doctors had an artificial kidney rushed to the hospital for him, but the artificial organ reduced his blood's ability to clot and he began to bleed internally. Despite this, the day after the crash he asked assistant manager Jimmy Murphy, "What time is the kick off against Wolves, Jimmy? I mustn't miss that match." By 14 February, his condition was reported to have "dramatically improved". By 19 February, his condition had deteriorated again, and it was reported that he was "sinking rapidly", with use of the artificial kidney machine developing into a "vicious circle, gradually sapping his strength". Doctors had said several days earlier that they were “amazed" at his fight for life, and the next day a "very slight improvement" in his condition was reported, but he died at 2:15 a.m. on 21 February 1958, shortly after nurses noticed that his circulation was failing. Injections temporarily saw his condition briefly improve, but his strength then ebbed away and medical staff were unable to save him. Hours before his death, by coincidence, a new issue of Charles Buchan's Football Monthly was published in the United Kingdom, with a photograph of a smiling Edwards on the cover. Edwards was buried at Dudley Cemetery five days later, alongside his sister Carol Anne. More than 5,000 people lined the streets of Dudley for his funeral. His tombstone reads: "A day of memory, Sad to recall, Without farewell, He left us all" and his grave is regularly visited by fans. Legacy Edwards has been commemorated in a number of ways in his home town of Dudley. A stained-glass window depicting Edwards, designed by Francis Skeat and paid for with donations from Football League clubs Brentford and Crystal Palace, was unveiled in St Francis's Church, the parish church for the Priory Estate, by Matt Busby in 1961, and a statue of Edwards unveiled in the centre of the town in October 1999 by his mother and his former team-mate Bobby Charlton. In 1993, a cul-de-sac of housing association homes near to the cemetery in which he is buried was named "Duncan Edwards Close". The Wren's Nest pub on the Priory Estate, near where he grew up, was renamed "The Duncan Edwards" in honour of him in 2001, but it closed within five years and was subsequently destroyed by arsonists before being demolished. In 2006, a £100,000 games facility was opened in Priory Park, where Edwards often played as a boy, in his memory. It was unveiled by Sir Bobby Charlton. In 2008, Dudley's southern bypass was renamed 'Duncan Edwards Way' in his memory - this road had coincidentally opened to traffic nearly a decade earlier on the same day that his statue was unveiled. Until its closure in 2016, Dudley Museum and Art Gallery hosted an exhibition of memorabilia devoted to his career, including his England caps. This collection had originally been displayed at Dudley Leisure Centre in 1986, again with his mother and Bobby Charlton in attendance. A housing complex called Duncan Edwards Court exists in Manchester among a network of streets named after his fellow Munich victims, including Eddie Colman, Roger Byrne and Tommy Taylor. On 8 July 2011 a Blue Plaque was unveiled by Bobby Charlton at the site of the digs in Stretford where Edwards and other United players lived, and in 2016 local dignitaries in Dudley launched a fundraising drive with the aim of placing a similar plaque in the town. In 2022, a new leisure centre complex opened in Dudley and was named the Duncan Edwards Leisure Centre. In 1996, Edwards was one of five deceased players chosen to appear on British stamps issued as part of a "Football Legends" set issued to commemorate the UEFA Euro 1996 tournament, which England was hosting. He was portrayed by Sam Claflin in the 2011 British TV film United centred on the Munich disaster and the success of the team in the two years leading up to it. Contemporaries of Edwards have been unstinting in their praise of his abilities. Bobby Charlton described him as the best he ever saw or was likely to see. He also considered Edwards "the only player that made me feel inferior" and said his death was "the biggest single tragedy ever to happen to Manchester United and English football". Terry Venables claimed that, had he lived, it would have been Edwards, not Bobby Moore, who lifted the World Cup trophy as England captain in 1966. Tommy Docherty stated that "there is no doubt in my mind that Duncan would have become the greatest player ever. Not just in British football, with United and England, but the best in the world. George Best was something special, as was Pelé and Maradona, but in my mind Duncan was much better in terms of all-round ability and skill." In recognition of his talents Edwards was made an inaugural inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002. His memorabilia were exhibited at Dudley Museum prior to its closure, and was subsequently sold to Manchester United with a selection to be loaned back for display at the Dudley Archives. Style of play Although he is primarily remembered as a defensive midfielder, Edwards is said to have been able to operate in any outfield position. His versatility was such that on one occasion he started the match playing as an emergency striker in place of one injured player before being switched to central defence in place of another. His greatest assets were his physical strength and his level of authority on the pitch, which was said to be remarkable for such a young player, and he was particularly noted for his high level of stamina. Stanley Matthews described him as being "like a rock in a raging sea", and Bobby Moore likened him to the Rock of Gibraltar when defending but also noted that he was "dynamic coming forward". His imposing physique earned him the nicknames "Big Dunc" and "The Tank", and he has been ranked amongst the toughest players of all time. Edwards was noted for the power and timing of his tackles and for his ability to pass and shoot equally well with both feet. He was known for his surging runs up the pitch and was equally skilled at heading the ball and at striking fierce long-range shots. After scoring a goal on 26 May 1956, in a 3–1 friendly win against West Germany, he was given the nickname "Boom Boom" by the local press because of "the Big Bertha shot in his boots". Outside football Edwards was teetotal, and outside football he was known as a very private individual, whose interests included fishing, playing cards and visiting the cinema. Although he attended dances with his teammates he was never confident in social surroundings. He was described by Jimmy Murphy as an "unspoilt boy" and retained a strong Black Country accent which his teammates would impersonate. He was once stopped by the police for riding his bicycle without lights and fined five shillings by the authorities and two weeks' wages by his club. At the time of his death Edwards was living in lodgings in Gorse Avenue, Stretford. He was engaged to be married to Molly Leech, who was 22 years old and worked in the offices of a textile machine manufacturer in Altrincham. The couple met at a function at a hotel at Manchester Airport, dated for a year before becoming engaged, and were godparents to the daughter of Leech's friend Josephine Stott. Edwards appeared in advertisements for Dextrosol glucose tablets and had written a book entitled Tackle Soccer This Way, commercial endeavours which supplemented his wage of £15 per week during the season and £12 per week during the summer. The book was published shortly after his death with the approval of his family and, after being out of print for many years, was re-published in November 2009. Career statistics Club International Scores and results list England's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Edwards goal. Honours Manchester United First Division: 1955–56, 1956–57 FA Charity Shield: 1956, 1957 Individual Football League 100 Legends: 1998 (inducted) Inducted into the inaugural English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 PFA Team of the Century (1907–1976): 2007 Bibliography References Notes Citations External links 1936 births 1958 deaths Military personnel from Worcestershire Burials in Worcestershire 20th-century British Army personnel Men's association football midfielders England men's international footballers England men's schools international footballers England men's under-23 international footballers English Football Hall of Fame inductees English Football League players English Football League representative players English men's footballers Manchester United F.C. players Royal Army Ordnance Corps soldiers Footballers from Dudley Footballers killed in the Munich air disaster

425355

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckley%2C%20Flintshire

Buckley, Flintshire

Buckley ( ) is a town and community in Flintshire, north-east Wales, from the county town of Mold and contiguous with the villages of Ewloe, Alltami and Mynydd Isa. It is on the A549 road, with the larger A55 road passing nearby. Buckley is the second-largest town in Flintshire in terms of population. At the 2011 Census, its community had a population of 15,665. When the contiguous Argoed community is included, Buckley has a population of 21,502. A prominent nearby landmark is the Hanson Cement kiln just south of the town. Etymology Buckley's name appears as Bocleghe in 1198 and Bokkeley in 1294. It may mean "clearing of the bucks", from Old English bucc lēah; however, the preponderance of an O vowel in historical forms suggests that the first element could instead be a personal name, Bocca. Another contender is bōca, meaning "beeches", but the fact that beech trees weren't introduced into North Wales until the 18th century argues against this. History In medieval times the area was part of three manors and lordships: Mold, Hawarden, and Ewloe. In 1420, Henry V presented Ewloe and the pasturage of Buckley to his wife, Catherine of Valois, as a wedding present. It was worth £26 per annum. The town became an industrial heartland for pottery and coal mining between the 17th and 19th centuries. The first was opened in 1737. However, it only grew into any kind of prominence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when coal and clay were extensively mined there, and the name Buckley became synonymous with the production of various fire-clay and pottery products. By the early 19th century, there were 14 potteries in the town. Buckley was a popular location for mining, as there were many faults in local rock formations that allowed seams of coal to be mined directly from the surface. Its heavy, clay soil also allowed for excellent pottery and bricks to be manufactured. Bricks from Buckley were transported all across the United Kingdom and as far as the United States, as Buckley became a brickworking centre. A great deal of people moved into the area, particularly from Ireland and Liverpool to find work in the mining and brick industries, giving the town a distinctive accent. Many pottery and earthenware products manufactured were taken on the backs of donkeys to either Chester market or exported via the River Dee, as early as the reign of Elizabeth I. The last pottery kiln was fired in 1946. The site of the brickworks is now being redeveloped as a housing estate. However, a local cement works is still in operation. In 1932, a tradition started in Buckley of running an annual pantomime. Dennis Griffiths produced a version of Dick Whittington in 1933, and ran the pantomime for 27 years, famously using the programme to invite any and all complaints to arrive written "on the back of a 10 shilling note (non-returnable)". In the Second World War, a Nazi German Luftwaffe plane, most likely on its way to blitz Liverpool, was shot down and crash landed in a nearby district, with the plane's engine crashing into a small lake known locally as 'The Trap'. The pilot survived, captured by a Special Constable, Peter Griffiths, and taken to Hawarden Prisoner of War camp. Governance Urban district status was conferred on the town in 1898; at this time, the area comprised two parishes, Buckley (1874) and Bistre (1844). The urban district of Buckley was formed of Pentrobin and Bannel (which was formerly a part of the parish of Hawarden), Argoed, and Bistre (the oldest part of the town). Wat's Dyke formed the western boundary. The urban district council was based at the council offices in Brunswick Road. Before then, it was divided between the parishes of Mold and Hawarden. Today, Buckley Town Council consists of 20 councillors, elected from four wards. These are called Buckley Mountain, Pentrobin, Bistre East and Bistre West. The same wards elect councillors to Flintshire County Councillors, one from Buckley Mountain, and two from each of the others. Buckley is part of the Alyn and Deeside UK parliamentary constituency and the Alyn and Deeside Senedd constituency and North Wales region. Geography and climate Buckley is situated in north east Wales approximately from the border with England to the East. Buckley is in the lee of the Snowdonian mountain range to the west and is therefore in a rain shadow area. Average annual rainfall in Buckley is approximately which is significantly lower than areas to the West of the Snowdonian mountain range. However, in comparison to areas in the East and South East of the United Kingdom, Buckley still receives a fair amount of rainfall. Since Buckley is located approximately above sea level, snowfall is more frequent in winter months in comparison to the lower lying ground in neighbouring areas. Areas in the parish of Buckley outside the town centre include Bistre, Lane End, Padeswood, Buckley Mountain, Drury, Pentrobin, Bannel, and Alltami. Dialect Although very few locals speak with a 'Buckley' accent nowadays, due to people moving in and out of the area, and with the proliferation of television and radio, a few of the town's older citizens still speak in a form of the strongly accented dialect, full of colloquialisms, and often unintelligible to outsiders. One of the last remaining pure 'Buckley' speakers was noted linguist Dennis Griffiths, a Buckley resident, who died in 1972, and whose books are the main repository and record of the dialect. A few examples (mainly phonetic) are noted below: Wunst every blue moon – rarely occurring Thou fries me to death – the limit of boredom A lick and a promise – a quick wash Fasen the fost un fost – fasten the first one first The daddy on um aw – the best of the lot Husht thee naise – be quiet I conna meke thee out – I can't understand you Chunner – Complain The last 'pure' speaker of the Buckley dialect was Joseph Charles Shone, a foundryman born in 1917, who died in 1987. An example of the Buckley dialect was recorded by community heritage archivist John Butler in 2016. In this item, long-time Buckley resident Margaret Shone recounts one of Dennis Griffiths's specially written stories, an adaptation of the Parable of the Prodigal Son into the Buckley dialect. Economy Today, Buckley has a population of around 20,000, and has numerous light industries. Those who cannot find work locally commute to Deeside, Cheshire, Wrexham and Merseyside. The Hanson Cement works at Padeswood is the only large scale industry remaining in the town. Its kiln is now the major landmark on the skyline, visible from many miles away. Despite many locals considering it an eyesore, according to its website, the company has reduced pollution produced by the cement works by up to 90%. Community facilities Buckley has a large area of common land, known simply as 'The Common'. It has a large playground for children, as well as a duck pond. A funfair visits during the Buckley Jubilee in the summer, usually on the second Tuesday of July, which is the town jubilee. There is also a small lake, known as 'The Trap', which is stocked with coarse fish. A German Messerschmitt bomber crashed into the Trap during World War II, shot down by anti-aircraft fire after going off course following a bombing run over Liverpool. The land is primarily heavy clay soil. Etna Park, which is just a short walk from the town centre, is part of the Heritage Trail walk in the area. Buckley has a shopping precinct, as well as three supermarkets, Aldi, Iceland and Home Bargains. There is a town-centre car park which is charged at 30p per hour. The town contains a wide variety of public houses, which includes the local working men's club. The local branch of The Royal British Legion closed in 2010 and has since been demolished. Education Buckley has four primary schools: Westwood County Primary (Formerly known as West Lea infants and Buckley CP – juniors) which is on Tabernacle Street, Southdown Primary School on Linderick Avenue, Mountain Lane Primary School on Knowle Lane, and Drury County Primary on Beech Road, Drury. Buckley has one secondary school, the Elfed High School, located near the Common on Mill Lane. The school includes a sports centre and a swimming pool, for use of both the students and the public. Many students from Buckley also attend Argoed High School, located in nearby Bryn-y-Baal, or the Alun School, in Mold. All schools in Buckley are run by the Flintshire Local Education Authority. Religion Buckley is unusual in having two ecclesiastical parishes. The Church of St Matthew is the oldest parish church in the town, and was consecrated in 1822. Bistre Emmanuel Parish Church was built in 1842, despite appearing much older due to its early Gothic-style architecture. The first Primitive Methodist church in Wales is on the outskirts of Buckley, in Alltami. The present St John's United Reformed Church was originally a chapel known as "Chapel in the Meadow", set up by a noncomformist pottery owner, Jonathan Catherall, in 1811. Before that date, Catherall had held services in his house which he named after Lord Hawkesbury. As the Church forbade chapels from having bells, he built a bell tower in the grounds of his home. The site of this unique non-conformist bell tower is marked by a mound and plaque near the skate park at the Elfed Sports Complex. The Our Lady of the Rosary Catholic church in Buckley was built in 2000 to replace a much older building. Other churches in Buckley include Bistre Methodist, Pentrobin Methodist, Buckley Cross Methodist, Bryn Methodist, and Drury Lane Methodist. Culture Events Buckley observes an annual regional celebration and march that is over 200 years old called the Buckley Jubilee, which is celebrated on the second Tuesday of July. Officially, however, the Jubilee was begun in 1856. The difference in dates stems from the 'official' date being set when the Buckley Temperance Society first sanctioned the march. The Jubilee is a ceremonial march that begins on "The Common", a large area of common ground owned by the people of the town used for leisure and recreational purposes. The term 'jubilee' was first used in 1871. A non-denominational Service led by the minister of the church or chapel leading the Jubilee that year is held on the Common, starting at around 3pm. The Sunday before the Jubilee, the leading church is presented with the Centenary Shield, which they hold for the year. A fifteen-minute service takes place, with two hymns accompanied by the Royal Buckley Town Band. The march then leaves the common, and marches through the town, with representatives from the local Sunday Schools, Scout and Guide troops, and many of the local schools. Banners from each of the local churches are carried. Royal Buckley Town Band Buckley has a famous brass band, the Royal Buckley Town Band. The band is one of only two in the entire United Kingdom to have received sanction from a British monarch to use "Royal" in their name. They lead the Jubilee every year. Popular music Buckley has one nightclub, the Tivoli Nightclub (known locally as "The Tiv"), on Brunswick Road. Formerly both a cinema and a music hall, the Tivoli has seen many bands play there over the years, including Uriah Heep, Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin in the early 1970s, and many Britpop bands including Oasis, Ocean Colour Scene and the Super Furry Animals in the 1990s. It has been described as 'one of the finest quirky little venues of our time' and is featured in the DVD re-issue of Oasis's album, Definitely Maybe. Between summer 1992 and spring 1993, Radiohead played there twice. Bands such as Cast, Ash, Stiff Little Fingers, Fun Lovin' Criminals, Skindred, Hed PE and OPM have all played there. Since a renovation and rebranding in 2000, few bands played live at the venue, with the club music policy having more emphasis on commercial dance and pop music, with a rock night on Fridays. The venue attracts crowds from Chester, Wrexham, Manchester and Liverpool. Radio The town was also home to a community radio project which used to broadcast 'trial' or 'temporary radio' licences to Buckley, Broughton, Mold, Deeside and the surrounding areas. The station was known as South Flintshire Radio and its offices were found above the swimming baths on Mold Road. The station was heard on eight separate occasions between November 1996 and July 2000 as part of a campaign to bring a local radio station to Flintshire, following the demise of Mold-based BBC Radio Clwyd. The project helped pave the way for a permanent local radio licence which was awarded to Chester FM (known as Dee 106.3) which broadcasts to Chester, Ellesmere Port, Deeside and Buckley. Library Buckley has a sizable two-storey library, with the second level being dedicated solely to history and reference pieces, mainly on the local area. The second floor also doubles as the local museum. Sport Buckley has a football club in the Cymru North league, Buckley Town F.C. In addition to the men's team Buckley also has a women's team, Buckley Town Ladies FC, who play in the North Wales Coast Women's Football League. The Elfed Sports Complex was built in 2005, near the Elfed High School, and includes a swimming pool, which replaced the outdated, Victorian-style baths on the Mold Road high street. Transport Road Buckley is located on the A549 road, and is near the A55 expressway, which passes to the south of Ewloe. Buckley is part of a trial run to bring 20 MPH to towns all over Wales. This means most roads in Buckley are 20 MPH. Bus There are a number of bus routes that pass through Buckley, mostly operated by Arriva Buses Wales, which now means on most weekdays a bus to Chester or Mold is available every 10 minutes. Rail Buckley has previously been served by up to three different stations on lines operated by the Wrexham, Mold and Connah's Quay Railway and the Mold Railway. Services to Mold and Connah's Quay have been discontinued and the old train lines removed. Many features remain visible particularly within Knowle Hill Nature Reserve to the east of the town. Today, Buckley railway station is a minor stop on the Borderlands Line, which runs from Wrexham to Bidston on the Wirral. It is operated by Transport for Wales. Trains run every 60 minutes, Monday to Saturday daytimes, and less frequently on evenings and Sundays. Connections can be made at Shotton, Wrexham General, and at Bidston for Liverpool. There are two platforms, one for each direction the line runs in. Air The nearest major airports are Liverpool John Lennon Airport and Manchester Airport, both around 45 minutes' drive away, although Hawarden Airport is a minor airfield nearby at Broughton. Notable people Frederick Birks (1894–1917), holder of the Victoria Cross for extreme valour in WWI. Cherry Dee (born 1987), former professional glamour model and Page Three girl. Claire Fox, Baroness Fox of Buckley (born 1960), writer, journalist, lecturer and politician, grew up in Buckley. Sylvia Heal (born 1942), former Member of Parliament, went to school in Buckley. Ann Keen (born 1948), politician and former MP for Brentford and Isleworth, went to school in Buckley Howell Elvet Lewis (1860–1953), known as Elfed, a Welsh Congregational minister, hymn-writer, and devotional poet, who served as Archdruid of the National Eisteddfod of Wales. Elfed High School is named after him. Blake Pelly (1907–1990), emigrated to Australia, became an air force officer, politician and businessman. Sport Tommy Astbury (1920–1993), footballer with 303 club caps with Chester City F.C. Danny Collins (born 1980), footballer with 516 club caps. John Lyons (1956–1982), footballer with 195 club caps. Ryan Shawcross (born 1987) footballer with 375 club caps with Stoke City, grew up in Buckley, James Williams (1885–1916), footballer with 169 club caps, died on active service in WWI. Twin towns and sister cities Murata (Japan Tōhoku region Miyagi Prefecture) See also Buckley Town F.C. Elfed High School St Matthew's Church, Buckley References Notes Bibliography Dialect extracts are taken from Dennis Griffiths' book Talk of My Town, Buckley Young People's Cultural Association, 1969. It can be borrowed from Buckley Library. Out of This Clay Dennis Griffiths 1960 Published by Gee and Son, Ltd., Denbigh The Making of Buckley and District by T.W. Pritchard, Bridge Books, 2006. External links Buckley Society BBC North East Wales: Buckley Jubilee Photos of Buckley and surrounding area on geograph.org.uk Towns in Flintshire Communities in Flintshire

425368

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20College%2C%20Madurai

American College, Madurai

The American College, often referred to as American College, is one of the oldest colleges in India, located in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. It was founded in 1881 by American Christian missionaries. The red-brick buildings, in the Saracenic style, blend with the natural surroundings constructed by British architect Henry Irwin. Century-old buildings Main Hall, James Hall and Washburn Hall show the heritage of the college. Location It is situated on Melur road (Azhagar Koil road) in between Tamukkam Ground near Tallakulam and Government Rajaji Hospital in Goripalayam. History Founded as a missionary in 1841 by the American Mission, the American College became a collegiate department in 1881. It was started initially as Pasumalai College in 1881 under the initiatives of Rev. George T. Washburn, the first principal. He hails from the Great Washburn clan. The college was shifted to its present location during the period of Rev. W.M. Zumbro, its second principal, who had his formal education at University of Michigan, University of Columbia and Yale University, made a proposal in 1903 to the missionary in the United States to shift the college from Pasumalai to Madurai. With more than 130 years of history, the college is remembered for its pioneering role in the cause of college autonomy. In 1913, it became a first grade college while the first female student was admitted in 1921. The motto verse in the logo of The American College and Washburn University USA are still Purificatus non consumptus. The college was visited by eminent people including Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore who delivered a series of lectures on education in 1919. The American College Main Hall building was constructed by Henry Irwin (who built the Mysore Palace) and principal G.T. Washburn was influential in getting funds from the US mainly from John D. Rockefeller. The building, to the surprise of people of this generation, was constructed at a cost of ₹52,000. Construction was started in 1898 and was completed in 1904. Binghamton Hall was raised in 1930 in memory of William Zumbro, who masterminded the construction and landscaping in the college. Contributions from the people of Binghamton city made possible to build the hall of which is the part of Science block. Lady James Hall is the home for the 100-year-old Chemistry department along with Physics and Zoology department was built by the contributions by Lady Ellen S. James with Robert Chisholm. This is the first science building in Madurai. The seeds for the establishment of the physical sciences department was laid by American missionary Rev. Edgar Martin Flint who served the institution between 1913 and 1943. The two-storey building constructed with bricks and mortar has withstood the time, producing thousands of science students from the southern districts. K.S. Krishnan, one of the co-scientists with Nobel Laureate Sir C. V. Raman, and G Rajasekaran, emeritus professor involved in India-based Neutrino Observatory project, are notable alumni of the college and went through the Hall. Seven of the alumni, who studied science in the Hall, later rose to receive the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and Technology. Daniel Poor Memorial Library in Madurai often abbreviated as DPM Library is the central library of The American College It is one of the oldest libraries in South India. DPM officially began its functions on 28 June 1915. It is named in memory of Rev. Daniel Poor who was one of the pioneer missionaries who started the American Ceylon Mission in Jaffna in 1816. The Jubilee Chapel was dedicated in 1931 in commemoration of golden jubilee celebrations. The name Jubilee was adopted from the White Chapel of Senusret I. Rabindranath Tagore gave public lectures in the year 1919 in the Main Hall and collected ₹2,365 out of which he took ₹2,000 for Visva-Bharati University, Shantiniketan and gave ₹365 for starting an endowment in American College. Georges Clemenceau who led France in the First World War delivered lectures in Main Hall and contributed the college. The college was one of the first set of seven colleges to be made autonomous by the UGC in 1977. The first college to introduce "Campus Inn" hostel system was named after Washburn. Today the college offers 18n undergraduate and 13 postgraduate programmes. There are research centres offering M.Phil. and Ph.D. programme. There are other autonomous centres like Department of Applied Sciences (DAS) and The first college to introduce CBCS system and Student foreign exchange programme (Study abroad) in India. The postgraduate Department of Social Work was added in 1998. The college has theater groups, social service schemes and NCC units that offer students opportunities to serve society. This college is known for its focus on academic excellence. Academics There are 18 undergraduate and 15 postgraduate programmes of study in the college, with seven of these departments engaged in research. In addition to the usual programmes in the humanities and the sciences, the college offers courses in Biochemistry, Biotechnology, Microbiology, Computer Science, Business Administration and Social Work. Innovative courses such as Gender Studies, Dalit Studies, Folk Arts, Epigraphy, etc., are offered under the appropriatemajor programmes. An interdisciplinary dimension is attempted by requiring the science majors to take courses in the humanities and vice versa. The unique joint bachelor's degree on Religion, Philosophy and Sociology can be found only in the American College. Many notable scholars worked for this institution. Some of them who bought real change in college education system are C. T. K. Chari, Karmegha Konar, K. K. Neelakantan, and J. Vasanthan. The American College is the first college in India to introduce Third Gender literature and studies with research-oriented seminar. The regional terms for genderqueer people was coined in this college by LGBTQIA activist Gopi Shankar Madurai. The American College stands out as an exception in addressing these issues. Its B.A. programme in Tamil has an autobiography of a trans woman The Truth about Me: A Hijra Life Story by A. Revathi as part of the syllabus for final year students. In 2013 The American College under graduation English department included Funny Boy by Shyam Selvadurai as part of syllabus under gay literature and marginalized studies. In 2009, Red Hen Press published a selection of Avvaiyar's poetry from the 12th century: Give, Eat, and Live: Poems by Avviyar. The poems were selected and translated into English by Thomas Pruiksma, a poet and translator who discovered Avviyar's work while on a Fulbright scholarship at The American College. Study Centre for Indian Literature in English and Translation (SCILET) Study Centre for Indian Literature in English and Translation (SCILET) was founded by Rev. Dr. Paul L. Love in the early 1980s to show how important Indian literature in English had become. ‘English Literature’ no longer means just the literature of England. SCILET facilitates the translation of regional language writing into English, so that literature written in such aboriginal languages as Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu can be read in all parts of the country. Love's teaching in India, which began with his appointment to overseas service with the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) in 1954, was interrupted periods of study and teaching. SCILET sponsors activities such as lectures, seminars and poetry readings that present some of the best of these writers in person, enabling teachers, students and the research community to interact and become acquainted with them. To further the cause of Indian literature in English, SCILET has developed several publications, the best known of which is its annual poetry journal, Kavya Bharati, which includes in equal amount the work of established Indian poets and promising new voices. Alliance Française, Madurai Alliance Française offers courses for beginners and advanced learners in French through its satellite branch at Department of French, The American College. The communicative approach of the course helps a student to learn the language with effective and efficient use of modern techniques encouraging independent progress. Along with level A1 and A2 courses for beginners and those who have learnt the language already, the Madurai branch offers assistance to succeed in French language proficiency tests such as Diplome d'Etudes en Langue Française (DELF) and Diplôme Approfondi de Langue Française (DALF) for an internationally valid certificate. Exchange programme between American College and United States A memorandum of understanding was signed in 2008 between The American College and the Appalachian State University, USA. Selected students of any discipline of the American College have the opportunity to pursue undergraduate or postgraduate study for six months to one year in the USA. Students are provided food and accommodation; they pay for airfare, visa and medical insurance. The programme enabled students to acquire first-hand experiences of cross-cultural living. New satellite campus The American College has a new satellite campus at Chathrapatti, on the Madurai-Natham highway, to reach out to students and communities in rural Madurai. The new campus is located on Alagar hills. The campus will house both residential courses like M.B.A. and non-residential programmes in the near future. The additional campus will enable American College to grow exponentially thereby alleviating the space constraints in starting new courses in the emerging fields. Branches of Study: Arts & Humanities wing Science wing Management Studies wing Research wing Co-curricular courses wing Teaching, learning and assessments wing Hostels About a third of the students live in five halls on campus, one of which is for women. Up to eight to nine students live in a room. Each hall is under the care of a warden, assisted by resident young faculty. They are available for consultation and advice when needed. The mess rates are kept between ₹2600–3000 per month; accommodation ₹26000 per year, affordable even to economically challenged students. Elected student representatives manage the mess, under a dividing system. There is no provision for special food even at extra cost. Rev. Washburn Hall: Named after Rev. G.T. Washburn, it is the first campus hostel of India. Washburn Hall is more than 100 years old and accommodates freshers. Washburn Hall had its origin in 1908, the year when the college was shifted to its present site. The ‘Main Hostel’, as the Washburn Hall was known, was constructed in three stages. The ground floor on the western side with side wings was the first stage; it was completed in 1909. The second stage was raising the first floor on the existing ground floor in 1914. The third and final stage of construction was the extension of the structures on the eastern side. The extension was started in late October 1916 and was completed in 1917. E.M. Flint was appointed as the warden in 1914. (Until then, principal Rev. Zumbro probably was the acting warden.) The first hostel day was celebrated on 19 February 1921 and the chief guest was Georges Clemenceau, ex-premier of France. In 1950, the name of the hostel was changed from 'Main Hostel' into 'Washburn Hall'. Rev.Zumbro Hall: Hon. Sir. C.P. Ramasamy Iyer, Law Member, Government of Madras laid the foundation stone for Zumbro memorial hostel built in memory of Rev. William Michael Zumbro on 5 September 1925. This hostel initially accommodated postgraduate students. After some time it was used by pre-university students. Presently this hall accommodates about 110 undergraduate self-financing students. J Wallace Hall: The foundation stone for Wallace Hall was laid on 21 January 1946 by Dr. Albert Bucker Coe, minister of Oak Park church, Illinois, U.S.A. Wallace Hall accommodated undergraduate students and was converted into a postgraduate students hall in the recent years. This hall houses 98 postgraduate students and two superintendents. Dudley Hall: The foundation stone for Dudley Hall was laid on 17 February 1956. It started functioning from the academic year 1957–58. Initially it was called New Hostel. After some years, it was renamed "Dudley Hall", after the name of the reverend, who had close connections with the hostel and the college. Women's Hall: The women's hall was the home for 81 students in 1961 and later increased to 128 students. Realizing the increasing demand for women's higher education the hall was extended by a building with 18 spacious rooms. Campus Annual Cultural Fest and Cultural Association The Annual Cultural fest of The American College in India has existed since 1915. AMFEST is the annual cultural fest. TYCOONS is the annual cultural festival conducted by the Department of BBA. It was previously a part of COMMAS but was soon separated. COMMAS: The Commerce association conducts an inter-college cultural event called the COMMAS every year for two days. Colleges from all over Tamil Nadu participate in this function. The success of this function is evident from the funds that are granted by the business community in and around Madurai. REPHISO: The Religion, Philosophy, and Sociology Association organizes national and international seminars under the banner of REPHISO. Intellectuals, philosophers, sociologists, and social activists around the globe participate. So far Swami Agnivesh, Aruna Roy, Medha Patkar, Prashant Bhushan, Harsh Mander are some of the notable philosophers and social activists who were guest of honor. PEGASUS: The English Department inter-college literary fiesta is famous for its drama, theater arts, street play. PEGASUS is also known as the Opera of Madurai. BYTES: The Department of Computer Science conducts this inter-collegiate IT symposium. HOVER: The Department of Computer Application conducts this intercollegiate meet. ICAS: The Department of Economics conducts this Intercollegiate competition. PHOBOS:The Department of Physics conducts this Intercollegiate competition. Colleges from all over Tamil Nadu participate in this event. CHEM-GLAZE:The Department of Chemistry Association conducts this Intercollegiate competition. PANORAMIA: The intercollegiate programme by the Dept of Visual Communication attracts galaxy of celebrities form the Tamil film industry. It is a mega inter collegiate programme and is unique in south Tamil Nadu. See also Daniel Poor Memorial Library in Madurai Daniel Poor Notable alumni Padma Bhushan Sir Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan, FRS, co-discoverer of Raman scattering Padma Shri Govindappa Venkataswamy, Founder Aravind Eye Hospital Padma Bhushan Shiv Nadar, Founder HCL Technologies, Chairman Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering and Shiv Nadar University Padma Shri Thota Tharani (Art Director) Padma Shri Vivek (actor) Ganapathy Baskaran, Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Awardee(Theoretical condensed matter physicist) Rajiah Simon, Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Awardee, (Optics, quantum computing) Komal Swaminathan (Congress Activist in his early years, a noted Tamil Theater personality, Film Director, journalist) V. Ramaswami (Former Justice of the Supreme Court of India) Bala (director) Mahendran (Film Director) Inspiration for the legends of Tamil Cinema like Mani Ratnam and Rajinikanth Geevarghese Mar Dioscoros (bishop of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church) P. Mohan (Indian politician and a member of the state unit of the Communist Party of India) Nedumaran (Tamil politician) Ram (Film-maker) A. G. S. Ram Babu (Indian politician and former Member of Parliament elected from Tamil Nadu.) Ramki (Film Director) J. Vasanthan (Artist, Father of English Stage Play in Madurai, Writer) Solomon Pappaiah (TV personality and Actor) Major Sundarrajan (Actor) Jacob Sahaya Kumar Aruni (Noted Indian celebrity chef) Karu Pazhaniappan (Tamil film director) Shanmugarajan (Actor) Jeyaraj (Renowned Artist) D. Sreeram Kumar (Major in the Indian Army) Pattimandram Raja (Actor, TV personality) Palani Kumanan – Investigative Journalist of The Wall Street Journal & Winner of Pulitzer Prize 2015. Gopi Shankar Madurai – Equal Rights Activist, Justin Prabhakaran, (Indian film score and soundtrack composer) V Anantha Nageswaran, (Chief Economic advisor to the Government of India) Manohar Devadoss, (Indian artist and a writer) References External links Official webpage Colleges in Madurai Universities and colleges in Madurai Educational institutions established in 1881 1881 establishments in British India Academic institutions formerly affiliated with the University of Madras Colleges affiliated to Madurai Kamaraj University

425448

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o%20Miguel%20Island

São Miguel Island

São Miguel Island (; Portuguese for "Saint Michael"), nicknamed "The Green Island" (Ilha Verde), is the largest and most populous island in the Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. The island covers and has around 140,000 inhabitants, with 45,000 people residing in Ponta Delgada, the archipelago's largest city. History In 1427, São Miguel became the second of the islands discovered by Gonçalo Velho Cabral to be settled by colonists from continental Portugal. This date is uncertain, as it is believed that the island was discovered between 1426 and 1437 and inscribed in portolans from the middle of the 15th century. Its discovery was later recorded by Father Gaspar Frutuoso in the seminal history of the Azores, Saudades da Terra, as he began: "This island of São Miguel where...we are, is mountainous and covered in ravines, and it was, when we discovered it, covered in trees...due to its humidity, with its water showers and ravines warm with sun..." It was sometime after the initial settlement of Povoação Velha (on the southeastern coast) that (between 1439 and 1444) a volcanic eruption occurred in the crater of Sete Cidades (then uninhabited). There are no records of the precise date, but Gaspar Frutuoso noted that navigators returning to São Miguel (soon after its discovery) encountered the western part of the island completely changed and tree trunks and pumice stone floating in the waters around the island. After docking in Povoação, the settlers reported feeling tremors and aftershocks; "...those settlers living in their earthen holes of straw and hay, heard almost within a year a great loud noise, roars and snorts that came from the earth with large tremors still proceeded the subversion and fire from the peak that had disappeared." In the early 15th century, Prince Henry the Navigator first authorized the settlement of the Azores, and many settlers from the historical provinces of Estremadura, Alto Alentejo, Algarve and Madeira travelled to São Miguel, under the Carta Régia (a decree of the regency). The fertile soils and temperate climate attracted settlers from other countries, notably French and Flemish people. Cultural minorities such as Sephardic Jewish New Christians are believed to have comprised as much as 20% of the island's population (i.e., many had surnames such as 'Pereira, Pimentel, Dias, Menezes, Oliveira, Nunes, Mendes, Rodrigues, Pinto etc.), and some Moors were exiled to the island during the inquisition. Its geographic position and fertile soils permitted rapid economic development. The establishment of a military garrison made the island an obligatory port-of-call in the African and Asian commercial trade, while the export of sugar, and later orchil (a dye exported to Flanders for the making of cloth) stabilized the island's export trade. The first capital of the island was Vila Franca do Campo, which was devastated by the 1522 Vila Franca earthquake and landslides. The tragedy helped to elevate Ponta Delgada to the administrative and economic status of capital and business centre from 1546. During the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580, the people from São Miguel won the naval Battle of Vila Franca against a French squadron that supported the claims of the pretender António, Prior of Crato. With the Portuguese Restoration War (1640), the island regained its position as a commercial centre, establishing new contacts in Brazil, which was heavily colonized during this period. Some of the island's historic buildings, including mansions and churches, date from this period; the island's architectural expansion and developed came from revenues from the export of oranges, mainly to Great Britain. In 1831, during the Liberal Wars, following the landing of troops loyal to Queen Maria II in Nordeste (sent by future Duke of Terceira), a resistance to the Absolutist regime on the Island was organized. In 1832, this militia declared allegiance to the Charter (constitutional monarchy) and Queen Maria, forming a contingent that sailed to the continent where they were involved in the liberation of Porto. Following the Liberal Wars, the period of Devourism allowed the economy to flourish, and the port of Ponta Delgada expanded, through the export of new crops such as tea, pineapple, and tobacco. The development of the fishing industry, cultivation of food staples and expansion of the dairy industry permitted the growth of many of the population centres on the island. Following the Carnation Revolution, the island received the seat of the Presidency of the Autonomous Region of the Azores, located in Ponta Delgada, while its economic, social and political importance continued to grow within the archipelago. Geography Geology São Miguel is bisected by many faults from the northwest to southeast in the direction of the Terceira Rift, a triple junction of the African, Eurasian, and North American tectonic plates. This system is best expressed in the western part of the island with extensive geological formations, such as the Mosteiros Graben (along the western flank of the Sete Cidades Massif), the Ribeira Grande Graben (along the northern flank of the Água de Pau Massif), and the many cones and fissural structures along the interior of the island. In the ancient crater of Furnas the faults are aligned west-northwest to east-southeast. Zbysewsky (1959), among others (note references) identifies eight geomorphological structures on São Miguel that correspond to the formative features that built the island, including: The Sete Cidades Massif – an area that occupies the extreme western part of the island, and corresponds to a central volcanic crater and lake-filled caldera, with various cones, deposits of pumice, lava domes and maars. In the northeastern flank of this volcano the Mosteiros Graben, a tectonic structure created from the collapse of lands and located along a northwest to southeast orientation. Along other regional fractures and radial faults there are ancient spatter cones and lava domes; The Picos Volcanic System or Picos Region – is situated along a northwest–southeast alignment, and defines a range of spatter cones and relatively level ground between the Sete Cidades and the Água de Pau Massifs; The Água de Pau Massif – this central feature corresponds to the central volcano on the island, and includes the Lagoa do Fogo (Lake of Fire), many lava domes and pumice cones. On the northeastern flank of the Massif the Ribeira Grande Graben is visible, representing a tectonic depression oriented northwest to southeast; The Achada das Furnas Plateau – a region with a central plain marked by cones and maars, with deposits along a west-northwest to east-southeast and northwest to southeast; Furnas Volcano – located in the eastern part of the island, along the southern coast, and comprising two ancient calderas, occupied by a lake (Lagoa das Furnas). Within the system one can find many pumice cones, maars and lava domes; Povoação Volcano – comprising a central caldera, generally well-eroded and whose southern rim has disappeared to the southern coast. Within its interior, marked by several river-valleys and cliffs, are several spatter cones; The Tronqueira Region – it occupies the extreme easterly portion of the island and corresponds to a mountainous region, divided by many river-valleys that are usually delineated by tectonic fractures; The Northern Coastal Platform – located along the northeastern portion of the island, and marks a zone of relatively moderate topography, limited by the coast to the north and the northern crater rims of Furnas and Povoação volcanoes to the south. São Miguel comprises six volcanic zones; all are Quaternary in age except the last, which is partly Pliocene. From west to east these zones are: the trachyte stratovolcano of the Sete Cidades Massif; a field of alkali-basalt cinder cones and lava flows with minor trachyte; the trachyte stratovolcano of the Água de Pau Massif; a field of alkali-basalt cinder cones and lava flows with minor trachyte and tristanite; the trachyte stratovolcano of Furnas; and the Nordeste shield, which includes the Povoação caldera and consists of alkali basalt, tristanite and trachyte. Dormancy ages for these regions include: 400 year for Sete Cidades, 145 for zone 2, 1150 for Água de Pau, and 370 for Furnas, while eruptions in the Nordeste have not occurred in the past 3000 years. These geomorphological structures have resulted from millions of years of compound growth that began in the eastern portion of the island; around 4 million years ago the Nordeste Volcano burst from the ocean floor in effusive and fissural eruptions. These eruptions were composed of basaltic lava flows and spatter cones whose products reached a height of forming the mountainous region of Tronqueiro, Planalto dos Graminhais, Espigão dos Bois and Pico Verde (finding its maximum extent in Pico da Vara). But, about 950,000 years ago a secondary volcano system (Volcanic Complex of Povoação) supplanted the eruptions of the Nordeste Volcano, responsible for new basaltic lavas and pyroclastic deposits. With an age of 200,000 years the third volcano on São Miguel, the Água de Pau Volcano started erupting on the western flank of Povoação volcano in two phases. The first phase, composed of the older materials, erupted from lava flows and Trachyte pyroclasts, the secondary phase corresponded to volcanic products that began erupting 400,000 years ago. These latter deposits included pyroclastic, trachyte flows (lava and surges), mud flows and a mixture of basalts. In what would become the western portion of the island a fourth volcano formed: the Sete Cidades Volcano erupted 200,000 years ago and continued to erupt until about 36,000 years ago. Between 100,000 and 3,800 years ago fissural eruptions of integrated lava and basaltic pyroclastic deposits occurred in the center of the island between Água de Pau and Povoação, forming the Fissural Volcanic System of Congro. These eruptions were explosive and fed by activities in the neighboring volcanic systems. At about 100,000 years a secondary system developed along the frontier of the Povoação volcano, the "Furnas Volcano" complex (the youngest volcanic system) in three phases mixing pyroclastic surges, trachytes, and lava flows, as well as explosive materials. Finally, two layers of deposits formed the Fissural Volcanic System of Picos between the volcanic Água de Pau and Sete Cidades from 31,000 years ago unifying the island. This formation integrated lavas, basaltic pyroclasts, tuff cones and trachyte domes into two layers (referred to as the Ponta Delgada and Penhal da Paz sub-deposits) and compiled to about 5,000 years ago. The peak area between Sete Cidades and Fogo is a monogenetic volcanic field composed of 270 volcanoes. They are primarily made up of basaltic cones which were formed during Strombolian and Hawaiian-style eruptions. This is the part of the island with most recent volcanic activity. The youngest volcanoes are relatively well dated. It is estimated that 19 eruptions have occurred during the last 3,000 years. Several eruptions have been witnessed and recorded by people. The last one took place in the 17th century. The most famous eruption is known as Fogo 2, which occurred in 1652. Biome The ancient laurisilva forest has mostly been replaced by cultivated fields and imported trees and plants, such as the ubiquitous cryptomeria trees. There are some hot springs (caldeiras), generally located in the center of the island, in the area stretching from Povoação to Nordeste. There is also an ocean hot spring called Ponta da Ferraria. The highest elevation on São Miguel is the Pico da Vara at . Lying at the eastern end of the island, it is the focus of a Special Protection Area containing the largest remnant of laurisilva forest on the island, which is home to the endemic and critically endangered bird, the Azores bullfinch. Whale watching tours, starting from Ponta Delgada and Vila Franca do Campo are available. One may see sea turtles, dolphins and humpback whales. Climate São Miguel has a mild maritime climate, which is drier in the summer and wetter in the winter, though according to the Köppen climate classification, four different climatic classifications can be found throughout the island. At lower elevations, the hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) dominates over the Humid subtropical climate (Cfa) typical of the more westerly islands and truly only found around Capelas. Above altitude, the Mediterranean climate transitions into its warm-summer variant (Csb), and past the climate is strictly oceanic (Cfb). The western half of the island is generally drier, due to the lower topography. Precipitation varies from less than in the Northwest coastline between Mosteiros and Ajuda da Bretanha, to over around Pico da Vara in the east. Similar to other islands in the archipelago, São Miguel is influenced by ocean currents and winds, and, in particular, the cyclonic Gulf Stream. This stream functions as a moderating force in the islands, keeping temperatures hovering between and throughout the year. The island's location also makes it susceptible to some Atlantic storms, and precipitation tends to be elevated during the winter periods. Winters are very mild by European standards and summers are warm (sometimes very warm due to the high humidity) and relatively dry. Temperatures above or below have never been recorded at the coast. Human geography Owing to the predominance of volcanic cones and craters in the interior, human settlement has developed primarily along coastal and interior plains. In addition, there are several communities that have developed within ancient craters (such as Sete Cidades, Furnas or Povoação), river-valleys (such as Ribeira Chã, Pilar da Bretanha) or coastal deltas (Mosteiros). Regardless, these settlements were largely agrarian and concentrated around the parish churches and the many fertile parcels of land. The communities were largely isolated throughout the year, owing to the great distances and rough landscape of the island, and only became integrated with the development of the many road networks that circle and bisect the island. Two cities have developed, largely because the island was divided by mountainous volcanic cones in the interior: Ponta Delgada and Ribeira Grande. Administratively, the island is governed by five municipalities, with Ponta Delgada and Ribeira Grande having more administrative functions associated with their larger populations: Lagoa, the youngest of the municipalities of São Miguel, has a populationp of about 14,126 inhabitants (2008 census), incorporating the south-central parishes east of Ponta Delgada; Nordeste, literally the north-eastern municipality, well known for an abundance of natural vegetation and the highest point on the island, Pico da Vara; Ponta Delgada, includes not only the industrial/commercial city of Ponta Delgada, but also many rural parishes, as well as the large crater of Sete Cidades; Povoação, home to the first colony on the island, Povoação is located in the south-east corner of the island, and includes active and dormant volcanic features, including Furnas and the crater of Povoação; Ribeira Grande, the second largest municipality, with approximately 30,852 inhabitants, received its charter in 1981, and incorporates an extensive area of the northern coast (including the parish of Rabo de Peixe, the largest parish by population); and Vila Franca do Campo, once the seat of the historical capital of São Miguel (until it was almost destroyed by earthquake and landslides in 1522), it is located along the southern coast between Lagoa and Povoação. Government is administered at the local level by the civil parish (), which are responsible for the provision of services and implementation of municipal initiatives. Based on the historical ecclesiastical limits established after settlement, the civil parishes are run by a president, treasurer and secretary (at the head of a parish council). These presidents have municipal council standing and represent their constituencies in the assemblies of the Câmara Municipal. On the island of São Miguel there are 64 local area authorities, that include: Achada Achadinha Água de Alto Água de Pau Água Retorta Algarvia Ajuda da Bretanha Arrifes Cabouco Calhetas Candelária Capelas Conceição Covoada Faial da Terra Fajã de Baixo Fajã de Cima Fenais da Ajuda Fenais da Luz Feteiras Furnas Ginetes Livramento Lomba da Fazenda Lomba da Maia Lomba de São Pedro Maia Matriz Mosteiros Nordeste Nossa Senhora dos Remédios Nossa Senhora do Rósario Pico da Pedra Pilar da Bretanha Ponta Garça Porto Formoso Povoação Rabo de Peixe Relva Remédios Ribeira Chã Ribeira das Tainhas Ribeira Quente Ribeira Seca (Ribeira Grande) Ribeira Seca (Vila Franca do Campo) Ribeirinha Salga Santa Bárbara (Ribeira Grande) Santa Bárbara (Ponta Delgada) Santa Clara Santa Cruz Santana Santo António Santo António de Nordestinho São Brás São José São Miguel São Pedro (Ponta Delgada) São Pedro (Vila Franca do Campo) São Pedro de Nordestinho São Roque São Sebastião São Vicente Ferreira Sete Cidades Transport Three bus routes operate in Ponta Delgada on weekdays from 07:00 to 19:00. Line A runs in the western part of town, line B in the central/north, and line C in the east. There are bus services between Ponta Delgada and most other towns on the island, but usually only a few times a day. City services and island-wide services are both accessible along "Avenida D. Infante Henriques" and conveniently accessible from major sites in Ponta Delgada. Up to date schedules are available at bus stops and the tourist office. Distances on the island are short with journeys rarely longer than 90 minutes. Joao Paulo II Airport (Ponta Delgado Airport) provides airline connections to all of the islands of the Azores as well as to Madeira and the mainland (namely, Lisbon, Porto, and Faro) as well as numerous international destinations in Europe and North America. Notable citizens References Notes Sources Global Volcanism Program: Azores External links In depth video from São Miguel Island – Site with abundant information about São Miguel Island 360 panoramas and photo tour of the island in Flash and HTML5 Islands of the Azores

425457

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models%20%28band%29

Models (band)

Models (also sometimes known as The Models) are an Australian rock band formed in Melbourne, Victoria in August 1978. They went into hiatus in 1988, but re-formed in 2000, 2006 and 2008 to perform reunion concerts. The band began regularly performing again from 2010 onwards. "Out of Mind, Out of Sight", their only No. 1 hit, appeared on the Australian singles charts in July 1985. The related album, Out of Mind, Out of Sight, peaked at No. 3 on the Australian albums charts after its release in August. Out of Mind, Out of Sight appeared on the Billboard 200 albums chart, with the single, "Out of Mind, Out of Sight", peaking at No. 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. An earlier song from the same album, "Barbados", had peaked at No. 2 on the Australian singles chart. Models early line-up included Andrew Duffield on keyboards, Mark Ferrie on bass guitar, Janis Freidenfelds (a.k.a. Johnny Crash) on drums and percussion, and Sean Kelly on vocals and lead guitar. A later line-up was mainstay Kelly on guitar, James Freud on vocals and bass, Roger Mason on keyboards, Barton Price on drums, and James Valentine on saxophone. Backing singers in the group included Zan Abeyratne and Kate Ceberano (both from I'm Talking) and Canadian-born Wendy Matthews. In early 1989, Duffield, Kelly, Matthews and Valentine were members of Absent Friends. On 27 October 2010, Models were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame by Matthews. History 1977–1979: Early years In 1977 Melbourne school friends Sean Kelly and James Freud formed their first band, Spread, which was soon renamed Teenage Radio Stars. They recorded two tracks for Suicide records' Lethal Weapons compilation album (1978). Singer and guitarist Sean Kelly left in 1978 to form Models with bass guitarist Peter Sutcliffe (a.k.a. Pierre Voltaire and Pierre Sutcliffe, who won $503,000 in May 2014, on Australian TV quiz show Million Dollar Minute) and Ash Wednesday (formerly of JAB on keyboards, Sutcliffe and Janis Friedenfelds (a.k.a. Johnny Crash) on drums and percussion. Models were more pop influenced than the earlier punk bands and had a wider appeal. The initial version of the group did not stay together for long as, after six months, Sutcliffe was replaced on bass by Mark Ferrie (ex-Myriad). In August 1979, Wednesday was replaced by Andrew Duffield from Whirlywirld on keyboards. Their first release in October 1979 was a give-away, shared single, "Early Morning Brain (It's Not Quite the Same as Sobriety)" backed with The Boys Next Door's "Scatterbrain". Friction within the band led to their decision to break up in November 1978. However they rapidly reformed at the end of December when ex-The Easybeats members, Harry Vanda and George Young, who were now record producers and songwriters, offered to cut some demos for them – Their second single, "Owe You Nothing" appeared in August 1980. Both singles were released on independent labels and did not chart on the Top 40 Australian singles chart according to the Kent Music Report. 1980–1982: Alphabravocharliedeltaechofoxtrotgolf to Local and/or General Models performed extensively both locally and interstate, supporting the Ramones, The B-52's, XTC, The Vapors and Midnight Oil on national tours. Rather than signing immediately, the group financed the recording of their first album to guarantee creative control. In November 1980, the Duffield, Ferrie, Friedenfelds and Kelly line-up released their first album, Alphabravocharliedeltaechofoxtrotgolf. They then, under manager Adrian Barker, signed to Mushroom Records and, as a sign of its respect for the band, the label agreed not to release any singles from the album, which peaked at No. 43 on the Australian Kent Music Report Albums Chart. It was well received by audiences on the live pub circuit. The group intended to record completely new material for their studio albums. Much of their earlier work was unreleased until 2002, when Models Melbourne, a compilation album of live material, was released. Models' early style was a spiky, distinctive blend of new wave, glam rock, dub and pop: which included Kelly's strangled singing voice, Duffield's virtuoso synthesiser performances (he used the EMS Synthi AKS), and the band's cryptic, slightly gruesome, lyrics (e.g., "Hans Stand: A War Record" from Alphabravocharliedeltaechofoxtrotgolf), which were mostly written or co-written by Kelly. Early in 1981, following a support slot for The Police, the group signed an international deal with A&M Records. Friedenfelds was replaced on drums by Mark Hough (a.k.a. Buster Stiggs) from New Zealand band The Swingers before recording commenced on their international label release. Friedenfields went on to play with Sacred Cowboys, Beasts of Bourbon, The Slaughterman and Tombstone Hands. The band went to England to record with producer, Stephen Tayler producing. at Farmyard Studios, these tracks becoming the album Local and/or General. In June, demo sessions recorded earlier in Australia so impressed the band that they were released as a 10" mini album, Cut Lunch (July 1981), which was produced by Tony Cohen and Models except one by Split Enz keyboard player Eddie Rayner. Cut Lunch peaked at No. 37 on the albums chart and at No. 38 on the singles chart. It included the whimsical pop tune, "Two Cabs to the Toucan". In October, their second full-length album Local &/or General, was released. Local and/or General peaked at No. 30 and provided the single, "Local &/or General" in November, which did not chart. Both albums helped widen their audience nationally, thanks to regular radio exposure on Triple J in Sydney and on community stations in other cities, as well as national TV exposure through their innovative music videos on programs such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC-TV) pop music show Countdown. During 1982, further line-up changes occurred with Ferrie and Hough leaving early in the year. Ferrie went on to form Sacred Cowboys with Garry Gray and Terry Doolan. He later (as of November 2010) became bass player in the RocKwiz house band on SBS TV. Hough became a graphic artist, art director and designer. James Freud (ex-Teenage Radio Stars, James Freud & Berlin) joined the band on bass and vocals, with John Rowell on guitar and Graham Scott on drums (both ex-Curse). Kelly and Freud had been in high school bands which developed into Teenage Radio Stars. Freud had a solo hit single, "Modern Girl", which peaked at No. 12 in 1980. Rowell and Scott left Models in May 1982, with Duffield following. New Zealand drummer, Barton Price (ex-Crocodiles, Sardine v) joined. They recorded a single, "On", produced by veteran rocker, Lobby Loyde, and released in August. It had no mainstream chart success, but peaked at No. 1 on the independent charts. Gus Till (ex-Beargarden) briefly joined on keyboards until Duffield rejoined in December. In 1982 they made a film, Pop Movie, which featured animation and live footage of the band, it was screened on TV rock show, Nightmoves, as well as at a few cinemas. 1983–1985: The Pleasure of Your Company to Out of Mind, Out of Sight Models' line-up of Duffield, Freud, Kelly and Price issued the highly regarded The Pleasure of Your Company in October 1983, produced by Nick Launay. Its big drum sound and dance-ability, reflected Launay's influence, and Freud's more radio-friendly voice made the album more accessible. The album was critically acclaimed and peaked at No. 12, with the single "I Hear Motion" becoming a No. 16 hit. Duffield later explained that the song's distinctive keyboard part had been inspired by a riff from Stevie Wonder's hit "Superstition". "I Hear Motion" was used on the soundtrack for the Yahoo Serious film Young Einstein (1988). The band released two other singles, "God Bless America" and "No Shoulders, No Head", but neither charted into the Top 50. The band supported David Bowie for the Australian leg of his Serious Moonlight Tour in November. Kelly and Duffield were invited to sing backing vocals on the INXS album, The Swing. The video for "God Bless America", from March 1984, featured backing singers Zan Abeyratne and Kate Ceberano (both members of I'm Talking). Kelly appeared ready to disband Models and was even rehearsing with a new band. Mushroom Records convinced him to continue with Models and their next single, "Big on Love" produced by Reggie Lucas, was released in November 1984 and peaked at No. 24. Fellow Australian band INXS were fans of Models; their manager, Chris Murphy signed them to his MMA management company. The group created a hybrid of their alternative roots with a more commercial sound and, under the influence of Murphy, they reassessed their direction and moved towards a more radio-friendly format. By late 1984, Models relocated to Sydney and Duffield – with his crucial influence on the band's sound – was forced out by Murphy under acrimonious circumstances to be replaced by Roger Mason (ex-James Freud's Berlin) on keyboards and James Valentine on saxophone. Duffield released a solo album, Ten Happy Fingers in 1986 on his own Retrograde Records label. For touring during 1983 to 1985, the group was regularly augmented by backing singers Abeyratne and Ceberano; and in 1985, Canadian-born singer Wendy Matthews joined. Matthews and Kelly became a couple, remaining together for 11 years, and later founded the band Absent Friends. In early 1985, Models started recording material for their next album, Out of Mind, Out of Sight, produced by Launay, Lucas and Mark Opitz. A single from the album, "Barbados", was released in March, which peaked at No. 2. It was a reggae influenced song co-written by Freud and Duffield (prior to his departure). The song related a tale of alcoholism and suicide, it later provided Freud with the titles of his two autobiographies, I Am the Voice Left from Drinking (2002) and I Am the Voice Left from Rehab (2007). The video clip was influenced by the film, The Deer Hunter, it included a cameo by Garry Gary Beers of INXS and was directed by Richard Lowenstein. On 13 July, Models performed four songs for the Oz for Africa concert (part of the global Live Aid program) – "Big on Love", "I Hear Motion", "Stormy Tonight", "Out of Mind, Out of Sight". It was broadcast in Australia (on both Seven Network and Nine Network) and on MTV in the United States. Models went on a national tour with I'm Talking in July. In November, the band appeared on The Royal Variety Performance for Prince Charles and Princess Diana – Rocking the Royals at the Victoria State Arts Centre. The band released their most commercially successful work with the No. 1 hit single "Out of Mind, Out of Sight" in June and the No. 3 album Out of Mind, Out of Sight in August. "Out of Mind, Out of Sight" was the only No. 1 single on the Australian singles chart for 1985 by an Australian artist. (Midnight Oil's Species Deceases which peaked at No. 1 on the singles charts in December 1985 was an EP.) For the album, Models were Freud, Kelly, Mason, Matthews, Price and Valentine with Zan Abeyratne, and her twin sister, Sherine Abeyratne (Big Pig) on backing vocals. "Cold Fever" released in October was their next single, which peaked into the Top 40. It was followed by a Christmas single, "King of Kings", which contains portions of a speech by Martin Luther King Jr., issued in December with all proceeds donated to the Salvation Army, but it did not chart into the Top 50. In 1986, Geffen Records released Out of Mind, Out of Sight in the US and it appeared on the Billboard 200 albums chart, with the single, "Out of Sight, Out of Mind", peaking at No. 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart. The band toured the US in November supporting Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark. 1986–1988: Models' Media to dissolution In 1986, Models went to UK to record their next album, Models' Media, with Julian Mendelsohn and Opitz, at Trevor Horn's state-of-the-art SARM West Studios in London. Two singles peaked into the Top 30, "Evolution" in September, and "Let's Kiss" in November. Models' Media was released in December and peaked at No. 30 but was less successful than Out of Mind, Out of Sight. Models also featured on the Australian Made Tour of late 1986 to January 1987 with INXS, Mental as Anything, The Triffids, I'm Talking, The Saints, Divinyls and Jimmy Barnes on the ticket. "Hold On" was released in March 1987 and peaked in the Top 30, their final single was a cover of The Beatles' "Oh! Darling" in September which peaked in the Top 50. During 1987, Ceberano and Matthews sang together on the soundtrack for ABC-TV series, Stringer, the resultant album, You've Always Got the Blues was released in 1988, and peaked at No. 4 on the albums chart. Models members, including Mason as lead singer and Kelly on bass guitar, formed a side-project, The Clampetts, to record covers of nine country music tracks, which was released in 1987 as The Last Hoedown. Valentine left Models to pursue a radio and television journalism career. In 1988, the Thank You Goodnight Tour was conducted but the pressures of ten years of touring, as well as financial troubles, hastened the break-up of Models, which was announced in June 1988, however in 2008, Kelly disputed the break-up: 1988–current: post-dissolution and reunions Models' extended live exposure ensured that they stayed in the public eye when other contemporaries had been forgotten: the band's later work remained popular on radio throughout the 1990s; this, coupled with critical acclaim and cult appeal of earlier work, re-stimulated interest in their work in the latter half of that decade. The band reformed for a few gigs in 2000; in 2001 their rarities album Melbourne was released. Freud has written two memoirs, I Am The Voice Left From Drinking (2002) and I Am The Voice Left From Rehab (2007); the titles are both taken from "Barbados" and allude to his addiction with drugs and alcohol, and his subsequent recovery attempts. Kelly and Matthews formed Absent Friends in early 1989 which included ex-Models members Duffield, Mason and Valentine. With Matthews on lead vocals their 1990 hit single, "I Don’t Want to Be with Nobody but You" peaked at No. 4 on the ARIA Charts. The associated album, Here's Looking Up Your Address peaked at No. 7. Absent Friends disbanded in 1991 and Kelly fronted The Dukes from 1991 to 1994. Matthews provided a No. 11 hit with her first solo album Émigré late in 1990. She followed with Lily, which peaked at No. 2 in 1992, and provided her best performed single, "The Day You Went Away", which also peaked at No. 2. Matthews and Kelly separated as a couple in the mid-1990s. Duffield wrote music (including the theme) for the Australian children's TV series, Round the Twist; and in 2007 composed all music and sound effects for the TV comedy, Kick. Duffield teamed up with Phil Kennihan to found a successful advertising music partnership. Mason has composed soundtracks for many feature films and television series both locally and internationally. Valentine later worked in children's TV, is a popular radio host on 702 ABC Sydney and published a successful series of children's books. Price returned to New Zealand after stints with various Australian bands, and the world's first drum sample CD. Wednesday formed Crashland and plays with German avant garde band Einstürzende Neubauten. Various versions of Models have reformed on several occasions for short tours, including in 2006 and in September 2008. The 2008 version was: Kelly, Freud, his son Jackson Freud (from Attack of the Mannequins) on guitar, Tim Rosewarne (ex-Big Pig, Chocolate Starfish) on keyboards and Cameron Goold (Propaganda Klann, Christine Anu backing band) on drums. In August 2010, Duffield, Ferrie, Kelly and Price reformed for two concerts in Sydney and Melbourne. On 27 October, Models were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame by Matthews. The line-up of Duffield, Ferrie, Kelly, Mason, Price and Valentine performed "I Hear Motion" and "Evolution". Matthews recalled meeting the group for the first time at a recording session – she was due to provide backing vocals but they were busy playing indoor cricket in the studio. During the ceremony, Kelly explained Freud's absence by saying he had "another bicycle accident". A week later, Freud was found dead at his Hawthorn home on 4 November in a suspected suicide. In 2013, Models (consisting of Duffield, Ferrie, Kelly, and Price) issued a self-released four-song EP titled GTK. A follow-up EP was issued in 2015: titled Memo, it also consisted of four songs. Members Current members Sean Kelly – lead vocals, guitar, clarinet (1978–1988, 2000–2001, 2006, 2008, 2010–present) Mark Ferrie – bass guitar (1979–1982, 2001, 2010–present) Andrew Duffield – keyboards (1979–1982, 1982–1984, 2010–present) Ash Davies – drums (2010–present) Former members Janis Freidenfelds a.k.a. Johnny Crash – drums, percussion (1978–1981; died 2014) Peter Sutcliffe a.k.a. Pierre Voltaire – bass guitar (1978–1979) Ash Wednesday – keyboards (1978–1979, 2001) Mark Hough a.k.a. Buster Stiggs – drums (1981–1982; died 2018) James Freud – bass guitar, lead and backing vocals (1982–1988, 2000–2001, 2006, 2008; died 2010) John Rowell – guitar (1982) Graham Scott – drums (1982) Barton Price – drums (1982–1988, 2000) Gus Till – keyboards (1982) James Valentine – saxophone (1984–1987) Roger Mason – keyboards, backing vocals (1984–1988, 2000) Kate Ceberano – backing vocals (1983–1985) Zan Abeyratne – backing vocals (1983–1985) Sherine Abeyratne – backing vocals (1983–1985) Wendy Matthews – backing vocals (1985–1988) Jackson Freud – guitar (2008) Tim Rosewarne – keyboards (2008) Cameron Goold – drums (2008) Discography Studio albums Compilation albums Live albums Extended plays Singles Notes A."Early Morning Brain (It's Not Quite the Same as Sobriety)" was originally released by Models as a shared single with The Boys Next Door's "Scatterbrain" on the flip-side. B.Cut Lunch (EP) charted on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart, with "Cut Lunch" and "Two Cabs to the Toucan" as the most played radio tunes. "Cut Lunch" also peaked on the related Singles Chart. Awards and nominations ARIA Music Awards The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987. Models were inducted into the Hall of Fame in 2010. |- | rowspan="2" | ARIA Music Awards of 1987 | Mark Opitz for Models Media by Models | ARIA Award for Producer of the Year | |- | Richard Alan forModels Media by Models | ARIA Award for Best Cover Art | |- | ARIA Music Awards of 2010 | Models | ARIA Hall of Fame | Countdown Music Awards Countdown was an Australian pop music TV series on national broadcaster ABC-TV from 1974–1987, it presented music awards from 1979–1987, initially in conjunction with magazine TV Week. The TV Week / Countdown Awards were a combination of popular-voted and peer-voted awards. |- | rowspan="2" |1983 | The Pleasure of Your Company | Best Australian Album | |- | "I Hear Motion" | Best Single | |- | 1984 | "Big On Love"" | Best Group Performance in a Video | |- | 1985 | "Out of Mind, Out of Sight" | Best Single | |- References General Note: Archived [on-line] copy has limited functionality. Note: [on-line] version established at White Room Electronic Publishing Pty Ltd in 2007 and was expanded from the 2002 edition. As from September 2010, [on-line] version appears to have an Internal Service Error. Specific External links [ Models discography] at Billboard Models discography at MusicBrainz ARIA Award winners ARIA Hall of Fame inductees Musical groups established in 1978 Victoria (state) musical groups Australian new wave musical groups Australian post-punk groups

425483

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Kenseth

Matt Kenseth

Matthew Roy Kenseth (born March 10, 1972) is an American former professional stock car racing driver who currently serves as the competition advisor for Legacy Motor Club in the NASCAR Cup Series. He competes part-time in the Superstar Racing Experience. (SRX), driving the No. 8 car. He also currently competes often in Slinger Speedway, where he holds the record for most Slinger Nationals wins. Kenseth started racing on several short tracks in Wisconsin and won track championships at Madison International Speedway, Slinger Super Speedway and Wisconsin International Raceway. He moved to the ARTGO, American Speed Association, and Hooters Late Model touring series before getting a full-time ride in the NASCAR Busch Series (now Xfinity Series) for his former Wisconsin short track rival Robbie Reiser, finishing second and third in the standings. Kenseth moved up to the NASCAR Winston Cup Series. He won the series' Rookie of the Year honors in 2000 and the final Winston Cup championship in 2003. The International Race of Champions invited Kenseth to race in their 2004 season as the reigning champion and he won the season championship. In 2009, he won a rain-shortened Daytona 500 and won a second Daytona 500 in 2012. As of 2022, he is the last driver to compete in at least one NASCAR Cup Series race in four consecutive decades (1990s, 2000s, 2010s, 2020s). He is the father of Ross Kenseth. Early life and career Kenseth was born in Cambridge, Wisconsin. He made an agreement with his father, Roy, that Roy should buy a car and race, and Matt would work on the car until he was old enough to race. Kenseth began stock car racing in 1988 at the age of 16 at Madison International Speedway. "My dad bought a car when I was 13 and raced it at Madison," Kenseth said. "Neither of us knew much and it was a learning experience," He continued to race in 1988 and 1989. "My first car – what might be considered a sportsman – was a 1981 Camaro that Todd Kropf had driven to championships at Madison and Columbus 151 Speedway. On the third night out I won a feature. I ran 15 features in 1983 and won two of them." "The first night out in the Kropf car Matt won a heat race," said Kenseth's father Roy. "The third night he won the feature by holding off two of the best drivers at the track, Pete Moore and Dave Phillips, for 20 laps. Matt was smooth. I knew then he was going to be a racer." He ran for the points title on Saturday nights at Wisconsin Dells in 1989. He finished second in points and won eight features. On Friday nights, he ran about half of the races at Golden Sands Speedway and half at Columbus 151 Speedway. In 1990, he bought a late model from Rich Bickle. In the season-opening race at Slinger Super Speedway, Kenseth inherited the lead and won his only race of the season when track champion Tony Strupp had a flat tire. He finished sixth in season points and won the track's rookie of the year award. Kenseth entered fifteen ARTGO events that season and raced in 40 features that year. After graduating from Cambridge High School that summer, Kenseth worked for four years selling and shipping parts for Left-hander Chassis, a late model racecar chassis manufacturer just south of the Wisconsin-Illinois border. In 1991 he won the ARTGO race at La Crosse Fairgrounds Speedway to become the youngest winner in the series' history. He passed Joe Shear and Steve Holzhausen, and held off Steve and Tom Carlson for the win. 1992 was a difficult year for Kenseth. He won three races and blew up more engines than he could count. He was ready to quit racing after the season. "I felt we were at a standstill,” he said. "I wasn't gaining. My dad and I had some major discussions at the end of the year. We had to find the dollars for a good program or I told him I would rather not race." Kipley Performance loaned a motor to Kenseth for the season-final race at La Crosse and the team ran better. Kenseth built a new car for 1993 using a Kipley engine. He used the car at Madison to win eight features and finished second in the points. Mike Butz offered Kenseth the chance to race his late model, and it took some time for the combination to stop struggling before they started winning features. At the end of the season, they won the final short track series race at Madison, La Crosse, and I-70 Speedway. He finished third in the points Butz's car at Wisconsin International Raceway. The 1994 and 1995 seasons established Kenseth as a short track star. Kenseth made a name for himself while driving at several Wisconsin tracks, beating nationally known drivers such as Dick Trickle and Robbie Reiser. He raced 60 times in three different cars in 1994, winning track championships at both Wisconsin International Raceway (WIR) on Thursday nights and Madison on Friday nights. Kenseth competed against Reiser at Madison, and won 12 of 17 features at the track. He won the 1994 Slinger Nationals at Slinger Super Speedway. In 1995, he repeated with back-to-back championships at WIR and Runner-Up at Madison, plus he won the Red, White, and Blue state championship series at WIR on three Saturday nights. Butz's wife Patty Butz said "We knew by 1995 that Matt had too much talent to be with us for very long." Kenseth decided to move across the country in 1996 to the Southern United States to race for engine builder Carl Wegner in the Hooters Series Late Model series. The plan was to run the Hooters Series, five NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series races, and five Busch Series before moving full-time into the Busch Series in 1997. He finished third in the Hooters Series, nearly winning the series championship as a rookie. In 1996, Kenseth made his Busch Series debut at the spring race at Lowe's Motor Speedway for Wegner, finishing 22nd after starting 30th in a car rented from Bobby Dotter. Kenseth was disappointed because they were unable to attract major sponsorship. "It was just like 1992,” Kenseth said. "Plans just didn't work. I thought things would be different. Personally, I had moved and was adjusting to being a thousand miles from home." At the end of the season, the Wegner/Kenseth team closed, and Kenseth found a ride for Gerry Gunderman's American Speed Association team, who was also Alan Kulwicki's last shop in Wisconsin before moving to NASCAR. The team raced together for two races in 1997 before Kenseth received a telephone call from a former competitor. Busch Series In 1997, driver Tim Bender was injured, and Bender's crew chief/car owner Robbie Reiser hired his former competitor and rival Kenseth to race for him despite having only one Busch start. Reiser said "Matt and I used to have some fierce races against each other. I needed someone who understood race cars the way I understood them. I knew he could drive and he could talk to me in a manner I could understand." Kenseth qualified third for the new team's first race. He was racing in third place in the final laps when he spun and finished eleventh. Kenseth qualified in 20th place for the next race at Talladega in his second time at a track big enough to have a significant draft. He passed thirteen cars to finish seventh. Kenseth had two Top 5 finishes during the partial season. The following year he raced full-time all season. He won his first Busch Series race on February 22, 1998, when he nudged leader Tony Stewart's car entering the final turn of the final lap, culmulating in a second- and third-place finishes in the Busch points. Kenseth drove the No. 17 Chevy. Kenseth won the last two races of the Busch season in 2006 driving the No. 17 Ford Fusion, at Phoenix and Homestead. In 2007, Kenseth planned to run 23 Busch race. Kenseth won the Stater Brothers 300 at California Speedway in February and the O'Reilly 300 at Texas Motor Speedway in April. Kenseth broke an 18 race winless streak as he won the 2008 Nicorette 300 at the Atlanta Motor Speedway. Kenseth's 23rd career series victory came after the series was renamed the Nationwide Series. On lap 104 at the 2009 Aaron 312 on April 25, Kenseth took a wild ride flipping over 3.5 times, sliding on his roof, then completed a fourth flip. The car burst into flames, and Kenseth walked away. Kenseth won the Diamond Hill Plywood 200 at Darlington Raceway in 2009. Kenseth led only the last four laps of the race – three of them under caution – after Busch had to pull into the pits due to a flat right-rear tire during the penultimate caution period and just as the race was about to get into a green-white-checkered finish. On May 28, 2011, Kenseth won the Top Gear 300 at Charlotte. Kenseth, filling in for Trevor Bayne, passed Roush Fenway teammate Carl Edwards with two laps to go to win his only Nationwide Start of the 2011 season. In 2013, Kenseth returned to the Nationwide Series for 16 races driving Joe Gibbs Racing's No. 18 Toyota. Kenseth finished with 7 top-five and 14 top-ten finishes. He won the summer race in Daytona and the fall race in Kansas. In 2014, Kenseth drove in 19 races in the No. 20, with 10 top-five and 15 top-ten finishes. He won the last race of the year at Homestead, his 29th and final career victory in the Series. Cup Series 1998–1999 Kenseth's first Winston Cup series race attempt came at Talladega in May 1998. Jack Roush of Roush Racing was interested in hiring Kenseth and the rest of the Reiser team, so he had Kenseth attempt Talladega in the No. 60 Ford. However this was a sixth entry for Roush in the race, and did not have a powerful enough engine to make the field. Kenseth's next attempt was at Dover in 1998, when he filled in for Bill Elliott in his No. 94 Ford for Elliott-Marino Racing. Elliott was attending his father's funeral on the day of the race. He finished sixth, the third best debut of any driver. The last driver before Kenseth to debut with a top-ten finish had been Rusty Wallace in 1980 with a second-place finish in Atlanta. Kenseth and the No. 17 Reiser Racing team were hired for several Cup Series races in 1999 by Roush Racing. 2000–02 In 2000, Roush hired the No. 17 team full-time for Cup Series racing with a sponsorship from DeWalt. Kenseth beat out Dale Earnhardt Jr. to win the Raybestos Rookie of the Year. He won the Coca-Cola 600 at Charlotte, and is the only rookie to win the famed 600 mile event. He went on to finish 14th in points with four Top 5s and 11 Top 10s, and an average finish of 18.9. In 2001, Kenseth didn't win but improved to 13th in points with four Top 5s and nine Top 10 finishes. Robbie Reiser and Kenseth's pit crew won the Unocal 76 World Pit Crew Competition. In 2002, Kenseth won the most races—five total—and one pole, but inconsistency caused him to finish eighth in the final points. His wins came at Rockingham, Texas, Michigan, Richmond, and Phoenix. Kenseth's pit crew won a second Unocal 76 World Pit Crew Competition. 2003 In 2003, he dominated in the points standings and leading the last 33 of 36 races and became the 2003 NASCAR Winston Cup champion, the last driver to ever hold that title. Kenseth also had a series best 25 Top 10 finishes in the 2003 season. 2003 began with a 20th-place finish in the Daytona 500, but quickly sped to the front. Fresh off his only win of the season at Las Vegas, Kenseth took the point standings lead after a fourth-place finish at Atlanta in the season's fourth week. He never relinquished the top spot, remaining No. 1 for 33 consecutive weeks, and setting a new modern-era record for most weeks at No. 1. The previous mark was 30 weeks, set by Dale Earnhardt during his first title season of 1980. With one race remaining, he clinched the 2003 series crown with a fourth-place finish at Rockingham on Nov. 9, in the season's penultimate event. He finished with a 90-point margin over runner-up Jimmie Johnson. He displayed amazing consistency during his title run, spending 35 of 36 weeks in the NASCAR Top 10. Only week outside that elite group came after a 20th-place finish in the season-opening Daytona 500. He finished with one win, 11 Top 5s, and a series-high 25 Top 10 finishes. He became the fifth different champion in five years, and the third consecutive former Raybestos Rookie of the Year to win the series title. At Charlotte, Kenseth won his second pole of the year. He was battling a loose/tight car. On a late caution, Kenseth took a gamble with a few other drivers and stayed out on the track during the last caution of the race. It paid off and he finished in fourth-place. Championship controversy After the 2003 season, Kenseth's championship became a source of controversy and criticism. Critics of the Winston Cup points system, most notably Roger Penske, questioned how a driver could win a season championship despite winning only one race out of 36 during the season. Additionally, the fact that Kenseth led the points standings for 33 weeks despite only having the one victory, as well as already having clinched the Winston Cup title with one week to go in the season (rendering the final race in essence a non-event) led to discussions on how to prevent Kenseth's feat from happening again (by comparison, in 2000, under the same points system, Bobby Labonte had won the Winston Cup championship after leading in points for 31 of the 34 races and also clinched the championship one race early but unlike Kenseth, Labonte won four races in his championship year). Kenseth finished that year with 11 top-five finishes and 25 top-ten finishes. As a result, 2004 saw the implementation of a new points and playoffs system titled "The Chase for the Nextel Cup" after Winston was replaced as primary sponsor of NASCAR's top series by Nextel Communications. In essence, the system created a 10 race playoff, with only the top-ten drivers in points after the first 26 races competing for the championship. Moreover, the system placed an emphasis, and a points premium, on wins. As a result, the term "The Matt Kenseth Rule" was coined to describe NASCAR's adoption of the current points system. NASCAR acknowledged that the 2003 championship outcome was not the driving factor in establishment of The Chase, as it had been researching methods to adjust the points system to put more emphasis on winning races since 2000. However, the coincidence of the commencement of the new format in 2004 and Kenseth's 2003 championship linked the issues, and were even referred to by NASCAR officials in the interviews and press releases following the announcement of the new format. 2004–05 In 2004, Kenseth won the International Race of Champions (IROC) championship. He qualified for the inaugural Nextel Cup, finished eighth in the final NASCAR point standings. Kenseth finished with two wins, those coming back-to-back early in the year at Rockingham and Las Vegas. His win in the Subway 400 at Rockingham was a photo finish with eventual Raybestos Rookie of the Year Kasey Kahne. He also won the All-Star Race. Began the 10-race Chase in 5th place and finished eighth, and is of only four drivers to be ranked in the Top 10 all season. Kenseth started the 2005 season with relatively poor finishes but had a strong mid-season run. He rose from the 24th position in championship points after fourteen races to eighth after 26 races, and he qualified for the Chase for the Cup. He finished seventh in the final points standings with one win coming at Bristol. Kenseth made his 200th career start. His totals after his first 200 starts were: one championship, 10 wins, 40 Top 5s, 85 Top 10s, one pole position, and more than $28.5 million earnings. He also led a career high 1,001 laps. 2006–10 Kenseth began the 2006 season by leading early in the Daytona 500 before spinning his car after contact with Tony Stewart. He fell two laps down to the leaders, but rallied back to a 15th-place finish. He won the following race at California Speedway, and became the points leader after the eighth race at Phoenix. In the Dover spring race, he won his second race of the season after recovering from the sixth position with sixty laps to reclaim the lead from Jamie McMurray on lap 397. With twelve races remaining in the season, Kenseth won the Sharpie 500 at the Bristol Motor Speedway, securing his position in the Chase for the Nextel Cup. He finished the year with winnings of $9,524,966, his take for second place in the Driver's Championship. During the season, he was either first or second in points for 27 of the 36 weeks, and led 1,132 laps, which ranked second among all drivers. In the second race of the 2007 season, Kenseth won the Auto Club 500 at California Speedway. After Jeff Gordon wrecked out of the Coca-Cola 600, Kenseth was left as the only driver to complete every lap of the season until he was wrecked out of the Citizens Bank 400 at Michigan where Ryan Newman was trying to get one of his three laps back. The wreck also ended Kenseth's streak of 13 consecutive Top 15s that season. At Watkins Glen, Kenseth while running seventh during a red flag period, saw a shirtless fan run up to his car and request an autograph to his white baseball cap. Kenseth politely declined and security escorted the fan out of the track. Kenseth later expressed regret for not signing the cap. Kenseth won the Ford 400 at Homestead-Miami Speedway on November 18, 2007. The race was the final event under series title sponsor Nextel, and the final race using the templates originally based on the 1964 Holman Moody Ford Fairlane template. Kenseth finished fourth in series points, and as a result, finished in the Top 10 in the standings for six consecutive seasons, tied with Jimmie Johnson for the most. He earned $6,485,630 in winnings. He also won an additional $100,000 dollars from his sponsor, Safeway. In 2008, Kenseth was winless and fell to 11th in the points standings. His best finish was second at the fall race at Dover. He had five Top 10 finishes during the Chase. This ended his streak of winning at least one race in six consecutive seasons and finishing in the Top 10 in the standings in six consecutive seasons. Kenseth started toward the back for the Daytona 500 and worked his way to the lead and led two laps, but soon after his own teammate, David Ragan, squeezed him into the wall, knocking both out of contention and resulting in a finish of 36th. In the Goody's Cool Orange 500, Kenseth started 28th but finished 31st. He was held a lap for pitting outside of his box early, but later was spun out by David Gilliland and was held for two laps for intentionally wrecking him back. Despite that, Gilliland finished 24th. Kenseth won the rain shortened 2009 Daytona 500, passing Elliott Sadler mere moments before the caution came out on lap 146 as the result of an accident on the backstretch between Aric Almirola and Sam Hornish Jr. The red flag was later waved and subsequent end of the race, 152 laps in, followed, giving Kenseth his first Daytona 500 victory, and the first Daytona 500 victory for his owner Jack Roush after 20 years as a car owner. He led only one green flag lap (of seven laps led), after starting the race at the rear of the field. It was Kenseth's tenth attempt at "The Great American Race". Kenseth won the second race of the season, the (Auto Club 500), to become the fourth driver in NASCAR history to follow up a win at the Daytona 500 with another win the following race. Kenseth's bids for a third straight victory went south after engine failure at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. He finished 43rd. Kenseth flipped his car during the April Nationwide Series race at Talladega. Kenseth won in the Nationwide series for his 24th win at Darlington. He also won the pole at Darlington in the Sprint Cup Series, setting a new track record in the process. After finishing 25th at the Chevy Rock and Roll 400 at Richmond, Kenseth was bumped out of the Chase by Brian Vickers. This left Jimmie Johnson as the only driver to have made the Chase every time since its inception from 2004 up until he failed to make the field in 2019. As a result, Kenseth finished 14th in points. In 2010, following the Daytona 500, Drew Blickenderfer was released from his duties as crew chief of the No. 17 team. Todd Parrott was announced as his replacement. Later in the year, Parrott was replaced by Jimmy Fennig. Despite not winning a race, Kenseth made the Chase through his consistency and finished fifth in the final standings. 2011 During the third race of the 2011 season, Kenseth captured his fifth pole of his career by setting a new track record at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. A few races later, Kenseth snapped a 76-race winless streak at Texas Motor Speedway by winning the race on April 9, 2011. Kenseth also won the FedEx 400 benefitting Autism Speaks at Dover International Speedway. On a late caution, Kenseth and crew chief Jimmy Fennig called an audible in the pits and decided to go with two tires instead of four. That proved to be all the difference as Kenseth won for the second time in 5 races. Once he made the Chase for the Sprint Cup, he won the Bank of America 500 at Charlotte Motor Speedway for his third win of the season. Kenseth's second championship hopes went south after several altercations with Brian Vickers. 2012: Final Season At Roush Kenseth's 2012 season started with him winning his second Daytona 500. On June 26, 2012, it was announced that Kenseth would leave Roush Fenway Racing after the 2012 season. Kenseth did not discuss the details of where he would be racing in 2013 and beyond. When he was asked by reporters if he would give them a hint as to what team he would be with after the 2012 season, where he was in contention for his second championship, Kenseth wryly responded, "No." On August 25, while leading the 2012 Irwin Tools Night Race at Bristol on lap 332, Kenseth collided with Tony Stewart when neither driver would lift in the entrance to Turn 1. Stewart threw his helmet at Kenseth's car as he left pit road. Kenseth and Stewart had overcome being a lap down earlier in the race before the crash took them out of contention for a win at Bristol. On October 7, 2012, Kenseth won his second race of the year, winning the fall race at Talladega as a crash unfolded behind him. He led the second-most laps of the race with 33. On October 21, 2012, Kenseth won his third race of the year and second during the 2012 Chase at a freshly paved Kansas Speedway in Kansas City, Kansas. The repaving created a slick track that brought out a record 14 cautions for 66 laps during the Hollywood Casino 400 Sprint Cup race. This was Kenseth's first win at the Kansas track and the 24th of his career, and his last with Roush Fenway Racing. 2013: First Season At JGR On September 4, 2012, it was officially announced that Kenseth would be joining Joe Gibbs Racing for the 2013 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season, driving the No. 20 Toyota, replacing Joey Logano with the team. In the 2013 Daytona 500, Kenseth had a strong car, leading the most laps at 86. However, on lap 149, his day ended with engine failure. He finished 37th. At Las Vegas, Kenseth won his first race in the No. 20 and became the third driver after Kyle Busch and Cale Yarborough to win on their birthday after holding off Kasey Kahne. At Kansas, Kenseth won the pole, led the most laps, and won the race after holding off another furious charge from Kasey Kahne. However, afterwards, he was penalized 50 points after his engine failed post-race inspection. One of the eight connector rods was three grams under the legal limit. His pole award was revoked and his win no longer counted towards the Chase points. Crew chief Jason Ratcliff was penalized $200,000.00 and suspended for one race. Car owner Joe Gibbs would not receive any owner points for 6 races. The engine builder, Toyota, would not receive any manufacturer points for five races. Joe Gibbs appealed the penalties. Two weeks later, car owner Joe Gibbs met with the appeals board. The appeals board, feeling that the penalties were too harsh because Kenseth won the race, reversed a variety of penalties. Kenseth was awarded 38 Chase points back, leaving his penalty at just 12 points. He moved up seven spots to fourth-place. Kenseth's pole award and win were reinstated, giving him two poles and two official wins. Gibbs' owner points suspension was lowered to one race, but the $200,000.00 fine stood, and crew chief Jason Ratcliff was suspended for one race. The Toyota manufacturer's points suspension was increased to seven races. At Darlington for the Southern 500, Kenseth passed his teammate Kyle Busch with ten laps remaining to win his third race of the season and his first Sprint Cup Series win at the track. At Kentucky, Kenseth took the lead after Johnson spun out, and held off Jamie McMurray to take his fourth win of the season. After struggling a few weeks, Kenseth had better success when the series returned to Bristol. He held off Kasey Kahne for a third time to win his fifth race of the year. With five wins in the regular season, Kenseth was the top seed in the Chase. He opened by holding off Kyle Busch to win the opening two Chase races at Chicagoland and at Loudon, his first wins on both of those tracks. With the win at Loudon, Kenseth joined Richard Petty as the only two drivers to win in their 500th race start. It also moved him into 22nd-place, passing Rex White, on the all-time wins list. Going into the last race of the season at Homestead, only three drivers could win the Chase. Kenseth trailed Jimmie Johnson by 28 points and led Kevin Harvick by five points for second. Kenseth won the pole. Harvick started sixth and Johnson started seventh. At the start, Kenseth had the dominant car. He led a race-high 144 laps to get the bonus point. The only trouble that Kenseth had was on the restart after a caution with 74 laps remaining. He was behind Jeff Gordon, who spun his tires causing an accordion effect. Cars scattered everywhere. Kenseth and Johnson bumped each other causing Kenseth to drop to 12th and Johnson down to 26th. Kenseth made his way back up to finish second behind his teammate Denny Hamlin. Johnson finished in ninth-place to win the 2013 championship, beating Kenseth by 19 points. Kenseth finished second in the final points standings also. With seven wins, Kenseth had given the No. 20 more wins in a single season than the car ever had in an individual season being driven by Tony Stewart or Joey Logano. It was also a career best for Kenseth, outdoing his five race wins in 2002. But had the current format been introduced, Kenseth would've lost his 2003 title to Jimmie Johnson but would end up being 2013 champion beating Johnson. 2014 At Daytona, for the 2014 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, in the first of two Budweiser Duels, Kenseth held off Kevin Harvick (whose race was later disqualified) and Kasey Kahne for the win in a three-wide finish. With the win, he started third in the Daytona 500. Kenseth did not lead a lap, but finished sixth. With the new Chase format, Kenseth won no races, but still advances. His best finish was second at Atlanta after Kasey Kahne passed him for the lead with fresh tires on the second Green-White-Checkered attempt. He led all drivers that had no wins in points. Still with no wins, Kenseth made it past the first two elimination rounds. During the second round at Charlotte, after a caution with 70 laps remaining, Brad Keselowski restarted second and Kenseth did so fourth. Kenseth forced a three-wide situation, trying to pass Keselowski on the outside. Keselowski moved up to cause Kenseth to tap Keselowski's right-rear bumper which caused Kenseth to hit the wall. Kenseth fell back to 18th and went a lap down due to the damage he received. He made the lap back with being the lucky dog after another caution. While under caution, Kenseth slammed into Keselowski's right-front and damaged Keselowski's car due to being upset over their previous contact. On a restart with two laps remaining, Keselowski gave Kenseth's teammate, Denny Hamlin a push to get him going. Kenseth finished 19th and Keselowski did 16th. After the race, Hamlin brake-checked Keselowski, causing contact. Keselowski drove around Hamlin and went after Kenseth while he was entering pit road. Kenseth turned a little causing Keselowski to miss doing major damage to Kenseth's car. Keselowski hit Kenseth's door slightly trying to get retaliation for their earlier incident. After making contact with Kenseth, Keselowski's car unintentional bumped Tony Stewart. Stewart then put his car in reverse and rammed Keselowski's car hard. After getting out of the cars, Hamlin tried to go after Keselowski, but was held back. Keselowski then walked away between two haulers when Kenseth charged between the haulers and physically attacked Keselowski. Keselowski's crew chief Paul Wolfe grabbed Kenseth to restrain him. When Kenseth's crew came over they pulled Wolfe off to restrain him and Kenseth. Kenseth's mechanic, Jesse Sanders, and crew chief, Jason Ratcliff, were called to the NASCAR hauler. Kenseth and Hamlin both were not penalized for the incident since no punches were thrown. Keselowski and Stewart were penalized by NASCAR because of the contact that they made on pit road. Both were fined and placed on probation for this incident. The next week at Talladega, Kenseth tied a season's best finish of 2nd and moved on to the eliminator round while his current rival Brad Keselowski won the race. In the third and last round of elimination, eight drivers remain. At Martinsville, Kenseth came into a turn going very fast, causing his car to wheel-hop. He hit Kevin Harvick hard, who's still in the Chase, causing Harvick to spin. Harvick hit the wall hard and fell 42 laps back. After hitting Harvick, a sideways Kenseth was bumped by Tony Stewart and straightened Kenseth out of his spin with no more damage. Laps later, after Harvick had returned to the track, he saw Kenseth coming behind him. Harvick, purposely checked-up trying to smash up Kenseth's radiator. Kenseth saw what Harvick was doing and checked-up enough to avoid serious damage. Kenseth still finished sixth and was in 4th-place of the Chase. Harvick finished in 33rd putting Kenseth 28 points down and swore that if this race is the cause of him not making it further into the Chase, that he was going to cause Kenseth not to make it either. At Texas, Kenseth won his second pole of the year, but finished 25th. At Phoenix, Kenseth started fifth. He led no laps and finished third and was eliminated from the Chase, trailing fourth-place by three points. At Homestead, the last race of the season, Kenseth still led no laps and finished sixth. He finished seventh in the standings. However, the same weekend, Kenseth was able to salvage his year by winning the 2014 Ford EcoBoost 300 for his final Xfinity Series win of his career. 2015 Kenseth started the 2015 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season by winning the Sprint Unlimited for the first time in his career, the first win by the newly redesigned 2015 Camry. He started the race in 16th, led 21 laps and held off Martin Truex Jr. for the victory. During the Daytona 500 he started and finished thirty-fifth after being involved in an accident on lap 41. Over the next few weeks, he had his ups and downs. Kenseth won the pole position and returned to victory lane at Bristol to end a 51-race winless streak. Several races later, Kenseth won his second pole of the year in the Coca-Cola 600. On a late caution, Kenseth refused to pit during the final caution of the race, which helped him record a fourth-place finish. In the Toyota/Save Mart 350, Kenseth qualified third, his best starting position on a road course. At Pocono Raceway, Kenseth qualified seventh and took the lead on the final lap after several drivers ran out of fuel to win his first race at the track and his second win of the season. He qualified twenty-sixth and finished in fourth at Watkins Glen International, his first top-five finish at the track. In the Pure Michigan 400, Kenseth won his third pole and third race of the year. The win moved him to 20th on the all-time wins list, passing Dale Jarrett, Fireball Roberts, and Kyle Busch with 34 career wins. During the final race of the regular season, Kenseth started second and led 352 of 400 laps to win his fourth race of the season. The win tied Kenseth with Kyle Busch and Jimmie Johnson for the most wins entering the Chase for the Sprint Cup. In the first race of the Chase at Chicago, Kenseth started 12th. He led one lap to receive a bonus point with a fifth-place finish. During the second race of the Chase at New Hampshire, race leader Kevin Harvick ran out of fuel with three laps to go which allowed Kenseth to take the lead. He would go on to win his fifth race of the year and advances to the second round of the Chase. In the next race at Dover, because of rain, Kenseth was given the pole position for being the points leader. Kenseth led 25 laps and finished seventh to retain the points lead. During the Hollywood Casino 400, he led the most laps, but with five laps to go he was unable to keep Joey Logano behind him. Logano purposely made contact with Kenseth, causing him to spin out, knocking him out of a position in the Eliminator Round, that Logano was already qualified for. At Talladega Superspeedway, Kenseth started in the second row of the grid. However, on the final green-white-checkered finish Kenseth crashed and finished 26th, prompting his elimination in the Contender Round. Feud with Joey Logano At Martinsville, Kenseth was suspended for two races after a controversial wreck during the race. Kenseth, who spent most of the race in the Top 10, was involved in a crash, where Brad Keselowski hit him after breaking a tie rod midway through the race. Kenseth lost nine laps for repairs. When he came back on to the track, he intentionally wrecked race leader Logano in retaliation for Logano spinning him out of the lead two weeks earlier at Kansas. The fans went wild with applause and cheers in reaction. Kenseth was immediately disqualified for his actions. After the race, he was summoned to the NASCAR hauler. He was later suspended for two races with probation for six months. Car owner Joe Gibbs appealed, citing an unprecedented and unfair penalty. On appeal, the probation period was reduced from six months to December 31, but the two race suspension was upheld by both the appeals panel and the Final Appeals officer Bryan Moss. After the suspension was over, NASCAR president Brian France summoned Kenseth and Logano for a meeting to resolve any further issues. Kenseth's original explanation was that a tire went down and caused him to crash into Logano, but he later admitted following his suspension that it was deliberate and had no remorse for his actions. Kenseth's actions had ultimately caused Logano to miss the final round of the Chase, due to Logano finishing badly at Texas and not winning the rain-shortened Quicken Loans Race For Heroes 500 at Phoenix. Return to Homestead During his suspension, Kenseth was substituted by young hotshot Erik Jones who recorded commendable finishes for a rookie, 12th and 19th. In both races the fans erupted with applause in support for Kenseth when, at Texas, Joey Logano cut a tire and spun out to finish 40th. At Phoenix, he finished third knocking himself out of the Chase. During his return at Homestead-Miami Speedway, Kenseth started nineteenth and finished seventh to record his 20th Top 10 finish of the season. His teammate Kyle Busch went on to win the championship for 2015. Kenseth ended up finishing 15th in the standings. 2016 Kenseth started out his season with a promising race in the Daytona 500. He led 40 laps in the waning stages in the race. He took the white flag to start the final lap, but was passed by teammate Denny Hamlin and Martin Truex Jr. Kenseth's attempt at blocking backfired as he went sideways and lost several positions. Kenseth finished 14th while Hamlin edged Truex to the stripe to win the closest finish in the race's history. One week later in the Atlanta race, he was tagged for "improper fueling" during a green flag pit stop and was forced to serve a pass-through penalty. He was given the black flag with the white cross marks for not pitting within three laps. After serving that penalty, he ended up in 31st two-laps down. After the race, he said "I got black-flagged for some type of pit road penalty and I didn’t know it and pitted the lap they told me to do a pass through – I'm assuming they were black flagging us before that and they pulled our card. I never heard anything about it or at least saw the flag or anything, so I came when they told me to come and I guess they must have penalized us a couple laps or something. I don’t really know. I haven’t really seen it.” However, Kenseth did go on to finish 19th. He finished 37th at Las Vegas after being involved in a multi-car wreck with Chase Elliott, Kurt Busch, and Carl Edwards late in the race. At Talladega, Kenseth started 4th and led 39 of the first 71 laps and got caught up in a late-race wreck with Joey Logano and Danica Patrick causing Kenseth to barrel-roll onto his roof. Kenseth exchanged words with Logano after the race, accusing Logano of shoving him off the track just before the wreck happened. In a post-race interview, Kenseth warned Logano that "You're going to race me right before I'm finished racing." However, a week later, both sides would settle their disputes with a phone call. At the restart of a caution at Dover, Kenseth started on the inside front row next to Jimmie Johnson. Johnson looked to have gotten a great start but couldn't shift into 4th gear, causing an 18-car wreck. Kenseth made it through, then the red flag came out. With 10 laps remaining, Kenseth was having a hard time holding off Kyle Larson. But when 3rd position driver Chase Elliott challenged Larson, Kenseth then had no trouble winning the race to end a 17-race winless streak. At the first New Hampshire race of the season, Kenseth held off Tony Stewart for his second win of the season, and his 38th career win. This win also makes it 2 wins in a row at New Hampshire. The win moves Kenseth into 19th place on the all-times wins list passing Bobby Isaac and teammate Kyle Busch. After the race, Joe Gibbs Racing was docked 15 owner and driver points Wednesday for failing postrace inspection at New Hampshire Motor Speedway. His car failed the Laser Inspection Station (LIS). NASCAR assessed a P3 penalty that included the loss of 15 points, which drops Kenseth from eighth to ninth in the point standings. Crew chief Jason Ratcliff was also fined $25,000. In the Chase race at Phoenix, Kenseth was leading late in the race, but on a late-race restart, Kenseth wrecked with Alex Bowman, ending his championship hopes. Kenseth would go on to finish 5th in points. 2017: Final Season At JGR Kenseth lost sponsor Dollar General prior to the season, leading Dewalt to up their number of races to a 15-race primary sponsor. Tide also came on board for 3 races starting at the spring Phoenix race, though they sponsored an extra race at Martinsville in the spring because the team had no other sponsor for the race. Peak and BlueDef joined the team for Las Vegas and Auto Club. Circle K joined the team mid season to sponsor 6 races during the season starting at the spring Richmond race, where Kenseth was able to get his first pole and first stage win of the season, though Circle K ended up sponsoring an extra race due to the team having no other sponsor. Despite these deals, the 20 team still had to use Toyotacare as a fill-in sponsor at the spring Texas race and the spring Dover race. After a slow start to the season, Kenseth picked up his performance and came back to contend with Clint Bowyer and Joey Logano for a spot in the playoffs starting with a second-place finish at Watkins Glen, the highest finish of his career on a road course. He won the pole for the regular-season finale at the 2017 Federated Auto Parts 400 and made his 13th Career appearance in the Playoffs despite finishing 38th. Kenseth led most of stage 1 until he locked up the brakes and brought out a caution. During the final stage, Danica Patrick spun after contact with Austin Dillon. While under caution, Kenseth got into Clint Bowyer as the field stacked up due an ambulance at the entry of pit road. Still, he managed to beat out Bowyer, Erik Jones, and Joey Logano for the last Playoff spot. Had Logano (who finished 2nd) beaten Kyle Larson (who won) on the final restart, Kenseth would've missed the Playoffs for the first time since 2009. On July 11, 2017, JGR announced that Kenseth would be replaced in the No. 20 by Erik Jones in 2018, leaving Kenseth with no 2018 ride. As a result, Kenseth eventually announced plans "to take some time off" from the sport on November 4, 2017. With two races remaining for 2017 season, Kenseth had yet to win a race. He was knocked out of the playoffs when an 8th pitcrew member came over the wall to help fix his car that was involved in a wreck. He was disqualified from the race and knocked out of the playoffs. He was still without a ride for the 2018 season. Offers did come to him, but from lower unknown owners to drive for them. He turned them down. At Phoenix, Kenseth passed Chase Elliott with 9 laps remaining to win his first race of the year, also ending his 51 race winless streak. “Yeah, it’s really not describable,” Kenseth said. “With only two (races) left, I didn’t think we probably had a good chance of getting back to Victory Lane. It’s been, I don’t know how many races – somebody’s probably going to tell me tonight – but it”s been at least 50 or 60, so it’s been a long time. We’ve had a lot of close ones. Just felt like it was never meant to be, and today it was meant to be…. I’ve got to be honest with you, I never dreamed I’d win one of these races, so obviously I’ve been so incredibly blessed throughout my whole career.” This marked his 39th victory tying him with Tim Flock for 19th place on the all-times wins list. DeWalt sponsored Kenseth at Homestead for his final race with Joe Gibbs Racing, with his car resembling his rookie paint scheme from 2000. Kenseth finished in 8th place in the race and ultimately ended up in 7th place in the official points standings. 2018 In April 2018, Roush Fenway Racing announced Kenseth would be returning to the team to drive the No. 6 Ford on a part-time basis, splitting the car with then-full-time driver Trevor Bayne. Kenseth received sponsorship from Wyndham Rewards for a seven-race schedule beginning with the KC Masterpiece 400 at Kansas. For the Kansas race, his first since November 2017, Kenseth started at the rear as he was unable to set a qualifying time after not getting through inspection. He finished 36th after being collected in a crash on lap 254. Due to his 2003 Championship (in addition to winning the 2004 event and the fall race at Phoenix in 2017), Kenseth was eligible to participate in the Monster Energy All Star Race which was held on May 19, 2018. Kenseth started from the pole and finished 14th. After a string of mediocre results, Kenseth hit his stride near the end of summer, winning the second stage of the 2018 Brickyard 400 and finishing 12th. Kenseth scored his first top-10 of the season at the fall Phoenix race with a seventh-place finish. In his final race for RFR at Homestead, Kenseth finished 6th. 2019 Kenseth made his first start since Homestead in a Super Late Model at the Slinger Nationals in July 2019. He extended his race-record victories to eight by passing former Roush teammate Ty Majeski on the final lap. Kenseth served as the grand marshal of the 2019 CTECH Manufacturing 180 at Road America. He also appeared in a coffee-table interview with Kyle Petty on NBC Sports, in Petty's series, Coffee with Kyle. 2020 On April 27, 2020, Kenseth was announced as the replacement for Kyle Larson in the No. 42 Chevrolet for Chip Ganassi Racing for the remainder of the season after Larson was released for using a racial slur at an iRacing event two weeks prior. In addition, NASCAR granted Kenseth a waiver for eligibility in the 2020 playoffs. Kenseth finished 10th on May 17, 2020, at Darlington in his return, his 330th career top-ten. He scored a second-place finish on July 5, 2020, at Indianapolis Motor Speedway. However, it turned out to be his only top-five and final top-ten finish of the season. On September 21, 2020, Chip Ganassi Racing announced that Ross Chastain would replace Kenseth in 2021. Kenseth finished 25th at the season finale at Phoenix (the site of his final victory) and 28th in the final standings. During a November 18, 2020, interview with the Wisconsin State Journal, Kenseth revealed "with almost 100 percent certainty" that he had no intention of continuing full-time NASCAR racing, instead focusing on late models and sports cars. 2023 On May 4, 2022, it was announced that Matt Kenseth, along with Hershel McGriff and Kirk Shelmerdine, would be part of the NASCAR Hall Of Fame Class Of 2023. On August 2, 2023, the Southeastern Wisconsin Short Track Racing Hall of Fame announced that Matt Kenseth would be inducted with their 2024 class. Kenseth had a conflict in 2023 that prevented him from being inducted with the Class of 2023. On October 10, 2023, it was announced that Kenseth would join Legacy Motor Club as the teams competition advisor. Personal life Kenseth is the son of Roy and Nicola Sue Kenseth. The name Kenseth goes back to the 1850s when his ancestors came to Wisconsin. Tosten Eriksen Kjenset-Ødegard came over from County Oppland in Norway and settled in Deerfield, Wisconsin. In 2000, Kenseth married Katie Martin (no relation to Mark Martin), also from Cambridge. Kenseth has a son, Ross Kenseth, from a previous relationship. Matt and Katie have four daughters: Kaylin Nicola, born on July 6, 2009, two days after Kenseth finished eighth in the Coke Zero 400 at Daytona, Grace Katherine, born on February 22, 2011, two days after the Daytona 500, Clara Mae, born on March 25, 2014, two days after the Auto Club 400, and Mallory Karen, born on December 20, 2017. Like his father, Ross also raced, driving in legends cars and late models in Wisconsin. Ross would later compete in ARCA and NASCAR. On July 15, 2018, Kenseth became a grandfather when Ross' wife Amber gave birth to a girl, Lexi. On April 8, 2021, Kenseth's grandson, Colt Matthew was born. Kenseth ran the 2022 Boston Marathon and finished 3,576th overall and 141st in the Men's 50-54 division, with a time of 3:01:40. Kenseth built and operated a fan museum in Cambridge in 2004 after his championship season. It later moved to a downtown storefront before closing in 2017. Kenseth is a fan of the metal band Metallica, and named his cat after drummer Lars Ulrich. He is also a fan of the Green Bay Packers. Motorsports career results NASCAR (key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.) Cup Series Daytona 500 Xfinity Series Season still in progress. Ineligible for series championship points. 24 Hours of Daytona (key) International Race of Champions (key) (Bold – Pole position. * – Most laps led.) Superstar Racing Experience (key) * – Most laps led. 1 – Heat 1 winner. 2 – Heat 2 winner. See also List of all-time NASCAR Cup Series winners List of Daytona 500 winners List of NASCAR Sprint All-Star Race drivers List of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series champions List of people from Wisconsin References External links Living people American people of Norwegian descent 1972 births Racing drivers from Wisconsin 24 Hours of Daytona drivers NASCAR drivers American Speed Association drivers ARCA Midwest Tour drivers International Race of Champions drivers NASCAR Cup Series champions The Home Depot people RFK Racing drivers Joe Gibbs Racing drivers Chip Ganassi Racing drivers NASCAR Hall of Fame inductees Multimatic Motorsports drivers People from Cambridge, Wisconsin

425492

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Movement

British Movement

The British Movement (BM), later called the British National Socialist Movement (BNSM), is a British neo-Nazi organisation founded by Colin Jordan in 1968. It grew out of the National Socialist Movement (NSM), which was founded in 1962. Frequently on the margins of the British far-right, the BM has had a long and chequered history for its association with violence and extremism. It was founded as a political party but manifested itself more as a pressure and activist group. It has had spells of dormancy. Formation The NSM had come to an end sometime after Colin Jordan was imprisoned in early 1967 for distributing a racist leaflet The Coloured Invasion and following his release Jordan had met John Tyndall in Denis Pirie's house about the possibility of joining the National Front. These talks came to nothing however and with the Race Relations Act 1968 passed the notion of openly parading Nazi credentials in a party name had to be abandoned, leading to Jordan forming a new group to known as the British Movement. Whilst the new party intended to continue the old group's role of being Nazi apologists and endorsing anti-Semitism it aimed to do so within the restrictions brought in by the newly enacted law. Violence Not long after its formation the BM gained coverage in Leicester, where a growing Midlands branch was being organised by Ray Hill, when local members attacked students who were supporting an Anti-Apartheid Movement protest against a South African trade delegation visiting the city. Direct action activities such as this, which usually ended in violence, became the stock in trade of the BM during its early days. An underground cell, the National Socialist Group, was also established in Blackheath by David Courtney and this undertook paramilitary training exercises in Scotland whilst also seeking to build links between the BM and like-minded groups in Europe. The group vanished suddenly in 1969 when Special Branch began to investigate them, with Courtney in particular dropping out of the far-right scene for some time afterwards. Despite this setback violence remained on the agenda as the party maintained a Leader Guard of violent members whom it encouraged to join the Territorial Army, as well as a Women's Division and a National Youth Movement. Members of the BM also took part in paramilitary training exercises in Germany. One of the BM's fiercest street fighters, Nicky Crane, led and organised several violent attacks by the BM on non-whites. Following a BM meeting in May 1978, Nicky Crane and other BM members took part in an assault on a black family at a bus stop in Bishopsgate, east London using broken bottles. In 1979, Crane and BM members were part of 200-strong skinhead mob that attacked Asians on Brick Lane, east London. Crane also led and instigated the Woolwich Odeon attack of 1980. After their intended victims ran inside the Odeon cinema to escape attack, Crane and BM members started smashing windows and doors. One Pakistani man was knocked unconscious. Convictions were not uncommon. Crane was jailed in 1981 for his part in an ambush on black youths at Woolwich Arsenal station. An Old Bailey judge described Crane as "worse than an animal" after his part in the May 1978 bus stop attack in Bishopsgate. Other BM members felt the force of the law as was the case in January 1981 when three members, Rod Roberts, Harvey Stock and Robert Giles, were arrested for possession of illegal weapons and attempted arson with Roberts imprisoned for seven years as a result. Political activity The BM entered electoral politics in 1969 when Jordan put himself forward as a candidate for the Birmingham Ladywood by-election. The campaign made no attempts to hide the party's support for Nazism and violence became the hallmark, not least on the election night itself when scuffles at the count were televised nationally. The 3.5% vote share that the BM secured was treated as a success by activists who felt that it proved that even with a Nazi message nearly 300 people were still prepared to vote for an anti-immigration candidate. Indeed, the BM members had openly worn the German Nazi Swastika symbol, and party literature featured pictures of Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. The BM contested the UK general elections in 1970 and in February 1974. The party failed to attract much support in those elections due to its openness about its support for Nazism, and because most of the far right vote went to the National Front (NF). The group's highest result was the 2.5% share which Jordan captured in Birmingham Aston in 1970. Nonetheless, contact between the BM and NF was not infrequent and in early 1972 John Tyndall had met with Jordan and discussed the possibility that the BM might form the basis of a new NF group in the Midlands, an area of BM strength and NF weakness. The proposal was soon dropped however and was largely made only because Tyndall was seeking to build a power-base in his attempts to replace John O'Brien as NF chairman. For his part, Jordan had a long-held ambition to unite the divided far-right and he personally oversaw the production of a BM leaflet, Nationalist Solidarity in '70, in which he called for personal disagreements to be set aside in favour of presenting a united front. There were occasional examples of individuals holding simultaneous membership of the BM and NF, although they were not linked at any official level. Jordan's run as leader came to an end in 1975 when he was arrested in the Coventry branch of Tesco on a charge of shoplifting. Jordan declared that the event, and the reports that the item he had stolen were a pair of women's knickers, was a frame-up, but soon after he resigned as leader of the BM to take on an advisory role. Post-Jordan After Jordan stood down as leader of the BM, Michael McLaughlin, a former milkman from Liverpool, became the leader. McLaughlin, who was seen as a talented organiser but weak leader, was largely believed to have been chosen as little more than a "front" leader who could be controlled by Jordan from behind the scenes. McLaughlin quickly rejected this notion and made it clear that Jordan's time was over, resulting in the former leader retiring to Yorkshire from where he still published his own journal Gothic Ripples from time to time, the pages of which were regularly filled with criticism of McLaughlin. McLaughlin, in contrast to Jordan, was under no delusions that the BM might gain a broad following and instead he felt that its best area of possible support was amongst young, working-class males. The BM journals, The Phoenix and British Patriot, thus changed to become much more simplistic and aggressive publications largely shorn of Jordan's pseudoscientific racialism in favour of more basic notions. The BM had also gained some publicity in 1976 when "race martyr" and sometime party activist Robert Relf went on hunger strike in protest at the Race Relations Bill but this proved short-lived as Tyndall quickly signed Relf up to the NF. Relf had gained national attention after he advertised his house as being "For Sale - to a white family only". Meanwhile, McLaughlin's baser ideas struck a chord with the growing White power skinhead movement and large numbers of these youths, many of whom were involved in regular acts of violence against non-Whites, flocked to the BM. By 1980 it claimed to have 4,000 members and 25 branches. The notion of recruiting violent youths to form a street army appealed to Martin Webster who attempted to coax members away from the BM to the NF but the BM only lost a handful of members in this manner before NF leader John Tyndall, mindful of the desire to present a respectable NF image, called a halt to the scheme. A key strategy for gaining publicity and members was by encouraging violence at football matches and concerts. Nicky Crane, one of the leading figures of the neo-Nazi skinhead movement, joined the BM and became an organiser in Kent. By this time the BM had effectively given up mainstream politics in favour of provocative marches and violence, changes that appealed to the younger element who were disillusioned with the disintegrating NF. Ray Hill's return In 1980, Ray Hill, who had been a leading member of the BM under Jordan before emigrating to South Africa, rejoined the group and soon became one of its leading figures, a decision prompted by the anti-fascist magazine Searchlight, for whom Hill had become a mole. Hill was appointed Area Leader in the East Midlands where he was given responsibility for enticing disaffected NF members to join the BM. Before long Hill had added about thirty members in Leicester and had also built a close working relationship with the British Democratic Party in the city. Hill also managed to ensure publicity for the BM from the Leicester Mercury after a riot in the city, a fact that won him the admiration of McLaughlin. Following an incident at a Birmingham hotel in which NF supporters had entered a room booked by the BM and daubed the walls with graffiti Hill suggested to McLaughlin that the breach in security had been the fault of Steve Brady, a leading figure in the League of St. George and the only non-BM member invited to the event. McLaughlin appointed Hill to head up an "anti-subversion unit" as a result, although a lack of funding ensured that the unit never actually convened. Nonetheless Hill continued to criticise Brady to McLaughlin and before long Hill had been promoted to the head of the entire Midlands region following the retirement of Birmingham chief Peter Marriner. Under Searchlight direction Hill sought to take charge of the BM and he launched his campaign at a demonstration in Welling in October 1980 organised by Crane. Attending in McLaughlin's stead after the BM leader had asked him to Hill made frequent references to other organisers present about allegations that McLaughlin was letting them do the work whilst he stayed behind at BM headquarters in Lampeter collecting membership fees. A speech criticising the police at a BM rally in Paddington helped to cement Hill's popularity amongst the rank and file membership, most of whom held police in contempt. After he opened contact with Jordan, Hill was expelled from the BM by McLaughlin in 1981. Hill was backed by his Leicester branch, London organiser Tony Malski and Robert Relf and his lieutenant Mike Cole, all of whom backed Hill to replace McLaughlin as leader. Hill released a statement to BM members rejecting the expulsion and threatening a court injunction to overturn the expulsion. With legal advice provided by British Democratic Party leader Anthony Reed Herbert, Hill soon issued the writ against McLaughlin, who attempted to get around the problems by renaming the BM the British Nationalist and Socialist Movement and claiming that the BM in fact no longer existed. Collapse About half of the members of the BM went with Hill out and joined the newly launched British National Party in 1982, a huge blow to McLaughlin's group. The party failed to contest the 1983 general election, although a single candidate had attempted to stand in Peterborough as a Labour Party candidate; he was barred by the returning officer after several signatures on the nominating papers were found to be invalid. McLaughlin finally announced the closure of the BM in September 1983 and in the statement blamed the court case brought by Ray Hill which had severely depleted BM funds. New group A group calling itself the British Movement continued to operate after September 1983 under the leadership of Stephen Frost, a Yorkshire member of the original BM. At its 1985 yearly meeting the BM established a new group to be known as the British National Socialist Movement (BNSM). Whilst the BM continued to exist alongside the BNSM the latter gave more freedom to activists by operating as a cell-based structure within the BM. The new group attempted to act as a rallying-point for white power skinheads, although this role was later filled more successfully by Blood and Honour. It also continued to have involvement in football hooliganism and BM members were amongst the rioters responsible for the Heysel Stadium disaster at the 1985 European Cup final. The BNSM was soon attempting to re-activate the old BM membership and followed the old template of encouraging members to undergo military training through the Territorial Army or other means. The BNSM built up links with the Ulster Defence Association and Ulster Volunteer Force and BNSM members served with the English companies of these Ulster loyalist paramilitaries. The group, which had about 300 members by 1990, also sought links with European groups and was close to the Dutch former SS man Et Wolsink who was variously connected to Dutch People's Union and the Dutch sections of the Wiking-Jugend and the Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists. Links were also built with the white power music scene of Blood and Honour and in particular with Ian Stuart Donaldson who, despite his previous membership of the NF, was close to Cat Mee, a BM organiser in Derbyshire. Donaldson's attempts to leave the skinhead scene and scale back his involvement in music soured the relationship, however, and links were severed in 1990 after a group of activists turned up at Donaldson's local pub and told him to play for them or face assault. The progress of the BNSM was halted in the early 1990s by the emergence of Combat 18 with much of the membership switching allegiance to this new group. The new BM re-emerged during the mid-1990s by becoming heavily involved in the distribution of white power music. By this time Michael 'Micky' Lane had taken over as leader (BM National Chairman) of the group from Daniel Tolan (with Stephen Frost becoming BM National Secretary), a position that meant Lane's name appeared on an alleged Combat 18 hitlist due to the rivalries between the groups. Although a British Movement still exists, it has a tiny, largely inactive, membership. It does, however, maintain a presence on the internet, publishes a monthly newspaper called The Emblem, a monthly BM members' newsletter called The Sunwheel and a quarterly magazine called Broadsword, and is occasionally the subject of newspaper reports and media attention. The Annual State of Hate Report for 2021 published by Hope Not Hate says that while the British Movement is a "mere shadow of its heyday self from the early 1980s" it has been "surprisingly resilient" and remains active during a period when many far-right groups have folded. "It has active units in south London and Kent, South Wales, the East Midlands, Yorkshire and Humber, Scotland and Northern Ireland," the report says. "Its activists hold meetings, host white power concerts, coordinate leafleting and postering sessions for activists and attend demonstrations and protests. It also produces a quarterly magazine and regular newsletters.” A spokesperson for Campaign Against Antisemitism said, "The persistence of far-right activity is totally unacceptable. It is particularly worrying that many of these groups deliberately target and recruit impressionable youngsters. The apparent endurance of the neo-nazi British National Socialist Movement is especially disconcerting, as is the formation of newer groups peddling similar antisemitic and racist ideologies." Footnotes External links Official website A Century of British Fascism 1969-1979 Ladywood by-election film footage including an interview with British Movement leader Colin Jordan in 1969 Image of a British Movement demonstration in 1980 Film clip of a British Movement march in London in 1979 Thames News documentary about the British Movement produced in 1981 Excerpts of the Thames Television TV Eye programme broadcast in 1980 including interviews with British Movement supporters, representatives of the Board of Deputies of British Jews and archive footage of BM marches Excerpts of the Channel 4 documentary The Other Face of Terror about the British Movement and other far-right groups broadcast in 1984 Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom Neo-Nazi political parties in Europe Political parties established in 1968 Political parties disestablished in 1983 Fascist parties in the United Kingdom Neo-Nazi organisations in the United Kingdom 1968 establishments in the United Kingdom Far-right political parties in the United Kingdom

425514

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20theft

Art theft

Art theft, sometimes called artnapping, is the stealing of paintings, sculptures, or other forms of visual art from galleries, museums or other public and private locations. Stolen art is often resold or used by criminals as collateral to secure loans. Only a small percentage of stolen art is recovered—an estimated 10%. Many nations operate police squads to investigate art theft and illegal trade in stolen art and antiquities. Some famous art theft cases include the robbery of the Mona Lisa from the Louvre in 1911 by employee Vincenzo Peruggia. Another was theft of The Scream, stolen from the Munch Museum in 2004, but recovered in 2006. The largest-value art theft occurred at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston, when 13 works, worth a combined $500 million were stolen in 1990. The case remains unsolved. Large-scale art thefts include the Nazi looting of Europe during World War II and the Russian looting of Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Individual theft Many thieves are motivated by the fact that valuable art pieces are worth millions of dollars and weigh only a few kilograms at most. Also, while most high-profile museums have extremely tight security, many places with multimillion-dollar art collections have disproportionately poor security measures. That makes them susceptible to thefts that are slightly more complicated than a typical smash-and-grab, but offer a huge potential payoff. Thieves sometimes target works based on their own familiarity with the artist, rather than the artist's reputation in the art world or the theoretical value of the work. Unfortunately for the thieves, it is extremely difficult to sell the most famous and valuable works without getting caught, because any interested buyer will almost certainly know the work is stolen and advertising it risks someone contacting the authorities. It is also difficult for the buyer to display the work to visitors without it being recognized as stolen, thus defeating much of the point of owning the art. Many famous works have instead been held for ransom from the legitimate owner or even returned without ransom, due to the lack of black-market customers. Returning for ransom also risks a sting operation. For those with substantial collections, such as the Marquess of Cholmondeley at Houghton Hall, the risk of theft is neither negligible nor negotiable. Jean-Baptiste Oudry's White Duck was stolen from the Cholmondeley collection at Houghton Hall in 1990. The canvas is still missing. Prevention in museums Museums can take numerous measures to prevent the theft of artworks include having enough guides or guards to watch displayed items, avoiding situations where security-camera sightlines are blocked, and fastening paintings to walls with hanging wires that are not too thin and with locks. Art theft education The Smithsonian Institution sponsors the National Conference on Cultural Property Protection, held annually in Washington, D. C. The conference is aimed at professionals in the field of cultural property protection. Since 1996, the Netherlands-based Museum Security Network has disseminated news and information related to issues of cultural property loss and recovery. Since its founding the Museum Security Network has collected and disseminated over 45,000 reports about incidents with cultural property. The founder of the Museum Security Network, Ton Cremers, is recipient of the National Conference on Cultural Property Protection Robert Burke Award. 2007 saw the foundation of the Association for Research into Crimes against Art (ARCA). ARCA is a nonprofit think tank dedicated principally to raising the profile of art crime (art forgery and vandalism, as well as theft) as an academic subject. Since 2009, ARCA has offered an unaccredited postgraduate certificate program dedicated to this field of study. The Postgraduate Certificate Program in Art Crime and Cultural Heritage Protection is held from June to August every year in Italy. A few American universities, including New York University, also offer courses on art theft. Recovery In the public sphere, Interpol, the FBI Art Crime Team, London's Metropolitan Police Art and Antiques Unit, New York Police Department's special frauds squad and a number of other law enforcement agencies worldwide maintain "squads" dedicated to investigating thefts of this nature and recovering stolen works of art. According to Robert King Wittman, a former FBI agent who led the Art Crime Team until his retirement in 2008, the unit is very small compared with similar law-enforcement units in Europe, and most art thefts investigated by the FBI involve agents at local offices who handle routine property theft. "Art and antiquity crime is tolerated, in part, because it is considered a victimless crime," Wittman said in 2010. In response to a growing public awareness of art theft and recovery, a number of not-for-profit and private companies now act both to record information about losses and oversee recovery efforts for claimed works of art. Among the most notable are: IFAR Commission for Looted Art in Europe Holocaust Claims Conference Art Loss Register Art Recovery Group In January 2017, Spain's Interior Ministry announced that police from 18 European countries, with the support of Interpol, Europol, and Unesco, had arrested 75 people involved in an international network of art traffickers. The pan-European operation had begun in October 2016 and led to the recovery of about 3,500 stolen items including archaeological artifacts and other artwork. The ministry did not provide an inventory of recovered items or the locations of the arrests. In 1969 the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism formed the Comando Carabinieri Tutela Patrimonio Culturale (TPC), better known as the Carabinieri Art Squad. In 1980, the TPC established the database Leonardo, with information about more than 1 million stolen artworks, and accessible to law enforcement agencies around the world. In December 2021 Michael Steinhardt, an American hedge-fund billionaire, was ordered to surrender 180 looted and illegally smuggled antiquities valued at 70 million U.S. dollars. The antiquities will be returned to their rightful owners and Mr. Steinhardt is banned for life from acquiring any other relics. State theft, wartime looting and misappropriation by museums From 1933 through the end of World War II, the Nazi regime maintained a policy of looting art for sale or for removal to museums in the Third Reich. Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, personally took charge of hundreds of valuable pieces, generally stolen from Jews and other victims of the Holocaust. In early 2011, about 1,500 art masterpieces, assumed to have been stolen by the Nazis during and before World War II, were confiscated from a private home in Munich, Germany. The confiscation was not made public until November 2013. With an estimated value of $1 billion, their discovery is considered "astounding", and includes works by Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Max Beckmann and Emil Nolde, all of which were considered lost. The looted, mostly Modernist art was banned by the Nazis when they came to power, on the grounds that it was "un-German" or Jewish Bolshevist in nature. Descendants of Jewish collectors who were robbed of their works by the Nazis may be able to claim ownership of many of the works. Members of the families of the original owners of these artworks have, in many cases, persisted in claiming title to their pre-war property. The 1964 film The Train, starring Burt Lancaster, is based on the true story of works of art which had been placed in storage for protection in France during the war, but was looted by the Germans from French museums and private art collections, to be shipped by train back to Germany. Another film, The Monuments Men (2014), co-produced, co-written and directed by George Clooney, is based on a similar true-life story. In this film, U.S. soldiers are tasked with saving over a million pieces of art and other culturally important items throughout Europe, before their destruction by Nazi plunder. In 2006, after a protracted court battle in the United States and Austria (see Republic of Austria v. Altmann), five paintings by Austrian artist Gustav Klimt were returned to Maria Altmann, the niece of pre-war owner, Ferdinand Bloch-Bauer. Two of the paintings were portraits of Altmann's aunt, Adele. The more famous of the two, the gold Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I, was sold in 2006 by Altmann and her co-heirs to philanthropist Ronald Lauder for $135 million. At the time of the sale, it was the highest known price ever paid for a painting. The remaining four restituted paintings were later sold at Christie's New York for over $190 million. Because antiquities are often regarded by the country of origin as national treasures, there are numerous cases where artworks (often displayed in the acquiring country for decades) have become the subject of highly charged and political controversy. One prominent example is the case of the Elgin Marbles, which were moved from the Parthenon to the British Museum in 1816 by the Earl of Elgin. Many different Greek governments have called for the repatriation of the marbles. Similar controversies have arisen over Etruscan, Aztec, and Italian artworks, with advocates of the originating countries generally alleging that the artifacts taken form a vital part of the countries cultural heritage. Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History is engaged (as of November 2006) in talks with the government of Peru about possible repatriation of artifacts taken during the excavation of Machu Picchu by Yale's Hiram Bingham. Likewise, the Chinese government considers Chinese art in foreign hands to be stolen and there may be a clandestine repatriation effort underway. In 2006, New York's Metropolitan Museum reached an agreement with Italy to return many disputed pieces. The Getty Museum in Los Angeles is also involved in a series of cases of this nature. The artwork in question is of Greek and ancient Italian origin. The museum agreed on November 20, 2006, to return 26 contested pieces to Italy. One of the Getty's signature pieces, a statue of the goddess Aphrodite, is the subject of particular scrutiny. In January 2013, after investigations by Interpol, FBI and The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, police in Canada arrested John Tillmann for an enormous spate of art thefts. It was later determined that Tillmann in conjunction with his Russian wife, had for over twenty years stolen at least 10,000 different art objects from museums, galleries, archives and shops around the world. While not the largest art heist in total dollar value, Tillmann's case may be the largest ever in number of objects stolen. Since its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Russia has stolen tens of thousands of art pieces. Experts state that this is the largest art theft since the Nazi looting of Europe in World War II. Famous cases of art theft {| class="wikitable sortable" style="width: 100%" |- ! style="width:100px;"|Case of art theft ! style="width:100px;"|Dates !class="unsortable"|Notes ! style="width:75px;" class="unsortable"|References |- |Louvre |August 21, 1911 | Perhaps the most famous case of art theft occurred on August 21, 1911, when the Mona Lisa was stolen from the Louvre by employee Vincenzo Peruggia, who was caught after two years. | |- |Panels from the Ghent Altarpiece |1934 |Two panels of the fifteenth-century Ghent Altarpiece, painted by the brothers Jan and Hubert Van Eyck were stolen in 1934, of which only one was recovered shortly after the theft. The other one (lower left of the opened altarpiece, known as De Rechtvaardige Rechters i.e. The Just Judges), has never been recovered, as the presumable thief (Arsène Goedertier), who had sent some anonymous letters asking for ransom, died before revealing the whereabouts of the painting. | |- |Nazi theft and looting of Europe during the Second World War |1939–1945 | The Nazi plundering of artworks was carried out by the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Institute for the Occupied Territories (Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg für die Besetzen Gebiete). In occupied France, the Jeu de Paume Art Museum in Paris was used as a central storage and sorting depot for looted artworks from museums and private art collections throughout France pending distribution to various persons and places in Germany. The Nazis confiscated tens of thousands of works from their legitimate Jewish owners. Some were confiscated by the Allies at the end of the war. Many ended up in the hands of respectable collectors and institutions. Jewish ownership of some of the art was codified into the Geneva conventions. | |- |Quedlinburg medieval artifacts |1945 | In 1945, an American soldier, Joe Meador, stole eight medieval artifacts found in a mineshaft near Quedlinburg, which had been hidden by members of the local clergy from Nazi looters in 1943. After he returned to the United States, the artifacts remained in Meador's possession until his death in 1980. He made no attempt to sell them. When his older brother and sister attempted to sell a 9th-century manuscript and 16th-century prayer book in 1990, the two were charged. However, the charges were dismissed after it was declared the statute of limitations had expired. | |- |Alfred Stieglitz Gallery |1946 | Three paintings by Georgia O'Keeffe were stolen while on display at the art gallery of her husband, Alfred Stieglitz. The paintings were eventually found by O'Keeffe following their purchase by the Princeton Gallery of Fine Arts for $35,000 in 1975. O'Keeffe sued the museum for their return and, despite a six-year statute of limitations on art theft, a state appellate court ruled in her favor on July 27, 1979. | |- |Dulwich College Picture Gallery |December 30, 1966 | A total of eight Old Master paintings—three each by Rembrandt and Peter Paul Rubens, and one each by Adam Elsheimer and Gerrit Dou—were removed from this London gallery. The paintings were appraised at a combined value of £1.5 million (then US$4.2 million). The thieves entered the gallery by cutting a panel out of an unused door. All of the paintings were recovered by January 4, 1967. | |- |University of Michigan |1967 | Sketches by Spanish artist Pablo Picasso and British sculptor Henry Moore, valued at $200,000, were stolen while on display in a travelling art exhibit organized by the University of Michigan. The sketches were eventually found by federal agents in a California auction house on January 24, 1969, although no arrests were made. | |- |Izmir Archaeology Museum |July 24, 1969 | Various artifacts and other art worth $5 million were stolen from the Izmir Archaeology Museum in Istanbul, Turkey on July 24, 1969 (during which a night watchman was killed by the unidentified thieves). Turkish police soon arrested a German citizen who, at the time of his arrest on August 1, had 128 stolen items in his car. | |- |Stephen Hahn Art Gallery |November 17, 1969 | Art thieves stole seven paintings, including works by Cassatt, Monet, Pissarro and Rouault, from art dealer Stephen Hahn's Madison Avenue art gallery at an estimated value of $500,000 on the night of November 17, 1969. Incidentally, Stephen Hahn had been discussing art theft with other art dealers as the theft was taking place. | |- |1972 Montreal Museum of Fine Arts robbery |September 4, 1972 | On September 4, 1972, the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts was the site of the largest art theft in Canadian history, when armed thieves made off with jewelry, figurines and 18 paintings worth a total of $2 million (approximately $10.9 million today), including works by Delacroix, Gainsborough and a rare Rembrandt landscape. Other than a work at the time attributed to Brueghel the Elder returned by the thieves as an effort to start negotiations, the works have never been recovered. In 2003, The Globe and Mail estimated that the Rembrandt alone would be worth $1 million. | |- |Russborough House |1974–2002 | Russborough House, the Irish estate of the late Sir Alfred Beit, has been robbed four times since 1974. In 1974, members of the IRA, including Rose Dugdale, bound and gagged the Beits, making off with nineteen paintings worth an estimated £8 million. A deal to exchange the paintings for prisoners was offered, but the paintings were recovered after a raid on a rented cottage in Cork, and those responsible were caught and imprisoned. In 1986, a Dublin gang led by Martin Cahill stole eighteen paintings worth an estimated £30 million in total. Sixteen paintings were subsequently recovered, with a further two still missing . Two paintings worth an estimated £3 million were stolen by three armed men in 2001. One of these, a Gainsborough had been previously stolen by Cahill's gang. Both paintings were recovered in September 2002. A mere two to three days after the recovery of the two paintings stolen in 2001, the house was robbed for the fourth time, with five paintings taken. These paintings were recovered in December 2002 during a search of a house in Clondalkin. | |- |Kanakria mosaics and the looting of Cypriot Orthodox Churches following the invasion of Cyprus |1974 | Following the invasion of Cyprus in 1974 by Turkey, and the occupation of the northern part of the island churches belonging to the Cypriot Orthodox Church have been looted in what is described as "…one of the most systematic examples of the looting of art since World War II". Several high-profile cases have made headline news on the international scene. Most notable was the case of the Kanakaria mosaics, 6th century AD frescoes that were removed from the original church, trafficked to the US and offered for sale to a museum for the sum of US$20,000,000. These were subsequently recovered by the Orthodox Church following a court case in Indianapolis. | |- |Picasso works in the Palais des Papes |January 31, 1976 | On January 31, 1976, 118 paintings, drawings and other works by Picasso were stolen from an exhibition at the Palais des Papes in Avignon, France. | |- |L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art |April 15, 1983 | On April 15, 1983, more than 200 rare clocks and watches were stolen from the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art in Jerusalem. Among the stolen watches was one known as the Marie-Antoinette, the most valuable piece of the watch collection made by the French-Swiss watchmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet on order by Queen Marie Antoinette, it is estimated to be worth $30 million. The heist is considered to be the largest robbery in Israel. The man responsible for the robbery was Naaman Diller. On November 18, 2008, French and Israeli police officials discovered half of the cache of stolen timepieces in two bank safes in France. Of the 106 rare timepieces stolen in 1983, 96 have now been recovered. Among those recovered was the rare Marie-Antoinette watch. In 2010, Nilli Shomrat, Diller's widow, was sentenced to 300 hours of community service and given a five-year suspended sentence for possession of stolen property. | |- |Musée Marmottan Monet |October 28, 1985 | On October 28, 1985, during daylight hours, five masked gunmen entered the museum and stole nine paintings, threatening security and visitors in the process. Among the stolen works were Impression, Sunrise (Impression, Soleil Levant) by Claude Monet, the painting from which Impressionism derived its name. Also stolen were Camille Monet and Cousin on the Beach at Trouville, Portrait of Jean Monet, Portrait of Poly, Fisherman of Belle-Isle and Field of Tulips in Holland also by Monet, Bather Sitting on a Rock and Portrait of Monet by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Young Woman at the Ball by Berthe Morisot, and Portrait of Monet by Sei-ichi Naruse and were valued at $12 million. The paintings were later recovered in Corsica in 1990. | |- |University of Arizona Museum of Art |November 27, 1985 |A couple who arrived at the museum shortly before it opened for the day left ten minutes later. Guards found shortly afterwards that Willem de Kooning's Woman-Ochre had been cut from its frame; sketches were made of the couple but the investigation was unable to make any progress until 2017, when a New Mexico antique dealer found the painting in the home of a recently deceased woman for whom he had been contracted to hold an estate sale. After his customers told him the painting was likely a de Kooning, he found that it had been stolen in 1987 during an Internet search. He contacted the museum, which sent staff the next day to pick it up. | |- |Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum |March 18, 1990 | The largest art theft, and the largest theft of any private property, in world history occurred in Boston on March 18, 1990, when thieves stole 13 pieces, collectively worth $300 million, from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. A reward of $5,000,000 was on offer for information leading to their return, but expired at the end of 2017. The pieces stolen were: Vermeer's The Concert, which is the most valuable stolen painting in the world; two Rembrandt paintings, The Storm on the Sea of Galilee (his only known seascape) and Portrait of a Lady and Gentleman in Black; A Rembrandt self-portrait etching; Manet's Chez Tortoni; five drawings by Edgar Degas; Govaert Flinck's Landscape with an Obelisk; an ancient Chinese Qu; and a finial that once stood atop a flag from Napoleon's Army. | |- |The Scream (National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design) |February 12, 1994 | In 1994, Edvard Munch's The Scream was stolen from the National Gallery in Oslo, Norway, and held for ransom. It was recovered later in the year. | |- |Kunsthalle Schirn |July 28, 1994 | Three paintings were stolen from a German gallery in 1994, two of them belonging to the Tate Gallery in London. In 1998, Tate conceived of Operation Cobalt, the secret buyback of the paintings from the thieves. The paintings were recovered in 2000 and 2002, resulting in a profit of several million pounds for Tate, because of prior insurance payments. | |- |Mather Brown's Thomas Jefferson |July 28, 1994 | While being stored in preparation to be reproduced, the portrait of Thomas Jefferson painted by artist Mather Brown in 1786, was stolen from a Boston warehouse on July 28, 1994. Authorities apprehended the thieves and recovered the painting on May 24, 1996, following a protracted FBI investigation. | |- |Caracas Museum of Contemporary Art (MACCSI) |1999–2000 | The work of Henri Matisse Odalisque with red trousers, dating back to 1925 was stolen from the museum and replaced by a bad imitation; this work valued at ten million dollars was recovered in 2012 and returned to the institution two years later. | |- |Cooperman Art Theft hoax |1999 | In July 1999, Los Angeles ophthalmologist Steven Cooperman was convicted of insurance fraud for arranging the theft of two paintings, a Picasso and a Monet, from his home in an attempt to collect $17.5 million in insurance. | |- |Vjeran Tomic |Fall, 2000 |In France, using a crossbow, ropes, and a caribiner, Tomic broke into an apartment and stole two Renoirs, a Derain, an Utrillo, a Braque, and various other works worth more than a million euros. | |- |Nationalmuseum |December 22, 2000 | One Rembrandt and two Renoir paintings were stolen from the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm, Sweden, after three armed thieves, who had diverted the attention of police by setting off two separate car bombs nearby beforehand, broke into the museum and fled using a boat, moored nearby. By 2001, the police had recovered one of the Renoirs and by March 2005 they had recovered the second one in Los Angeles. That year, in September, they recovered the Rembrandt in a sting operation in a hotel in Copenhagen. | |- |Stephane Breitwieser |2001 | Stephane Breitwieser admitted to stealing 238 artworks and other exhibits from museums travelling around Europe; his motive was to build a vast personal collection. In January 2005, Breitwieser was given a 26-month prison sentence. Unfortunately, over 60 paintings, including masterpieces by Brueghel, Watteau, François Boucher, and Corneille de Lyon were chopped up by Breitwieser's mother, Mireille Stengel, in what police believe was an effort to remove incriminating evidence against her son. | |- |Van Gogh Museum |December 8, 2002 | The two paintings Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen and View of the Sea at Scheveningen by Vincent van Gogh were stolen from the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Two men were convicted for the theft. The FBI Art Crime Team estimates their combined value at US$30million. The paintings were recovered from the Naples mafia in September 2016 following a raid on a house at Castellammare di Stabia, near Pompeii. | |- |Whitworth Art Gallery |April 26, 2003 |Three artworks—Vincent van Gogh's The Fortification of Paris with Houses, Pablo Picasso's Blue Period Poverty and Paul Gauguin's Tahitian Landscape—valued at £4 million were discovered missing by staff at the Whitworth Art Gallery in Manchester on the morning of Sunday April 27, 2003. The pieces were stolen any time from 21:00 the evening prior in a heist described as sophisticated by Greater Manchester Police. The thieves had bypassed the gallery's alarm systems, unscrewed the paintings and carried them to a back door, leaving the grounds via a hole in a chain-link fence. Initially it was speculated the three pieces had been stolen to order, however, shortly after 02:00 on Monday April 28, police received an anonymous 999 call directing them to a disused public lavatory in the adjacent Whitworth Park, some 200 metres from the gallery. The artworks were discovered in the toilets, rolled up inside a brown cardboard poster tube alongside a handwritten note criticising the gallery's security. (The Whitworth Gallery had in fact updated its security system two years prior). The pieces suffered minor damage, with the Van Gogh bearing a small tear in the corner, and the Picasso and Gauguin both water damaged. However, all were restored and returned to public view within a matter of weeks. The frames were not recovered. | |- |The Scream and Madonna (Munch Museum) |August 22, 2004 | On August 22, 2004, another original of The Scream was stolen—Munch painted several versions of The Scream—together with Munch's Madonna. This time the thieves targeted the version held by the Munch Museum, from where the two paintings were stolen at gunpoint and during opening hours. Both paintings were recovered on August 31, 2006, relatively undamaged. Three men have already been convicted, but the gunmen remain at large. If caught, they could face up to eight years in prison. | |- |Munch paintings theft in Norway |March 6, 2005 | On March 6, 2005, three more Munch paintings were stolen from a hotel in Norway, including Blue Dress, and were recovered the next day. | |- |Kunsthistorisches Museum |May 11, 2003 | On May 11, 2003, Benvenuto Cellini's Saliera was stolen from the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, which was covered by a scaffolding at that time due to reconstruction works. On January 21, 2006, the Saliera was recovered by the Austrian police. | |- |Henry Moore Foundation Perry Green |December 15, 2005 | The artist's cast of Reclining Figure 1969–70, a bronze sculpture of British sculptor Henry Moore, was stolen from the Henry Moore Foundation's Perry Green base on December 15, 2005. Thieves are believed to have lifted the wide, 2.1-tonne statue onto the back of a Mercedes lorry using a crane. Police investigating the theft believe it could have been stolen for scrap value. | |- |Museu da Chácara do Céu |February 24, 2006 | On February 24, 2006, the paintings Man of Sickly Complexion Listening to the Sound of the Sea by Salvador Dalí, The Dance by Pablo Picasso, Luxembourg Gardens by Henri Matisse, and Marine by Claude Monet were stolen from the in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The thieves took advantage of a carnival parade passing by the museum and disappeared into the crowd. The paintings haven't been recovered yet. | |- |São Paulo Museum of Art |December 20, 2007 | On December 20, 2007, around five o'clock in the morning, three men invaded the São Paulo Museum of Art and took two paintings, considered to be among the most valuable of the museum: the Portrait of Suzanne Bloch by Pablo Picasso and Cândido Portinari's O lavrador de café. The whole action took about 3 minutes. The paintings, which are listed as Brazilian National Heritage by IPHAN,<ref> * IPHAN – Official Note – The paintings "O lavrador de Café", "Retrato de Suzanne Bloch" as well as the entire collection of MASP are considered Brazilian National Heritage since 1969 due to its importance to the culture of the country.</ref> remained missing until January 8, 2008, when they were recovered in Ferraz de Vasconcelos by the Police of São Paulo. The paintings were returned, undamaged, to the São Paulo Museum of Art. | |- |Foundation E.G. Bührle |February 11, 2008 | On February 11, 2008, four major impressionist paintings were stolen from the Foundation E.G. Bührle in Zürich, Switzerland. They were Monet's Poppy Field at Vetheuil, Ludovic Lepic and his Daughter by Edgar Degas, Van Gogh's Blossoming Chestnut Branches, and Cézanne's Boy in the Red Vest. The total worth of the four is estimated at $163 million. | |- |Pinacoteca do Estado de São Paulo |June 12, 2008 | On June 12, 2008, three armed men broke into the Pinacoteca do Estado Museum, São Paulo with a crowbar and a carjack around 5:09 am and stole The Painter and the Model (1963) and Minotaur, Drinker and Women (1933) by Pablo Picasso, Women at the Window (1926) by Emiliano Di Cavalcanti, and Couple (1919) by Lasar Segall. It was the second theft of art in São Paulo in six months. On August 6, 2008, two paintings were discovered in the house of one of the thieves and recovered by police in the same city. | |- |Hübner Palace, Budapest |Febr 11, 2010 | On February 11, 2010, Rácz Erzsébet, owner of the painting of Palma il Giovane—Venus with a Mirror, reported a set of robberies. In its course all of her art collection were taken. Among other paintings this one too. The painting: oil, dry fresco, wooden tablet. Szépművészeti Múzeum (Museum of Fine Arts registration number: 290137. |- |Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris |May 10, 2010 | On May 20, 2010, the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris reported the overnight theft of five paintings from its collection. The paintings taken were Le pigeon aux petits pois by Pablo Picasso, La Pastorale by Henri Matisse, L'Olivier près de l'Estaque by Georges Braque, by Amedeo Modigliani and Still Life with Candlestick (Nature Morte aux Chandeliers) by Fernand Léger and were valued at €100 million ($123 million). The thief was eventually found to be Vjeran Tomic. | |- |Venus Over Manhattan |June 19, 2012 | On June 19, 2012, Salvador Dalí's Cartel de Don Juan Tenorio was stolen from the then month-old Venus Over Manhattan gallery in New York City. The theft was captured on tape. The drawing was mailed back to the gallery from Greece, and was displayed for the last day of a 10-day show. | |- |Dulwich Park |December 19–20, 2012 |A cast of Barbara Hepworth's (5/6) Two Forms (Divided Circle) was displayed in Dulwich Park from 1970 until it was cut from it plinth by scrap metal thieves in December 2011. It was insured for £500,000, but its scrap value was estimated at perhaps £750. Southwark Council offered a reward of £1,000, and the Hepworth Estate increased the reward to £5,000, for information leading to the arrest and conviction of the thieves. |Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from London park , The Guardian, December 20, 2011Barbara Hepworth sculpture stolen from Dulwich Park, BBC News, December 20, 2011 |- |Kunsthal |October 16, 2012 | On October 16, 2012, seven paintings were stolen from the museum in Rotterdam. The paintings included Monet's Waterloo Bridge, London and Charing Cross Bridge, London, Picasso's Tete d'Arlequin, Gauguin's Femme devant une fenêtre ouverte, Matisse's La Liseuse en Blanc et Jaune, De Haan's Autoportrait, and Lucian Freud's Woman with Eyes Closed. | |- |John Tillmann |January 18, 2013 | On January 18, 2013, police in Canada arrested John Mark Tillmann of Fall River Nova Scotia after extensive investigations by Interpol, FBI, RCMP and the US Dept of Homeland Security. The case was mammoth and it took authorities nearly three years to close the file. Tillmann was sentenced to nine years in prison for stealing over 10,000 pieces of art-work. In sheer volume, it may be the biggest case of art heist of all time. It was later determined that Tillmann had acted in concert with his Russian wife and her brother, and that they had travelled extensively posing as security and maintenance workers to gain access to museums. Successfully eluding authorities for almost twenty years, the trio had stolen millions of dollars of artifacts in every continent except Australia. Tillmann and his accomplice wife, even raided the Nova Scotia Provincial Legislature in his home province, making off with a valuable 200 year old watercolour. He was versatile in his art thefts, not solely concentrating on paintings, but also known for stealing rare books, statutes, coins, edged weapons, and even a 5,000 year old Egyptian mummy. A university graduate, he was a history buff. | |- |Sripuranthan Chola Idols |January, 2006 | In 2006, about 8 antique Chola idols, that of Natarajar and Uma Mashewari, Vinayagar, Devi, Deepalaksmi, Chandrashekarar, Sampanthar and Krishnar, were stolen from the Brihadeeswarar temple at Sripuranthan, allegedly on the orders of New York-based art dealer Subhash Kapoor, and smuggled to the United States. Of these statues the Natarajar idol was sold to the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra for US$5.1 million and the Vinayagar idol to the Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio, and the Uma Maheswari idol to Asian Civilisation Museum, Singapore. The scandal was exposed by the investigative website Chasing Aphrodite, and received wide coverage in the Indian media. The Australian Government decided to return to idol to India and it was handed over to the Indian Prime Minister. The other museums also agreed to return the stolen idols. | |- |Francis Bacon art in Madrid |June 2015, made public in March 2016 |Five paintings—said to be of medium-to-small size and worth a combined estimated €30m—by Irish artist Francis Bacon were stolen from the Madrid home of their owner during his absence in what has been defined as the largest contemporary art heist in recent Spanish history. The owner is the last known love interest of the painter, from whom he had inherited the paintings. The art thieves left no fingerprints and managed to get away with the works without setting off any alarms or raising any eyebrows in one of the city's safest and most heavily monitored districts. In May 2016 seven people were detained in connection with the case, they stand accused for masterminding the heist and are currently on parole. However the artworks (which are believed to remain somewhere in Spain) were not found. In July 2017 three of the five paintings were recovered by the Spanish police. |Detienen a siete personas relacionadas con el robo de cinco obras de Francis Bacon en Madrid elmundo.es |- |Art theft and looting by Russia during the invasion of Ukraine |2022–present | Since its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Russia has stolen tens of thousands of art pieces. Experts state that this is the largest art theft since the Nazi looting of Europe in World War II. Looted locations include the Kherson Art Museum. |} Notable unrecovered works Images of some artworks that have been stolen and have not yet been recovered. Fictional art theft Genres such as crime fiction often portray fictional art thefts as glamorous or exciting raising generations of admirers. Most of these sources add adventurous, even heroic element to the theft, portraying it as an achievement. In literature, a niche of the mystery genre is devoted to art theft and forgery. In film, a caper story usually features complicated heist plots and visually exciting getaway scenes. In many of these movies, the stolen art piece is a MacGuffin. LiteratureFalse Idols by Patrick Lohier, Lisa Klink, and Diana Renn is a thriller about antiquities theft that starts in Cairo and spans the globe. The serial novel was written with input from famous FBI art detective Robert King Wittman. Author Iain Pears has a series of novels known as the Art History Mysteries, each of which follows a fictional shady dealing in the art history world.St. Agatha's Breast by T. C. Van Adler follows an order of monks attempting to track the theft of an early Poussin work.The Man Who Stole the Mona Lisa by Robert Noah is a historical fiction speculating on the motivations behind the actual theft.Inca Gold by Clive Cussler is a Dirk Pitt adventure about pre-Columbian art theft. Author James Twining has written a trio of novels featuring a character called Tom Kirk, who is/was an art thief. The third book, The Gilded Seal is centered on a fictional theft of Da Vinci works, specifically, the Mona Lisa. Ian Rankin's novel Doors Open centers on an art heist organised by a bored businessman.The Art Thief by Noah Charney, a fiction quoting art thefts in history, some plots are based on the real theft of missing Caravaggio from Palermo. Through a character's mouth the author also gave his conclusion as how to narrow the circle of suspects for the famous robbery of the Boston Gardner Museum. Chasing Vermeer by Blue Balliett. In The Tenth Chamber by Glenn Cooper, a fictional town hijacks a train and steals, among other artifacts, the Portrait of a Young Man by Raphael (missing in real life), offering a fictional explanation as to its disappearance.Heist Society by Ally Carter is a young adult fiction novel depicting teens who rob the Henley. In the manga From Eroica With Love, British Earl, Dorian Red, Earl of Gloria, is the notorious art thief, Eroica. Art Historian Noah Charney's 2011 monograph, "The Theft of the Mona Lisa: On Stealing the Worlds Most Famous Painting" (ARCA Publications) is a full account of the 1911 theft of the Mona Lisa from the Louvre Museum. In If Tomorrow Comes by Sidney Sheldon, a very cunning plan to steal a painting by Francisco Goya was watched closely by an Interpol officer, but eventually succeeded. FilmTopkapi (1964) starring Melina Mercouri, Maximilian Schell, and Peter Ustinov, depicts the meticulously planned theft of an emerald-encrusted dagger from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul.How to Steal a Million (1966) starring Peter O'Toole and Audrey Hepburn, about the theft from a Paris museum of a fake Cellini sculpture to prevent its exposure as a forgery.Gambit (1966), starring Michael Caine and Shirley MacLaineOnce a Thief (1991), directed by John Woo, follows a trio of art-thieves in Hong Kong who stumble across a valuable cursed painting.Hudson Hawk (1991) centers on a cat burglar who is forced to steal Da Vinci works of art for a world domination plot. In Entrapment (1999), an insurance agent is persuaded to join the world of art theft by an aging master thief.Ocean's Twelve (2004) involves the theft of four paintings (including Blue Dancers by Edgar Degas) and the main plot revolves around a competition to steal a Fabergé egg. Vinci (2004), a Polish art thief is hired to steal Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da Vinci from the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków and gets his former partner-turned police officer friend to help him.The Maiden Heist (2009), three museum security guards who devise a plan to steal back the artworks to which they have become attached after they are transferred to another museum.Headhunters (2011), a corporate recruiter who doubles as an art thief sets out to steal a Rubens painting from one of his job prospects.Doors Open (2012), a British television movie based on the novel by Ian Rankin.Trance (2013) Simon, an art auctioneer, becomes involved in the theft of a painting, Goya's Witches in the Air, from his own auction house.The Thomas Crown Affair (1999), When the painting of San Giorgio Maggiore at Dusk by Monet is stolen from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the insurers of the $100 million artwork send investigator Catherine Banning (Rene Russo) to assist NYPD Detective Michael McCann (Denis Leary) in solving the crime.Belphegor, Phantom of the Louvre (2001), A rare collection of artifacts from an archaeological dig in Egypt are brought to the famous Musée du Louvre in Paris. While experts are using a laser scanning device to determine the age of a sarcophagus, a ghostly spirit escapes and makes its way into the museum's electrical system.Woman in Gold (2015), historical drama about the efforts of Maria Altmann's decade-long battle to reclaim Gustav Klimt's painting of her aunt, Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I.St. Trinian's (2007), A group of schoolgirls scheme to steal Johannes Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring and use the profits to save their school from closure. TelevisionWhite Collar (2009-2014), Neal Caffrey, an art thief and suave con artist, teams up with FBI Agent Peter Burke to catch criminals using his expertise. However, throughout the course of the series, Neal continues to occasionally steal art under a variety of circumstances. Multiple seasons involve a plot arch that revolves around a cache of Nazi-looted art. Leverage (2008-2012), A crew of semi-reformed criminals form a Robin Hood-style organization that helps people no one else can help. Many members of the group have flashbacks to various instances of art theft in which they participated. At times, they are required to steal art in order to complete their jobs of aiding desperate people.The Blacklist (2013–2023), artwork and antiquities (stolen or otherwise) is often a big part, if not a central theme, to many episodes in the series. Raymond Reddington has also admitted to brokering many deals revolving around stolen art, sculptures, coins, and many other small items of artistic value during his time as a criminal mastermind. Further reading See also Digital art theft FBI Interpol Kempton Bunton List of artworks with contested provenance List of stolen paintings Looted art References A detailed account of the ongoing investigation into the robbery at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston. A detailed account of the theft of The Scream'' by Edvard Munch. External links FBI art theft Program Art and Antiques Unit – New Scotland Yard YourBrushWithTheLaw.com – Promotion in Art Theft Awareness www.interpol.int Interpol Lyon, Stolen Works of Art Greatest heists in art history (BBC) The Art Loss Register Investigating Stolen Art-The Reason Why by Richards Ellis of AXA 2005 Secrets behind the largest art theft in history (Gardner Museum theft) ARCA – Association for Research Into Crimes Against Art Chasing Aphrodite – Reports on recent art crime news Museum Security Network – An online clearinghouse for news and information related to cultural property loss and recovery Adele's Wish a 2008 documentary film dealing with the theft and restitution of five paintings by Gustav Klimt, including the famous "Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I". The Van Eyck Theft guided tour exploring the Van Eyck theft in Ghent in 1934. Theft Art thieves Theft Stolen works of art Organized crime activity Smuggling

425527

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20mythology

Japanese mythology

Japanese mythology is a collection of traditional stories, folktales, and beliefs that emerged in the islands of the Japanese archipelago. Shinto traditions are the cornerstones of Japanese mythology. The history of thousands of years of contact with Chinese and Indian myths are also key influences in Japanese religious belief. Japanese myths are tied to the topography of the archipelago as well as agriculturally-based folk religion, and the Shinto pantheon holds countless kami (Japanese for "god(s)" or "spirits"). This article will discuss cosmogony, important deities, modern interpretations, cultural significance, and the influence of these myths. Two important sources for Japanese myths as they are recognized today are the and the . The , or "Record of Ancient Matters," is the oldest surviving account of Japan's myths, legends, and history. Additionally, the Shintōshū describes the origins of Japanese deities from a Buddhist perspective. One notable feature of Japanese mythology is its explanation of the origin of the Imperial Family, which has been used historically to deify to the imperial line. Japanese is not transliterated consistently across all sources (see spelling of proper nouns). Sources Japanese myths are passed down through oral tradition, through literary sources (including traditional art), and through archaeological sources. For much of Japan's history, communities were mostly isolated, which allowed for local legends and myths to grow around unique features of the geographic location where the people who told the stories lived. Literary sources The Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki, completed in A.D. 712 and A.D. 720 respectively, had the two most referenced and oldest sources of Japanese mythology and pre-history. Written in the Eighth century, under the Yamato state, the two collections relate the cosmogony and mythic origins of the Japanese archipelago, its people, and the imperial family. It is based on the records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki that the imperial family claims direct descent from the sun goddess Amaterasu and her grandson Ninigi. Emperor Temmu enlisted the help of Hiyeda no Are who committed to memory the history of Japan as it was recorded in two collections that are thought by historians to have existed before the Kojiki and Nihongi. Under Empress Gemmei's rule, Hideya no Are's memory of the history of the Japanese archipelago and its mythological origins were recorded in spite of Emperor Temmu's death before its completion. As a result of Hideya no Are's account, the Kojiki was finally completed, transcribed in kanji characters, during Empress Genshō's time as sovereign. The Yamato state also produced fudoki and Man'yōshū, two more of the oldest surviving texts that relate the historical and mythical origins of Japan's people, culture, and the imperial family. Motoori Norinaga, an Edo-period Japanese scholar, interpreted Kojiki and his commentary, annotations, and use of alternate sources to supplement his interpretations are studied by scholars today because of their influence on the current understanding of Japanese myths. Archaeological sources Archaeologists studying the history of the Japanese Archipelago separate the prehistoric history into three eras based on attributes of the discoveries associated with each era. The Jōmun period marks the first cases of pottery found on the archipelago, followed by the Yayoi period and the Kofun period. The Yayoi district of Tokyo, Japan is the namesake of the Yayoi period because archaeologists discovered pottery associated with the time period there. Contact with Korean civilization in the latter part of the Yayoi period influenced the culture of the Japanese Archipelago greatly, as evidenced by the discovery of artifacts that archaeologists associate with various cultural streams from Korea, and northeast Asia. Finally, Kofun period artifacts, ranging from A.D. 250 to A.D. 600, are the archaeological sources of what historians know about the Yamato kingdom — the same Yamato state that was responsible for the two most prominent literary sources of Japanese myth, the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki. Cosmogony Origins of Japan and the kami Kuniumi and Kamiumi Japan's archipelago creation narrative can be divided into the birth of the deities (Kamiumi) and the birth of the land (Kuniumi). The birth of the deities begins with the appearance of the first generation of gods who appeared out of primordial oil, a trio of gods who produced the next seven generations of gods. Izanagi and Izanami were eventually born, siblings, and using a naginata decorated with jewels, named Ame-no-nuhoko ("Heavenly Jeweled Spear") that was gifted to them. Izanagi created the first islands of the Japanese Archipelago by dipping the Naginata into the primordial waters. Historians have interpreted the myth of Izanagi's creation of the first Japanese Island Onogoro as an early example of phallocentrism in Japanese mythology.The earliest creation myths of Japanese mythology generally involve topics such as death, decay, loss, infanticide, and contamination. The creation myths place great importance on purification, ceremonial order, and the masculine. For example, the first child born to Izanagi and Izanami after they attempt a union ceremony is born with no limbs or bones, and the parents discard the child by sending him to sea in a boat. When Izanagi and Izanami ask the older gods why their child was born without bones or limbs, they are told it was because they did not conduct the ceremony properly and that the male must always speak before the female. Once they follow the directions of the older gods correctly, they produce many children, many of whom are the islands of the Japanese Archipelago. Among their children are the Ōyashima, or the eight great islands of Japan — Awaji, Iyo, Oki, Tsukushi, Iki, Tsushima, Sado, and Yamato. The last child that Izanami produces is a fire god, Kagutsuchi (incarnation of fire), whose flames kill her; and Izanagi murders the child in grief-driven anger. The child's corpse creates even more gods. Izanami was then buried on Mount Hiba, at the border of the old provinces of Izumo and Hoki, near modern-day Yasugi of Shimane Prefecture. Scholars of Japanese mythology have noted the incestuous themes of the creation myth as represented in the Kojiki, and the first scholar to write about Izanagi and Izanami as siblings was Oka Masao. Izanami is referred to in the Kojiki as Izanagi's imo (meaning both wife or little sister in Japanese) and other scholars dispute that the pair were siblings. Hattori Asake, another scholar, argued that Oka was correct because he drew evidence from another myth about humans who had incestuous relations because of a great flood wiping out the rest of the human population. Essentially, Hattori said the myth Oka used as evidence was too different to be the origin of the Izanagi and Izanami myth. In the Man'yōshū, Izanami is also referred to as imo by the compiler, suggesting that the compiler believed that Izanami was Izanagi's sister. While scholars disagree about the nature of Izanami and Izanagi's relationships, the gods Amaterasu and Susanoo, children of Izanagi, were sibling gods who created children together in a contest preceding Susanoo's desecration of Amaterasu's home which leads to her hiding in a cave. A unique aspect of Japanese mythology is its inclusion of graphic details, with disgusting and horrific images that are considered to be taboo in modern Japanese society, which has many cultural practices associated with purification and cleanliness. Yomi After Izanami's death, the myth of Izanagi's efforts to rescue her from Yomi, an underworld described in Japanese mythology, explains the origins of the cycle of birth and death. After killing their child Kagutsuchi, Izanagi was still grief-stricken, so he undertook the task of finding a way to bring Izanami back from the dead. After finally locating her, he disobeyed her order to not look at her while she went to ask permission to leave Yomi. He used his hair to create a flame, and when he gazed at Izanami's rotting, maggot-filled flesh he fled in fear and disgust. Izanami felt betrayed and tried to capture him, but he escaped by creating obstacles for Izanami's horde of shikome including using peaches to threaten them. The myth of Izanagi's journey into Yomi features many themes of food, he creates grapes to distract the shikome who stop to eat them, granting him time to escape. The peaches he uses to scare the shikome off are then blessed, and peaches appear in many other Japanese myths, especially the tale of Momotarō the peach boy. The Sun, Moon, and Storm The origins of the Sun and the Moon are accounted for in Japanese mythology through the myth of Izanagi's return from Yomi. After spending so much time in Yomi, Izanagi cleansed himself with a purification ceremony. As Izanagi cleansed himself, the water and robes that fell from his body created many more gods. Purification rituals still function as important traditions in Japan today, from shoe etiquette in households to sumo wrestling purification ceremonies. Amaterasu, the Sun goddess and divine ancestor of the first Emperor Jimmu, was born from Izanagi's eye. The Moon god and Susanoo the storm god were born at the same time as Amaterasu, when Izanagi washed his face. Myths related the Sun, the Moon, and the Storm kami are full of strife and conflict. The Sun goddess and her sibling the moon god's interpersonal conflicts explain, in Japanese myth, why the Sun and the Moon do not stay in the sky at the same time — their distaste for one another keeps them both turning away from the other. Meanwhile, the sun goddess and the storm god Susanoo's conflicts were intense and bloody. Various accounts of Susanoo's temper tantrum in Amaterasu's home depict a variety of disgusting and brutal behaviors (everything from smearing his feces across her home's walls to skinning her favorite horse alive and throwing it at her maid and killing the maid) but it is usually, in depictions of this particular myth, Susanoo's behavior that scares Amaterasu into hiding in a cave. It would take the combined efforts of many other kami, and the erotic dance of a particular goddess named Ame no Uzume, to lure Amaterasu from the cave again. Ame no Uzume exposed herself while dancing and created such commotion that Amaterasu peeked out from her cave. The myth of Amaterasu's entering and emerging from a cave is depicted in one of the most iconic images of Japanese mythology which is shown to the right. The sun goddess Amaterasu's importance in Japanese mythology is two-fold. She is the sun, and one of Izanagi's most beloved of children, as well as the ancestor of the Japanese imperial line, according to legend. Her status as a sun goddess had political ramifications for the imperial family, and the Yamato state most likely benefited from the myth when dealing with Korean influences because Korea also had myths of sun god ancestors for the Korean imperial family. First Emperor Jimmu The tale of first Emperor Jimmu is considered the origin of the Imperial family. Emperor Jimmu is considered to be the human descendant of Amaterasu the Sun goddess. His ascension to the throne marked the "Transition from Age of the Gods to Human Age". After taking control of Yamato province, he established the imperial throne and acceded in the year of kanototori (conventionally dated to 660 B.C.). At the end of the seventh century, the Imperial court finally moved from where Emperor Jimmu was said to have founded it in Yamato. The importance of this myth in particular is that it establishes the origins, and the power, of the Japanese imperial family as divine. Although some scholars believe that the myths found in the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki are meant to give authority to the imperial family, others suggest that the myths in the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki are unique accounts meant to give authority to the mythic histories in themselves. The Nihon Shoki and Kojiki have varying accounts of the mythic history of Japan, and there are differences in the details of the origins of the imperial family between the two texts. The Yamato Dynasty still has a role as a public symbol of the state and people, according to the current constitution of Japan. The Japanese pantheon Japanese gods and goddesses, called kami, are uniquely numerous (there are at least eight million) and varied in power and stature. They are usually descendants from the original trio of gods that were born from nothing in the primordial oil that was the world before the kami began to shape it. There are easily as many kami in Japanese myth as there are distinct natural features, and most kami are associated with natural phenomena. Kami can take many shapes and forms, some look almost human in depictions found by archaeologists; meanwhile, other kami look like hybrids of humans and creatures, or may not look human at all. One example of a kami who looks almost human in depictions is the ruler of the Seas Ryujin. On the other hand, kami like Ningi and Amaterasu are often depicted as human in their forms. Shinto originated in Japan, and the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki tell the tales of the Shinto pantheon's origins. Shinto is still practiced today in Japan. In Shinto belief, kami has multiple meanings and could also be translated as "spirit" and all objects in nature have a kami according to this system. Myths often tell stories of particular, local deities and kami; for example, the kami of a mountain or a nearby lake. Most kami take their origins from Shinto beliefs, but the influence of Buddhism also affected the pantheon. Contact with other cultures usually had some influence on Japanese myth. In the fourteenth century, Christianity found its way to Japan through St. Francis Xavier and there was also contact with westerners. However, during the Tokugawa shogunate Christians were executed in Japan. Twenty Christians were crucified before that while Toyotomi Hideyoshi was consolidating his power after the assassination of Oda Nobunaga. Christianity was banned in Japan until well into the nineteenth century. Folklore heroes As in other cultures, Japanese mythology accounts for not only the actions of supernatural beings but also the adventures and lives of folk heroes. There are many Japanese heroes that are associated with specific locations in Japan, and others that are more well-known across the archipelago. Some heroes are thought to have been real people, such as the Forty-seven rōnin, but their legacy has been transformed into great folktales that depict the historical figures as more gifted, powerful, or knowledgeable than the average person. The heroic adventures of these heroes range from acts of kindness and devotion, such as the myth of Shita-kiri Suzume, to battling frightful enemies, as in the tale of Momotaro. Themes that appear in the folklore concerning heroes are moral lessons, or stories that function as parables. The tale of Shita-kiri Suzume, for example, warns of the dangers of greed, avarice, and jealousy through the example of an old couple's experiences with a fairy who disguised herself as a sparrow to test the old man. The influence of Bushido is noticeable in the behavior of heroes, and heroes often were also warriors. Momotaro, born from a peach for a childless couple to raise, is a mythic hero who embodied courage and dutifulness as he went on a journey to defeat oni who were kidnapping, raping, and pillaging his home island. The tale of Momotaro also shares in the themes of violence, sexual violence, and deities or demons devouring humans. Stories of sexual violence are common in the Buddhist text Nihon ryōiki, while stories of people being devoured by mountain deities are found as if they are historical accounts in the fudoki. In Japanese folklore, heroes like Momotaro rescue women from violent kami and oni. Although the exploits of heroes are well known, Japanese mythology also featured heroines. Ototachibana, the wife of Yamato Takeru, threw herself into the sea to save her husband's ship and quell the wrath of the storm that threatened them. Yamato Takeru, once safe, built a tomb for her and his mourning utterance for his wife caused Eastern Honshu to be called Adzuma. Mythological creatures See also Ainu mythology Japanese Buddhism Japanese folklore Japanese mythology in popular culture Japanese urban legends Kami Kamui Kuni-yuzuri List of Japanese deities Seven Lucky Gods Hōsōshin demon Shinto Yokai Yurei Kaiju Spelling of proper nouns References External links Romance stories from old Japan, pre-1919—Free to read and full-text search. A Multilingual Electronic Text Collection of Folk Tales for Casual Users Using Off-the-Shelf Browsers

425528

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Goldhagen

Daniel Goldhagen

Daniel Jonah Goldhagen (born June 30, 1959) is an American author, and former associate professor of government and social studies at Harvard University. Goldhagen reached international attention and broad criticism as the author of two controversial books about the Holocaust: Hitler's Willing Executioners (1996), and A Moral Reckoning (2002). He is also the author of Worse Than War (2009), which examines the phenomenon of genocide, and The Devil That Never Dies (2013), in which he traces a worldwide rise in virulent antisemitism. Biography Daniel Goldhagen was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Erich and Norma Goldhagen. He grew up in nearby Newton. His wife Sarah (née Williams) is an architectural historian, and critic for The New Republic magazine. Daniel Goldhagen's father is Erich Goldhagen, a retired Harvard professor. Erich is a Holocaust survivor who, with his family, was interned in a Jewish ghetto in Czernowitz (present-day Ukraine). Daniel credits his father for being a "model of intellectual sobriety and probity". Goldhagen has written that his "understanding of Nazism and of the Holocaust is firmly indebted" to his father's influence. In 1977, Goldhagen entered Harvard, and remained there for some twenty years - first as an undergraduate and graduate student, then as an assistant professor in the Government and Social Studies Department. During early graduate studies, he attended a lecture by Saul Friedländer, in which he had what he describes as a "lightbulb moment": The functionalism versus intentionalism debate did not address the question, "When Hitler ordered the annihilation of the Jews, why did people execute the order?". Goldhagen wanted to investigate who the German men and women who killed the Jews were, and their reasons for killing. Academic and literary career As a graduate student, Goldhagen undertook research in the German archives. The thesis of Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust proposes that, during the Holocaust, many killers were ordinary Germans, who killed for having been raised in a profoundly antisemitic culture, and thus were acculturated — "ready and willing" — to execute the Nazi government's genocidal plans. Goldhagen's first notable work was a book review titled "False Witness" published by The New Republic magazine on April 17, 1989. It was one in a series of hostile reviews of the 1988 book Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? by an American-Jewish professor of Princeton University born in Luxembourg, Arno J. Mayer. Goldhagen wrote that "Mayer's enormous intellectual error" was in ascribing the cause of the Holocaust to anti-Communism, rather than to antisemitism, and criticized Prof. Mayer's saying that most massacres of Jews in the USSR, during the first weeks of Operation Barbarossa in the summer of 1941 were committed by local peoples (see the Lviv pogroms for more historical background), with little Wehrmacht participation. Goldhagen accused him also of misrepresenting the facts about the Wannsee Conference (1942), which was meant for plotting the genocide of European Jews, not (as Mayer said) merely the resettlement of the Jews. Goldhagen further accused Mayer of obscurantism, of suppressing historical fact, and of being an apologist for Nazi Germany, like Ernst Nolte, for attempting to "de-demonize" National Socialism. Also in 1989, historian Lucy Dawidowicz reviewed Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? in Commentary magazine, and praised Goldhagen's "False Witness" review, identifying him as a rising Holocaust historian who formally rebutted "Mayer's falsification" of history. In 2003, Goldhagen resigned from Harvard to focus on writing. His work synthesizes four historical elements, kept distinct for analysis; as presented in the books A Moral Reckoning: the Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair (2002) and Worse Than War (2009): (i) description (what happens), (ii) explanation (why it happens), (iii) moral evaluation (judgment), and (iv) prescription (what is to be done?). According to Goldhagen, his Holocaust studies address questions about the political, social, and cultural particulars behind other genocides: "Who did the killing?" "What, despite temporal and cultural differences, do mass killings have in common?", which yielded Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity, about the global nature of genocide, and averting such crimes against humanity. Books Hitler's Willing Executioners Hitler's Willing Executioners (1996) posits that the vast majority of ordinary Germans were "willing executioners" in the Holocaust because of a unique and virulent "eliminationist antisemitism" in German identity that had developed in the preceding centuries. Goldhagen argued that this form of antisemitism was widespread in Germany, that it was unique to Germany, and that because of it, ordinary Germans willingly killed Jews. Goldhagen asserted that this mentality grew out of medieval attitudes with a religious basis, but was eventually secularized. Goldhagen's book was meant to be a "thick description" in the manner of Clifford Geertz. As such, to prove his thesis Goldhagen focused on the behavior of ordinary Germans who killed Jews, especially the behavior of the men of Order Police (Orpo) Reserve Battalion 101 in occupied Poland in 1942 to argue ordinary Germans possessed by "eliminationist anti-Semitism" chose to willingly murder Jews in cruel and sadistic ways. Scholars such as Yehuda Bauer, Otto Kulka and Israel Gutman among others had asserted before Goldhagen, the primacy of ideology, radical anti-Semitism, and the corollary of an inimitability exclusive to Germany. The book, which began as a doctoral dissertation, was written largely as a response to Christopher Browning's Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (1992). Much of Goldhagen's book was concerned with the same Order Police battalion, but with very different conclusions. On April 8, 1996, Browning and Goldhagen discussed their differences during a symposium hosted by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Browning's book recognizes the impact of the unending campaign of antisemitic propaganda, but it takes other factors into account, such as fear of breaking ranks, desire for career advancement, a concern not to be viewed as weak, the effect of state bureaucracy, battlefield conditions and peer-bonding. Goldhagen does not acknowledge the influence of these variables. Goldhagen's book went on to win the American Political Science Association's 1994 Gabriel A. Almond Award in comparative politics and the Democracy Prize of the Journal for German and International Politics. Time magazine reported that it was one of the two most important books of 1996, and The New York Times called it "one of those rare, new works that merit the appellation 'landmark. The book sparked controversy in the press and academic circles. Several historians characterized its reception as an extension of the Historikerstreit, the German historiographical debate of the 1980s that sought to explain Nazi history. The book was a "publishing phenomenon", achieving fame in both the United States and Germany despite being criticized by some historians, who called it ahistorical and, according to Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg, "totally wrong about everything" and "worthless". Due to its alleged "generalizing hypothesis" about Germans, it has been characterized as anti-German. The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer claims that "Goldhagen stumbles badly", "Goldhagen's thesis does not work", and charges "... that the anti-German bias of his book, almost a racist bias (however much he may deny it), leads nowhere". The American historian Fritz Stern denounced the book as unscholarly and full of racist Germanophobia. Hilberg summarised the debates, "by the end of 1996, it was clear that in sharp distinction from lay readers, much of the academic world had wiped Goldhagen off the map". A Moral Reckoning In 2002, Goldhagen published A Moral Reckoning: The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and Its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair, his account of the role of the Catholic Church before, during and after World War II. In the book, Goldhagen acknowledges that individual bishops and priests hid and saved a large number of Jews, but also asserts that others promoted or accepted antisemitism before and during the war, and some played a direct role in the persecution of Jews in Europe during the Holocaust. David Dalin and Joseph Bottum of The Weekly Standard criticized the book, calling it a "misuse of the Holocaust to advance [an] anti-Catholic agenda", and poor scholarship. Goldhagen noted in an interview with The Atlantic, as well as in the book's introduction, that the title and the first page of the book reveal its purpose as a moral, rather than historical analysis, asserting that he has invited European Church representatives to present their own historical account in discussing morality and reparation. Worse Than War In Worse than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity (2009), Goldhagen described Nazism and the Holocaust as "eliminationist assaults". He worked on the book intermittently for a decade, interviewing atrocity perpetrators and victims in Rwanda, Bosnia, Guatemala, Cambodia, Kenya, and the USSR, and politicians, government officers, and private humanitarian organization officers. Goldhagen states that his aim is to help "craft institutions and politics that will save countless lives and also lift the lethal threat under which so many people live". He concludes that eliminationist assaults are preventable because "the world's non-mass-murdering countries are wealthy and powerful, having prodigious military capabilities (and they can band together)", whereas the perpetrator countries "are overwhelmingly poor and weak". The book was cinematically adapted, and the documentary film of Worse Than War was first presented in the U.S. in Aspen, Colorado, on August 6, 2009 – the sixty-fourth anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945. In Germany, the documentary was first broadcast by the ARD television network October 18, 2009, and was to be nationally broadcast by PBS in 2010. Uğur Ümit Üngör criticized the title of the book, stating "Worse than war? What does that mean? If I write a book about the enormous destruction and deaths of innocent people brought about by war, could I call it Better than Genocide?" David Rieff, characterizing Goldhagen as a "pro-Israel polemicist and amateur historian", writes that the subtext of what Goldhagen deems "eliminationism" may be his own view of contemporary Islam. Rieff writes that Goldhagen's website states that the author "speaks nationally ... about Political Islam's Offensive, the threat to Israel, Hitler's Willing Executioners, the Globalization of Anti-Semitism, and more". Rieff questions Goldhagen's equating the "culture of death" of Nazism with that of "political Islam", as well as Goldhagen's conclusion that, in order to prevent "eliminationism", the United Nations should be remade into an interventionist entity focusing on "a devoted international push for democratizing more countries". Adam Jones, who praised this book for its fluid style and commendable passion, concludes however, that the book is undermined by a casual approach to basic research, and by the author's tendency to overreach and overstate his case. The British historian David Elstein accused Goldhagen of manipulating his sources to make a false accusation of genocide against the British during the Mau Mau Uprising of the 1950s in Kenya. Elstein wrote in his view that the chapter on Kenya left Goldhagen open "...to the charge that he is the kind of scholar who is either unaware of the facts or prefers to exclude those which do not fit his thesis". Personal life Goldhagen has been a vegetarian since the age of 10. Since 1999, Goldhagen has been married to Sarah Williams Goldhagen. Awards and recognition The Jewish Daily Forward, named to Forward 50, 2002 and 1996 Journal for German and International Politics Triennial Democracy Prize, 1997, with laudatio given by Jürgen Habermas. National Book Critics Circle Award Finalist for Hitler's Willing Executioners, 1996 Time, named Hitler's Willing Executioners one of two best non-fiction books of the year, 1996 American Political Science Association, Gabriel A. Almond Award for the best dissertation in the field of comparative politics, 1994 Harvard University, Sumner Dissertation Prize, 1993 Whiting Fellowship, 1990–1991 Fulbright IIE Grant for Dissertation Research, 1988–1989 Krupp Foundation Fellowship for Dissertation Research, 1988–1989 Center for European Studies Summer Research Grant, 1987 Jacob Javits Fellowship 1996–1988, 1989–1990 Harvard College, Philo Sherman Bennett Thesis Prize, 1982 German Academic Exchange Service (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst, DAAD) Fellowship, 1979–1980 Selected works 1989: "False Witness", The New Republic, April 17, 1989, Volume 200, No. 16, Issue # 3, pp. 39–44 1996: Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and The Holocaust, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2002: A Moral Reckoning: The Role of the Catholic Church in the Holocaust and Its Unfulfilled Duty of Repair, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2009: Worse Than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault On Humanity, PublicAffairs, New York, 2013: The Devil That Never Dies: The Rise and Threat of Global Anti-Semitism References Further reading Eley, Geoff (ed.) The Goldhagen Effect: History, Memory, Nazism—Facing the German Past. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000. . Feldkamp, Michael F. Goldhagens unwillige Kirche. Alte und neue Fälschungen über Kirche und Papst während der NS-Herrschaft. München: Olzog-Verlag, 2003. Finkelstein, Norman & Birn, Ruth Bettina. A Nation on Trial: The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth. New York: Henry Holt, 1998. Kwiet, Konrad: "‘Hitler’s Willing Executioners’ and ‘Ordinary Germans’: Some Comments on Goldhagen’s Ideas". Jewish Studies Yearbook 1 (2000). LaCapra, Dominick. "Perpetrators and Victims: The Goldhagen Debate and Beyond", in LaCapra, D. Writing History, Writing Trauma Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 114–140. Mommsen, Hans, Podium discussion, Die Deutschen – Ein Volk von Tätern?: Zur historisch-politischen Debatte um das Buch von Daniel Jonah Goldhagen, 'Hitlers willige Vollstrecker''', ed. Dieter Dowe (Bonn, 1996), 73. In "Structure and Agency in the Holocaust: Daniel J. Goldhagen and His Critics" by A. D. Moses, History and Theory 37, no. 2 (May 1998): 197. Pohl, Dieter. "Die Holocaust-Forschung und Goldhagens Thesen", Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 45 (1997). Rychlak, Ronald. "Goldhagen vs. Pius XII" First Things (June/July 2002) Shandley, Robert & Riemer, Jeremiah (eds.) Unwilling Germans? The Goldhagen Debate. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998. Stern, Fritz. "The Goldhagen Controversy: The Past Distorted" in Einstein's German World, 272–288. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999. Wesley, Frank. The Holocaust and Anti-semitism: the Goldhagen Argument and Its Effects. San Francisco: International Scholars Publications, 1999. The "Willing Executioners/Ordinary Men" Debate: Selections from the Symposium, April 8, 1996, introduced by Michael Berenbaum (Washington, D.C.: USHMM, 2001). External links Goldhagen's new website. . Daniel Goldhagen interview on Counterpoint Radio with Marcus W. Orr Center for the Humanities at the University of Memphis. Interview , PBS German lessons, Goldhagen authored article at The Guardian Articles by Daniel Jonah Goldhagen at Los Angeles Times'' Daniel Jonah Goldhagen – The New York Review of Books Discussion of Goldhagen by Various Scholars Interview with Daniel J. Goldhagen: Deterrence as the Only Prevention for Genocide Interview With Prof. Daniel Goldhagen, Harvard University, in Yad Vashem website 1959 births Living people Harvard College alumni Harvard University faculty Historians of fascism Historians of Nazism Historians of the Holocaust Historians of the Catholic Church Critics of the Catholic Church Jewish American historians American male non-fiction writers American people of Romanian-Jewish descent American Zionists Writers from Boston 21st-century American historians Historians from Massachusetts Reserve Police Battalion 101

425530

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangers%20with%20Candy

Strangers with Candy

Strangers with Candy is an American television series created by Stephen Colbert, Paul Dinello, Amy Sedaris and Mitch Rouse that originally aired on Comedy Central from April 7, 1999, to October 2, 2000. Its timeslot was Sundays at 10:00 p.m. (ET). The series, inspired by after school specials, follows Jerri Blank (Sedaris) a 46-year-old woman, who after living as a prostitute and drug addict, decides to go back to high school and start doing things the right way. The series was produced by Comedy Partners, with Kent Alterman serving as executive producer and Colbert as co-producer. Strangers with Candy episodes were produced in a single-camera setup and were filmed between upstate New York and New Jersey. The pilot episode premiered on April 7, 1999, and three seasons followed. The series stars Sedaris, Colbert, Dinello and Greg Hollimon with a supporting cast that includes Roberto Gari, Deborah Rush, Larc Spies, Maria Thayer, Orlando Patoboy, Sarah Thyre and David Pasquesi. Tonally, Strangers with Candy uses surreal humor to satirize after school specials and the useless and often saccharine advice they would give to kids. The show altered the lessons so the principal character would always do the wrong thing. It was Comedy Central's first ever, live-action, narrative series, and had low ratings during its broadcast. Despite the lack of audience, it is now known as a cult classic, having influenced numerous contemporary comedians and screenwriters. A prequel film of the same name was released in 2006. As of 2023, it is available to watch on Paramount+. Plot Set in the fictional city of Flatpoint, Strangers with Candy follows Geraldine Antonia "Jerri" Blank, a former prostitute and drug addict –referred to in the show as a "junkie whore"– who returns to high school as a 46 year old freshman at Flatpoint High. Jerri ran away from home and became "a boozer, a user, and a loser" after dropping out of high school as a teenager, supporting her drug habits through prostitution, stripping, and larceny. She has been to prison several times, the last time because she "stole the TV." Jerri tries to do things the right way but always ends up learning the wrong lesson. Her hijinks often involve, either directly or indirectly, history teacher Chuck Noblet and his secret lover art teacher Geoffrey Jellineck. Every episode features a warped theme or moral lesson and ends with the cast and other featured actors from the episode dancing. The last episode features Flatpoint being turned into a strip mall because the show was cancelled to make room for a TV show called Strip Mall. Development Conception Sedaris, Dinello, Colbert and Rouse first created the sketch comedy show Exit 57, which debuted on Comedy Central in 1995 and aired through 1996. Although it lasted only 12 episodes, the show received favorable reviews and was nominated for five CableACE Awards in 1995, in categories including best writing, performance, and comedy series. After the show was cancelled, Colbert and Dinello were preparing a pitch for a show known as "Mysteries of the Insane Unknown.” Simultaneously, Rouse and Sedaris had developed their own pitch, which Sedaris described as "something based on after-school specials" inspired by shows like The Brady Bunch. They presented it first to MTV, as Rouse knew someone there; while his friend loved it, they were told the channel would not go for it. Comedy Central was prepared to greenlight "Mysteries" but Dinello convinced Colbert to go help Sedaris with her pitch. Colbert was reticent after hearing her idea because he knew it was better than theirs; he was right, and Comedy Central's Kent Alterman chose her show instead. At first, Sedaris wanted to do a straight after-school special: "We wanted to play it dead, dead serious. No laugh track, nothing. But Comedy Central didn’t go for it." Rouse, Colbert, and Dinello went to the Museum Of Television and found several after-school specials starring Scott Baio, which they used as reference. Dinello later found a tape of Florrie Fisher's The Trip Back at Kim's video in the East Village; Fisher, a motivational speaker, recalled her days as a New York prostitute and heroin addict to a group of high-school students. After watching it, Dinello thought Fisher reminded him of Sedaris and promptly suggested doing a character—inspired by Fisher—that would go back to high school. Colbert added the idea of her learning the wrong lesson after every episode, and Sedaris said "Okay, she'll be a junkie whore this time." Rouse noted Strangers was a combination of Fisher's tape, the Baio specials, Aileen Wuornos: The Selling of a Serial Killer, and Frederick Wiseman’s Titicut Follies. Writing and production Colbert, Dinello and Sedaris wrote most of the episodes, the process started with an "overlying outline," knowing the start and the end of the episode, they would build the scenes in between and later would improvise together in a room, whatever they laughed at went in the script. Colbert later said of this method: "Our rule was, if it makes us laugh, we put it in the script. There was not a single thing said by a character in that show that was right. Every choice was the wrong moral choice. Because of the freedom Comedy Central allowed us, we said and did things that were outrageous and extreme." They would also keep typos in. Sedaris recalled: "That's what I learned from working on Strangers. If you're not laughing, how do you expect anyone else to laugh?" Alterman said of the show's structure "The way we approached [it] was to present each one as a morality play where in the third act the protagonist, Jerri Blank, would always, without fail, make the wrong choice. And then to cap it off, she would come back in the epilogue in the fourth act to say what she learned, and she would also draw the wrong lesson from the wrong choice she had made. Very occasionally they would write with a collaborator such as Cindy Caponera, Mitch Rouse or Thomas Lennon. Some of Jerri's phrases like "You got skills to pay the bills" and "I like the pole and the hole" came from things Sedaris' brother, Paul, would say. Much of Jerri's past is taken from anecdotes in The Trip Back, some of which are also in Fisher's autobiography, The Lonely Trip Back. Several lines of dialogue in the series were taken verbatim from Fisher's public-service film. Sedaris would often watch the show without sound to see if a deaf person could follow: "Okay, if I couldn't hear or understand anything, could I still find the show entertaining?" And I did. 'Cause everyone was so interesting to look at." The third season was written in Charleston, South Carolina, Colbert's hometown. Comedy Central picked up the series in 1998 after Colbert had already begun working on The Daily Show. As a result, he accepted a reduced role, filming only around 20 Daily Show segments a year while he worked on the new series. The title of the show came from the phrase "Don't take candy from strangers," which would probably be a lesson from an after school special. Sedaris has credited producer Kent Alterman with the development of the show: "He really helped us shape that show. We went in there with strong ideas, but he changed it a lot from the pilot to the first episode. He had a good eye and really good ideas, and we trusted him from the get-go." Doug Herzog, who was at the time, president of Comedy Central's parent company Viacom, also noted his influence, "Kent recognized the brilliance and genius of Strangers With Candy really early on. He really championed it when a lot of us were looking at it, going, “What is this?” The show faced slight censorship from the network, Sedaris said, "It was weird. Like they let you say "pussy," but not "faggot" — until the fourth show. They said, "You have to build up to 'faggot.'" And the script of one show had me writing in my "dirty, filthy Jew diary." Well, I could say "dirty," but I couldn't say "filthy." It was killing me." But were mostly left alone to their own devices. Costume designer Vicki Farrell did the wardrobe for the show, when designing Jerri Blank's appearance, Sedaris told Farrell: "I want to look like I own a snake." Jerri would often wear high-waisted pants and snakeskin ankle boots, as well as turtlenecks because Comedy Central did not want track marks or tattoos to be visible. To complete the look Sedaris wore a fat suit. Some of her clothes were custom made or came from thrift stores. Sedaris wore a wig and fake lashes, and told the hair and makeup department she wanted Jerri to look like a professional golfer. It would take about 40 minutes for Sedaris to get into character. Casting When writing the pilot, they created the character of Principal Blackman, and would often do the voice, they realized they were actually imitating Greg Hollimon. Colbert called him to play the part, but his mother, who had dementia, forgot to pass him the message. A few weeks later Rose Abdoo was able to contact him, and he flew to New York to film. The creators, Hollimon, and many other stars of the series, were also alumni of Chicago's Second City. When they were auditioning for the role of Guy Blank, Jerri's father, they chose Roberto Gari as he was the only actor who was able to do the character's posture, and keep still for a long period of time. Filming The show was filmed between Westchester County, New York and New Jersey, with two different abandoned schools in the Rutherford area being used as the set for Flatpoint High. Cancellation The show was cancelled to give space for a new show called Strip Mall. A week after the show was cancelled, Colbert had a moral breakdown: "I found myself vomiting, weeping and quoting scripture because I'd spent three years trying to think of the worst possible choices anyone could ever make, morally, for every character, for three years, pretty much, 24 hours a day, and I thought Strangers with Candy was actually corrupting my soul at some level, just having to think that way for three years." In 2016, Sedaris said, "We never knew we had an audience. We never knew what the ratings were—we still haven’t been told we were canceled! But we were fine doing more or not doing more, either way." Cast and characters The Blank family Geraldine "Jerri" Antonia Blank (Amy Sedaris): A 46-year-old ex-con, ex-junkie, ex-prostitute, and high-school freshman at Flatpoint High. Guy Blank (Roberto Gari): Jerri's biological father, shown only in a motionless state during mid-action. Sara Blank (Deborah Rush): Jerri's hateful stepmother. Derrick Blank (Larc Spies): Jerri's arrogant teenage half-brother. He plays quarterback for the Flatpoint Donkeys football team. Stew (David Pasquesi): The Blank family's meat man. He engages in an affair with Sara while remaining married to the mother of his two children (Chuck and Patty). Flatpoint High faculty and staff Principal Onyx Blackman (Greg Hollimon): Principal of Flatpoint High School. His image is prominently displayed around the school, in classrooms, lockers, and even paper towels. Charles "Chuck" Noblet (Stephen Colbert): Chuck is the school's history teacher and sponsor of the school newspaper, The Donkey Trouser. He and his wife Claire have a son, Seamus. He is in a secret sexual relationship with Geoffrey Jellineck. Geoffrey Jellineck (Paul Dinello): Geoffrey (pronounced JOFF-ree as opposed to the conventional JEFF-ree) is the school's art teacher. He is an emotionally fragile and narcissistic man who is engaged in a secret homosexual relationship with Chuck Noblet. Coach Cherri Wolf (Sarah Thyre): The girls' gym teacher. Iris Puffybush (Dolores Duffy): Secretary to Principal Blackman (and, as implied on several occasions, "much, much more"). Cassie Pines (Janeane Garofalo): The school's guidance counselor. Flatpoint High students Tammi Littlenut (Maria Thayer): Jerri's red-headed friend, who is often referred to as "Coppertop". Orlando Pinatubo (Orlando Pabotoy): Jerri's Filipino sidekick, about whose heritage she makes many racist remarks. It is insinuated in both the series and film that he is in love with Jerri. Jimmy Tickles (Jack Ferver): Jerri's sexually diminutive date in The Virgin Jerri; later a recurring character. Paul Cotton (Jared Ryan): Jerri's love interest who gets to see her "Liberty Bell" in Let Freedom Ring. Episodes Reception In 2007, Strangers with Candy was ranked #30 on TV Guide'''s Top Cult Shows Ever. Legacy and influence Although the series had low ratings during its emission, it became a cult classic, and served as inspiration for other comedians and screenwriters. When talking about Would It Kill You to Laugh? John Early and Kate Berlant cited the show as an influence, with Early saying: "It pushes back against schmaltziness in general, I feel a real kinship with that. It’s irreverent and it’s handled so well that it feels very personal." Lena Dunham also talked about it as an inspiration for Girls and cited Jerri Blank as one of her favorite television characters. Cole Escola who was Sedaris co-star on her craft oriented show also praised Strangers with Candy'' and recalled watching it as a teen with his high school boyfriend. Ilana Glazer claimed “Jerri Blank is at least 15 percent of my facial expressions, so I thank her for part of my face.” Julie Klausner, who worked as an intern on the show while in college, said of it: “I can’t really overestimate how influential that show was to me, [...] It’s not for everyone, but the people it is for love it so passionately that when fans meet each other, it’s almost like finding some sort of kinship.” Rapper Amanda Blank based her stage name on Sedaris's character. Other fans of the show include Dan Levy, Sara Benincasa, John Mulaney, Dave Atell, Justin Theroux, and Danny DeVito. In 2003, Dinello said of the show's cult status: "People were angered by it or fanatical about it. We were mocking the conventions of after-school specials and most of what you see on television--how easily things are sewn up, how false relationships are." In a panel with Levy, when asked about why they think the show had such a dedicated fanbase, Dinello and Sedaris said, "We embrace losers, misfits and outcasts." Sedaris has described the audience for the show as "Drag Queens getting ready on a Friday at 5:30." as well as "Homosexuals and 14-year-olds and farmers and ghosts." She has also said, "I’m just glad it still lives on. It’s fun to know that you threw a hole on the wall, you went through it, you did this show that you didn’t know what it was, and now there’s a whole new generation of kids watching it. It’s still out there and still alive, and we’re all really proud of it. Colbert echoed the statement: "It's a badge of honor that I served Amy's comedic vision. I could do hack shit for the rest of my life, but I'd go, "Yeah, but I also wrote that stuff." Film adaptation On February 7, 2006, film company ThinkFilm announced that it had acquired the distribution rights to a feature film based on the series. The film, a prequel to the television show, was completed in 2004 and acquired by Warner Independent at Sundance in 2005, but release of the film was delayed due to legal clearance issues. Amy Sedaris, Stephen Colbert, and Paul Dinello reprised their roles for the film; several other characters were recast because the actors who played them now looked too old to be in high school. In addition to acting, Colbert is a co-producer and Dinello is a director for the film. Worldwide Pants, a production company owned by comedian David Letterman, was also a producer. This is the company's first feature film production. A teaser trailer for the film was released in April 2006. The initial theatrical release was June 28, 2006, in the New York City area, followed by the remainder of the United States on July 7. A DVD of the film was released in November 2006. Amy Sedaris said of Jerri Blank that "she's like a rash; you never know when she's going to pop up." References External links Comedy Central original programming 1999 American television series debuts 2000 American television series endings 1990s American comedy television series 2000s American comedy television series 1990s American high school television series 2000s American high school television series Stephen Colbert Television shows set in New Jersey

425533

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukihime

Tsukihime

{{Infobox animanga/Other | title = Related media | content = Kagetsu Tohya Melty Blood Melty Blood: Type Lumina talk. and PreludeTsuki no SangoThe Garden of SinnersCarnival Phantasm}} is a Japanese adult visual novel created by Type-Moon, who first released it at the Winter Comiket in December 2000. In 2003, it was adapted into both an anime television series, Lunar Legend Tsukihime, animated by J.C.Staff, and a manga series, which was serialized between 2003 and 2010 in MediaWorks shōnen magazine Dengeki Daioh, with ten volumes released. Several other related media have also been released, including the bonus disc Tsukihime Plus-Disc, a fan disc Kagetsu Tohya, and the fighting game series Melty Blood. Story concepts and characters shared many similarities with other Type Moon's series The Garden of Sinners, and the two were also subtly connected. A remake with updated art and story was announced in 2008. The first part of the remake, Tsukihime: A Piece of Blue Glass Moon, featuring a rewritten and expanded version of two of the original routes, first released in Japan on August 26, 2021, and will be released worldwide on 2024. The second part, Tsukihime: The Other Side of Red Garden, was teased in a secret unlockable trailer in A Piece of Blue Glass Moon. Melty Blood: Type Lumina, a fighting game, was released worldwide on September 30, 2021 as companion to the remake titles. GameplayTsukihime is a visual novel where the story is presented via text that intermittently presents choices for the player to make. These choices influence the story, some in large ways while others in small ones. Some choices lead to bad endings where the protagonist dies, after which the player can optionally view a comedic section called Teach Me, Ciel-sensei!, where a fourth-wall-breaking version of the character Ciel offers hints on what led to the bad ending. The game is divided into five routes, distributed amongst two scenarios: The Near Side of the Moon (Arcueid and Ciel routes), and the Far Side of the Moon (Akiha, Hisui and Kohaku routes). Every heroine except Kohaku has two possible endings. When the player has achieved all possible endings, a new epilogue part, entitled Eclipse, is unlocked.Tsukihime remake entries are visual novels like the original, and though it features modern amenities, (such as better skip functions) it plays mostly the same. The Teach Me, Ciel-sensei! section after a bad ending also returns. Unlike the original, both remakes of Near and Far sides titled Tsukihime: A Piece of Blue Glass Moon and Tsukihime: The Other Side of Red Garden are on separate release dates: Tsukihime: A Piece of Blue Glass Moon solely focuses on the Near Side storyline. The Arcueid route titled Tsukihime has one ending, while Ciel route titled Rainbow in the Night has multiple endings. Tsukihime: The Other Side of Red Garden solely focuses on the Far Side storyline. This time adds a route that was not included in the original release and left unanswered in the fighting game series follow-up Melty Blood in original timeline, which stars Satsuki Yumizuka. Plot The game's plot follows the perspective of protagonist , a second-year high school student in the fictional town of Misaki. He suffers a life-threatening injury at a young age. After regaining consciousness, he gains the ability to see "Death lines"—lines by which things, living or not, will eventually break when they die. Due to his injury, Shiki has immense headaches as his mind cannot cope with the sight of death. Soon after he is given special glasses from Aoko Aozaki that block the sight of these lines. Due to his injury, Shiki is exiled by his father to a branch family of the Tohno household. Eight years later, he returns to accompany his sister after his father died. After moving back, Shiki has trouble adjusting to the old-fashioned lifestyle his sister lives by. As the game progresses, Shiki confronts supernatural beings such as mostly two different types of vampires (, a natural-born vampire race; and , a race of former humans who were mutated into vampires via magecraft or being bitten by a vampire), as well as his family's secret and his actual past. The original takes place in the fictional town of Misaki in 1999, while the remake titles take place in the fictional city of Soya in 2014, which becomes a true direct sequel to the storyline surrounding the character Aoko Aozaki, Witch on the Holy Night. Characters Main characters Voiced by: Kenji Nojima (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Ryosuke Kanemoto (remake), Kenichi Suzumura (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Steve Staley (English) Shiki possesses mystical eyes which allow him to see the "Lines of Death" which, once traced, destroys whatever object or being they are on but only when he takes his glasses off. An accident eight years prior to the game's events resulted in him being excommunicated from the Tohno clan by his father, leading him to live with one of the branch families, the clan. At the beginning of the game, he moves back home at the behest of his sister, Akiha after their father's death. He carries a switchblade which he uses as protection against the supernatural enemies he encounters. Voiced by: Ryōka Yuzuki (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm, Fate/EXTRA), Ikumi Hasegawa (remake), Hitomi Nabatame (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Michelle Ruff (English) Arcueid is a mysterious princess of a born vampire race known as the "True Ancestor". She lacks some vampiric qualities, such as needing to consume blood to survive (although she suppresses the desire) and being nocturnal. She seems to be quite knowledgeable about many things, but is portrayed as very naïve when it comes to modern ideas. She is killed by Shiki in their first encounter, but regenerates, and recruits him to hunt a vampire. Voiced by: Kumi Sakuma (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Kaede Hondo (remake), Fumiko Orikasa (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Wendee Lee (English) Ciel is introduced as an upperclassman of Shiki and is the sole member of the Japanese tea ceremony club, but is actually a secret agent of the Church's "Burial Agency" created to exterminate heresy. Her birth name was . Before joining the agency, when she was sixteen years old, she used to be the seventeenth host of a certain Dead Apostle. However, even after Arcueid freed her from the Dead Apostle’s influence, Ciel was cursed with immortality and will continue to live as long as the Dead Apostle does. Voiced by: Hitomi (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Shino Shimoji (remake), Shizuka Itō (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Julie Ann Taylor (English) Shiki's sister, assumed the responsibility as the family's head and acquired the knowledge, behavior, and etiquette for an appropriate noble family. She has mixed feelings about her brother Shiki, whom she has been estranged with for seven years, and seeks him to live like an upper-class man. Once Shiki's revealed to have been adopted into the Tohno family and is merely a human, Akiha and her blood family are revealed to be half-demons who wield the , a cursed demon's blood which not only grants them pyrokinetic abilities but also changes their hair color and enhances their physical capabilities. However, those who have succumbed to the curse also lose their sanity, excluding those who've inherited willpower such as Akiha, certain members of the Arima, and the last surviving member of clan. Voiced by: Miyu Matsuki (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Kana Ichinose (remake), Yumi Kakazu (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Kate Higgins (English) The younger of the twin maids in the Tohno mansion and is a childhood friend of Shiki. She attends Shiki when he comes back to the Tohno mansion. She acts cold and unfeeling, but it is only an act to hide her kinder nature. Voiced by: Naoko Takano (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Yūki Kuwahara (remake), Kana Ueda (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Kari Wahlgren (English) The older of the twin maids in the Tohno mansion and is always seen to be smiling and cheerful. She is gifted with medicine. Beneath her warm demeanor, Kohaku hides a traumatic past that caused her and Hisui to switch personalities in the present. Recurring characters Voiced by: Kotono Mitsuishi (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Haruka Tomatsu (remake), Akiko Kimura (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Karen Strassman (English) A mysterious vagabond sorceress, who gives Shiki glasses that allow him to suppress his Mystic Eyes from its ongoing activation. She also appears in Witch on the Holy Night, a prequel to Tsukihime franchise, particularly connected to its remake timeline. Voiced by: Makoto Furukawa (Remake), Takahiro Sakurai (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Dave Wittenberg (English) Shiki's best friend and classmate, who frequently is absent from school. Voiced by: Omi Minami (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Minami Tanaka (remake), Kaori Tanaka (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Carrie Savage (English) A classmate of Shiki. In the Far-side routes she becomes a Dead Apostle. Voiced by: Jōji Nakata (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Kenta Miyake (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Jamieson Price (English) A Dead Apostle and the secondary antagonist of the Near-side routes in original game. In the remake of Near-side routes, he is a minor character. His real name was . Voiced by: Ken Narita (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm, Fate/Grand Order Drama CD), Yōhei Azakami (remake), Hiroyuki Yoshino (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Kirk Thornton (English) An 800-year-old Dead Apostle who uses reincarnation through possessing his current host as a path to immortality. His seventeenth host was Ciel. He is the main antagonist for the Near-side Routes. Voiced by: Yōhei Azakami (remake), Hiroyuki Yoshino (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Kirk Thornton (English) Akiha's older brother, and the protagonist’s adoptive brother. He is also Roa’s current eighteenth host. The main antagonist in the Far-side routes. Voiced by: Ryoka Yuzuki (Melty Blood, Carnival Phantasm), Ikumi Hasegawa (remake) A small anthropomorphic mascot cat version of Arcueid who occasionally appears alongside a Teacher variant of Ciel as guides for the players who fell into the Bad Ending of a certain route they ended up. She is an interdimensional anthropomorphic alien cat known as Neco Spirit originating from the Great Cat's Village where most of her people's appearances are closely just like her and Arcueid, albeit with few differences in resembling one of their Earth counterparts in different Type-Moon timelines. While often making cameo appearances in Tsukihime-related media, Neco-Arc also appears in other non-Tsukihime media. Voiced by: Kinryū Arimoto (Anime (2003)) (Japanese); Michael McConnohie (English) The late biological father of Akiha and original SHIKI Tohno, and a posthumous antagonist of the series. He was also responsible for orchestrated a massacre on the other Shiki’s home clan by sending one of his henchman to kill them except that Shiki, as well as his brutal treatments towards his own blood children and even Kohaku. His death at the hands of his own son, SHIKI led the latter to become Roa’s current host. Remake exclusives Voiced by: Rina Hidaka A mysterious girl who Shiki meet sometimes in the city. Voiced by: Chikahiro Kobayashi The head of the Saiki branch family of the Tohno clan, his entire face is wrapped in black bandages due to burns. He looks down on Shiki, who was excommunicated from the Tohno family and hates him. In the original timeline, the Saiki family originally debuted in the sequel Kagetsu Tohya, where the family head (who may be also Gōto) appears as a flashback character related to Shiki’s birth family. Voiced by: Mamiko Noto A scientist who claims to be an old acquaintance of Makihisa Tohno from university, due to her closeness with the Tohno family through him, she's been working for Akiha as a consultant in both architectural and medical matters. In Ciel's Route, it appears that Arach has a mysterious connection to the Dead Apostles since the French Incident, with one of them being a spider-themed vampire, leaving Arach's true origins a mystery. Voiced by: Ai Kayano A foreign teacher at Shiki's school whose actually a subordinate of Ciel and goes by the alias . Beneath her demeanor, Noel hides a traumatic past she had been endured since her village in France was destroyed by Roa when Ciel was his host thirteen years ago. In Ciel’s Route of the Near-Side storyline, she becomes a Dead Apostle and is executed immediately by Ciel out of misery. Voiced by: Ayane Sakura A young Italian man and the son of Laurentis (who's first mentioned in Fate/Extra), Mario is the bishop of the Holy Church despite only being a teenager. He got his nickname “The Puppeteer” due to his gauntlet-like weapon, “Piano Machine”, that allows him to use strings for combat purposes as well as controlling the movements of others (particularly Holy Church nuns, and even Noel in Arcueid's Route) like they were marionettes. He seeks Roa for his knowledge of immortality in order to fix his father’s aging problem, but eventually learns that all Roa's research has long since hit a dead end. Voiced by: Ryota Asari One of Mario's two direct subordinates. Voiced by: Shuta Morishima One of Mario's two direct subordinates. Voiced by: Kenjiro Tsuda A Russian Dead Apostle Ancestor that use to be a knight centuries ago, he possesses the ability to manipulate temperature which allows him to generate and project both fire and ice for different purposes. He serves as the secondary antagonist, replacing the role of NRVNQSR Chaos from the original game. He despises Roa, for tricking him into murdering his adopted mother, . In Ciel’s Route of the Near-Side storyline, he is directly responsible for Noel's downfall, despite his vampire bite not being that deep. Development The original story of Tsukihime was based on one of Kinoko Nasu's ideas for a novel. It featured Arcueid as a cold stereotypical vampire that is the complete opposite of her finished incarnation. The basis for Shiki was a middle-aged old, worn-down vampire who says to Arcueid upon her first approach "I have no interest in women I've already killed once." The tone of the story was the complete opposite and only the tagline of "a biting relationship between a murderer who can see death lines and a vampire" remained in the final version. Upon developing the story for Tsukihime, they pictured Arcueid as a cool and princess-like "Noble Vampire", but thought that it overlapped with Akiha's "Lady" character. All of the heroines spoke politely to the main character, so they figured that the only character who could fit the role of someone who didn't speak politely would be Arcueid. They eventually came up with the idea of a "pure white" vampire that developed her character very differently from the original version. There was originally a planned Satsuki route for the original version, but it was later cut. Several trial versions of Tsukihime were released before its full release. The first preview version of Tsukihime was a free promotional version of which 300 copies (on 3½ floppy disks) were produced and distributed at Comiket 56 in 1999. At the next Comiket 57 in late 1999, a demo was sold for 100 yen, with only 50 being produced and sold, also distributed on 3½ floppy disks. At Comiket 58 in 2000, Tsukihime Half Moon Edition was released. 300 copies were produced and sold for 1,000 yen each. This version contained Arcueid and Ciel's "Near Side of the Moon" storylines. The half moon edition came with bonuses including a coupon that would allow purchasers to claim the complete edition in the future. The complete edition of Tsukihime was first released at Comiket 59 in December 2000. Type-Moon released Tsukihime Plus-Disc developed with NScripter engine in January 2001, a light-hearted addition to Tsukihime that featured two short stories: Alliance Of Illusionary Eyes and Geccha. The first edition included wallpapers, the first four chapters of The Garden of Sinners, an early demo version of Tsukihime, a contemporary Tsukihime demo, and two omakes featuring Tsukihime characters. The second edition Tsukihime Plus+Disc added two more stories: Geccha 2 and Kinoko's Masterpiece Experimental Theater. This version used the more capable KiriKiri engine. In April 2003, Type-Moon released , a three-disc set that included Tsukihime, Tsukihime Plus+Disc, Kagetsu Tohya, a remixed soundtrack, a trial version of Melty Blood and other assorted multimedia. The original visual novel was available to play with Game Boy Advance with the conversion software "Rinkai Tsukihime" distributed by the doujin circle "Inside-Cap". In December 2001, Inside-Cap released an officially licensed program for Windows 98/Me/2000/XP that allowed customers to convert their PC copy of Tsukihime into a Game Boy Advance rom; the program was distributed via CD-ROM through retail and online shops. Remake A remake of Tsukihime was announced in 2008, with work commencing in 2012. Work was then suspended in 2013 due to Type Moon's work on Fate/Grand Order, before resuming in 2017. It was later announced that it would be released in two parts, with the first, titled Tsukihime –A piece of blue glass moon-, containing the "Near-side" part of the game. The game was released on PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch consoles on August 26, 2021 in Japan. The theme songs Seimeisen and Juvenile, as well as the ending themes Lost and Believer were written, composed and arranged by Kegani from Live Lab and performed by ReoNa, and released on CD on September 1, 2021.https://mdpr.jp/music/detail/2736490M The soundtrack was composed by Hideyuki Fukasawa and Keita Haga, and was released as a set of eight CDs on November 24, 2021. Tsukihime -The other side of red garden-, containing the remake's equivalent of the "Far-side" part of the original, was teased in an unlockable secret trailer in Tsukihime -A piece of blue glass moon-. The remake modernizes the setting of Tsukihime, having it take place in a large city in 2014 (as opposed to the suburban town in 1999 of the original), and also makes changes to the plot. The remake also adds new characters, voice acting, and new character designs. Writer Kinoko Nasu has stated in interviews that he was inspired by Evangelion: 1.0 You Are (Not) Alone to make the changes, and when writing the remake, Arcueid's route was written to be a reproduction of the old Tsukihime, while Ciel's route was written to be new. It also includes the Satsuki route. At Anime Expo 2023, it was announced that the Tsukihime remake entries will get official localization outside Japan, starting from -A piece of blue glass moon- in 2024. It is also confirmed in Type-Moon Ace Vol. 15 that Windows version of the Tsukihime remake entries will be included as well. SequelKagetsu Tohya has teasers for a Tsukihime 2, and writer Kinoko Nasu's short stories "talk."' and "Prelude" from Tsukihime material books Plus Period published on October 22, 2004 and the Type-Moons Character material published on August 20, 2006 are set before it. References to it have been mostly been made into jokes during recent interviews, and they have displayed no current plans to actually create the project. According to Character material, the sequel would have been called Tsukihime: The Dark Six and would have revolved, at least in part, around a ritual gathering of Dead Apostle ancestors. Arcueid's sister Altrouge would have had a possible role. Related media Video gamesKagetsu Tohya is a sequel released in August 2001 that takes place one year after the events in the main Tsukihime storyline. Shiki gets into an accident and has a repeating dream sequence in which he must relive the same day over until he finds Len. As the player repeats each day they are able to make different choices which affect the flow of the narrative and unlock extra content in the game, including 10 short stories.Melty Blood is a PC dojin fighting game series developed by Type-Moon and French-Bread, originally released at Comiket 63 in 2002. The game features characters from the Tsukihime games as well as new characters specific for the games. Multiple updated versions of the game have been created as well as a sequel. It later spawned an arcade version, titled Act Cadenza, that was developed by Ecole Software and was then ported to the PlayStation 2. A decade later, Type-Moon and French-Bread collaborated once again to developed the fifth installment and reboot, Melty Blood: Type Lumina, featuring the characters from the remake titles. Anime A 12-episode anime television series adaptation titled was directed by Katsushi Sakurabi and produced by J.C.Staff. The series was written by Hiroko Tokita and features original music by Toshiyuki Ōmori. It first aired between October 10 to December 26, 2003 on BS-i. It also aired on Animax Asia in Southeast Asia and South Asia. Two pieces of theme music are used for the episodes; one opening theme and one ending theme. The opening theme was titled "The Sacred Moon" by Toshiyuki Omori, and the ending theme was by Fumiko Orikasa. The reason for choosing "Lunar Legend Tsukihime" instead of the title "Tsukihime" is that the trademark of "Tsukihime" had already been used. The anime plot is based on the route of Arcueid, but the staff thinks that it is difficult to include all the elements of the original in the short number of episodes of 12 episodes, so no important setting is drawn. In addition, some changes have been made to the settings and characters. Geneon announced it had licensed the series for distribution in North America in 2004 under the title Tsukihime, Lunar Legend. Upon Geneon's American operations having shut down, the newly instituted licensor Sentai Filmworks acquired the North American rights to the series, with Section23 Films handling its distribution and marketing, along with other titles. Print A manga adaptation using the same Lunar Legend Tsukihime title as the anime, illustrated by Sasaki Shōnen, was serialized in ASCII Media Works' shōnen manga magazine Dengeki Daioh between October 2003 and September 2010 issues. The plot largely follows the game's Arcueid route with a mix of the other routes. The chapters were collected in ten volumes published by ASCII Media Works. Tsukihime creator Kinoko Nasu has praised Sasaki's manga, saying that the settings mentioned in Tsukihime and Kagetsu Tohya are integrated without damaging the atmosphere of the original. Nasu also went on to say that Sasaki Shonen's manga was the greatest rival to the remake game project, and that Sasaki's stamp of approval after he playtested it meant there was "nothing to be afraid of". The manga was licensed for an English-language release in North America by ComicsOne in 2004. In 2005, DR Master took over the publication of ComicsOne's manga titles including Tsukihime. Six out of ten volumes were published.Tsuki no Sango is a short story by Kinoko Nasu for Maaya Sakamoto's Full Moon Recital Hall, a project organized by the Japanese online magazine Saizensen, that consisted of Sakamoto reading short novels in a theater while an accompanying short animation was aired in the background. Tsuki no Sango was the first of the recitals on December 21, 2010, and it was aired live on Ustream. The short movie was animated by Ufotable, which also animated The Garden of Sinners and Fate/Zero, and features drawings by Takashi Takeuchi and Chihiro Aikura. The animation used Frédéric Chopin composed music. The concept is "Tsukihime 3000" and the Princess Kaguya folktale. There is also a 42-page booklet version of the story with illustrations by Takeuchi and Aikura. Tsuki no Sango also got a manga adaptation with story and art by Sasaki Shōnen. It was serialized on the Saizensen web magazine from July 7, 2012 until January 22, 2019. The chapters were compiled into two tankobon volumes published by Seikaisha Comics. The first volume was released on March 10, 2014 and the second volume on May 26, 2019. An omnibus version was also published on May 26, 2019. Music A remake of the visual novel's soundtrack was released on February 24, 2004 titled Ever After ~Music from "Tsukihime" Reproduction~. Two soundtrack compilations were released for the anime Lunar Legend Tsukihime, titled Moonlit Archives and Moonlit Memoirs. The music was composed by Keita Haga. The Tsukihime –A piece of blue glass moon- theme songs by ReoNa were released on CD on September 1, 2021 while the eight disc soundtrack, which was composed by Keita Haga and Hideyuki Fukasawa, was released on November 24, 2021. Reception Following its release, Tsukihime -A Piece of Blue Glass Moon- sold 72,237 units on the Nintendo Switch and 66,171 units on the PlayStation 4, bringing it to a total of 138,408 copies sold at retail. This does not include download sales. Frontline Gaming Japan reviewed Tsukihime -A Piece of Blue Glass Moon- stating that it "does a fantastic job of modernising Tsukihime'', with an exceptional presentation and enough changes to make the story feel like something new to old players while retaining its identity." The manga series has shown high sales figures in its later volumes, with volume seven staying in the Japanese comic ranking for two weeks, while volume eight stayed in for three weeks. Carlos Santos of Anime News Network's opinion on the anime's third DVD release is that it "is a show that's all about creating a mood, which it does very well with its carefully planned color schemes and evocative music score." He states, "It's an ending that takes its time, however, as this show's deliberate pacing ensures that the story is revealed only to those who are patient enough." See also Notes References Further reading External links Official website Lunar Legend Tsukihime official website Tsukihime anime; at J.C. Staff Tsukihime 2000 video games 2003 manga 2003 anime television series debuts Anime television series based on video games ASCII Media Works manga Bishōjo games ComicsOne titles Dengeki Comics Dengeki Daioh Doujin video games Eroge Geneon USA HuneX games Incest in fiction Incest in anime and manga J.C.Staff Japan-exclusive video games Madman Entertainment anime Manga based on video games NBCUniversal Entertainment Japan NScripter games Romance video games Sentai Filmworks Shōnen manga Siblicide in fiction TBS Television (Japan) original programming Type-Moon Vampires in anime and manga Video games about vampires Video games about siblings Video games developed in Japan Visual novels Windows games Windows-only games

425558

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larne

Larne

Larne (, , the name of a Gaelic territory) is a town on the east coast of County Antrim, Northern Ireland, with a population of 18,853 at the 2021 census. It is a major passenger and freight roll-on roll-off port. Larne is administered by Mid and East Antrim Borough Council. Together with parts of the neighbouring districts of Antrim and Newtownabbey and Causeway Coast and Glens, it forms the East Antrim constituency for elections to the Westminster Parliament and Northern Ireland Assembly. The civil parish is in the historic barony of Glenarm Upper. History The coastal area around Larne has been inhabited for millennia, and is thought to have been one of the earliest inhabited areas of Ireland, with these early human populations believed to have arrived from Scotland via the North Channel. Knockdhu, north of Larne, was the site of a Bronze Age promontory fort and settlement. The early coastal dwellers are thought to have had a sophisticated culture which involved trading between the shores of the North Channel and between other settlements on the coasts of Scotland. The coast of Scotland is in fact clearly visible from here. Archaeological digs in the area have found flintwork and other artefacts which have been assigned dates from 6000 BC onwards. The term Larnian has even been coined by archaeologists to describe such flintworks and similar artefacts of the Mesolithic era (and one time to describe Mesolithic culture in Ireland as a whole). Larnian is also currently used to refer to people from Larne. Larne takes its name from Latharna, a Gaelic territory or túath that was part of the Ulaid minor-kingdom of Dál nAraidi. The name spelt as Latharne was used at one point in reference to the Anglo-Norman cantred of Carrickfergus. Latharna itself means "descendants of Lathar", with Lathar according to legend being a son of the pre-Christian king Úgaine Mór. The town sprang up where the River Inver flows into Larne Lough. This area was known in Irish as Inbhear an Latharna ("rivermouth/estuary of Latharna") and was later anglicised as Inver Larne or simply Inver. Latharna was only applied exclusively to the town in recent centuries. The Roman emperor Severus is known to have described how, in 204 AD, a Roman galley bound for Scotland veered off course to a place called Portus Saxa, which was believed to be Larne Lough. The ancient Greeks also knew of the coast of Antrim and Ptolemy, the 2nd century AD astronomer and geographer, referred to Islandmagee on one of his maps. There was Viking activity in the area during the 10th and 11th centuries AD. Viking burial sites and artefacts have been found in the area and dated to that time. Ulfreksfjord was an Old Norse name for Larne Lough. According to the Norse historian Snorri Sturluson, Connor, King of Ireland, defeated Orkney Vikings at Ulfreksfjord in 1018. Later anglicised names include Wulfrichford, Wolderfirth, Wolverflete and the surviving name Olderfleet. The ending -fleet comes from the Norse fljot, meaning "inlet". Older- may come from the Norse oldu, meaning "wave". In the 13th century the Scots Bissett family built Olderfleet Castle at Curran Point. In 1315, Edward the Bruce of Scotland (brother of Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland) landed at Larne with his 6000 strong army en route to conquer Ireland, where Olderfleet Castle was of strategic importance. Edward saw Ireland as another front in the ongoing war against Norman England. In 1569, Queen Elizabeth I, Queen of England and Ireland, appointed Sir Moyses Hill as the governor of Olderfleet Castle. It was seen as strategically important for any Tudor conquest of Ulster. Following the 17th century Union of the Crowns of Scotland, England and Ireland under James VI & I many more settlers would have arrived to Ulster via Larne during the Plantation of Ulster. The area around County Antrim itself, however, was not part of the official 17th century Plantation; instead many Scottish settlers arrived in the area through private settlement in the 17th century (as they had also been doing for centuries before). During the 18th century many Scots-Irish emigrated to America from the port of Larne. A monument in the Curran Park commemorates the Friends Goodwill, the first emigrant ship to sail from Larne in May 1717, heading for Boston, Massachusetts in the New England region of the modern United States of America. Boston's long standing Scots-Irish roots can be traced to Larne. The town is documented as being the first in county Antrim to be taken by United Irishmen during the ill-fated rebellion of 1798. The Protestant rebels from this area (almost entirely Presbyterian) filled Larne and engaged the government forces around 2am on the morning of 7 June. This surprise attack drove the garrison to flee the town, at which point the rebel force marched off to join up with McCracken and fight in the Battle of Antrim. In 1914, Loyalists opposed to the Home Rule Act 1914 prepared for armed resistance. In an episode known as the Larne Gun Running German, Austrian and Italian weapons with ammunition were transported into the ports of Larne and Bangor in the dead of night and distributed throughout Ulster. This event marked a major step in cementing the right to Ulster Unionist self-determination, with the recognition of such a right ultimately leading to the creation of Northern Ireland. The Troubles Larne throughout the course of The Troubles had a significant paramilitary presence in the town, mostly through the presence of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA). For further information see UDA South East Antrim Brigade. The town suffered a number of Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb attacks during The Troubles, notably including a large car bomb at the King's Arms hotel in 1980 that caused damage to the main shopping areas, for which the IRA claimed responsibility. This incident was raised in Parliament at the time. Incidents which involved fatalities 16 September 1972: Sinclair Johnston a UVF member, was shot by the Royal Ulster Constabulary during street disturbances in the town when the Royal Ulster Constabulary were protecting Catholics living in St Johns Place. 20 November 1974: Kevin Regan died from his injuries received in a UVF attack five days before on Maguires bar on Lower Cross Street. The Larne UDA blamed the IRA for the attack. 6 February 1975: Colette Brown, a Catholic, was found by the side of the Killyglen Road after being shot by Loyalists. Two men, one a UVF member the other a Lance Corporal in the UDR (Ulster Defence Regiment) were later convicted of her murder. 8 September 1975: Michael O'Toole a Catholic, died from his injuries sustained in a loyalist booby trap bomb attached to his car two days previously. 24 August 1980: Rodney McCormick a Catholic, was shot dead by the Ulster Defence Association (UDA) in the Antiville area of the town. The Royal Ulster Constabulary convicted the gunmen involved. 11 July 2000: Andrew Cairns a UVF member, was killed by members of the UDA at an eleventh night bonfire celebration in a suspected loyalist feud at Boyne Square. He may also have been murdered due to his alleged involvement in an earlier assault. The Royal Ulster Constabulary detective inspector, George Montgomery, did not find any motive for the murder. David Ervine (PUP) stated that there was no Loyalist feud. Geography Larne sits on the western side of a narrow inlet that links Larne Lough to the sea. On the eastern side of the inlet is a peninsula called Islandmagee. To the west of Larne is the ancient volcanic formation of Antrim Plateau, with its glaciated valleys scenically sweeping down to the sea to the north of Larne in what are known as the Glens of Antrim. Larne is 25 miles from the Scottish mainland, with views across the North Channel towards the Mull of Kintyre, Rhins of Galloway, Islay and Paps of Jura often visible from the Larne area – this proximity to Scotland has had a defining influence on Larne's history and culture. The town is within the small parish of the same name. Like the rest of Ireland, this parish is divided into townlands. The following is a list of townlands within Larne's urban area, along with their likely etymologies: Antiville (likely from An Tigh Bhile meaning "the house of the old tree") Ballyboley (from Baile Buaile meaning "townland of the booley/dairy place") Ballycraigy (from Baile Creige meaning "townland of the rocky outcrop") Ballyloran (from Baile Loairn meaning "Loarn's townland") Blackcave North Blackcave South Curran and Drumalis (from Córran meaning "crescent" and Druim a' Lios meaning "ridge of the ringfort") Greenland Inver (from Inbhear meaning "rivermouth") Many street names in Larne end in brae, such as 'Whitla's Brae' which comes from the Scots for "hillside". Civil parish of Larne The civil parish contains the following townlands: Antiville, Ballyboley, Ballycraigy, Ballyloran, Blackcave North, Blackcave South, Curran and Drumaliss, Glebe, Greenland and Town Parks. Gallery Places of interest The town has several parks, including Town Park, Chaine Park, Curran Park, and Smiley Park. Other leisure facilities include Larne Leisure Centre and Larne Museum & Arts Centre. Cairndhu Golf Course is situated atop of Ballygally Head and Larne Golf Course on sits atop of the Islandmagee peninsula. Significant buildings and structures include Olderfleet Castle. Magheramorne, 5 miles to the south along Larne Lough, has a film studio which was used to film much of HBO TV Series Game of Thrones. Demography 2021 Census On census day (21 March 2021) there were 18,853 people living in Larne. Of these: 62.4% belong to or were brought up Protestant and other non-Catholic Christian (including Christian related) and 23.9% belong to or were brought up Catholic. 66.6% indicated that they had a British national identity, 38.3% had a Northern Irish national identity and 10.3% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity). 2011 Census On census day (27 March 2011) there were 18,755 people living in Larne, accounting for 1.04% of the NI total. Of these: 18.59% were aged under 16 years and 18.00% were aged 65 and over. 51.98% of the usually resident population were female and 48.02% were male. 67.03% belong to or were brought up Protestant and other non-Catholic Christian (including Christian related) and 25.97% belong to or were brought up Catholic. 71.62% indicated that they had a British national identity, 30.56% had a Northern Irish national identity and 8.75% had an Irish national identity (respondents could indicate more than one national identity). 41 years was the average (median) age of the population. 17.20% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots and 4.02% had some knowledge of Irish (Gaelic). Industry and commerce Ballylumford power station in Northern Ireland's main power station. Other energy operators in Larne include B9 Energy (a renewable energy development company). Larne is also home to the headquarters of Caterpillar (NI) Limited (part of the Caterpillar group which manufactures diesel and gas generators), InspecVision (industrial inspection equipment), TerumoBCT (a Japanese manufacturer of intravenous drip solutions and blood products), and the LEDCOM (Larne Enterprise Development Company) business park. A number of shops can be found along Larne Main Street, Dunluce Street, Laharna Retail Park, and large supermarkets off the Harbour Highway near the harbour. A market is also held every Wednesday at the Larne Market Yard. Transport Ferry Ferries sail from the harbour to Cairnryan in Scotland. Passenger services are operated by P&O Irish Sea which describes the crossings from Larne to Scotland as "the shortest, fastest crossings" due to the close proximity that Larne has to Scotland. An Irish Sea Bridge has been proposed, connecting Larne with Portpatrick in Scotland. Road Larne is connected to Belfast by the A8 road. The A2 road or 'Antrim coast road' which runs along the Antrim coast, and passes through the scenic Glens of Antrim, also serves the town. South of the town the A2 passes the side of Larne Lough, via Glynn, Magheramorne, and Ballycarry, to Whitehead and Carrickfergus. The A36 road runs from the town to Ballymena. Rail The Belfast–Larne railway line connects to Belfast Great Victoria Street railway station and Belfast Central, via Whitehead, Carrickfergus and Jordanstown, also connects Larne to the Northern Ireland Railways network. Currently there is no freight transport by rail in Northern Ireland. Both Larne Town railway station and Larne Harbour railway station opened on 1 October 1862 and closed for goods traffic on 4 January 1965. The Ballymena and Larne Railway was a narrow gauge railway. It opened in 1878, was closed to passengers in 1933 and finally completely closed in 1950. Another line ran from Larne to Ballyclare and some parts of it can still be made out where it ran along the Six Mile valley. Public services Larne Town Hall, the former headquarters of Larne Borough Council, was completed in 1870. Moyle Hospital offers limited services after the closure of its accident and emergency department. Education Secondary schools serving the area include Larne Grammar School and Larne High School. Northern Regional College (formerly Larne Technical College) is a college of further education. Notable people Smiley baronets, series of baronets important in History of Larne Dianne Barr, paralympic swimmer Billy Brown, musician James Chaine, Member of Parliament Dave Clements, footballer and football manager Fyfe Ewing, musician, drummer (Therapy?) Robert Ferguson, disc jockey Keith Gillespie, Sheffield United and Northern Ireland midfielder. Robert John Gregg, pioneer of the academic study of Ulster-Scots dialects as well as a linguistic authority on Canadian English Mark Haggan, activist Richard Hayward, actor/singer, author Valerie Hobson, actress Jeff Hughes, footballer Michael Hughes, Wimbledon and Coventry City footballer Whitford Kane, actor Valerie Lilley, actor (Shameless) Phillip Magee (The X Factor, series 2 finalist Sir Ivan Magill, innovating anaesthetist; went to Larne Grammar school Dave McAuley, former IBF Flyweight world champion boxer Gareth McAuley, current West Bromwich Albion defender Colin McGarry, Professional Darts Corporation player Adam McGurk, footballer James McIlroy, Olympic runner Bobby McKee, Democratic Unionist Party councillor; former Mayor of Larne Jack McKee, alderman and veteran loyalist politician Michael McKeegan, musician (Therapy?) Amanda McKittrick Ros, author, poet; taught at Millbrook National School during the 1880s Eddie McMorran, footballer Eddie Mooney, musician (The Dakotas, The Fortunes) Hugh Nelson, Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia (1830–1893) Robert Nelson, electronic music producer (Agnelli & Nelson) Jonathan Rea, Superbike World Championship rider Maxwell Reed, actor Keith Semple, (One True Voice from the ITV series Popstars: The Rivals) Jonny Steele, Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C., New York Red Bulls and Northern Ireland footballer Norman Surplus, first person to complete a circumnavigation of Earth by Autogyro Harry Towb, actor Freedom of the borough In memory of a battle in the town of Musa Qala in Afghanistan in 2006, involving the Royal Irish Regiment, a new regimental march, composed by Chris Attrill and commissioned by Larne Borough Council, was gifted to the regiment on Saturday 1 November 2008 in Larne, during an event in which the regiment was presented with "the Freedom of the Borough". This gave the regiment the right to march through the towns of the borough with 'flags flying, bands playing and bayonets fixed'. The march was named Musa Qala. Events The Friends Goodwill Music Festival occurs in May each year and supports local music. Sport Larne F.C., a professional association football club, plays in the NIFL Premiership. Local amateur football clubs include Larne Technical Old Boys F.C. and Wellington Recreation F.C. Twin city Larne is twinned with Clover, South Carolina, which has named one of its schools, Larne Elementary School, after Larne. Notable facts Larnite – this mineral is named after Larne. See also List of civil parishes of County Antrim List of localities in Northern Ireland by population List of RNLI stations References Further reading External links A history of the Port of Larne Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland Towns in County Antrim Port cities and towns in Northern Ireland

425568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate%20of%20Bohemia%20and%20Moravia

Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was a partially-annexed territory of Nazi Germany that was established on 16 March 1939 after the German occupation of the Czech lands. The protectorate's population was mostly ethnic Czech. After the Munich Agreement of September 1938, Germany had annexed the German-majority Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Following the establishment of the independent Slovak Republic on 14 March 1939, and the German occupation of the Czech rump state the next day, German leader Adolf Hitler established the protectorate on 16 March 1939 by a proclamation from Prague Castle. The creation of the protectorate violated the Munich Agreement. The protectorate was nominally autonomous and had a dual system of government, with German law applying to ethnic Germans while other residents had the legal status of Protectorate subject and were governed by a puppet Czech administration. During the Second World War, the well-trained Czech workforce and developed industry was forced to make a major contribution to the German war economy. Since the Protectorate was just out of the reach of Allied bombers, the Czech economy was able to work almost undisturbed until the end of the war. The Protectorate administration was deeply involved in the Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia. The state's existence came to an end with the surrender of Germany to the Allies in 1945. After the war, some Protectorate officials were charged with collaborationism but according to the prevailing belief in Czech society, the Protectorate was not entirely rejected as a collaborationist entity. Background Hitler's interest in Czechoslovakia was largely driven by economic demands . The Four-Year Plan that Hitler launched in September 1936 to have the German economy ready for a "total war" by 1940 was faltering by 1937 owing to a shortage of foreign exchange to pay for the vast economic demands imposed by the ambitious armaments targets as Germany lacked many of the necessary raw materials, which had to be imported. The British historian Richard Overy wrote the huge demands of the Four Year Plan "...could not be fully met by a policy of import substitution and industrial rationalization".. In November 1937 at the Hossbach conference, Hitler announced that to stay ahead in the arms race with the other powers that Germany had to seize Czechoslovakia in the very near-future. Czechoslovakia was the world's 7th largest manufacturer of arms, making Czechoslovakia into an important player in the global arms trade. After Czechoslovakia accepted the terms of the Munich Agreement of 30 September 1938, Nazi Germany incorporated the ethnic German majority Sudetenland regions along the German border directly into Nazi Germany. Five months later, the Nazis violated the Munich Agreement, when, with Nazi German support, the Slovak parliament declared the independence of the Slovak Republic, Adolf Hitler invited Czechoslovak President Emil Hácha to Berlin and accepted his request for the German occupation of the Czech rump state and its reorganization as a German protectorate to deter Polish and Hungarian aggression. Hitler's wish to occupy Czechoslovakia was largely caused by the foreign exchange crisis as Germany had exhausted its foreign exchange reserves by early 1939, and Germany urgently needed to seize the gold of the Czechoslovak central bank to continue the Four Year Plan. The British historian Victor Rothwell wrote that the Czechoslovak reserves of gold and hard currency seized in March 1939 were "invaluable in staving off Germany's foreign exchange crisis". On 16 March when Hitler proclaimed the protectorate, he declared: "For a thousand years the provinces of Bohemia and Moravia formed part of the Lebensraum of the German people." There was no real precedent for this action in German history. The model for the protectorate were the Princely states in India under the Raj. In just in the same way that Indian maharajahs in the Princely states were allowed a nominal independence, but the real power rested with the British resident stationed to monitor the maharajah, Hitler emulated this practice with the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia as the German media quite explicitly compared the relationship between the Reich Protector, Baron Konstantin von Neurath and President Emil Hácha to that of a British resident and an Indian maharajah. Neurath seems to be chosen as Reich Protector in because as a former foreign minister and a former ambassador to Great Britain, he was well known in London for his avuncular, but dignified manner, which were the personality traits associated with the popular image of a British resident. Hitler believed that emulating the Raj would make this violation of the Munich Agreement more acceptable to Britain, and as that proved not to be the case the German media launched a lengthy campaign denouncing British "hypocrisy". The German authorities intentionally allowed the protectorate "all the trappings of independence" in order to encourage the Czech inhabitants to collaborate with them. However, despite the protectorate having its own postage stamps and presidential guard, real power lay with the Nazi authorities. History The population of the protectorate was mobilized for labor that would aid the German war effort, and special offices were organized to supervise the management of industries important to that effort. The Germans drafted Czechs to work in coal mines, in the iron and steel industry, and in armaments production. Consumer-goods production, much diminished, was largely directed toward supplying the German armed forces. The protectorate's population was subjected to rationing. The Czech crown was devalued to the Reichsmark at the rate of 10 crowns to 1 Reichsmark, through actual rate should have been 6 crowns for 1 Reichsmark, a policy that allowed the Germans to buy everything on the cheap in the protectorate. Inflation was a major problem throughout the existence of the protectorate, which was made worse by the refusal of the German authorities to raise wages to keep up with inflation, making the era a period of decreasing living standards as the crowns brought less and less. Even members of the volksdeutsche (ethnic Germans) living in the protectorate complained their living standards had been higher under Czechoslovakia, which was quite a surprise to most of them, who expected their living standards to rise under German rule. German rule was moderate by Nazi standards during the first months of the occupation. The Czech government and political system, reorganized by Hácha, continued in formal existence. The Gestapo directed its activities mainly against Czech politicians and the intelligentsia. In 1940, in a secret plan on Germanization of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, it was declared that those considered to be racially Mongoloid and the Czech intelligentsia were not to be Germanized, and that about half of the Czech population were suitable for Germanization. Generalplan Ost assumed that around 50% of Czechs would be fit for Germanization. The Czech intellectual elite were to be removed from Czech territories and from Europe completely. The authors of Generalplan Ost believed it would be best if they emigrated overseas, as even in Siberia, they were considered a threat to German rule. Just like Jews, Poles, Serbs, and several other nations, Czechs were considered to be Untermenschen by the Nazi state. The Czechs however, were not subjected to a similar degree of random and organized acts of brutality that their Polish counterparts experienced. This is attributed to the view within the Nazi hierarchy that a large swath of the populace was "capable of Aryanization", such capacity for Aryanization was supported by the position that part of the Czech population had German ancestry. There is also the fact that a relatively restrained policy in Czech lands was partly driven by the need to keep the population nourished and complacent so that it can carry out the vital work of arms production in the factories. By 1939, the country was already serving as a major hub of military production for Germany, manufacturing aircraft, tanks, artillery, and other armaments. The Czechs demonstrated against the occupation on 28 October 1939, the 21st anniversary of Czechoslovak independence. The death on 15 November 1939 of a medical student, Jan Opletal, who had been wounded in the October violence, precipitated widespread student demonstrations, and the Germans retaliated. Politicians were arrested en masse, as were an estimated 1,800 students and teachers. On 17 November, all universities and colleges in the protectorate were closed, nine student leaders were executed, and 1,200 were sent to the Sachsenhausen concentration camp within Nazi Germany; further arrests and executions of Czech students and professors took place later during the occupation. (See also Czech resistance to Nazi occupation) During World War II, Hitler decided that Neurath was not treating the Czechs harshly enough and adopted a more radical policy in the protectorate. On 29 September 1941, Hitler appointed SS hardliner Reinhard Heydrich as Deputy Reichsprotektor (Stellvertretender Reichsprotektor). At the same time, he relieved Neurath of his day-to-day duties. For all intents and purposes, Heydrich replaced Neurath as Reichsprotektor. Under Heydrich's authority Prime Minister Alois Eliáš was arrested (and later executed), the Czech government was reorganized, and all Czech cultural organizations were closed. The Gestapo arrested and murdered people. The deportation of Jews to concentration camps was organized, and the fortress town of Terezín was made into a ghetto way-station for Jewish families. On 4 June 1942, Heydrich died after being wounded by Czechoslovak Commandos in Operation Anthropoid. Directives issued by Heydrich's successor, SS-Oberstgruppenführer Kurt Daluege, and martial law brought forth mass arrests, executions and the obliteration of the villages of Lidice and Ležáky. In 1943 the German war-effort was accelerated. Under the authority of Karl Hermann Frank, German minister of state for Bohemia and Moravia, within the protectorate, all non-war-related industry was prohibited. Most of the Czech population obeyed quietly until the final months preceding the end of the war, when thousands became involved in the resistance movement. For the Czechs of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, German occupation represented a period of oppression. The number of Czech victims of political persecution and murders in concentration camps totalled between 36,000 and 55,000. After Heydrich assumed control of the Protectorate, he instituted martial law and stepped up arrests and executions of resistance fighters. Heydrich allegedly referred to Czechs as "laughing beasts," reflecting Czech subversion and Nazi racial beliefs about the inferiority of Czechs. The Jewish population of Bohemia and Moravia (118,000 according to the 1930 census) was virtually annihilated, with over 75,000 murdered. Of the 92,199 people classified as Jews by German authorities in the Protectorate as of 1939, 78,154 were murdered in the Holocaust, or 85 percent. Many Jews emigrated after 1939; 8,000 survived at the Terezín concentration camp, which was used for propaganda purposes as a showpiece. Several thousand Jews managed to live in freedom or in hiding throughout the occupation. The extermination of the Romani population was so thorough that the Bohemian Romani language became totally extinct. Romani internees were sent to the Lety and Hodonín concentration camps before being transferred to Auschwitz-Birkenau for gassing. The vast majority of Romani in the Czech Republic today descend from migrants from Slovakia who moved there within post-war Czechoslovakia. The Theresienstadt concentration camp was located in the Protectorate, near the border to the Reichsgau Sudetenland. It was designed to concentrate the Jewish population from the Protectorate and gradually move them to extermination camps, and it also held Western European and German Jews. While not an extermination camp itself, the harsh and unhygienic conditions still resulted in the death of 33,000 of the 140,000 Jews brought to the camp while a further 88,000 were sent to extermination camps, and only 19,000 survived. Politics After the establishment of the Protectorate all political parties were outlawed, with the exception of the National Partnership (Národní souručenství). Membership of the Národní souručenství was closed to women and Jews. In the spring of 1939, about 2,130,000 men joined the group, amounting to between 98%-99% of the Czech male population. However, much of the registration for the Národní souručenství was done in the style of a census (a traditional outlet for nationalist feeling in the Czech lands), and the messages advocating joining the Národní souručenství emphasized that the group existed to affirm the Czech character of Bohemia-Moravia. One spy for the government-in-exile in London reported: "The original, observable chaos and later fear of Gestapo informants and uncertainty has changed to courage and hope. The nation is coming together, not only in the National Solidarity Movement, which the majority did only to avoid losing our national existence, but individuals are coming together and one begins to feel if the nation has a backbone again". This local Czech Fascist party was led by a ruling Presidium until 1942, after which a Vůdce (Leader) for the party was appointed. German government Ultimate authority within the Protectorate was held by the Reich Protector (Reichsprotektor), the area's senior Nazi administrator, whose task it was to represent the interests of the German state. The office and title were held by a variety of persons during the Protectorate's existence. In succession these were: 16 March 1939–20 August 1943: Konstantin von Neurath, former Foreign Minister of Nazi Germany (1932–1938) and Minister without Portfolio (1938–1945). He was placed on leave in September 1941 after Hitler's dissatisfaction with his "soft policies", although he still held the title of Reichsprotektor until his official resignation in August 1943. 27 September 1941–30 May 1942: Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt (Reich Security Main Office) or RSHA. He was officially only a deputy to Neurath, but in reality was granted supreme authority over the entire state apparatus of the Protectorate. 31 May 1942–20 August 1943: Kurt Daluege, Chief of the Ordnungspolizei (Order Police) or Orpo, in the Interior Ministry, who was also officially a deputy Reich Protector. 20 August 1943–5 May 1945: Wilhelm Frick, former Minister of the Interior (1933–1943) and Minister without Portfolio (1943–1945). Next to the Reich Protector there was also a political office of State Secretary (from 1943 known as the State Minister to the Reich Protector) who handled most of the internal security. From 1939 to 1945 this person was Karl Hermann Frank the senior SS and Police Leader in the Protectorate. A command of the Allgemeine-SS was also established, known as the SS-Oberabschnitt Böhmen-Mähren. The command was an active unit of the General-SS, technically the only such unit to exist outside of Germany, since most other Allgemeine-SS units in occupied or conquered countries were largely paper commands. Czech government The Czech State President (Státní Prezident) under the period of German rule from 1939 to 1945 was Emil Hácha (1872–1945), who had been the President of the Second Czechoslovak Republic since November 1938. Rudolf Beran (1887–1954) continued to hold the office of Minister President (Předseda vlády) after the German take-over. He was replaced by Alois Eliáš on 27 April 1939, who was himself also sacked on 2 October 1941 not long after the appointment of Reinhard Heydrich as the new Reich Protector. Because of his contacts with the Czechoslovak Government-in-Exile Eliáš was sentenced to death, and the execution was carried out on 19 June 1942 shortly after Heydrich's own death. From 19 January 1942 the government was led by Jaroslav Krejčí, and from January to May 1945 by Richard Bienert, the former police chief of Prague. When the dissolution of the Protectorate was proclaimed after the Liberation of Prague, a radio call was issued for Bienert's arrest. This resulted in his conviction to a three-year prison term in 1947, during which he died in 1949. Aside from the Office of the Minister President, the local Czech government in the Protectorate consisted of the Ministries of Education, Finance, Justice, Trade, the Interior, Agriculture, and Public Labour. The area's foreign policy and military defence were under the exclusive control of the German government. The former foreign minister of Czechoslovakia František Chvalkovský became a Minister without Portfolio and permanent representative of the Czech administration in Berlin. The most prominent Czech politicians in the Protectorate included: Population The area of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia contained about 7,380,000 inhabitants in 1940. 225,000 (3.3%) of these were of German origin, while the rest were mainly ethnic Czechs as well as some Slovaks, particularly near the border with Slovakia. Ethnic Germans were offered Reich citizenship, while Jews and Czechs were from the outset second-class citizens ("Protectorate subjects", ). In March 1939, Karl Frank defined a "German national" as: The Nazis aimed for the protectorate to become fully Germanized. Marriages between Czechs and Germans became a problem for the Nazis. In 1939, the Nazis did not ban sexual relations between Germans and Czechs and no law prohibited Jews from marrying Czechs. The Nazis made German women who married any non-Germans lose their Reich citizenship whereas Czech women who married German men were accepted into the German Volk. Czech families aiming to improve their lives in the protectorate encouraged their Czech daughters to marry German men as it was one way to save a family business. Hitler had approved a plan designed by Konstantin von Neurath and Karl Hermann Frank, which projected the Germanization of the "racially valuable" half of the Czech population after the end of the war. This consisted mainly of industrial workers and farmers. The undesirable half contained the intelligentsia, whom the Nazis viewed as ungermanizable and potential dangerous instigators of Czech nationalism. Some 9,000 Volksdeutsche from Bukovina, Dobruja, South Tyrol, Bessarabia, Sudetenland and the Altreich were settled in the protectorate during the war. The goal was to create a German settlement belt from Prague to Sudetenland, and to turn the surroundings of Olomouc (Olmütz), České Budějovice (Budweis), Brno (Brünn) and the area near the Slovak border into German enclaves. Further integration of the protectorate into the Reich was carried out by the employment of German apprentices, by transferring German evacuee children into schools located in the protectorate, and by authorizing marriages between Germans and "assimilable" Czechs. Germanizable Czechs were allowed to join the Reich Labour Service and to be admitted to German universities. Education In common with the other "submerged" nations of Eastern Europe, the Czech intelligentsia had an immense prestige as the bearers and protectors of the national culture, who would keep the Czech language and culture alive when the Czech nation was "submerged". No segment of the Czech intelligentsia faced more pressure to conform to the occupation policy than school teachers. Frank called the teachers "the most dangerous wing of the intelligentsia" while Heydrich referred to the teachers as "the training core of the opposition Czech government [in exile in London]". To keep their jobs, teachers were required to demonstrate fluency in German and were supposed to greet their students with the fascist salute while saying "Sieg Heil!" ("Hail Victory!"). School inspectors made surprise visits to the classrooms and all chairpersons of the exam boards had to be ethnic Germans. Some teachers and students were Gestapo informers, which spread a climate of mistrust and paranoia across the school system as both teachers and students never knew whom to trust. One teacher recalled: "The Gestapo even had informers and agents amongst the children. Uncertainty and mistrust destroyed any feeling of comradeship among the children". Despite these pressures, a number of Czech teachers quietly inserted "anti-Reich" ideas into their lessons while refusing to greet their students with "Sieg Heil!". Especially under Frank, the teachers suffered harshly. In the first six months of 1944, about 1,000 Czech teachers were either executed or imprisoned. By 1945, about 5,000 Czech teachers were imprisoned in the concentration camps, where a fifth died. By the end of the occupation, about 40% of all Czech teachers had been fired with the figure reaching 60% in Prague. Administrative subdivisions Protectorate districts For administrative purposes the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was divided into two Länder: Böhmen (Bohemia) and Mähren (Moravia). Each of these was further subdivided into Oberlandratsbezirke, each comprising a number of Bezirke. NSDAP districts For party administrative purposes the Nazi Party extended its Gau-system to Bohemia and Moravia when the Protectorate was established. This step divided the remaining parts of Bohemia and Moravia up between its four surrounding Gaue: Reichsgau Sudetenland Gau Bayreuth (Bavarian Eastern March) Reichsgau Niederdonau (Lower Danube) Reichsgau Oberdonau (Upper Danube) The resulting government overlap led to the usual authority conflicts typical of the Nazi era. Seeking to extend their own powerbase and to facilitate the area's Germanization the Gauleiters of the surrounding districts continually agitated for the liquidation of the Protectorate and its direct incorporation into the German Reich. Hitler stated as late as 1943 that the issue was still to be decisively settled. Military commander Like in other occupied countries, the German military in Bohemia and Moravia was commanded by a Wehrmachtbefehlshaber. Through the year, the headquarter received several different names because of the complex structure of the Reichsprotektorat: Wehrmachtbevollmächtigter beim Reichsprotektor in Böhmen und Mähren, Wehrmachtbefehlshaber beim Reichsprotektor in Böhmen und Mähren and Wehrmachtbefehlshaber beim deutschen Staatsminister in Böhmen und Mähren. The commander also held the position of the Befehlshaber im Wehrkreis Böhmen und Mähren. Commanders General der Infanterie Erich Friderici (1 April 1939–27 October 1941) General der Infanterie Rudolf Toussaint (1 November 1941–31 August 1943) General der Panzertruppen Ferdinand Schaal (1 September 1943–26 July 1944) (arrested after the 20 July plot) General der Infanterie Rudolf Toussaint (26 July 1944–8 May 1945) Identity card of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia citizens See also List of rulers of the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia Government Army German occupation of Czechoslovakia Prague Offensive History of Slovakia Concentration camps Lety and Hodonín Out Distance Slovak Republic (1939–1945) References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Bryant, Chad. Prague in Black: Nazi Rule and Czech Nationalism. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2009. Further reading External links Maps of the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia Amtliches Deutsches Ortsbuch für das Protektorat Böhmen und Mähren Hungarian language map, with land transfers by Germany, Hungary, and Poland in the late 1930s. Maps of Europe showing the breakup of Czechoslovakia and the creation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia at omniatlas.com State Secretary in the Reich Protector of Bohemia and Moravia 1939–1945 German State Ministry of Bohemia and Moravia 1939–1945 Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia German military occupations Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia .1939 Germanization Collaboration with Nazi Germany Totalitarian states

425614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratroopers%20Brigade

Paratroopers Brigade

The 35th "Paratroopers" Brigade (, Hativat HaTzanhanim) is a brigade of the Israel Defence Forces (IDF) consisting of airborne infantry. It forms a major part of the Israeli Ground Forces' Infantry Corps, and has a history of carrying out special operations from the 1950s onwards. Soldiers of the brigade wear maroon berets with the Infantry Corps pin and russet boots. As part of an IDF tradition unique to the brigade, its soldiers wear a tunic and belt over their shirts. The IDF also maintains four reserve paratrooper brigades (currently the 55th, 226th, 551st and 646th) at all times, whose enlisted personnel consist of reservists that have already completed their compulsory military service in the 35th Brigade. History In 1949 Chaim Laskov asked Machalnik Captain Tom Derek Bowden to create a paratroop school. He did so, writing a training manual with the help of his Hebrew-speaking secretary Eva Heilbronner and training soldiers with British Army surplus equipment. Bowden returned to England in 1950. The brigade was created in the mid-1950s when the commando Unit 101 was merged with the 890th Battalion (the IDF's Airborne Commando unit) in order to form an elite infantry brigade. The new unit was equipped with the IMI Uzi submachine gun as their primary weapon as it provided light and small automatic fire, essential properties for recon units and commandos. The goals in creating the Paratroopers Brigade were: To have an elite leading force. To innovate and improve fighting skills within other units. To raise the next generation of military commanders and officers. The first commander of the Paratroopers Brigade was Ariel Sharon. The Paratroopers Brigade has had only one operational combat parachute drop, during the 1956 Sinai War. In the Six-Day War (1967) reservists from this unit, formed into the 55th Paratroopers Brigade, took part in the capture of Jerusalem, along with the Jerusalem Brigade, Harel Brigade and armored support. The 55th Brigade paratroopers were the ones to capture the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, considered a historic moment and the highlight of the war by the Israeli public due to the sanctity of these places to the Jewish people. Over the years, the Paratroopers Brigade has been the source of several future Israeli Chiefs of Staff, including Shaul Mofaz, Moshe Ya'alon, Benny Gantz and Aviv Kochavi. Selection and training Service in the Paratroopers is voluntary and requires passing an intense two-day selection process that includes tests of physical fitness as well as emotional preparedness, leadership skills and the ability to cooperate in a group. Each year the brigade receives five times more applicants than it can accept. Paratrooper recruits go through a year of training, and more than a quarter drop out. The paratrooper training course includes fitness training, Krav Maga training, harsh combat skills, specializing in a wide range of weapons, field craft, long marches with heavy equipment, weeks of survival training including navigation and camouflage, helicopter training, jump training, collaboration with other units, close quarters combat, and urban warfare. The course begins with four months of basic infantry training followed by advanced training that ends with a "Beret March", where recruits march 80 kilometers in full combat gear, after which they are inducted into the IDF. Battles & operations Reprisal operations The Paratroopers Brigade played a key role in the Reprisal operations, a series of retaliatory raids into Arab territory in response to fedayeen attacks on Israel. In 1955, the 890th battalion of the Paratroopers Brigade carried out Operation Elkayam, successfully attacking Egyptian military positions in the Khan Yunis area of the Gaza Strip. This was followed up with Operation Volcano, a successful raid by paratroopers together with Nahal Brigade and Golani Brigade infantry against Egyptian military positions on the Egyptian-Israeli border that was the largest Israeli military undertaking since the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and Operation Egged later that year, a raid that destroyed an Egyptian military post in the Sinai. In December 1955, paratroopers augmented by Nahal and Givati Brigade infantry carried out Operation Olive Leaves, an attack on Syrian gun emplacements along the border which had been shelling Israel, destroying them. In 1956, a force of paratroopers carried out Operation Black Arrow, raiding an Egyptian military base in Gaza and ambushing an Egyptian military relief convoy. Sinai Campaign (1956) The Suez Crisis began with a drop of an entire paratroop battalion over the eastern approaches to the Mitla Pass. The remaining members of the brigade force were to travel along a 300 km route (200 km deep within enemy territory) and link up with the battalion. This break-through took 28 hours, during which the column swept through the deserted Kuntilla and fought two short but fierce battles against Egyptian forces in Thamad and Nakhl. The major paratroop action during the campaign was the battle for Mitla Pass. A paratroop reconnaissance patrol entering the pass found itself trapped by an overwhelming enemy force. The Egyptians enjoyed the topographical advantage, fighting from positions and niches in superior terrain. Outnumbered reinforcements who entered the fray fought desperately to rescue their comrades. After nightfall, the Egyptians were finally routed, but at the cost of 38 paratroopers dead and over 100 more wounded. Enemy losses were estimated at 260. The paratroopers jumped once again during the Sinai Campaign—at At-Tur, on the south-eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez. The rest of the brigade proceeded by land to conquer Ras Sudar and link up with their comrades at At-Tur. They then moved southeastward to Sharm El Sheikh at the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula—which they conquered in a classic pincers move in coordination with the 9th brigade which had been moving southwestward. After the war's end, the paratroopers concentrated on reorganization and training with emphasis on helicopter operations. At least 49 Egyptian POWs were executed by the Paratroopers Brigade. The officer Arye Biro ordered the executions, because "We had to move on to Ras Sudar". Six-Day War (1967) During the Six-Day War, the paratroopers, whose ORBAT had now greatly increased in number, fought on all fronts: the Sinai Peninsula, Judea, Samaria and the Golan Heights. Paratroopers and armor broke through the Rafah positions heavily defended by the Egyptian 7th Division from behind, with the unit suffering heavy losses. Many troops were further killed in action during the evacuation of the wounded. The following day, the unit entered Gaza. Paratroop forces under the command of Danny Matt, who later attained the rank of Major General, made a helicopter landing at the Um Katef artillery positions in the enemy's rear line. A battalion raced against the 7th IDF Armored Division for the honor of being the first to reach the Suez Canal. Veteran paratrooper Aharon Davidi arrived first at the banks of the Suez. During the Six-Day War, paratroopers reached Sharm El Sheikh and likewise participated in the attack on the Golan. During the recapture of East Jerusalem from Jordanian annexation, considerable care was taken to protect and avoid damaging the holy places of the three religions. For this, the Paratroopers paid a heavy price in dead and wounded. Sayeret Tzanhanim reconnaissance paratroopers equipped with Jeeps mounting 106mm recoilless rifles waged a campaign of destruction against Egyptian armor formations. During the Battle of Firdan Bridge the paratroopers destroyed dozens of T-55 tanks right off the freighter in Alexandria harbor. War of Attrition (1968–1973) After the Six-Day War, paratroopers participated in pursuit and retaliation operations against Egyptian infiltrators and became embroiled in the War of Attrition on various fronts. On March 21, 1968, paratroopers and armor raided a headquarters in Karame, Jordan, killing 250 Jordanian soldiers. On December 12, 1968, a heliborne paratroop force raided Beirut Airport and destroyed Lebanese aircraft. The raid came in response to repeated terrorist attacks against Israeli aircraft. On December 23, 1969, paratroopers participated in Operation Rooster 53, airlifting an entire Soviet radar station out of Egypt and transporting it back to Israel. In January 1970, the brigade spearheaded Operation Rhodes, taking over the Egyptian island of Shadwan. Three Israeli soldiers were killed in the raid which saw the paratroopers remain on the island for 36 hours before departing with 62 Egyptian POWs and a captured Decca radar set. On 12 May 1972, a hijacked Sabena airliner landed at Israel's Lod Airport (now Ben Gurion), after which paratroopers disguised as El-Al flight technicians assaulted the aircraft and rescued the passengers. On the night of April 9, 1973, during Operation Spring of Youth, a select force of paratroopers headed by Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. Amnon Lipkin-Shahak landed in different sites in and around Beirut, where according to published foreign reports, they linked up with waiting cars hired by Mossad agents. According to these sources, the soldiers drove through Beirut without arousing suspicion. They simultaneously attacked the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine's headquarters and the residences of three high-ranking PLO leaders responsible for the Fatah-Black September Munich massacre of Israeli athletes in 1972. Surprise was total, and despite fierce resistance in the headquarters, all teams succeeded in carrying out their missions and were extracted by Israeli Air Force helicopters. Two Israeli soldiers and dozens of PFLP fighters were killed during the fighting. Yom Kippur War (1973) The Yom Kippur War saw the paratroopers fighting in some of the most difficult battles of the war. In the Sinai, paratroopers assigned to armored units rescued the beleaguered 'Budapest' outpost and destroyed the Egyptian forces. Paratroopers armed with LAW missiles helped contain an Egyptian armored thrust. Paratroopers of Danny Matt's brigade crossed the canal, as the spearhead of General Sharon's divisions, and established a bridgehead. Others, attempting to break open a route for them, ran up against the massive "Chinese Farm" fortifications. For three days, paratroopers and armored corps of General Sharon's and General Adan's divisions made repeated attempts until they finally succeeded in breaking through and rescuing their comrades. During the bitter fighting, IDF soldiers ran over open ground to evacuate fallen comrades, and often fell victim to enemy fire in the process. The battles for the "Chinese Farm" prevented the Egyptians from closing in on the bridgehead and eventually succeeded in opening an access point to it. On the West Bank of the Suez Canal, paratroopers fought in the city of Suez and advanced upon the city of Ismailia. On the Syrian front, paratroopers captured the peaks of Mt. Hermon in a heliborne operation. Other troops conquered Quneitra in the Golan Heights and Tel Shams and acted as armored infantry in the thrust into Syrian territory. After the Yom Kippur War the paratroopers and other infantry units were placed under the command of a chief Paratroop and Infantry Officer. During an operation known as Operation Nightgown Sayeret Tzanhanim paratroopers were dropped off at a grassy opening near Kasr al-Hayr on the main Baghdad-Damascus Highway. They headed for a bridge where a brigade of Iraqi T-62 tanks was about to cross en route to the Golan Heights battlefield. The paratroopers attacked the Iraqi armor from the front causing a bottleneck. The Sayeret Tzanhanim paratroopers also attacked the trapped brigade from the rear with machine gun fire and RPGs destroying the brigade. The paratroopers then placed explosive charges underneath the bridge full of destroyed Iraqi tanks destroying the bridge. This prevented crucial Iraqi reinforcements from ever reaching the Golan Heights front destroying an Iraqi tank brigade in the process. Operation Nightgown was one of the smallest Israeli special operations ever mounted and also one of the most important. Approximately a dozen paratroopers destroyed the Iraqi tank brigade. Operation Entebbe (1976) On the morning of July 4, 1976, a counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission headed by Brig. Gen. Dan Shomron succeeded in rescuing 102 passengers and crew of a hijacked Air France aircraft at Entebbe, Uganda. The Paratroopers force, led by Col. Matan Vilnai, was tasked with securing the civilian airport field, clearing and securing the runways, protection and fuelling of the Israeli aircraft. The commandos, transported in four Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport planes, succeeded in landing undetected at Entebbe's airport and taking the hijackers and their Ugandan collaborators by surprise. All seven hijackers and dozens of Ugandan soldiers were killed during the mission. After the raid, the assault team returned to their aircraft and began loading the hostages where they were shot at by Ugandan soldiers. Israeli forces returned fire with their AK-47s, inflicting casualties on the Ugandans. During this brief but intense firefight, Lt. Col. Yonatan "Yoni" Netanyahu, the older brother of former Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, was shot in the chest and killed during the firefight. He was the only Israeli commando killed in the operation. Three hostages were killed, one was left in Uganda, and approximately 10 were wounded. The 102 rescued hostages were flown to Israel via Nairobi, Kenya, shortly after the raid. Operation Litani (1978) Paratroopers participated in the 1978 invasion of Lebanon, carried out after the infamous Coastal Road massacre, which temporarily purged Southern Lebanon of PLO terrorists. After the IDF withdrawal and the return of sporadic attacks, the Paratroopers participated in preventive raids against bases in Lebanon, raids designed to keep the terrorists off balance and "on the run," thereby preventing them from carrying out their operations within Israel. First Lebanon War (1982) The paratroopers were an important component of the First Lebanon War. The war in Lebanon proved the IDF's fighting ability and tested Paratroop combat doctrine, which had been revised as a result of the lessons of the Yom Kippur War, Operation Litani and other operations. Paratroopers fought in every sector of the war against Syrian troops and paratroops, both in built-up and mountainous areas. They operated efficiently and in full coordination with other corps, the Navy and the Air Force. One of the better known operations was the amphibious landing at the mouth of the Awali River, north of Sidon, from where the paratroopers advanced to the outskirts of Beirut through the mountains. In their advance, they engaged Syrian commando forces. Second Intifada The paratroopers played a key role in the Second Intifada. Paratroopers participated in Operation Defensive Shield, taking part in the Battle of Jenin and Battle of Nablus. Operation Cast Lead Paratroopers took part in ground operations in Operation Cast Lead (2008–2009). The brigade was an important component during the war. Second Lebanon War (2006) The brigade participated in the Second Lebanon War. The paratroopers took part in key engagements. Paratrooper units took part in the Battle of Maroun al-Ras, the first serious battle of the war, which ended in the IDF capturing most of the town. The paratroopers also participated in the Battle of Bint Jbeil, the Battle of Ayta ash-Shab, and Operation Change of Direction 11. Operation Protective Edge (2014) During the 2014 Gaza War, the Paratroopers Brigade participated in ground operations, particularly in the Khan Yunis area. The brigade was credited with killing 141 enemy fighters and locating four tunnels during the war. Eight paratroopers were killed in the war, including one in a grenade explosion outside of combat. Structure and insignia The 35th (Paratrooper) Brigade is part of the IDF's 98th Division, also known as the "Fire Formation." It consists of three regular battalions, each bearing the name of a venomous snake. The 101st, bearing the number of disbanded Unit 101, is the Brigade's first battalion. The 202nd is the Brigade's second battalion and was numbered to keep it in line with the 101st. The 890th, although the brigade's 3rd battalion, was in fact the IDF's first paratrooper battalion. The brigade operates a sayeret battalion combining the three specialized units of the brigade. Soldiers of the Paratroopers Brigade are distinguished by their red beret, paratrooper wings, reddish-brown leather boots and the paratroopers tunic (Yerkit), which is slightly different in an appearance from the regular infantry outfits. Units (Paratrooper units are named after snakes.) 101st Paratrooper Battalion "Cobra" 202nd Paratrooper Battalion "Viper" 890th Paratrooper Battalion "Echis" 5135th Paratroopers Reconnaissance Battalion (Gadsar Tzanhanim) "Flying Serpent" 5173rd Reconnaissance Company "Palsar" 5174th Anti-Tank Company "Orev" 5105th Engineer Company "Palhan" "Palhik" Signal Company. Weapons and gear The Paratroopers Brigade uses the M4 Carbine. Memorials The main memorial is situated between Gedera and Rehovot near Tel Nof on road 40. The "Black Arrow"-memorial for special operations of the paratroopers is located near kibbuz Mefalsim. Near Moshav Shtula the Givat Harabatim commemorates fallen soldiers of the 1982 Lebanon War. See also Duvdevan Maglan References External links Official Paratroopers Brigade Website Airborne infantry brigades Brigades of Israel Central Command (Israel) Infantry of Israel Military units and formations established in 1955

425671

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist%20Party%20of%20Ukraine

Socialist Party of Ukraine

The Socialist Party of Ukraine (, Sotsialistychna Partiya Ukrainy, SPU) was a social democratic and democratic socialist political party in Ukraine. It was one of the oldest parties in Ukraine and was created by former members of the Soviet-era Communist Party of Ukraine in late 1991, when the Communist Party was banned. The party was represented in the Verkhovna Rada, Ukraine's parliament, from 1994 to 2007 and was the third and fourth largest party during that period. From 2007 onwards the party's electoral results became increasingly marginal, failing to win any seats in subsequent elections despite historically strong support in the central regions of the country. Oleksandr Moroz had led the party for more than twenty years before his resignation in 2012. The party was suspended in the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and banned by court decision on 15 June 2023. History Creation After Ukraine gained independence on 24 August 1991, Leonid Kravchuk as the Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's parliament) signed several important documents among which was the disbandment (26 August) and later the prohibition (30 August) of communist parties. This led to the collapse of the communist majority faction, informally known as the "group of 239". Four days after the prohibition of communist parties, Oleksandr Moroz, the former leader of Group 239, called on communists to unite in a new left-wing party. The founding congress of the party was held in Kyiv on 26 October 1991 and the Moroz became its leader. The Socialist Party was registered at the Ukrainian Ministry of Justice on 25 November 1991 under registration number 157. 1990s 1991–1999 The party experienced a mass exodus of members when the Communist Party of Ukraine, which claimed to be the direct successor of the Soviet-era Communist Party, was formed in June 1993. The situation was so severe that several of the party's regional organisations had ceased to exist and the continued existence of the party was put into question at an extraordinary congress. In December 1993, the party declared themselves in the opposition to the government of Prime Minister Leonid Kuchma and President Leonid Kravchuk. In March 1994, the party participated in the country's first parliamentary election since independence and won 14 seats, becoming the third-largest party in the Verkhovna Rada behind the People's Movement of Ukraine and the Communist Party. In May 1994, Moroz was elected Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (speaker of parliament). By mid-1994, the party controlled a parliamentary faction of 25 deputies. In the 1994 presidential election, the Socialists' leader Moroz was supported by both his party and the Communist Party, garnering 13.3% of the vote. Both parties later supported Kuchma's candidacy against Kravchuk in the second round of voting. In February 1996, Nataliya Vitrenko was expelled from the party over disputes with Moroz and the rest of the leadership concerning the party's political programs which she believed deviated from socialist ideals. She and Volodymyr Marchenko, who was also expelled from the party, founded the Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine a month later in April 1996. In the run up to the 1998 parliamentary election, attempts to form a coalition with the Communist Party had failed and the party instead contested alongside the Peasant Party of Ukraine in an electoral bloc called the For Truth, For the People, For Ukraine, later known as Left Center. The bloc managed to secure 8,55% of the votes, 29 proportional seats, and 5 individual seats out of 450 in the Verkhovna Rada. The bloc gained the position of Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (speaker of parliament) when Peasant Party chairman Oleksandr Tkachenko was elected to the post. The Peasant Party later started its own parliamentary faction with 15 deputies in the autumn of 1998 but was disbanded in spring of 2000 due to a lack of members, as many of the Peasant Party's deputies migrated to the newly-formed parliamentary faction Solidarity led by Petro Poroshenko. By June 2002, the Left Center faction only had 17 members in the Verkhovna Rada. After the election, a group of former SPU members led by Ivan Chizh who were in opposition to Moroz founded the Justice Party in 2000. The party nominated Moroz as its candidate for the 1999 Ukrainian presidential election. He along with the leader of the People's Movement of Ukraine Viacheslav Chornovil, former Prime Minister of Ukraine Yevhen Marchuk, and Mayor of Cherkasy Volodymyr Oliynyk were collectively known as the Kaniv four. In the lead-up to the election, they had agreed that three of them would withdraw and support the fourth against the incumbent Kuchma. The alliance fell apart when no agreement could be reached on who the single candidate should be. Moroz was considered the most likely candidate to beat Kuchma but failed to advance past the first round of voting, having come third with only 11.29% of the vote. It is claimed that electoral fraud was practiced during the election and that Kuchma had secretly funded the Progressive Socialist Party in order split the socialist vote. 2000s Split parliament In January 2000, eleven centre-right parties came together to form a pro-Kuchma majority in the Verkhovna Rada, controlling 241 of the 450 seats possible. The willingness of the usually disjointed parties to form a coalition was spurred by Kuchma's threat of reducing the powers of parliament or even dismissing it entirely over its refusal to approve his first-choice for Prime Minister, Valeriy Pustovoitenko, as well as its reluctance to pass legislation supported by the presidency. On January 18, The pro-Kuchma majority succeeded in passing a resolution to elect new parliamentary leadership, but the result was rendered invalid when the head of the Ethics and Standing Order Committee claimed that voting cards of absent deputies had been used. However, the act of voting on behalf of absent deputies had been a heretofore accepted practice, causing the pro-Kuchma deputies to leave parliament in protest. In subsequent meetings, pro-Kuchma deputies attempted to introduce changes in parliamentary procedure in a way that would make it easier for them to take control but were continually rebuffed by Tkachenko's team. On January 21, the situation escalated when pro-Kuchma deputies gathered in the Ukrainian House and declared their assembly the legitimate parliament, and dismissed Tkachenko as Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada. Deputies loyal to Tkachenko, including the Socialist Party's, continued to meet in the parliament building. On February 4, the breakaway parliament was effectively legitimised when Kuchma signed the bills it had passed into law. On February 8, the Security Service of Ukraine and pro-Kuchma deputies took over the parliament building and ejected the pro-Tkachenko deputies. 2000 constitutional referendum In April 2000, a referendum that Kuchma had called was held and asked voters whether they supported 4 amendments to the Ukrainian constitution that would increase the powers of the president, decrease the number of deputies from 450 to 300, and introduce an upper house. Despite their recent conflict, leaders from both pro and anti-Kuchma parties were united against the referendum. The former Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada Tkachenko stated that the referendum had: “no other goals than installing an unlimited presidential authority, destroying the parliament, and limiting the rights and freedoms of all Ukrainian citizens.” Ivan Plyushch, who was elected the new Chairman by pro-Kuchma deputies, was comparatively moderate in his criticism of the referendum but argued that it was unconstitutional. Indeed, Articles 155 and 156 of the 1996 Constitution stipulated that it could not be amended by referendum and that any amendments had to be passed by parliament with a two-thirds majority. The matter was brought to the Constitutional Court of Ukraine which ruled that the constitution could not be amended by referendum. However, it also ruled that the referendum itself did not go against the constitution and that its result had to be implemented in full by the government. In essence, despite specific constitutional provisions preventing the act, the court's ruling allowed the constitution to be amended by referendum, if only indirectly through parliament. The implementation of the referendum's result would be obstructed when Kuchma was implicated in a major political scandal (see below). Ukraine without Kuchma and the Cassette Scandal The party was heavily involved in the Ukraine without Kuchma protest campaign with Moroz implicating president Leonid Kuchma in the disappearance and murder of journalist Georgiy Gongadze, who was found decapitated in Kyiv, thereby initiating the Cassette Scandal in November 2000. Yuriy Lutsenko, who would later become Minister of Internal Affairs under the governments of Yulia Tymoshenko, gained national prominence as a result of his involvement in the campaign. The campaign reached its climax on 9 March 2001, when protesters and the Militsiya, the national police force, violently clashed in central Kyiv. The protestors were eventually dispersed and more than 200 people were arrested, though only 19 would eventually be charged and sentenced to jail. While the campaign ended here and failed to achieve any of its goals, it would lay the groundwork for future co-operation between opposition parties. The National Salvation Committee, a loose collection of opposition parties formed before the beginning of the campaign would later form the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc to contest the forthcoming 2002 parliamentary election. 2002 parliamentary election and Rise up, Ukraine! During the 2002 Ukrainian parliamentary election, the party had limited access to the media and its youth wing had instead endorsed the Social Democratic Party of Ukraine (united), which was led by the head of the president Kuchma's administration, Viktor Medvedchuk. In spite of this, the party won 6.9% of the popular vote and 24 out of 450 seats in the Verkhovna Rada on 30 March 2002. In September, a series of protests referred to as Rise up, Ukraine! were launched by a 'troika' of the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc, Socialist Party, and Communist Party. They were later joined by Our Ukraine, an electoral alliance led by former prime minister Viktor Yushchenko, at the urging of Tymoshenko. The protests, although unsuccessful, paved the way for the formation of a united opposition against Kuchma. However, this alliance did not include the Communist Party as they refused to support the nomination of Yushchenko for the presidency on ideological grounds. 2004 presidential election and the Orange Revolution The party nominated Moroz as its candidate for the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, garnering 5.82% of the vote. The contested result of the election, plagued by accusations of fraud, led to the beginning of the Orange Revolution, a series of protests of which the party was an active participant. Moroz would later lead the party as a member of the pro-Yushchenko first Tymoshenko government and its successor the Yekhanurov government in the aftermath of the Orange Revolution. In 2005, the Ukrainian Party of Justice - Union of veterans, handicapped, Chornobyl liquidators, and Afghan warriors merged into the Socialist Party. 2006 parliamentary election and political crisis The Socialist Party received 5.67% of the national vote during the parliamentary election held on 26 March 2006, securing 33 seats in Parliament. The Socialist Party of Ukraine was expected to form a governing coalition with Yulia Tymoshenko and Our Ukraine. However, as negotiations dragged on and the formation of a government delayed, the Socialist Party instead opted to form an "Anti-Crisis" coalition with the Party of Regions, led by Viktor Yanukovych, and the Communist Party following the election of Moroz as Chairman of the Rada in July 2006. The newly formed governing coalition elected Yanukovych as Prime Minister and was later named the Alliance of National Unity. The party's decision to enter into a coalition with the Party of Regions led to the resignation of a number of high-ranking party members including then and future Minister of Internal Affairs Yuriy Lutsenko, who would later go on to lead People's Self-Defense. President of Ukraine Yushchenko dissolved parliament on 2 April 2007 because he believed the government was acting illegally during the 2007 Ukrainian political crisis. 2007 parliamentary election and political crisis In the 2007 parliamentary election, the party's vote share collapsed. The Socialist Party of Ukraine failed to secure parliamentary representation, having received 2.86% of the total national vote (0.14% short of the required minimum 3% representation threshold). This led to more high-ranking members leaving the party and the creation of the offspring Union of Leftists. After having led the party for 20 years, Oleksander Moroz in July 2010 was succeeded by Vasyl Tsushko. However, Moroz was again elected as party leader in August 2011. 2010s A March 2010 poll predicted that the party would get 0.2% of the vote at the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. In the 2010 local elections, the parties electoral misfortunes continued, winning few votes and securing little to no representatives in regional parliaments across Ukraine (winning representatives in 11 Ukrainian Oblasts parliaments in total), except in the Chernihiv Oblast and Poltava Oblast where they won 11% and 5,8% of the votes. In July 2011, the party was expelled from the Socialist International alongside Party of Bulgarian Social Democrats due to the parties' non-compliance with "the fundamental values and principles of the International" in the midst of the Arab Spring. In November 2011, plans to merge 11 left-wing parties, including the Socialist Party of Ukraine, fell through when the party's council refused to ratify the agreement. Instead, in December 2011 Moroz announced that the Peasant Party of Ukraine, Socialist Ukraine, Children of War, Children of War of the People's Party of Ukraine, and Cossack Glory had merged into the Socialist Party. The remaining five parties that had been part of the original agreement opted to form United Left and Peasants. However, in January 2012 the Ministry of Justice declared the merger between the Peasant Party and the Socialist Party to be illegal. In April 2012, Petro Ustenko was elected leader of the party, replacing Oleksander Moroz. In the election the party won 0.46% of the national votes and no constituencies (it had competed in 58 constituencies) and thus failed to win parliamentary representation. The party did not participate in the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election. Leadership crisis In 2017 Serhiy Kaplin, at the time a member of the Ukrainian parliamentary faction of Petro Poroshenko Bloc, claimed to be the party's chairman. Kaplin intended to take the party to elections with Party of Pensioners of Ukraine under the label "For ordinary people". But Illia Kyva also claimed to headed the Socialist Party of Ukraine. In January 2018, during a "joint meeting of the political council and the central control commission of the Socialist Party of Ukraine" Kyva was expelled from the party. Kyva stated this exclusion was illegitimate. According to the official registration of the party Illia Kyva is the chairman of the Socialist Party. Kyva left the party in June 2019 to join Opposition Platform — For life. In the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party had 2 candidates in constituencies, but both did not win a parliamentary seat. 2022 Russian invasion and banning The SPU was one of several political parties suspended by the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, along with Derzhava, Left Opposition, Nashi, Opposition Bloc, Opposition Platform — For Life, Party of Shariy, Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine, Union of Leftists, and the Volodymyr Saldo Block. On 15 June 2022, the Eighth Administrative Court of Appeal banned the SPU (of all the parties suspended on 20 March 2022 only the Progressive Socialist Party of Ukraine and Opposition Platform — For Life actively opposed its banning). The property of the party and all its branches were transferred to the state. Vikor Zaika, who was also the director of the Illia Kiva Liberation Charitable Foundation, was the party's official leader at its banning and according to the Security Service of Ukraine, Illia Kyva had continued to influence the party and its course. On 18 April 2022, it was reported that Ukraine's State Bureau of Investigations had opened a case of treason against Kyva for involvement in an illegal arrangement with a general of the Russian Armed Forces. On 18 October 2022, the final appeal against the party's ban was dismissed by the Supreme Court of Ukraine, meaning that the party was fully banned in Ukraine. Election results See also Communist Party of Ukraine (Soviet Union) List of political parties in Ukraine Politics of Ukraine Notes References External links 1991 establishments in Ukraine 2022 disestablishments in Ukraine Banned political parties in Ukraine Banned socialist parties Defunct social democratic parties in Ukraine Former member parties of the Socialist International Parliamentary factions in Ukraine Political parties disestablished in 2022 Political parties established in 1991 Political parties in the Soviet Union Russophilic parties