derek-thomas/squad-v1.1-t5-question-generation huggingface dataset:
In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation, which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.

Question: Where did the mountains undergo serve erosion? Question: What was the cause of the severe erosion? Question: Who noted the severe erosion of the mountains? Question: What was Louis Agassiz also known as?
Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m (328 ft) per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.

Question: Where did Agassiz study during the 1840s? Question: Agassiz found that the Unteraar Glacier moved how much per year? Question: The movement of the Unteraar Glacier moved more rapidly in what part?
Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, center and the terminus of glaciers.

Question: What is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages? Question: What lays at the bottom of the Inn Valley Question: The top of the Inn Valley consists of what? Question: What are Moraines? Question: Where have moraines accumulated?
Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which cause the greatest danger to mountaineers.

Question: How do Piedmont glaciers appear? Question: What causes the ice to break and crack loudly? Question: What does the cracking of the ice create?
Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhone Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage and loss of life. In the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border; in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.

Question: What causes flooding, property damage, and loss of life? Question: What killed about 2500 people in the 17th century? Question: How many homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche in the 19th century?
High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the 3,500 m (11,483 ft) level. The 1,817 square kilometres (702 sq mi) of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi) by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels. Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.

Question: What cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas? Question: From 1876 to 1973, how much did the glaciers that covered the Alps shrink? Question: What resulted from the loss of the area the glaciers over the Alps? Question: How much of the glaciation in Austria disappeared? Question: How much of the glaciation disappeared in Switzerland?
The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Although the area is only about 11 percent of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90 percent of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff. Water from the rivers is used in over 500 hydroelectricity power plants, generating as much as 2900 kilowatts of electricity.

Question: What provides Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power? Question: How much of Europe does the Alps cover? Question: How much water does the Alps provide to lowland Europe? Question: How much water does Milan depend on from the Alpine runoff? Question: Water from the rivers is used in over how many hydroelectric power plants?
Major European rivers flow from Switzerland, such as the Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps. The Rhone is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants. The Rhine originates in a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 percent of water exported from the country. Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snow melt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.

Question: The Rhine, the Rhone, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po rivers flow from what Country? Question: Where do the major tributaries that flow through the Danube originate from? Question: Which river is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean? Question: What does The Rhone begin as? Question: Where does the Rhine originate?
The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.

Question: What do the rivers form? Question: Where is the medieval St. Bartholomew Chapel located? Question: What side of the Konigssee was St. Bartholomew's chapel built?
Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.

Question: Who have been studying the impact of climate change and water use? Question: Water is diverted from rivers for what purpose? Question: What are the effects of diverting the water from rivers?
The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.

Question: What are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain? Question: Elevations around the world that have a cold climate similar to that of the polar region have been called what? Question: What causes the temperature to decrease? Question: What is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south?
The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists. Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.

Question: Since when has the severe weather in the Alps been studied? Question: Particularly what part of the weather has been studied? Question: What was placed in the mountains early in the 20th century? Question: Where is the Aosta valley located? Question: Where is the Valais located?
The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff. The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,281 and 9,843 ft), snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,874 to 9,843 ft), above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.

Question: What areas experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff? Question: What are the ranges of mean precipitation in the Alps? Question: Where do the higher levels of precipitation occur? Question: At what altitude does snowfall begin in November?
The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between 500 and 1,000 m (1,640 and 3,281 ft), depending on the location. The montane zone extends from 800 to 1,700 m (2,625 to 5,577 ft), followed by the sub-Alpine zone from 1,600 to 2,400 m (5,249 to 7,874 ft). The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.

Question: How many zones are the Alps split into? Question: What is the lowest zone of the Alps called? Question: Where does the lowest zone of the Alps exist? Question: Where does the montane zone extend from? Question: Where does the sub-Alpine zone extend from?
Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.

Question: What has been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps? Question: What have the various models been of? Question: What will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff?
Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcerous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soilless scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges. A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 1,200 m (3,940 ft) above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1,500 m (4,920 ft), sometimes even to 1,700 m (5,580 ft).

Question: How many species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions? Question: How are Alpine plants grouped? Question: Oak, beech, ash, and sycamore maple make up what group of trees?
Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils). Although the Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region. Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.

Question: What is often above the forestry? Question: What type of soil does Alpenrose prefer? Question: What is the area above the treeline defined as? Question: Why does the alpine area fluctuate greatly?
Alpine plants such the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (4,921 to 7,874 ft). Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom." Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer.

Question: What grows in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental? Question: What are Gentians named after? Question: How many species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps?
At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4,000 m (13,120 ft), including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. The Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at 2,600 to 3,750 m (8,530 to 12,303 ft). Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is the Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1,400 m (4,593 ft) and as high as 3,400 m (11,155 ft). The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.

Question: What do the plants tend to form at higher altitudes? Question: Ranunculus glacialis have been recorded to have been found how far in the alps? Question: What is Eritrichium nanum commonly known as? Question: What is the best known of the alpine plants?
The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.

Question: What gives way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes? Question: Origanum Vulgare has what useful properties? Question: Where are Urtica dioica found?
Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.

Question: What has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas? Question: What are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries? Question: What has changed since the second half of the 20th century? Question: The practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed what?
The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.

Question: How many species of wildlife habitat the Alps? Question: What have the wildlife done to survive the harsh conditions of the Alps? Question: Some species of wildlife can only survive in what specific environment?
The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,843 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.

Question: What is the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes? Question: How high have the Alpine Ibex been sighted? Question: Where do the ibex live? Question: What animal that live in the Alps are classified as antelopes? Question: What year was the last brown bear recorded to have been killed?
Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,858 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,874 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.

Question: Where do many rodents live? Question: Where do Marmots live? Question: Where do marmots build their colonies? Question: What is the most common bird found in the Alps?
Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.

Question: Why do reptiles only live up to the snow line? Question: What do reptiles due since they cannot bear the cold temperatures? Question: How have the Alpine salamanders adapted to living above the snow line? Question: What can be found in the streams up to the snow line?
A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft). The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is the Rosalia alpina. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.

Question: How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat? Question: What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt? Question: The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much? Question: What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?
Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.

Question: Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what? Question: How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous? Question: Where is Emosson located? Question: When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?
About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Paleolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.

Question: When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores? Question: What has been found in caves near Vercors? Question: Why were houses built on piles? Question: What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy? Question: How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?
In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death - an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder - suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.

Question: When was Otzi the Iceman found? Question: Who was Otzi the Iceman? Question: Where was Otzi the Iceman discovered?