derek-thomas/squad-v1.1-t5-question-generation huggingface dataset:
A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is usually not the beneficiary of institutional support. Examples of a nonstandard English dialect are Southern American English, Western Australian English, Scouse and Tyke. The Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each other.

Question: Along with a syntax and grammar, what attribute does a dialect possess? Question: What does a nonstandard dialect usually not have compared to a standard dialect? Question: What language is Scouse a dialect of? Question: What was created for the sake of comparing English dialects? Question: Who came up with the Dialect Test?
There is no universally accepted criterion for distinguishing two different languages from two dialects (i.e. varieties) of the same language. A number of rough measures exist, sometimes leading to contradictory results. The distinction is therefore subjective and depends on the user's frame of reference. For example, there is discussion about if the Limón Creole English must be considered as "a kind" of English or a different language. This creole is spoken in the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica (Central America) by descendant of Jamaican people. The position that Costa Rican linguists support depends on the University they belong.

Question: On what coast of Costa Rica is Limón Creole English spoken? Question: In what country is Limón Creole English spoken? Question: Speakers of Limón Creole English are descended from people of what nationality?
The most common, and most purely linguistic, criterion is that of mutual intelligibility: two varieties are said to be dialects of the same language if being a speaker of one variety confers sufficient knowledge to understand and be understood by a speaker of the other; otherwise, they are said to be different languages. However, this definition becomes problematic in the case of dialect continua, in which it may be the case that dialect B is mutually intelligible with both dialect A and dialect C but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible with each other. In this case the criterion of mutual intelligibility makes it impossible to decide whether A and C are dialects of the same language or not. Cases may also arise in which a speaker of dialect X can understand a speaker of dialect Y, but not vice versa; the mutual intelligibility criterion flounders here as well.

Question: What trait is the most common way of determining if languages are dialects? Question: What is the definition of mutual intelligibility? Question: What is the term for when dialects A and B are mutually intelligible, dialect B and C are mutually intelligible, but dialects A and C are not mutually intelligible?
Another occasionally used criterion for discriminating dialects from languages is that of linguistic authority, a more sociolinguistic notion. According to this definition, two varieties are considered dialects of the same language if (under at least some circumstances) they would defer to the same authority regarding some questions about their language. For instance, to learn the name of a new invention, or an obscure foreign species of plant, speakers of Bavarian German and East Franconian German might each consult a German dictionary or ask a German-speaking expert in the subject. By way of contrast, although Yiddish is classified by linguists as a language in the "Middle High German" group of languages, a Yiddish speaker would not consult a German dictionary to determine the word to use in such a case.

Question: What term refers to another way in which dialects are distinguished from languages? Question: Under the linguistic authority criteria, what is a dialect of German along with Bavarian German? Question: Of what group of languages is Yiddish a member? Question: Why is Yiddish not a dialect of German?
By the definition most commonly used by linguists, any linguistic variety can be considered a "dialect" of some language—"everybody speaks a dialect". According to that interpretation, the criteria above merely serve to distinguish whether two varieties are dialects of the same language or dialects of different languages.

Question: According to most linguistics, who speaks a dialect?
A framework was developed in 1967 by Heinz Kloss, abstand and ausbau languages, to describe speech communities, that while unified politically and/or culturally, include multiple dialects which though closely related genetically may be divergent to the point of inter-dialect unintelligibility.

Question: In what year was the abstand and ausbau framework developed? Question: Who developed the abstand and ausbau languages framework? Question: What sort of unification in speech communities did the abstand and ausbau framework discuss?
The terms "language" and "dialect" are not necessarily mutually exclusive: There is nothing contradictory in the statement "the language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of German".

Question: The language of the Pennsylvania Dutch is a dialect of what language?
There are various terms that linguists may use to avoid taking a position on whether the speech of a community is an independent language in its own right or a dialect of another language. Perhaps the most common is "variety"; "lect" is another. A more general term is "languoid", which does not distinguish between dialects, languages, and groups of languages, whether genealogically related or not.

Question: Along with variety and languoid, what is another term used for a language without determining its independent status? Question: What is the most common way of referring to a language without making the determination of whether it's a dialect or independent language? Question: What term avoids distinguishing between languages and dialects?
In many societies, however, a particular dialect, often the sociolect of the elite class, comes to be identified as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language by those seeking to make a social distinction, and is contrasted with other varieties. As a result of this, in some contexts the term "dialect" refers specifically to varieties with low social status. In this secondary sense of "dialect", language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages:

Question: With what social class it the standard dialect commonly associated? Question: What social status is the term "dialect" sometimes associated with? Question: What is another term for language varieties?
The status of "language" is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often called dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility.

Question: What non-linguistic developments influence the status of a language? Question: What dialect is the language Romansh similar to? Question: What language are Mandarin and Cantonese sometimes considered dialects of? Question: Why might Mandarin and Cantonese not be regarded as dialects?
Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the French Revolution, has made the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of great political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" is often seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" tends to be seen not as "a people" in its own right, but as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy.[citation needed] The distinction between language and dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a political basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great political controversy, or even armed conflict.

Question: What event is regarded as a landmark in the development of modern nationalism? Question: If possessing a language leads to a group being regarded as a separate people, what political arrangement presumably follows? Question: What political arrangement is associated with being a dialect-speaking sub-group? Question: Along with political controversy, what can the distinction between a language and dialect sometimes lead to?
The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot ("אַ שפּראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט"‎: "A language is a dialect with an army and navy") in YIVO Bleter 25.1, 1945, p. 13. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism is cited.

Question: Max Weinreich is a linguist of what language? Question: What does "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" mean in English? Question: When did Max Weinrich write "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot"?
When talking about the German language, the term German dialects is only used for the traditional regional varieties. That allows them to be distinguished from the regional varieties of modern standard German.

Question: When is the term 'German dialects' used in regard to the German language? Question: What are traditional region varieties of German distinguished from?
The German dialects show a wide spectrum of variation. Most of them are not mutually intelligible. German dialectology traditionally names the major dialect groups after Germanic tribes from which they were assumed to have descended.[citation needed]

Question: After what entities are German dialects traditionally named?
The extent to which the dialects are spoken varies according to a number of factors: In Northern Germany, dialects are less common than in the South. In cities, dialects are less common than on the countryside. In a public environment, dialects are less common than in a familiar environment.

Question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects less frequently seen? Question: In what geographic part of Germany are dialects more common? Question: Dialects are more frequently seen in the countryside as compared to what population centers? Question: In what environment are dialects less common? Question: In what environment are dialects more frequently heard?
The situation in Switzerland and Liechtenstein is different from the rest of the German-speaking countries. The Swiss German dialects are the default everyday language in virtually every situation, whereas standard German is seldom spoken. Some Swiss German speakers perceive standard German to be a foreign language.

Question: Aside from Switzerland, what country speaks a dialect related to Swiss German? Question: What dialect of German is spoken in Switzerland? Question: What dialect of German is rarely heard in Switzerland?
The Low German varieties spoken in Germany are often counted among the German dialects. This reflects the modern situation where they are roofed by standard German. This is different from the situation in the Middle Ages when Low German had strong tendencies towards an ausbau language.

Question: Why are Low German varieties regarded as dialects of standard German? Question: What type of language was Low German in the Middle Ages?
Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

Question: What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian? Question: What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language? Question: Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian? Question: What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
In addition to having evolved, for the most part, separately from one another and with distinct individual histories, the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy are also better classified as separate languages rather than true "dialects" due to the often high degree in which they lack mutual intelligibility. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which the regional Italian languages are mutual unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages, with some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum being more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a speaker of a pure Sicilian language variant. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than a standard Italian or Sicilian language speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian language speaker would have an greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.

Question: What is a major reason why the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy should be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of each other? Question: From what region of Italy does the Eastern Lombard dialect hail? Question: What language family does Eastern Lombard belong to? Question: What type of language is Sicilian? Question: What language was spoken by Lombard immigrants to Sicily?
Modern standard Italian itself is heavily based on the Latin-derived Florentine Tuscan language. The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern standard Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century, and it first became widely known in Italy through the works of authors such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Petrarch. Dante's Florentine-Tuscan literary Italian thus became the language of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula as the lingua franca among the Italian educated class as well as Italian traveling merchants. The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among the educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people.

Question: What language is Florentine Tuscan based on? Question: What language is modern standard Italian derived from? Question: During what century did Florentine Tuscan begin to be used in poetry? Question: What socioeconomic class used the Florentine Tuscan language in Dante's time? Question: From what region of Italy did Florentine Tuscan derive?
During the Risorgimento, proponents of Italian republicanism and Italian nationalism, such as Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, standard Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the various unofficial regional languages of Italy gradually became regarded as subordinate "dialects" to Italian, increasingly associated negatively with lack of education or provincialism. However, at the time of the Italian Unification, standard Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak standard Italian.

Question: During what period was the importance of having an Italian national language raised? Question: What Italian nationalist spoke of the importance of a national Italian language? Question: In what decade was Italy unified? Question: When Italy was unified, what was named the official national language? Question: What percentage of Italians spoke standard Italian when Italy was first unified?
In the early 20th century, the vast conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with facilitating the diffusion of standard Italian among less educated Italian men, as these men from various regions with various regional languages were forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the eventual spread of the radio and television throughout Italy and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to standard Italian, while literacy rates among all social classes improved. Today, the majority of Italians are able to speak standard Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region. However, to some Italians, speaking a regional language, especially in a formal setting or outside of one's region, may carry a stigma or negative connotations associated with being lower class, uneducated, boorish, or overly informal.

Question: During what war did a large number of Italian men first learn standard Italian? Question: Along with radio and public education, what invention helped to diffuse standard Italian among the Italian population? Question: Aside from when they're speaking to Italians from their same town or region, where is a common place where Italians speak their regional language? Question: Along with formal settings, where do some Italians avoid speaking their regional language? Question: In modern Italy, what class of people are regional languages sometimes associated with?
Italians in different regions today may also speak regional varieties of standard Italian, or regional Italian dialects, which, unlike the majority of languages of Italy, are actually dialects of standard Italian rather than separate languages. A regional Italian dialect is generally standard Italian that has been heavily influenced or mixed with local or regional native languages and accents.

Question: Regional Italian dialects are often influenced by regional languages and what other language?
The languages of Italy are primarily Latin-based Romance languages, with the most widely spoken languages falling within the Italo-Dalmatian language family. This wide category includes:

Question: What language are most languages of Italy derived from? Question: Aside from Italo-Dalmatian, what is another term for the group that Italian languages belong to? Question: What language family do most of the languages of Italy belong to?
The Sardinian language is considered to be its own Romance language family, separate not only from standard Italian but also the wider Italo-Dalmatian family, and it includes the Campidanese Sardinian and Logudorese Sardinian variants. However, Gallurese, Sassarese, and Corsican are also spoken in Sardinia, and these languages are considered closely related or derived from the Italian Tuscan language and thus are Italo-Dalmatian languages. Furthermore, the Gallo-Romance language of Ligurian and the Catalan Algherese dialect are also spoken in Sardinia.

Question: Campidanese Sardinian is a variant of what language? Question: Where is the Catalan Algherese dialect spoken? Question: What language family does Gallurese belong to? Question: What language is Sassarese closely related to? Question: What language family does Ligurian belong to?
The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respectively), along with numerous other varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by some linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language article deals with this topic much more fully.)

Question: Along with British English, what is the major variant of the English language? Question: What are the two major variants of Serbo-Croatian? Question: Are British and American English regarded as distinct languages, or dialects of a single language? Question: Do regional linguists treat Serbian and Croation as distinct languages or as dialects of a single language? Question: Why are Serbian and Croatian often treated like distinct languages?
Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect continuum, is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary international view and the view in the Republic of Macedonia, which regards it as a language in its own right. Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects.

Question: Along with Serbian, with what language is Macedonian mutually intelligible? Question: What dialect continuum does Macedonian belong to? Question: What do Bulgarian linguists regard the Macedonian language as? Question: In what country is Macedonian most commonly spoken? Question: In what year was a Macedonian literary standard established?
In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect. During the civil war Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.

Question: Lebanese people of what religion sometimes consider Lebanese to be a distinct language? Question: In what language are Lebanese laws written? Question: What language is Lebanese closely related to? Question: During the Lebanese Civil War, what language did Lebanese Christians sometimes use officially? Question: What script did Lebanese Christians sometimes use to write Lebanese Arabic during the civil war?