derek-thomas/squad-v1.1-t5-question-generation huggingface dataset:
Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.

Question: What species has no long-distance migratory relatives? Question: What are the waxwings Bombycilla moving in response to? Question: Why are the waxwing Bombycilla not migrating for?
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.

Question: Where is there little variation in the length of day throughout the year? Question: Where is it always warm enough for food supply? Question: Why does altitudinal migration occur in some tropical birds? Question: What are tropical birds preferred foods?
Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.

Question: For what reason would birds mor far beyond the normal range? Question: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain in the nineteeth century? Question: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain between 1937 and 200? Question: What years did Red crossbills invade England?
Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because land birds in high northern latitudes, where food becomes scarce in winter, leave for areas further south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter, and because the continental landmass is much larger in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.

Question: In which hemisphere does bird migration primarily happen? Question: Why do birds migrate south in winter? Question: Where do birds from high northern latitutes migrate to? Question: Which species of seabirds are more likely to migrate? Question: Why are seabirds from the southern hemisphere more likely to migrate?
The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.

Question: What is a primitive trait present even in non migrating birds? Question: What controls a birds migration? Question: What is a complex phenomenon in regards to migration? Question: How do birds navigate and orient themselves during migration?
The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length. These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.

Question: What is the primary cue for migration? Question: How do birds act in the period before migration? Question: What does Zugunruhe mean in English? Question: What do caged birds display that corresponds with migratory direction in nature? Question: When do caged birds change their preferential direction?
In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.

Question: Why do males in polygynous species return before the females? Question: What happens in polygynous species with sexual dimophism? Question: What is it called when males return earlier to the breeding sites than females?
Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.

Question: What is navigation based on? Question: What do many birds use as a compass? Question: What does using the sun for direction involve? Question: What is magnetoception? Question: What else is navigation based on?
Long distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.

Question: When do long distance migrants disperse? Question: What do young birds form attachments to? Question: What else do young birds form attachments to? Question: What happens when the site attachment is made? Question: Where do migrating birds visit?
The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift.

Question: What do the birds do to successfully perform long distance migration? Question: How was the migrating of ospretys and honey buzzards tracked? Question: What are examples of day migrating raptors? Question: What are older migrating birds better at?
Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a boy scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the earth.

Question: What two electromagnetic tools do birds use to find their destinations? Question: What is a young bird on it's first migration compared to? Question: How does the magnetic field help the bird at different latitudes? Question: Where is the neural connection that is active during migration located? Question: What is Cluster N?
Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.

Question: How can migrating birds lose their way? Question: What is flying past their destinations called? Question: Where do bird overshooters end up? Question: What location has become famous for bird overshooters? Question: What other location is famous for spring overshoot?
Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.

Question: What is it called when the genetic programing of young birds fail? Question: What is reverse migration? Question: What does reverse migration lead to? Question: How far out of range can rarities get?
A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.

Question: What is it called when birds from one region join birds from a different region? Question: Who do abmigrating birds return with? Question: What kind of bird is most likely to abmigrate?
It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana.

Question: What is a re-introduction scheme? Question: Which birds did they use as a trial run? Question: What did they use to teach birds a migration route? Question: Which birds did they reintroduce to the US?
Birds need to alter their metabolism in order to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be molted. The timing of this molt - usually once a year but sometimes twice - varies with some species molting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.

Question: What do birds need to change to meet the demands of migration? Question: How do birds store energy? Question: Why do birds need to molt? Question: How often do birds molt? Question: When do birds molt?
Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.

Question: What is highly labile? Question: How was migration developed? Question: What causes the behavioral adaptations necessary for migration? Question: What exists in nearly all avian lineages?
Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.

Question: What percentage increase in flight distance will often be adaptive? Question: What kind of bird flies less efficiently? Question: What type of bird show circuitous migratory routes? Question: Where do Swainson's thrush fly from?
Large scale climatic changes, as have been experienced in the past, are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population variations.

Question: What is expected to have an effect on migration timing? Question: What have studies shown regarding climate change? Question: What else is climate change been shown to change?
The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile Virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.

Question: What other species does migration help? Question: What has been studied as a mechanism of disease transmission? Question: What is a greater threat of disease transmission? Question: What virus is maintained in birds without lethal effects? Question: What has a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton?
Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.

Question: Who takes advantage of migrating birds? Question: What do greater noctule bats feed on? Question: What do some birds of prey specialize on?
Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899. Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking.

Question: What is the oldest way to study migration? Question: How have swans been marked? Question: Since when have swans been marked? Question: Who was scientific ringing pioneered by? Question: What are other forms of studying migration?
Orientation behaviour studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behaviour of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage. Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon.

Question: How are orientation behavior studies traditionally carried out? Question: What shape is the cage in the Emlen funnel? Question: What is studied quantitatively inside the cage? Question: What does the bird leave on the walls of the cage? Question: Where does the homing pigeon vanish?
Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of Siberian cranes (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002. Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds. Other migration hazards include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points. For example, in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.

Question: What threatens some bird species? Question: What species declined due to hunting in Afghanistand and Asia? Question: When were birds last seen in Keoladeo National Park? Question: What can power lines, wind farms and oil rigs affect? Question: What are other migration hazards?
It is on Absecon Island, on the Atlantic coast. Atlantic City was incorporated on May 1, 1854, from portions of Egg Harbor Township and Galloway Township. The city borders Absecon, Brigantine, Pleasantville, Ventnor City and West Atlantic City.

Question: What is the name of the island on which Atlantic City is located? Question: Which coast is Atlantic City located on? Question: In what year was Atlantic City incorporated? Question: What are the names of the two townships that became part of Atlantic City when it was incorporated? Question: How many other towns share a border with Atlantic City?
Because of its location in South Jersey, hugging the Atlantic Ocean between marshlands and islands, Atlantic City was viewed by developers as prime real estate and a potential resort town. In 1853, the first commercial hotel, The Belloe House, located at Massachusetts and Atlantic Avenue, was built.

Question: What are the two geographical features that Atlantic City is located between? Question: What were the two potential aspects of Atlantic City that originally attracted developers? Question: In what year was the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City? Question: What is the name of the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City? Question: What are the names of the two avenues at which The Belloe House is located?
The city was incorporated in 1854, the same year in which the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service began. Built on the edge of the bay, this served as the direct link of this remote parcel of land with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. That same year, construction of the Absecon Lighthouse, designed by George Meade of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, was approved, with work initiated the next year. By 1874, almost 500,000 passengers a year were coming to Atlantic City by rail. In Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times, and Corruption of Atlantic City, "Atlantic City's Godfather" Nelson Johnson describes the inspiration of Dr. Jonathan Pitney (the "Father of Atlantic City") to develop Atlantic City as a health resort, his efforts to convince the municipal authorities that a railroad to the beach would be beneficial, his successful alliance with Samuel Richards (entrepreneur and member of the most influential family in southern New Jersey at the time) to achieve that goal, the actual building of the railroad, and the experience of the first 600 riders, who "were chosen carefully by Samuel Richards and Jonathan Pitney":

Question: What other US city was linked to Atlantic City by the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service? Question: What is the name of the lighthouse that is located on the Atlantic City coast? Question: By 1874, how many passengers were coming to Atlantic City by rail each year? Question: Who is considered to be "Atlantic City's Godfather?"
The first boardwalk was built in 1870 along a portion of the beach in an effort to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies. Businesses were restricted and the boardwalk was removed each year at the end of the peak season. Because of its effectiveness and popularity, the boardwalk was expanded in length and width, and modified several times in subsequent years. The historic length of the boardwalk, before the destructive 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane, was about 7 miles (11 km) and it extended from Atlantic City to Longport, through Ventnor and Margate.

Question: In what year was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City? Question: Why was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City? Question: What year was the Great Atlantic Hurricane? Question: What was the historic length of the boardwalk before the Great Atlantic Hurricane? Question: Before the Great Atlantic Hurricane the boardwalk extended from Atlantic City to what other city?
The first road connecting the city to the mainland at Pleasantville was completed in 1870 and charged a 30-cent toll. Albany Avenue was the first road to the mainland that was available without a toll.

Question: The first road connected Atlantic City to which mainland town? Question: The first road that connected Atlantic City to the mainland was completed in what year? Question: How much of a toll was charged on the first road to connect Atlantic City to the mainland? Question: What was the name of the first road to the mainland that did not charge a toll?
By 1878, because of the growing popularity of the city, one railroad line could no longer keep up with demand. Soon, the Philadelphia and Atlantic City Railway was also constructed to transport tourists to Atlantic City. At this point massive hotels like The United States and Surf House, as well as smaller rooming houses, had sprung up all over town. The United States Hotel took up a full city block between Atlantic, Pacific, Delaware, and Maryland Avenues. These hotels were not only impressive in size, but featured the most updated amenities, and were considered quite luxurious for their time.

Question: By what year was demand so great that one railroad line could no longer keep up with the demand? Question: What was the name of the new railway that was constructed to transport tourists to Atlantic City after 1878? Question: Besides massive hotels, what else was appearing all over Atlantic City during this period? Question: What was the name of the hotel that took up a full city block? Question: What were the names of the four avenues that surrounded The United States Hotel?
In the early part of the 20th century, Atlantic City went through a radical building boom. Many of the modest boarding houses that dotted the boardwalk were replaced with large hotels. Two of the city's most distinctive hotels were the Marlborough-Blenheim Hotel and the Traymore Hotel.

Question: When did Atlantic City go through a radical building boom? Question: What happened to Atlantic City in the early part of the 20th century? Question: Where were the modest boarding houses located before they were replaced by large hotels? Question: What replaced many of the modest boarding houses? Question: What were the names of two of the city's most distinctive hotels?