The College Dropout

The College Dropout is the debut studio album by American rapper and producer Kanye West. It was released on February 10, 2004, by Def Jam Recordings and Jay-Z's Roc-A-Fella Records. In the years leading up to release, West had received praise for his production work for rappers such as Jay-Z and Talib Kweli, but faced difficulty being accepted as an artist in his own right by figures in the music industry. Intent on pursuing a solo career, he signed a record deal with Roc-A-Fella and recorded the album over a period of four years, beginning in 1999.

The production of The College Dropout was primarily handled by West and showcased his "chipmunk soul" musical style, which made use of sped-up, pitch shifted vocal samples from soul and R&B records, in addition to West's own drum programming, string accompaniments, and gospel choirs; the album also features contributions from Jay-Z, Mos Def, Jamie Foxx, Syleena Johnson, and Ludacris, among others. Diverging from the then-dominant gangster persona in hip hop, West's lyrics concern themes of family, self-consciousness, materialism, religion, racism, and higher education.

The College Dropout debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200, selling 441,000 copies in its first week of sales. It was a large-scale commercial success, becoming West's best-selling album in the United States at the time, with domestic sales of over 3.4 million copies by 2014 and was certified 4x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 2020. The album was promoted with singles such as "Through the Wire", "Jesus Walks", "All Falls Down", and "Slow Jamz", the latter two of which peaked within the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100, with "Slow Jamz" becoming West's first number-one single as a lead artist.

A widespread critical success, The College Dropout was praised for West's production, humorous and emotional raps, and the music's balance of self-examination and mainstream sensibilities. The album earned the rapper several accolades, including nominations for Album of the Year and Best Rap Album at the 2005 Grammy Awards, winning for the latter. It has since been named by numerous publications as one of the greatest albums of all time, including Rolling Stone and NME, who ranked it at 74 and 273 respectively on their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time lists, and is credited for popularizing the chipmunk soul and conscious rap subgenres in the 2000s.

## Background

Kanye West began his early production career in the mid-1990s, making beats primarily for burgeoning local artists, eventually developing a style that involved speeding up vocal samples from classic soul records. For a time, he acted as a ghost producer for Deric "D-Dot" Angelettie. Due to his association with D-Dot, West wasn't able to release a solo album, so he formed and became a member and producer of the Go-Getters, a late-1990s Chicago rap group composed of him, GLC, Timmy G, Really Doe, and Arrowstar. The group released their first and only studio album World Record Holders in 1999. West came to achieve recognition with his contributions to Jay-Z's influential 2001 album The Blueprint. The Blueprint has been named by Rolling Stone as the 252nd greatest album of all time and the critical and financial success of the album generated substantial interest in West as a producer. Serving as an in-house producer for Roc-A-Fella Records, West produced records for other artists from the label, including Beanie Sigel, Freeway, and Cam'ron. He also crafted hit songs for Ludacris, Alicia Keys, and Janet Jackson.

Although he had attained success as a producer, Kanye West aspired to be a rapper, but had struggled to attain a record deal. Record companies ignored him because he did not portray the gangsta image prominent in mainstream hip hop at the time. After a series of meetings with Capitol Records, West was ultimately denied an artist deal. According to Capitol Record's A&R, Joe Weinberger, he was approached by West and almost signed a deal with him, but another person in the company convinced Capitol's president not to. Desperate to keep West from defecting to another label, then-label head Damon Dash reluctantly signed West to Roc-A-Fella Records. Jay-Z, West's colleague, later admitted that Roc-A-Fella was initially reluctant to support West as a rapper, claiming that many saw him as a producer first and foremost, and that his background contrasted with that of his labelmates.

West's breakthrough came a year later on October 23, 2002, when, while driving home from a California recording studio after working late, he fell asleep at the wheel and was involved in a near-fatal car crash. The crash left him with a shattered jaw, which had to be wired shut in reconstructive surgery. The accident inspired West; two weeks after being admitted to a hospital, he recorded a song at the Record Plant with his jaw still wired shut. The composition, "Through the Wire", expressed West's experience after the accident, and helped lay the foundation for his debut album, as according to West "all the better artists have expressed what they were going through". West added that "the album was my medicine", as working on the record distracted him from the pain. "Through the Wire" was first available on West's Get Well Soon... mixtape, released December 2002. At the same time, West announced that he was working on an album called The College Dropout, whose overall theme was to "make your own decisions. Don't let society tell you, 'This is what you have to do.'"

## Recording

West began recording The College Dropout in 1999, taking four years to complete. Recording sessions took place at Record Plant in Los Angeles, California, but the production featured on the record took place elsewhere over the course of several years. According to John Monopoly, West's friend, manager and business partner, the album "...[didn't have] a particular start date. He's been gathering beats for years. He was always producing with the intention of being a rapper. There's beats on the album he's been literally saving for himself for years". At one point, West hovered between making a portion of the production in the studio and the majority within his own apartment in Hoboken, New Jersey. Because it was a two-bedroom apartment, West was able to set up a home studio in one of the rooms and his bedroom in the other.

West brought a Louis Vuitton backpack filled with old disks and demos to the studio, producing tracks in less than fifteen minutes at a time. He recorded the remainder of the album in Los Angeles while recovering from the car accident. Once he had completed the album, it was leaked months before its release date. However, West decided to use the opportunity to review the album, and The College Dropout was significantly remixed, remastered, and revised before being released. As a result, certain tracks originally destined for the album were subsequently retracted, among them "Keep the Receipt" with Ol' Dirty Bastard and "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly" with Consequence. West meticulously refined the production, adding string arrangements, gospel choirs, improved drum programming and new verses. On his personal blog in 2009, West stated he was most inspired by The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill and listened to the album every day while working on The College Dropout.

The song "School Spirit" was censored for the album because Aretha Franklin would not allow the rapper to sample her music without censorship being promised. It was revealed by Plain Pat that there were around three other versions of the song, but West disliked them. Pat said in reference to the Franklin sample: "That song would have been so weak if we didn't get that sample cleared". In 2011, an uncensored version of the track was distributed online.

West finished recording around December 2003, according to his older cousin and singer Tony Williams, who was recruited by the rapper two weeks before the album's deadline to contribute vocals. Williams had impressed West by singing improvisations to "Spaceship" during one of their drives together. The singer later recounted recording with West for The College Dropout at the Record Plant: "I get in, go in the booth, start vibing out on 'Spaceship' and finished it up. At that point he was like, 'Ok, Well let me see what you do on this song.' I think that's when we did 'Last Call.' One song lead to another, and by the end of the weekend, I was on like five songs. Then we did the 'I'll Fly Away' joint". In a January 2020 interview with GQ, West revealed that around 30 to 40 percent of the album was recorded on a Roland VS-1680.

## Music and lyrics

The College Dropout diverged from the then-dominant gangster persona in hip hop in favor of more diverse, topical subjects for the lyrics. Throughout the album, West touches on a number of different issues drawn from his own experiences and observations, including organized religion, family, sexuality, excessive materialism, self-consciousness, minimum wage labor, institutional prejudice, and personal struggles. Music journalist Kelefa Sanneh wrote, "Throughout the album, Mr. West taunts everyone who didn't believe in him: teachers, record executives, police officers, even his former boss at the Gap". West explained, "My persona is that I'm the regular person. Just think about whatever you've been through in the past week, and I have a song about that on my album". The album was musically notable for West's unique development of his "chipmunk soul" production style, in which R&B and soul music samples were sped up and pitch shifted.

The album begins with a skit featuring a college professor asking West to deliver a graduation speech. The skit is followed by "We Don't Care" featuring West comically celebrating drug life with lines like "We wasn't supposed to make it past 25, joke's on you, we still alive" and then criticizing its influence amongst children. The next track, "Graduation Day", features Miri Ben-Ari on violin and vocals by John Legend.

On "All Falls Down", West wages an attack on consumerism. The song features singer Syleena Johnson and contains an interpolation of Lauryn Hill's "Mystery of Iniquity". West called upon Johnson to re-sing a vocal portion of "Mystery of Iniquity", which ended up in the final mix. Gospel hymn with doo-wop elements "I'll Fly Away" precedes "Spaceship", a track with a relaxed beat containing a soulful Marvin Gaye sample. The lyrics are mostly critical of the working world, where West muses about flying away in a spaceship to leave his boring job, and guest rappers GLC and Consequence add comparisons to modern day retail environment with slavery.

On "Jesus Walks", West professes his belief in Jesus, while also discussing how religion is used by various people and how the media seems to avoid songs that address matters of faith while embracing compositions on violence, sex, and drugs. "Jesus Walks" is built around a sample of "Walk With Me" as performed by the ARC Choir. Garry Mulholland of The Observer described it as a "towering inferno of martial beats, fathoms-deep chain gang backing chants, a defiant children's choir, gospel wails, and sizzling orchestral breaks". The first verse of the song is told through the eyes of a drug dealer seeking help from God, and it reportedly took over six months for West to draw inspiration for the second verse.

"Never Let Me Down" is influenced by West's near-death car crash. The song features Jay-Z, who rhymes about maintaining status and power given his chart success, while West comments on racism and poverty. The song features verses by spoken word performer J. Ivy who offers comments of upliftment. "Never Let Me Down" reuses a Jay-Z verse first heard in the remix of his song "Hovi Baby". "Get Em High" is a collaboration by West with two socially conscious rappers, Talib Kweli and Common. "The New Workout Plan" is a call to fitness to improve one's love life. "Slow Jamz" features Twista and Jamie Foxx and serves as a tribute to classic smooth soul artists and slow jam songs. The song also appeared on Twista's album Kamikaze. On the song "School Spirit", West relates the experience of dropping out of school and contains references to well-known fraternities, sororities, singer Norah Jones, and record label Roc-A-Fella Records. "Two Words" features commentary on social issues and features Mos Def, Freeway, and the Harlem Boys Choir.

"Through the Wire" features a high-pitched vocal sample of Chaka Khan and relates West's real life experience with being in a car accident. The song provides a mostly comedic account of his difficult recovery, and features West rapping with his jaw still wired shut from the accident. The chorus and instrumentals sample a pitched up version of Chaka Khan's 1985 single "Through the Fire". "Family Business" is a soulful tribute to the godbrother of Tarrey Torae, one of the many collaborators in the album. The song "Last Call" is about West's transition from being a producer to a rapper, and the album ends with a nearly nine-minute autobiographical monologue that follows the song "Last Call". However, this is not a separate track.

## Title and packaging

The album's title is in part a reference to West's decision to drop out of college to pursue his dream of becoming a musician. This action greatly displeased his mother, who was a professor at the university from which he withdrew. She later said, "It was drummed into my head that college is the ticket to a good life... but some career goals don't require college. For Kanye to make an album called [The] College Dropout it was more about having the guts to embrace who you are, rather than following the path society has carved out for you".

The artwork for the album was developed by Eric Duvauchelle, who was then part of Roc-A-Fella's in-house brand design team. West had already taken pictures dressed as the Dropout Bear - which would reappear in his later work - and Duvauchelle picked the image of him sitting on a set of bleachers, as he was attracted to the loneliness of what was supposed to be "the most popular representation of a school". The image is framed inside gold ornaments, which Duvauchelle found in a book of illustrations from the 16th-century and West wanted to use to "bring a sense of elegance and style to what was typically a gangster-led image of rap artists". The inside cover follows a college yearbook, with photos of the featured artists from their youth.

## Marketing and sales

The College Dropout was originally scheduled for release in August 2003, but West's perfectionist habits producing the album led to it being postponed three times. It was first delayed to October 2003, then to January 2004, before finally being released to stores on February 10, 2004.

In its first week of release, the album sold 441,000 copies and debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart, being held off the top spot by Norah Jones' second studio album Feels Like Home. The College Dropout remained at the second spot behind Feels Like Home for two consecutive weeks, with 196,000 units sold in the second week and 132,000 in the third week, respectively. In 2004, The College Dropout ranked as the twelfth most popular of the year on the Billboard 200. The album had sold 2.3 million units in the United States by November 2004. By June 2014, the album had become West's best-selling album in the US at the time, with domestic sales of 3,358,000 copies. On November 23, 2020, The College Dropout was certified four-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). On the UK Albums Chart, the album peaked at number 12, and the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) had certified it double platinum by November 25, 2004; this indicated shipments of 600,000 copies. As of 2018, The College Dropout is the fourteenth highest selling rap album in the UK in the 21st-century. The album has sold over 4 million copies worldwide.

Four of the singles released in promotion of the album became top-20 chart hits: "Through the Wire", "Slow Jamz", "All Falls Down" and "Jesus Walks". "The New Workout Plan" was the fifth and last single. "Spaceship" was planned to be the sixth single, but Def Jam decided to move on from The College Dropout's promotional campaign to begin marketing West's next album, Late Registration (2005). At one point, "Two Words" was also intended to be released as a single, and a video for the song was filmed, and later uploaded by West online in 2009.

## Critical reception

The College Dropout was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 87, based on 25 reviews.

The record was hailed by Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times as "2004's first great hip-hop album". Reviewing it for The A.V. Club, Nathan Rabin observed in the music "substance, social commentary, righteous anger, ornery humanism, dark humor, and even Christianity", calling it "one of those wonderful crossover albums that appeal to a huge audience without sacrificing a shred of integrity". The staff of Mojo said its exceptional hip hop production was miraculous during a time when hip hop's practice of sampling was becoming "increasingly litigious", and those of Urb deemed it "both visceral and emotive, sprinkling the dancefloors with tears and sweat". Dave Heaton from PopMatters found it "musically engaging" and "a genuine extension of Kanye's personality and experiences", while Hua Hsu of The Village Voice felt that his sped-up samples "carry a humble, human air", allowing listeners to "hear tiny traces of actual people inside". Fellow Village Voice critic Robert Christgau wrote that "not only does [West] create a unique role model, that role model is dangerous—his arguments against education are as market-targeted as other rappers' arguments for thug life". In the opinion of Stylus Magazine's Josh Love, West "subverts cliches from both sides of the hip-hop divide" while "trying to reflect the entire spectrum of hip-hop and black experience, looking for solace and salvation in the traditional safehouses of church and family". Entertainment Weekly's Michael Endelman elaborated on West's avoidance of the then-dominant "gangsta" persona of hip hop:

> West delivers the goods with a disarming mix of confessional honesty and sarcastic humor, earnest idealism and big-pimping materialism. In a scene still dominated by authenticity battles and gangsta posturing, he's a middle-class, politically conscious, post-thug, bourgeois rapper – and that's nothing to be ashamed of.

Some reviewers were more qualified in their praise. Rolling Stone's Jon Caramanica felt that "West isn't quite MC enough to hold down the entire disc", though claimed that West's "ace in the hole is his signature cozy sound", while Slant Magazine's Sal Cinquemani observed "too many guest artists, too many interludes, and just too many songs period" on what he considered a "chest-beatingly self-congratulatory" yet humorous, deeply sincere, and affecting record. It was regarded by Pitchfork critic Rob Mitchum as a "flawed, overlong, hypocritical, egotistical, and altogether terrific album". The staff of Rolling Stone were more receptive in a retrospective review than Caramanica was previously for the publication, calling the album "a demonstration that hip-hop—real, banging, commercial hip-hop—could be a vehicle for nuanced self-examination and musical subtlety".

### Rankings

The College Dropout was voted as the best album of the year by The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop, an annual poll of American critics. The album elsewhere topped year-end lists by Rolling Stone, Spin, Vibe, and PopMatters. Dutch magazine OOR named it the seventh best album of 2004. Billboard named The College Dropout the second best album of 2004. Rhapsody named it the seventh best album of the decade and the fourth best hip hop album of the decade.

In 2005, Pitchfork named it No. 50 in their best albums of 2000–2004. In 2006, the album was named by Time as one of the 100 best albums of all time. In its retrospective 2007 issue, XXL named it one of the magazine's "XXL"-rated releases; this perfect rating had previously been given by the magazine to only sixteen other albums. In 2012, Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the last decade, and the 20th best hip hop debut album ever. Dagsavisen listed the album eleventh in its list of the top forty albums of the 2000s decade. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. NME placed the album at 273 on its 2013 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, while Rolling Stone ranked it at 74 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2020.

### Industry awards

## Influence

The College Dropout sparked a resurgence of socially conscious rap in the mid 2000s, arriving at a time when pop rap was saturated with songs featuring product placement and intensely violent lyrics, epitomized by rappers like 50 Cent, Nelly, Ja Rule, Ludacris, and P. Diddy. West instead created a space in the mainstream for rappers to express themselves and black identity without resorting to hip hop's prevalent theme of gang culture. Raul Verma of The Independent said "West is charged with proving mainstream hip hop has a conscience with his nourishing messages of substance flying in the face of the amoral majority perpetuating clichés of guns, girls and bling", while Vibe senior editor Noah Callahan-Bever argued that West's infusion of "pop sensibility" into his otherwise progressive hip hop had "bridged the gap" and encouraged rappers to gravitate more towards the center between mainstream and alternative forms. Today commented that "The College Dropout, stood out in the rap landscape because of its atypical prose. It avoided the usual plotlines about sex, money and violence and touched on everything from his faith to his fears of failure and other crises from his life."

According to DJBooth journalist Brad Callas, the album also "helped solidify chipmunk soul as not only the defining sound of the Roc-A-Fella era but also the most popular sub-genre in hip-hop". "It feels like that album birthed an entire sub-genre", Max Weinstein wrote in retrospect for Vibe, going on to say, "The palette of emotions was so broad, the depth of topics so searingly relevant, that it was bound to make an impression on any artist that heard it. RZA might have birthed chipmunk soul, and Black Star perfected smart lyricism for the JanSport bunch, but 'Ye brought all that to the masses in one single, digestible product, breaking down the divisions between mainstream rap and Rawkus-grade consciousness." Weinstein also credited The College Dropout with directly influencing 10 albums: Lupe Fiasco's Food & Liquor (2006) by Lupe Fiasco, School Was My Hustle (2006) by Kidz in the Hall, Don't Quit Your Day Job! (2007) by Consequence, A Kid Named Cudi (2008) by Kid Cudi, Asleep in the Bread Aisle (2009) by Asher Roth, Kendrick Lamar's self-titled first EP (2009), Camp (2011) by Childish Gambino, Cole World: The Sideline Story (2011) by J. Cole, When Fish Ride Bicycles (2011) by The Cool Kids, and Acid Rap (2013) by Chance the Rapper.

With the album, West began to develop a following of listeners who could not relate to lyrics glorifying gangster lifestyle but still enjoyed rap music and connected more with his musings on family and love. In 2005, comedian Chris Rock attested to listening to The College Dropout while writing his stand-up material. Music journalists such as Meaghan Garvey, Andrew Barber, and Erika Ramirez also connected to the album during their formative years, with Barber saying in a roundtable discussion for Noisey, "I could identify with this project the most because I was in college at the time, and I felt like an underdog in my own life. I was uncertain of my future. [West's] words on 'Last Call' inspired me to follow my dreams, and motivated me to graduate despite the album title." In the same discussion, music journalist Eric Sundermann cited The College Dropout as the first in West's pop rap album trilogy that would be followed by Late Registration in 2005 and Graduation in 2007, while Craig Jenkins called it "a watershed moment in 2000s rap history where the nerds stormed the school to seize control from the jocks, a shift memorialized two albums later when Graduation trounced 50 Cent's Curtis album in their 2007 sales showdown."

## Track listing

All tracks are produced by Kanye West, except "Last Call" (co-produced with Evidence; additional production by Porse) and "Breathe In Breathe Out" (co-produced with Brian Miller).

### 2005 Japanese special edition

### Sample credits

- "We Don't Care" contains samples of "I Just Wanna Stop", written by Ross Vannelli and performed by The Jimmy Castor Bunch.
- "All Falls Down" contains interpolations of "Mystery of Iniquity", written and performed by Lauryn Hill.
- "Spaceship" contains samples of "Distant Lover", written by Marvin Gaye, Gwen Gordy Fuqua and Sandra Greene, and performed by Marvin Gaye.
- "Jesus Walks" contains samples of "Walk with Me", performed by The ARC Choir and "(Don't Worry) If There's a Hell Below, We're All Going to Go", written and performed by Curtis Mayfield.
- "Never Let Me Down" contains samples of "Maybe It's the Power of Love", written by Michael Bolton and Bruce Kulick, and performed by Blackjack.
- "Slow Jamz" contains samples of "A House Is Not a Home", written by Burt Bacharach and Hal David, and performed by Luther Vandross.
- "School Spirit" contains samples of "Spirit in the Dark", written and performed by Aretha Franklin.
- "Two Words" contains samples of "Peace & Love (Amani Na Mapenzi) – Movement IV (Encounter)", written by Lou Wilson, Ric Wilson and Carlos Wilson, and performed by Mandrill.
- "Through the Wire" contains samples of "Through the Fire", written by David Foster, Tom Keane and Cynthia Weil, and performed by Chaka Khan.
- "Family Business" contains samples of "Fonky Thang", written by Terry Callier and Charles Stepney, and performed by The Dells.
- "Last Call" contains samples of "Mr. Rockefeller", written by Jerry Blatt and Bette Midler, and performed by Bette Midler.

## Personnel

Credits are adapted from the album's liner notes.

### Musicians

- John Legend – vocals (track 3), additional vocals (tracks 2, 6, 7, 11, 21), background vocals (track 8), piano (track 3)
- DeRay – additional vocals (tracks 1, 5, 14, 16, 17)
- Tony Williams – additional vocals (track 5, 6, 15, 17, 21)
- Sumeke Rainey – additional vocals (tracks 9, 11)
- Tracie Spencer – additional vocals (track 12), background vocals (track 8)
- Riccarda Watkins – additional vocals (track 2)
- Candis Brown – additional vocals (track 10)
- Brandi Kuykenvall – additional vocals (track 10)
- Tiera Singleton – additional vocals (track 10)
- Aisha Tyler – additional vocals (track 12)
- Thomasina Atkins – additional vocals (track 20)
- Linda Petty – additional vocals (track 20)
- Beverly McCargo – additional vocals (track 20)
- Lavel Mena – additional vocals (track 20)
- Thai Jones – additional vocals (track 20)
- Kevin Shannon – additional vocals (track 20)
- Tarey Torae – additional vocals (track 20)
- Rude Jude – additional vocals (track 22)
- Terence Hardy – "kids" vocals (track 2)
- Diamond Alabi-Isama – "kids" vocals (track 2)
- James "JT" Knight – "kids" vocals (track 2)
- Keyshia Cole – background vocals (track 2)
- Ervin "EP" Pope – keyboards (tracks 8, 12), piano (tracks 5, 11, 17, 21)
- Glenn Jefferey – guitars (tracks 8, 12, 21)
- Keenan "Kee-note" Holloway – bass (tracks 8, 12), additional bass (track 21)
- Frank Walker – percussion (tracks 3, 8, 12)
- Ken Lewis – acoustic guitar (track 4), sample recreation and performance (track 8), additional instrumentation (track 20), guitar, bass, keyboard, percussion, vocal (track 21)
- Eric "E-Bass" Johnson – guitars (tracks 4, 11)
- Bosko – talkbox (track 11)
- Keith Slattery – keyboards (track 18)
- Scott Ward – bass guitar (track 19)
- Josh Zandman – piano (track 20)
- Miri Ben-Ari – violins production, writing, arrangement and performance (tracks 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 18, 22)

### Production

- Rabeka Tunei – recording (tracks 1, 4–6, 8, 10, 14–17, 20, 21)
- Eugene A. Toale – recording (tracks 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 22)
- Andrew Dawson – recording (tracks 6, 7, 11, 15)
- Anthony Kilhoffer – recording (tracks 3, 8, 9)
- Tatsuya Sato – recording (tracks 4, 6, 7)
- Rich Balmer – recording (tracks 2, 22)
- Brent Kolatalo – recording (tracks 8, 21), assistant engineering (track 22)
- Keith Slattery – recording (tracks 11, 18)
- Jacob Andrew – recording (tracks 13, 20)
- Gimel "Guru" Keaton – recording (track 8)
- Jacelyn Parry – recording (track 8)
- Michael Eleopoulos – recording (track 9)
- Dave Dar – recording (track 9)
- Jason Rauhoff – recording (track 13)
- Marc Fuller – recording (track 18)
- Carlisle Young – recording (track 18)
- Francis Graham – recording (track 19)
- Manny Marroquin – mixing (tracks 1–10, 12–17, 19–21)
- Jared Lopez – mixing (track 11)
- Mike Dean – mixing (track 18)
- Ken Lewis – mixing (track 22)
- Eddy Schreyer – mastering

### Design

- Danny Clinch – photography
- Eric Duvauchelle – art direction and design
- Mike Godshall – art direction and design
- Jim Morris – art direction and design
- Stephanie Reynolds – art direction and design
- Lauri Rowe – art direction and design
- Bobby Naugle – Dropout Bear logo design
- Sam Hansen – Dropout Bear logo design

## Charts

### Weekly charts

### Year-end charts

### Decade-end charts

## Certifications

## See also

- 2004 in hip hop music
- Kanye West albums discography
- Kanye West production discography
- The College Dropout Video Anthology
- List of Billboard number-one R&B albums of 2004
- College Dropout (restaurant)

2004 studio album by Kanye West

Albums recorded at Record Plant (Los Angeles)


Al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi

Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (Arabic: أبو عبد الله المفضل بن عمر الجعفي), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call ghulāt ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams.

As a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina. For a time he was a follower of the famous ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine. Early Imami heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own ghulāt movement (the Mufaḍḍaliyya). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim.

A number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant. They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam. The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them.

A major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the ghulāt, an early branch of Shi'i Islam. A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent "shadows" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens. The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries) develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles. The Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path, written c. 874–941) describes an initiatory "path" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God. Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies. Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of Bāb ("Gate") enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter.

Among the extant non-ghulāt texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid) and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God. The teleological argument used in the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum. The dialectical style of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām), and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth. Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition.

## Life

Al-Mufaddal was a non-Arab mawlā ("client") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation. Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (c. 700–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community. His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799.

At some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan ghulāt leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6). Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in c. 748 he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' (ghulāt) ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine. However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the Khaṭṭabiyya (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far.

This episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i) heresiographers report the existence of a ghulāt sect named after him, the Mufaḍḍaliyya, who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the Mufaḍḍaliyya really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers. Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other ghulāt sects such as the Mukhammisa, and several of the writings attributed to him contain ghulāt ideas. He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab. In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris, a ghulāt sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a Bāb (an official deputy of the Imam and a "gateway" to his secret knowledge).

On the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy, and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the Khaṭṭabiyya back to the right path. Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the Kitab al-Ihlīlaja and the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness (tawḥīd) of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter. But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (c. 948–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) and Ibn al-Ghada'iri ( half of the 11th century) denounced him as an unbelieving heretic.

## Ghulāt works

### Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows)

#### Content

The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as Kitāb al-Haft al-sharīf (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as Kitāb al-Haft (Book of the Seven), 8th–11th centuries, is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal. It sets out in great detail the ghulāt myth of the pre-existent "shadows" (Arabic: aẓilla) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan ghulāt: also appearing in other early ghulāt works such as the Umm al-kitāb, it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb ().

Great emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as mawlānā ("our lord"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers (muʾminūn). It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls (tanāsukh or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles. This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism, where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.

A central element of the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla is the creation myth involving pre-existent "shadows", which also occurs in many other ghulāt works with slightly different details. According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil (ḥijāb) in which he concealed himself as a punishment. Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities (masūkhiyya).

#### Composition and legacy

The Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of ghulāt concepts and ideas. The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835). A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent shadows: the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows) and the Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils). Shi'i bibliographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a Kitāb al-Aẓilla or Book of the Shadows. In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century:

1. Muhammad ibn Sinan's Kitāb al-Anwār wa-ḥujub (Book of the Lights and the Veils)
2. an anonymous work called the Kitāb al-Ashbāh wa-l-aẓilla (Book of the Apparitions and the Shadows)
3. another anonymous work also called the Kitāb al-Aẓilla (Book of the Shadows).

Though originating in the milieus of the early Kufan ghulāt, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was considerably expanded by members of a later ghulāt sect called the Nusayris, who were active in 10th-century Syria. The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form. However, the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis. Like the Umm al-kitāb, another ghulāt work that was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas which –despite being largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine– influenced various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century.

### Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path)

The Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ (Book of the Path) is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941). This work deals with the concept of an initiatory "path" (Arabic: ṣirāṭ) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to typical ghulāt ideas like tajallin (the manifestation of God in human form), tanāsukh (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), maskh/raskh (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent beings (as in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla, see above).

The philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light. Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (qumṣān, sing. qamīṣ) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called tanāsukh or naskh. But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies (maskh), and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals (raskh). On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine. This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens:

1. al-Mumtaḥā: the Tested, first heaven
2. al-Mukhliṣ: the Devout, second heaven
3. al-Mukhtaṣṣ: the Elect, third heaven
4. al-Najīb: the Noble, fourth heaven
5. al-Naqīb: the Chief, fifth heaven
6. al-Yatīm: the Unique, sixth heaven
7. al-Bāb: the Gate, seventh heaven

At every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' (bāṭin) knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous "shirt", receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of Bāb or "Gate") are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter (tajallin), by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will. This ability is shared between the "Gates" in the seventh heaven and God, who also manifests himself to the world by taking on a human form.

The theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other ghulāt works, including the anonymous Kitāb al-Marātib wa-l-daraj (Book of Degrees and Stages), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others. In the 9th/10th-century works attributed to the Shi'i alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, the seven degrees corresponding to the seven heavens (themselves related to the seven planets) are replaced with fifthy-five degrees carrying similar names (including al-Muʾmin al-Mumtaḥā, al-Najīb, al-Naqīb, al-Yatīm, al-Bāb). These fifthy-five degrees correspond to the fifthy-five celestial spheres alluded to by Plato in his Timaeus and mentioned by Aristotle in his Metaphysics.

### Other ghulāt works

- al-Risāla al-Mufaḍḍaliyya (Mufaddali Epistle) is a brief dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq of unclear date and origin. It strongly resembles the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla and the Kitāb al-Ṣirāṭ in doctrine and terminology. Its main subject is the classical theological question of the relationship between the one transcendent God (al-maʿnā, lit. 'the meaning') on the one hand, and his many attributes (ṣiffāt) and names (asmāʾ) on the other.
- Mā yakūn ʿinda ẓuhūr al-Mahdī (What Will Happen at the Appearance of the Mahdi) is a lengthy apocalyptic text about the state of the world during the end times, just before the return (rajʿa) of the Mahdi. Its earliest known version is preserved in a work by the Nusayri author al-Khasibi (died 969), but the text likely goes back to the 9th century and perhaps even to al-Mufaddal himself. Though mainly dealing with the actions that the Mahdi will undertake to render justice to the oppressed, the work also contains references to mainstream Shi'i ideas such as temporary marriage contracts (mutʿa), as well as to the ghulāt idea of world cycles. It has been argued that the conceptualization of rajʿa in this and similar 8th/9th-century ghulāt texts has influenced the 10th-century development of the Twelver Shi'i doctrine on the return of the twelfth and 'hidden' Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi.
- Kitāb Mā iftaraḍa Allāh ʿalā al-jawāriḥ min al-īmān (Book on the Faith that God has Imposed on the Bodily Members), also known as the Kitāb al-Īmān wa-l-islām (Book of Faith and Submission) and perhaps identical to the Risālat al-Mayyāḥ (Epistle of the Swagger) mentioned by the Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), presents itself as a long letter from Ja'far al-Sadiq to al-Mufaddal. It was preserved by the Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver) scholar al-Saffar al-Qummi (died 903). Likely written as a reaction to the negative portrayals of the ghulāt by Imami heresiographers, it refutes the typical accusation of the ghulāt's purported licentiousness and sexual promiscuity. It also contains a reference to the obscure idea, likewise found in the Kitāb al-Haft wa-l-aẓilla but attributed here to Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), that religious commandments and restrictions are 'men' (rijāl), and that to know these 'men' is to know religion.

## Mu'tazili-influenced works

Two of the treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, differ from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature. Though both were preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only element connecting them to Shi'ism is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (kalām). Often transmitted together in the manuscript tradition, they may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal among Twelver Shi'is, to whom al-Mufaddal was important as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim. Both works were also known to other Twelver scholars such as al-Najashi (c. 982–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), and Ibn Tawus (1193–1266).

### Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (al-Mufaddal's Tawhid)

The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal (lit. 'Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God') sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). The work consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness (tawḥīd) of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'. In four "sessions" (majālis), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise and providential creator. The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (c. 982–1058) also refers to the work as the Kitāb Fakkir (lit. 'Book of Think'), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortations with the word fakkir (think!).

The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal is not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title Kitāb al-Dalāʾil wa-l-iʿtibār ʿalā al-khalq wa-l-tadbīr (Book on the Proofs and Contemplation of Creation and Administration). The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, although the original was likely written in the 9th century. Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal adds an introduction that sets up a frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage.

Scholars have espoused various views on the ultimate origins of this work. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original. In Chokr's view, at some point the work must have been translated by a Syriac author into the Arabic from a Greek original, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. However, both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify the original work on which pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil was based as the Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār (Book of Thought and Contemplation), written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. However this may be, Jibril ibn Nuh's Kitāb al-Fikr wa-l-iʿtibār, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal and pseudo-Jahiz's Kitāb al-Dalāʾil are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056), by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111), and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century).

The Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, especially with the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (c. 640–708) and Moses bar Kepha (c. 813–903), as well as with Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the Book of Treasures (c. 817). Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (On the Universe, 3rd/2nd century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above. In particular, the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence (kunh) remains hidden for all.

The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran. However, in the case of the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal/Kitāb al-Dalāʾil, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from pseudo-Aristotle's De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) De natura deorum, especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work. Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE), both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism, as well as Mani (c. 216–274 or 277 CE, the founding prophet of Manichaeism), a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefulness (ʿamd) of God.

### Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit)

The Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit) is another work in which al-Mufaddal asks Ja'far al-Sadiq to present a proof of the existence and oneness of God in response to those who openly profess atheism. In comparison with the Tawḥīd al-Mufaḍḍal, the frame story here is less well integrated into the main text, which despite being written in the form of an epistle does not directly address al-Mufaddal's concerns about the appearance of people who would publicly deny the existence of God. In the epistle itself, the author (presumed to be Ja'far al-Sadiq) recounts his meeting with an Indian physician, who contended that the world is eternal and therefore does not need a creator. Taking the myrobalan fruit (perhaps the black myrobalan or Terminalia reticulata, a plant used in Ayurveda) that the Indian physician was grinding as a starting point for contemplation, the author of the epistle succeeds in convincing the physician of the existence of God. The dialectical style of the debate is typical of early Muslim speculative theology (kalām). Sciences like astrology and medicine are presented as originating from divine revelation. Melhem Chokr has proposed the 8th-century scribe (kātib) and speculative theologian Muhammad ibn Layth as the original author of the Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja, based on similarities with other works attributed to Ibn Layth, and on the attribution to him in Ibn al-Nadim's (c. 932 – c. 995 or 998) Fihrist of a work called Kitāb al-Ihlīlaja fī al-iʿtibār (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit on Contemplation).

## Other works

Some other works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal are still extant:

- The Waṣiyyat al-Mufaḍḍal (Testament of al-Mufaddal) is a short text purporting to be al-Mufaddal's testament to the Shi'is of Kufa. The testament itself only contains a rather generic exhortation to piety and proper religious conduct, but it is followed by a paragraph in which Ja'far al-Sadiq reproaches the Kufan Shi'is for their hostility towards al-Mufaddal, exonerating his disciple from all blame. The text may very well be authentic, though it may also have been attributed to al-Mufaddal by later authors seeking to rehabilitate him.
- The Duʿāʾ samāt, also called the Duʿāʾ Shabbūr, is a prayer (duʿāʾ) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq, supposedly transmitted from Ja'far by al-Mufaddal and later by Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri (died 917 or 918), the second deputy of the Hidden Imam Muhammad al-Mahdi during the Minor Occultation (874–941). It is a revised version of an originally Talmudic invocation that was used by Jews to cast off robbers and thieves. It was apparently in use among Muslims during the time of Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri, who approved of this practice but claimed to possess a "fuller" version handed down from the Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq. This version is nearly identical to the version preserved in the Talmud, only adding the names of the prophet Muhammad and some of his family members.
- The Riwāyat al-ruzz wa-mā fīhi min al-faḍl is treatise attributed to al-Mufaddal on the virtue of rice.
- al-Ḥikam al-Jaʿfariyya (Ja'farian Aphorisms) is a collection of moral aphorisms (ḥikam) attributed to Ja'far al-Sadiq and transmitted by al-Mufaddal.

There are also some works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal that are mentioned in other sources but are now lost:

- Kitāb ʿIlal al-Sharāʾiʿ (Book of the Causes of Religious Laws)
- Kitāb Yawm wa-layla (Book of Day and Night)
- Kitāb (Book), a notebook containing hadiths purportedly recorded by al-Mufaddal

8th-century Shi'i ghulat leader


Protests in Canada against the Sri Lankan Civil War, often referred to as the Tamil protests by the media, consisted of a series of demonstrations which took place in major Canadian cities with a significant Tamil diaspora population during the year 2009 protesting the alleged genocide of Sri Lankan Tamil people in the Northern Province and Eastern Province of the island nation Sri Lanka. It was part of a global outcry by the Tamil diaspora to end the Sri Lankan Civil War, investigate acts of war crimes by the Government of Sri Lanka, and restore civil rights for Tamils in Sri Lanka. The aim was also to create awareness and appeal to leaders, notably the Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, the President of the United States, Barack Obama and the Consulate General of Sri Lanka in Canada, Bandula Jayasekara, to take action in ending the conflict. Several Tamil Canadian citizens and business-owners from different parts of Canada and the United States took part in major protests set up in Toronto and Ottawa, while smaller scale demonstrations took place in Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary.

The first notable demonstration took place on 28 January 2009 in front of the Sri Lankan Consulate in Toronto involving a few hundred people. The following day, several thousands gathered in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto to appeal to the Government of the United States to take action on ending the civil war. A 5-kilometre (3.1-mile) human chain of several thousands of citizens took place the next day along major streets in Downtown Toronto. There after, demonstrations began to escalate in size and occurred on Parliament Hill in Ottawa for sometime, until returning to continue in Toronto. Other tactics by protesters included, sit-ins, hunger strikes, Internet activism and occupation of major streets.

## Major events

### Early demonstrations

In the Greater Toronto Area, local Tamil communities and organizations began to set up demonstrations by January 2009, following similar movements in the United Kingdom and India regarding the large civilian casualties from the Sri Lankan Civil War. Tamil Student Associations at the University of Toronto and Ryerson University staged demonstrations on campus to promote awareness of the ethnic conflict to fellow students. During the week of 25 January, several Tamil media outlets announced a strike, requesting all Tamils to not attend work or school during the week and take part in the protests that would happen in Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary.

On 28 January, several Tamils gathered in front of the Consulate of Sri Lanka in Toronto to protest, with hopes to meet the consulate general. However, the consulate general, Bandula Jayasekara, reportedly termed the protesters as "terrorists" and refused to admit them. The protest resumed until the evening. The following day, 29 January, several protesters gathered in front of the Consulate of the United States throughout the day, appealing to the consulate general of the United States to pressure its government to take an action on ending the war.

The next demonstration took the form of a human chain on 30 January in Downtown Toronto, comprising thousands of protesters along parts of Yonge Street, Front Street and University Avenue. Slogans such as "We want justice", "Sri Lanka, end the war" and "Canada help us" were chanted by the protesters across the streets. According to a Toronto Police Service spokesperson, "the protest took place in a very peaceful and orderly manner."

### Parliament Hill protests

The first major protest in Ottawa, the capital city of Canada, took place on 4 February 2009 at Parliament Hill in an effort to attract the attention of Canada's parliament members. Thousands of Tamils gathered in front of the Peace Tower, subsequently drawing out a few politicians from inside, notably Bev Oda and New Democratic Party (NDP) leader Jack Layton. Layton announced that he would call parliament to an emergency debate at the House of Commons. Oda announced that the government would provide financial aid to the affected civilians, with the help of World Vision and Médecins Sans Frontières.

On 6 April 2009, a non-stop, continuous demonstration began at Parliament Hill, organized by Tamil Student Associations and the Canadian Tamil Congress. The protest, similar to non-stop demonstrations that were contemporaneously held elsewhere in the world, such as London and Sydney, saw bus-loads of protesters joining. Ottawa Police Service, Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) oversaw the protests, which were deemed "peaceful." On 7 April 2009, Albert Street was blocked when Tamil demonstrators surrounded a Société de transport de l'Outaouais bus in the intersection at Elgin Street, which caused major detours of transit buses. As of 20 April, the non-stop protest took its fourteenth consecutive day. A few streets in the vicinity of Parliament Hill had closed down to make way for demonstrators. The protest was the decision by several Tamil organizations after the Government of Sri Lanka ruled out a ceasefire and allegedly forced an attack in Northern Sri Lanka with an unknown chemical warfare substance, claiming the lives of nearly 2,000 civilians. Five protesters of varying ages also began fast-unto-death hunger strikes, but were forced to end ten days later due to deteriorating health. The protest was expected to continue until the Government of Canada forced negotiations with the Government of Sri Lanka.

After a climactic protest with an estimated 30,000 protesters at Parliament Hill on 21 April, the "non-stop protest" in Ottawa came to an end. Ottawa City Councillor Eli El-Chantiry announced the policing costs for the protest to be nearly C\$800,000 which the federal government was expected to pay.

### University Avenue sit-ins

A week after the non-stop protests in Ottawa ended, non-stop protests began on the evening of 26 April in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto, urging Barack Obama to call for an immediate permanent ceasefire. Protesters sat down on University Avenue, occupying a large portion of the street. On the third day of the non-stop protest (29 April), fifteen arrests were made while one woman was injured after a brief scuffle with police. This incident was the first one to happen among these protests in Canada. The protests later shifted to Queen's Park with a diminished number of protesters.

Another major human chain, which was expected to occur 5 May, was abruptly postponed the previous night by organizers because of the impact of previous demonstrations. The cancellation was reported throughout Facebook, Twitter, Tamil television and radio stations and word of mouth. Some thought the cancellation was because of the recent swine flu outbreak. The postponed human chain demonstration instead took place on 9 May through Downtown Toronto, reminiscent of the one that occurred on 30 January.

### Gardiner Expressway blockade

On 10 May, an immediate vigil and protest was launched in light of international reports of the shelling of Tamil civilians in the Sri Lanka Army-declared safe zone in which 378 civilians had been killed, while protesters claimed it to be nearly 3,000. The protest began on Spadina Avenue but abruptly spread past police cordons onto the Gardiner Expressway, a busy freeway in the city, bringing all vehicular traffic to a halt. The protesters, including women and children in strollers, said they would not stop blocking the Gardiner Expressway until they met with a representative from Premier Dalton McGuinty's office and got a promise for a clear course of action to stop the civil war in Sri Lanka. Police subsequently shut-down the Gardiner Expressway and Toronto's Don Valley Parkway, causing heavy traffic congestions throughout other Toronto streets and highways.

York Regional Police, Peel Regional Police and the OPP were called in for back up policing. It was the first time a major highway was unlawfully occupied in the city. CP24 aired the protest live as breaking news coverage throughout the evening. The protest continued throughout the night, demanding an immediate response to the latest casualties in Sri Lanka. The highway was cleared and reopened after a message from the Liberal Party of Canada stated that they would make a statement on the issue soon. Three individuals were arrested during the protest for assaulting a police officer while on duty.

The next day, peaceful protests continued in front of the Consulate of Sri Lanka on the sidewalk of Spadina Avenue and at Queen's Park simultaneously. York Regional Police, Peel Regional Police, the OPP and the RCMP continued to help Toronto Police Service to prevent civil disobedience as what had happened the previous night. Toronto Mayor David Miller urged that such tactics as blockading the Gardiner Expressway not be used again. Police officials decried the use of children during such dangerous tactics.

### Queen's Park rally

On 13 May several thousands of protesters crowded in front of Queen's Park protesting another offensive by the Sri Lanka Army, resulting in a situation which was termed by the United Nations as a "bloodbath." Traffic was blocked and police forces with riot control mounted on horses were present. After demonstrations took place at Queen's Park, the protesters flooded portions of College Street, Yonge Street, Queen Street and University Avenue for a march. The immediate demands of the protest were to call for an immediate permanent ceasefire, allow media and journalists into the warzone and to place diplomatic sanctions on Sri Lanka. The protesters also ran a food-drive, asking for non-perishable food items. David Miller attended the protest and remarked, "some people would probably be offended by the flag and afraid to show their support for these people, but I'm not here about politics." The very same day, Barack Obama made a statement on the Sri Lankan Civil War, calling upon the Sri Lanka Army and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) to stop the "bloodbath" and to stop the use of human-shields

Toronto's Sinhalese community set up a counter-demonstration, condemning the Tamil protesters. The counter-protesters flew a private airplane with a banner attached to it reading "Protect Canada – Stop the Tamil Tigers", circling Queen's Park for some time. In May 2009, a Sinhala-Buddhist temple in Scarborough was set on fire, allegedly by LTTE supporters, and a worshipper claimed that the incident was part of a global pattern of violence against Sinhalese wherever there were mass Tamil demonstrations. However, a Tamil protest leader denied that anyone in her community would resort to such action.

## Post-civil war

After the march from Queen's Park, protests continued in front of the Consulate of the United States in Toronto, even after Sri Lankan president Mahinda Rajapakse declared a victory over the LTTE on 17 May, which officially marked the end of the Sri Lankan Civil War. Post-civil war, the goal of the protests were to ensure peace and better treatment of Tamil civilians and investigate war crimes by the Government of Sri Lanka. Protests also continuously happened in front of the Consulate of the United States in Montreal. Protesters held non-stop protests, urging Stephen Harper, who had not yet given any remarks on protests, to make a statement on the issue and request immediate humanitarian aid to be sent to the island nation. The Canadian Tamil Congress urged the European Union for a unanimous investigation of war crimes. Canada's Minister of Foreign Affairs Lawrence Cannon reflected by announcing that "Canada would work with the United States helping the United Nations deliver humanitarian aid to Sri Lanka." In the meantime, Toronto's Sinhalese community continued to hold counter-Tamil protests, claiming that they were in danger by the LTTE.

Throughout the remainder of 2009, the protests continued but became smaller as attendance decreased to about two dozen at most, happening only in front of the Consulate of the United States on University Avenue, and only during the daytime. On the 150th day, petitions were given out to protesters to sign, as they were in many other Tamil diaspora demonstrations around the world, and given to a guard at the Consulate of the United States. As of 13 October, the protest had reached its 173rd day.

## Impact

### Canadian government response

During the first Parliament Hill protest in Ottawa, Jack Layton had called for an emergency debate on 4 February, gathering all members of parliament at the House of Commons. It had occurred despite the absence of Prime Minister Stephen Harper. A few members of parliament, such as John McCallum and Robert Oliphant, brought up concerns of whether the aid the government sends, which was announced to be C\$3 million, would successfully reach the affected civilians or not. Canada's Minister of State for the Americas Peter Kent, in an argument, suggested that extortions and funds underlying of the LTTE may still be present in Toronto. Immediately, Liberal member of parliament Jim Karygiannis assured that there were no cases of such extortions in recent times after phoning a few national security agencies. Kent reflected back, saying that both the LTTE and the Sri Lanka Army must drop their weapons in order for the war to end. Karygiannis stated that the wish of his constituency, Scarborough—Agincourt, was that the ceasefire should not be initiated by the Government of Sri Lanka or by the Government of India but should be a United Nations-initiated, internationally sponsored ceasefire. Liberal member of parliament Irwin Cotler condemned Sri Lanka's restrictions on international humanitarian aid, journalists and media to reach the affected areas of northern Sri Lanka, which has been in place for several years. He suggested to bring forth an immediate ceasefire and begin negotiation talks. The United Nations, too, were condemned for not taking an active part in ending the civil war. Deepak Obhrai, a Conservative member of parliament, was the only member to label the LTTE at fault, referring to the assassination of former Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.

A final report from the debate outlined four recommendations of action:

1. The Government of Canada should continue to call upon all parties in Sri Lanka to immediately cease fire and end hostilities.
2. The Government of Canada should redouble its efforts in cooperation with other states to meet the humanitarian needs of all civilians in northeastern Sri Lanka, including those still in the combat zone and those in IDP camps, by securing a sufficient humanitarian pause and through international supervision of assistance.
3. The Government of Canada should stand ready to increase Canadian assistance to Sri Lanka in collaboration with other partners, as on-the-ground assessments and capacity to absorb warrant, not only for relief purposes but also for development and reconstruction. In addition to ensuring that assistance reaches those who need it most, the government should pursue a whole-of-government strategy to ensure that Canadian assistance of all sorts encourages longer-term reconciliation among communities in Sri Lanka.
4. The Government of Canada should call on the United Nations Security Council to seriously engage itself in the resolution of the conflict in Sri Lanka, and to investigate the conduct of both parties during the conflict with respect to international law. The Government of Canada should also initiate a dialogue with the Government of Sri Lanka, in conjunction with the international community, aimed at laying the groundwork for a political reconciliation between the communities. If these efforts fail, the Government of Canada should consider financial and diplomatic sanctions, including, but not limited to, advocating for Sri Lanka's suspension from the Commonwealth, as well as incentives.

### Other political remarks

During the non-stop protests in Ottawa, Lawrence Cannon requested the Government of Sri Lanka for an immediate ceasefire. He also rejected calls from the High Commissioner of Sri Lanka in Canada to stop all protests in Ottawa. Cannon condemned the LTTE for preventing civilians from leaving areas being attacked and using them as human shields. Bev Oda and the Conservative Party of Canada both condemned the use of LTTE flags, insisting that they symbolize connection with a terrorist organization. David Miller and Ontario Premier Dalton McGuinty also condemned the Gardiner Expressway blockade. Liberal Party of Canada leader Michael Ignatieff had made statements on the protests in a few occasions. Ignatieff urged the Harper government to break its silence and take initiative in condemning the violence. He stated that there are no military solutions to the conflict and that the war must stop under a worldwide initiative and internationally coordinated diplomatic strategy. On 21 April, Ignatieff met with a few Tamil leaders in Ottawa to discuss the humanitarian crisis. On the occasion, he said the following:

> I am deeply concerned about escalating violence in Sri Lanka, and the resulting deaths of thousands of civilians. It was important for me to hear from Tamil Canadians, whose family and friends in Sri Lanka are suffering first hand from this crisis. We cannot sit back and watch as thousands of innocent lives are lost in the cross-fire, and we condemn any attempt to use civilians as human shields.

On 13 May in Washington, D.C., Barack Obama condemned the civil war in Sri Lanka and the army's continuous shelling of safe-zones and shelters. He also condemned the use of civilians as human shields by the LTTE. Obama insisted that the civil war, which became a humanitarian crisis, could result in a "full-blown catastrophe." According to him, "the United States is ready to work towards ending the conflict."

On 9 June, Bob Rae was denied entry into Sri Lanka by Sri Lankan immigration officials at Bandaranaike International Airport in Colombo. Although reasons for rejection were generally found unclear, the Government of Sri Lanka cited Rae was "a threat to national security and sympathetic to the Tamil Tigers rebel group". On the issue, Rae stated: "Sri Lanka is afraid of dialogue, afraid of discussion, afraid of engagement. If this is how they treat me, imagine how they treat people who can't speak out." Rae described Sri Lanka as "a very dangerous place to be a journalist" and that it is "a very dangerous place to be any kind of Tamil right now". The news sparked controversy for both Rae and Sri Lanka in Canada and made it to the headlines of newspapers in other countries.

### Public reception and criticism

The protests have drawn criticism from some observers of the Sri Lankan Civil War. In an opinion piece titled "Misguided Tamil protesters" published by the National Post, Martin Collacott, a former High Commissioner of Canada to Sri Lanka, questioned the objectives of the protesters. In the editorial, he insisted that if the primary concern of the protesters was the safety of Tamil civilians, they would have asked the LTTE to free those trapped in the war zone instead of using them as human shields. However, by asking for a ceasefire, he said, the protesters want to "bring about a situation that would allow the Tigers to preserve their fighting capability and prolong the insurgency." The article goes on to question why children who were born in Canada to native Sri Lankan parents were brought out to protests among others who were waving the flag of an organisation Canada has labelled a terrorist organization.

## See also

- Tamils Against Genocide

Anti-war demonstrations, chiefly by the Tamil diaspora in major Canadian cities